
Class U ^-1 



Book. , ^~ &~ 



Coipglit>J°_ 



flOPVRlGHT DEPOSJT. 



A REFERENCE 

HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES 
TO THE PRESENT 



PART ONE: WORLD HISTORY 
PART TWO: NATIONAL HISTORIES 

MAPS, TABLES, CHARTS, AND AN 
EXHAUSTIVE INDEX 

BY 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. 

PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

IN COLLABORATION WITH 

WILLIAM SCOTT FERGUSON, Ph. D. CHARLES HOWARD McILWAIN, PH. D. 

PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

EVERETT KIMBALL, PH. D. DAVID MAYDOLE MATTESON, A. M. 

PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT EXPERT IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH 

SMITH COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 




SPRINGFIELD, MASS., U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED BY G. & C. MERRIAM COMPANY 



N 



PREFACE. 






War and 
History. 



The Two- 
fold Plan. 



World 
History. 



A History of the World has for many years been included as 
a special feature of the Reference-History Edition of ^^'ebster's 
New International Dictionary. Horace E. Seudder prepared the 
original outline, which was subsequently' expanded by John Clark 
Ridpath, and again enlarged by Edwm A. Grosvenor. 

Tlie World War, with its far-reaching effects, has made it neces- 
sary to revise and rewrite the whole field of liistory. This great 
TVi W IH struggle, with tlie consequent readjustments, has 
produced not only new states Out also new political 
and social iilcas. In order to record the tremen- 
dous events that ha^■e taken place smce the year 
1913, the present editor and his collaborators have had to add a 
large amount of material. Some of the needed space has been 
found by retaining only tlie essential and vital facts of earlier peri- 
ods; but a further increase in the size of the history has also been 
necessary. 

In this revision the plan of the former work, including the essen- 
tial features of Historical Outline and Chronology, has been system- 
atized, developed, and com])lcted. The Reference 
Iliistorjj is now clearly divided into two main 
parts: Part One, World History, treating the pe- 
riods of history from the earliest times to the present; and Part 
Two, National Histories, treating the histories of all existing coun- 
tries and giving a brief description of their political and social 
organization, products, physical features, population, area, etc. 
The whole thus forms a complete, logically fleveloped history and 
historical gazetteer of the world and its main political divisions. 

The World History (Part One of the whole) is divided into five 
sections covering all the periods of history — Ancient, Medieval, 
Early Modern, Nineteenth-Century, and World- 
War periods — while Part Two covers the histories 
of the nations individually. Each period and each 
nation is described and has its story developed by means of a 
Historical Outline, which gives a general survey of all important 
movements, and a Chronology, wliich arranges the events in the 
order of their liappening. 

The chronologies are no longer made up almost entirely of 
political events. They now include also many entries recording 
important social, industrial, and literary events; 
for great inventions, the founding of new churches, 
the publication of momentous books, or the ap- 
pearance of new means of transportation are as 
much a part of history as are battles, sieges, and sudden death. 
The larger portion of the work is Part Two, (Ic^oted to the 
National Histories. The chronologies of this part include, of 
course, no dates that are not of special significance 
in the history of the country under consideration ; 
but wars and treaties, international congresses and 
agreements, and like events, always concern more than one coun- 
try; and many other events are really international. Such 
events are generally treated in the chronology of each of the 
countries involved, the various entries being linked together by 
cross references so that the reader may view them from various 
angles. 

In Part Two the plan is to treat e^•ery nation that is inde- 
pendent as one of the family of nations and to place it in its alpha- 
betical ])osition in this arrangement. According 
to this plan, those countries that are parts of an 
empire or nation, or are dependencies, colonies, or 
the like, are treated under the history of that em- 
The name of each of such constituent countries, 
dependencies, colonies, etc., is also entered in its alphabetical 
position, with a reference to the main country under which it is 
treated. Part Two is thus on a strictly alphabetical basis, an 
arrangement now for the first time fully carried out. It has 
been a difficult task to get definite information on some of the 
recently created nations, and particularly to bring their troubled 
history down to the present time. A few countries whose political 



Special 
featxires of 
National 
Histories. 



Two serv- 
ices in mind. 



Scope of 
Chronolo- 
gies. 



National 
Histories. 



Alphabetic 
arrange- 
ment. 

pire or nation. 



status is still uncertain have been left under the nations with 
which they were connected before the Worhl War. 

This arrangement of Part One according to dates and of Part Two 
alphabetically, together with the index appended to the whole, is 
designed to make this history as convenient and comprehensive as 
pos.sible, serving the needs alike of the casual inquirer, the reader, 
the student, and the researcli worker. 

An index to the whole history has been added in which the aim 
has been to co\er all references to jjersons, places, events, etc., each 
Thp Tndpv under the specific name. In addition to these spe- 
cific references, much of this information is again 
mdexed under topics, so that the wliole forms not only an index, 
but a topical analysis as well. 

It will be noted that some of the national histories, particularly 
the chronologies of the great European nations, begin -with the 
year 1C48. In that year, by the Peace of West- 
phalia, the map of Europe was largely remade, 
and the political status of Europe largely deter- 
mhied, in a form which lasted until the World 
War. The most imiwirtant events of the greater 
European states pre\ious to that date make up the bulk of Me- 
dieval History and Early Modern History to 1648. Such events 
are therefore put in the World History and omitted from the Na- 
tional Histories, though general cross references direct the reader 
to the sections where such earlier national events may be found. 
Two services ha^•e been especially kept in mind. The first is 
to help the reader in a « ay analogous to that of the vocabulary of 
the Dictionary, by enabling him to find out quickly 
just when a tiling happened. Even the experi- 
enced investigator can often help himself by mak- 
ing sure of a date that is the point of departure for further re- 
search. The other service is to show how the world is brought 
together. Records of events following each other chronologically, 
may bring home vividly to the mind the way in which history is 
bound together by a cause that Jiroduces an effect, which in turn 
becomes the cause of the next effect. Thus the student of the 
World War will find in the historical outlines of the \arious 
countries during the last twenty years, and particularly in the 
chronolog\" of the World History for that period, some of the 
secrets of the hostilities that led to war. 

The responsibility for the accuracy and usefulness of this work 
must fall upon the editor and those who have cooperated in pro- 
- ., , .. ducing it. Everett Kimball. Professor of Govern- 
... nient at Smith College, has prepared all the his- 

torical outlines of the World History since 1492, as 
also of all the nations and the States of the United States, and the 
lives of the presidents. William S. Ferguson, Professor of Ancient 
History, and Charles H. Mcllwain, Professor of History and Gov- 
ernment, both of Harvard University, are responsible for the his- 
torical outlines and chronologies of the Ancient and Medieval 
periods. The chronology for the Early Modern Period was 
made up by the editor. All the rest of the chronologies, in- 
cluding those for the Nineteenth-Century and World-War periods 
and for all the nations, the States of the United States, and the 
prcsitlents, were made by Mr. David M. Matteson, of Cambridge. 
The main work of the editor has been to make plans, assign 
tasks, and handle the material in the copy and the proof. It is 
hardly possible that errors and misprints have altogether been 
avoided, in spite of the learning of the contributors and the care 
of the editor; but it is hoped that they have been reduced to 
a minimum by the repeated searches that have been given to 
j perfecting the matter ill the copy and the proof. 
I The purpose of editor and contributors has been to help other 
I people find their way tlirough the difficulties of securing exact 
I information. Their strong desire is to aid the users of this 
1 Dictionarv to understand the world in which they live. 



Cambridge, Mass. 



ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. 



Copyright, 1921, by G. & C. Merriam Co. 
Copyright iu Great Britaiu and Ireland and in all countries subscribing to the Beni Convention. 

All rights reserved. 



SEP 17 1921 
,. : g)CI.A622848 



(2) 



CONTENTS. 



4: 



PREFACE 



Page 
. 2 



PART ONE — WORLD HISTORY. 
Historical Outlines and Chronologies of the Periods of History: 

I. ANCIENT PERIOD: Earliest Times TO 476 A. D 5 

II. MEDIEVAL PERIOD: 477 TO 1492 11 

III. EARLY MODERN PERIOD: 1492 to 1814 16 

IV. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD: 1814 to 1914 23 

V. WORLD-WAR PERIOD: 1914 to 1920 27 

PART TWO — NATIONAL HISTORIES. 

Historical Outlines, Organization, .\nd Chronologies of all Existing Nations: 



ABYSSINIA 39 

AFGHANISTAN 39 

ALBANIA 39 

ANDORRA 40 

ARGENTINA 40 

ARMENIA 41 

AUSTRIA 42-46 

AZERBAIJAN 46 

BELGIUM 46-48 

Belgian Congo 48 

BHUTAN 48 

BOLIVIA 48 

BRAZIL 49 

BRITISH EMPIRE 50-77 

Great Britain and Ireland 50-61 

British Dominions, Colonies, Protectorates, Posser- 

sions, and Dependencies 61-77 

European Dependencies 62 

Isle nf Man ... 62 Malta 62 

Channel I shnds . . 62 Gibraltar .... 62 



British Possessions in Asia 

Aden 62 

Perini 62 

Sokatra .... 62 

Kuria Muria Islands . 62 

Bahrein Islands . . 62 

British North Borneo . 62 

Brunei 62 

Sarawak .... 62 

Ceylon 62 

Maldive Islands . . 62 

Cyprus 62 

Hongkong .... 62 



India 

Dependeiieits on India . 

Baluchistan . 

Sikkini . . . . 

Andaman Islands 

Nicobars . . . . 

Laocadives 
Federated Malay States . 
Malay States not in the 

Federation 
Straits Settlements . 
Weihaiivei . . . . 



British Possessions in Africa 



Aseension Island 

British East Africa 
East Africa Protec- 
torate .... 
Uganda Protectorate 
Zanzibar Protector- 
ate .... 

Mauritius 

Nyasaland . 

St. Helena . . . 

Tristan da Cunha . 

The Seychelles . . 

British Somaliland 

Basutolatid . 

Beehitanaland . 

Rhodesia .... 



65 Swaziland .... 

65 Union of South Africa . 

Cape of Good Hope . 

65 Natal 

65 Transvaal .... 

Orange Free State 

65 British West Africa 

65 Nigeria .... 

65 Gambia .... 

65 The Gold Coast . . 

65 Ashanti . . . . 

65 The Northern Terri- 

66 tories .... 
66 Sierra Leone . 

66 Egypt 

66 Anglo- Egyptian Sudan 



British Colonies and Possessions in America 



Canada . . . . 

Neufoundland . 

Bermudas 

British West hidies . 

Bahamas . 

Barbados . 

Jamaica . 



69- 



Leeward Islands 

Trinidad . 

Windward Islands 
British Guiana . 
British Honduras 
Falkland Islands 



62-65 

62-65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 
65 
65 

6.5-69 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

67 

67 

67 

67 

67 

67 
67 
68 
68 

69-74 

74 

74 

74 
74 
74 
74 



British Colonies ant) Possessions in the Pacific 



Commonwealth of 
tralia 
New South ^^':des 
Victoria . 
Queensland . 
South Australia . 
Western Australia 
Tasmania . 



Alls- New Guinea or Papua 

. 74-76 New Zealand 

75 Fiji Islands .... 

75 Other Islands in the Pa- 

75 eific 

75 Tonga or Friendly 

75 Islands .... 

75 Pitcairn Island 



74- 

75 

76 

77 



77 
77 



BULGARIA 77-79 

CENTRAL AMERICAN STATFS 79-82 

Costa Rica 79 

Guatemala 79 

Honduras 79 

Nicaragua 79 

Salvador 80 

Panama 81 

CHILE 82 

CHINA 83-87 

COLOMBIA 87 

CUBA 88 

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA 90 

DENMARK 90 

Greenland 91 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (SANTO DOMINGO) ... 91 

ECUADOR 92 

ESTHONIA 93 

FINLAND 93 

FRANCE 93-102 

French Colonies and Dependencies 96-97 

French Possessions in Africa 96 



Algeria 96 

Tunis 96 

French West Africa . 96 

Senegal .... 96 

French Guinea . . 96 

Ivory Coast ... 96 

Dahomey .... 96 

Upper Senegal-Niger 96 

Upjier Volta ... 96 
Military Territory of 

the Niger ... 96 
French Possessions in Asia 



Mauretania ... 96 

The Sahara .... 96 
French Equatorial Africa 

(French Congo) . . 96 

French Somali Coast . 96 

Madagascar .... 96 

Mayotta and Comoro 

Islands .... 96 

Reunion 96 



96-97 



French India 96 



Tonkin . . . . 

Laos 

Kwangchow . 

Saint-Pierre and Miqvc- 
lon 



96-97 

97 

97 

97 

97 



French Indo-China .... 
Cochin China ... 97 
Cambodia .... 97 

Annani 97 

French Possessions in America 
French Guiana ... 97 

Marlinigue .... 97 Ion 97 

Guadeloupe .... 97 

French Possessions in the Pacific 97 

New Caledonia ... 97 New Hebrides ... 97 

French Establishments in Oceania 97 

Society Islands 97 

GEORGIA 102 



CONTENTS. 



GERMANY 

FoRMEK German Colonial Empire 



R 



U 



W 



Togo 105 

Kamerun . . . .105 
Southwest Africa . .105 
German East Africa . 105 
Kiaochow . . . .105 
German A'fU' Guinea . 105 
Kaiser-Wilhelmslaiid 105 



Bismarck 4rchipel. 
Solomon Islands . 
Caroline, Pelew,and 

Mariana Islands 
Yap .... 
Marshall Islands . 
Samoa Islands . 



103-109 
104-105 
105 
105 

105 
105 
105 
105 



j UNITED STATES OF AMERICA . . . . 

States of the Union in the Order of Admission 



GREECE 109-111 

Smyrna, or Aidin HI 

HAITI Ill 

HEJAZ 112 

Arabia 112 

HUNGARY 112-114 

ICELAND . 114 

ITALY 114-117 

Eritrea 115 Tripolilania and Cy- 

Italian Somaliland . .115 renaica . . . 115 

JAPAN 118-120 

JUGO-SLAVIA 121-123 

Serbia 121 Montenegro . . . 123 

Croatia and Slavonia . 122 Bosnia and Herzegovina 123 

LATVIA 123 

LIBERIA 123 

LIECHTENSTEIN 124 

LITHUANIA 124 

LUXEMBURG 124 

MESOPOTAMIA 124 

MEXICO 125-128 

MONACO 128 

MOROCCO 128 

NEPAL 129 

THE NETHERLANDS 129 

Dutch Guiana . . .129 Dutch East Indies . 129 

Curagao 129 

NORWAY 130 

OMAN 131 

PALESTINE 131 

PARAGUAY 131 

PERSIA 132 

PERU 133 

POLAND . .133 

PORTUGAL . 134-136 

Portuguese Dependencies 135 

Goa, Daman, Din . . 135 Portuguese Guinea . 

Macao 135 SairU Thomas, Principe 

Timor 135 Angola .... 

Cape Verde Islands . 135 Mozambique . 

ROUMANIA 

RUSSIA 

Former Russian Possessions 

The Ukraine . . .139 Siberia .... 

Dependencies in Asia 

Bokhara 139 Khiva .... 139 

The Former Baltic Provinces 143 

SAN MARINO 144 

SIAM 144 

SPAIN 145-148 

Canary Islands 146 

Possessions in Africa 146 

Spanish Morocco . . 146 Rio de Oro and Adrar 146 

Ifni 146 Spanish Guinea . 146 

SWEDEN 148 

SWITZERLAND . 149 

SYRIA 150 

TURKEY 151-154 

Former Turkish Possessions 152 

URUGUAY 155 

VENEZUELA 155 



135 
135 
135 
135 

137- 
139 



136 
-144 
139 

139 



Delaware 195 

Pennsylvania .... 195 
New Jersey .... 195 

Georgia 195 

Connecticut . . . .196 
Massachusetts .... 196 

Maryland 197 

South Carolina . . . 197 
Neu> Hampshire . . . 198 

Virginia 198 

New York 198 

North Carolina . . . 199 
Rhode Island . . . .199 

Vermont 200 

Kentucky 200 

Tennessee . ■. . . 200 

Ohio 200 

Louisiana 201 

Indiana 201 

Mississipjn .... 201 

IUi7iois 202 

Alabama 202 

Maine 20B 

Missouri 202 

Territories and Dependencies 

Alaska 209 

Com Islands . . . .209 
District of Columbia . . 209 
Guantdnamo Naval Sta- 
tion 209 

Hawaii 209 

Pacific Islands . . .210 
Guam 210 

The Presidents of the United 
George Washington . . 212 
John Adams .... 212 
Thomas Jefferson . . . 212 
James Madison . . .213 
James Monroe .... 213 
John Quincy Adams . . 213 
Andrew J ackson . . . 214 
Martin Vaii Buren . .214 
William Henry Harrison . 214 

John Tyler 214 

James Knox Polk . . .214 
Zaehary Taylor . . . 214 
Millard Fillmore . . . 215 
Franklin Pierce . . . 215 



Arkansas . 
Michigan 
Florida . 
Texas 
Iowa . 
Wisconsin 
California 
Minnesota 
Oregon 
Kansas 
West Virginia 
Nevada . 
Nebraska . 
Colorado . 
North Dakota 
South Dakota 
Montana . 
Washington 
Idaho . 
Wyoming . 
Utah . . 
Oklahoma 
New Mexico 
Arizona . 

OF THE United States 
The Samoa Islands 
Wake Island . 
Midway Islands 
Guano Islands 

Panama Canal Zone 

Philippine Islands 

Porto Rico 

Virgin Islands . 

States 
James Buchanan 
Abraham Lincoln 
Andrew Johnson 
Ulysses Sitnpson Grant 
Rutherford B. Hayes 
Joints Abram Garfield 
Chester Alan Arthur 
Grovcr Cleveland . 
Benjamin Harrison . 
William McKinley . 
Theodore Roosevelt . 
William Howard Taft 
Woodrow Wilson 
Warren G. Harding . 



157-219 

"195-208 
203 
203 
203 
203 
204 
204 
204 
205 
205 
205 
205 
206 
206 
206 
206 
206 
207 
207 
207 
207 
208 
208 
208 
208 

209-211 
210 
210 
210 
210 
210 
210 
211 
211 

212-219 

215 

215 

215 

216 

216 

216 

216 

216 

217 

217 

217 

218 

218 

219 



STATISTICS OF UNITED STATES AND DEPENDEN- 
CIES 220 

HUNDRED LARGEST CITIES OF UNITED STATES . 220 

COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE UNITED STATES AND 

FOREIGN COUNTRIES 221 

RECENT STATISTICS OF VARIOUS NATIONS . . .222 

INDEX 223 

MAPS 

Roman Empire facing p. 10 

Europe in 1648 " p. 18 

Europe showing Peace Conference Boundaries . " p. 38 
Nations of the World (2 maps) . . . . bet. pp. 64 and 65 
Territorial Growth of the United States . . facing p. 194 

COLORED PLATES 

Development of the Merchant Marine 

Modes of Travel 

Habitations of Mankind .... 
Development of the World's Navy 

PLATES 

Aerial Locomotion I 

High Buildings ) 

Historic Buildings ^ 

Portraits of the Presidents [ . 

British Government Buildings ) 



. bet. pp. 96 and 97 
bet. pp. 116 and 117 
bet. pp. 128 and 129 
bet. pp. 144 and 145 



. bet. pp. 160 and 161 
. bet. pp. 212 and 213 



A REFERENCE 

HISTORY OF THE WORLD 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES 
TO THE PRESENT 

BY 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL. D. 

AND THE FOLLOWING COLLABORATORS: 

WILLIAM SCOTT FERGUSON, Ph. D. CHARLES HOWARD McILWAIN, Ph. D. 

EVERETT KIMBALL, Ph. D. DAVID MAYDOLE MATTESON, A. M. 

PART ONE : WOHLD HISTORY 

I. ANCIENT PERIOD : EARLIEST TIMES TO 476 A. D. 



Historical Outline. 

A DISCUSSION of ancient history covers the field 
from the origin of man upon the earth ciown to some 
arbitrarily fixed date. The fall of the Western Ro- 
man Empire (47C A. D.) is usually taken as the date 
at wlilch ancient history ends. For the greater 
part of this period, no absolute chronology exists. 
In the first epochs time is reckoned not by years, but 
by geological ages and. even after man left remains 
from wlijch his history may be reconstructed, dynas- 
ties and eras give a more correct idea of the passage 
of time than do imcertain dates. 

According to the testimony of geology and anthro- 
pology, man existed I'li the earth in the Early Stone 
Age, wliich is placi-d briween 50.000 and 125,000 
years ago, after the third descent of the polar icecap 
and during the third long warm interval. Trace-s of 
man during this period are found, and his primitive 
culture may be reconstructed from the stone imple- 
ments buried in the glacial drift. The Middle 
Stone Age occurred during the fourth descent of the 
ice cap. in which period niankmd was driven south or 
took refuge in caves and adapted himself to the al- 
tered conditions. The Later Stone Age began be- 
tween S.OtX) and 10,000 years ago with the fourth 
warm interval, which still continues. It was in the 
Later Stone Age that artual historical records were 
first made, and from iliis period onward various na- 
tions have arisen at diirercnt times and have devel- 
oped their cultures. 

The Egyptian Empire, along the lower Nile in 
Africa, was the home of the earliest civilization of 
which authentic histori.c record was preserved. By 
means of picture writing and hierogiypliics, as well as 
by buildings, sculptures, and articles of use that have 
been preserved, the culture and civilization of the 
early Egyptians may be studied. The earliest fixed 
date in history is determined by the Egyptian in- 
vention of a calendar (4241 B. C). How long 
the Egyptian Empire hud existed before this there 
la no means of knowing, nor can it be determined 
when the race emerged from the Later Stone Age. 

At the same time, thougli by independent develop- 
ment, emerged the old Babylonian Empire. The 
plain through which the Tigris and Euphrates rivers 
fiow was occupied by the Sumerians long before 
3000 B. c, and the city kingdoms were foimded and a 
culture developed, records of which have been pre- 
ser\'ed to us by the system of cimeiform writing. 
The Semitic people, who were descendants of the 
nomads occupying the Arabian Desert, overthrew 
this state; and in the age of Sargon (2700 b. c.) a 



Semitic empire was established which adopted much 
of the Sumerian culture. Tliis composite empire 
lasted perhaps imtil the 22d centiu-y b. c., when it 
was displaced by a new Semitic invasion, that of the 
Amorites of Syria, and the supremacy of Babylon 
was then estabhshed under Hammurabi. 

Farther north, on the upper course of the Tigris. 
was the Assyrian Empire. There, sometime be- 
fore 3000 B. c, the Semitic nomads of the desert set- 
tled at Ashur. They came alternately under the in- 
fluence of the Babylonians to the south, to whom 
they were vassals, and of the Hittites in the west 
and drew their culture particularly from the Aramae- 
ans, or Syrians. During the reign of Sennacherib 
(705-681 B. c). Babylon and Egypt were conquered, 
a vast empire was developed. Nineveh was founded 
as the capital city, and an elaborate administration 
was developed. The Assyrian army, the first to be 
equipped with iron weapons, proved invincible. 

The Assyrian Empire fell before the onslaught of 
the Chaldeans, and under Nebuchadnezzar (604- 
561 B. c.) Babylon w^as the home of the highest civ- 
ilization yet developed. While these Semitic king- 
doms w^ere developing in the Tigris-Euphrates val- 
ley, other Semitic people like the Aramaeans and the 
Hebrews in Sjria and Palestine, though reaching no 
such material grandeur, developed a culture even 
more important. Particularly was this true of the He- 
brews, wlu^ ga\e to the worlri tlie monotheistic idea. 

The Medo-Persian Empire developed northwest 
of the Persian Gulf, founded, not by a Semitic peo- 
ple, but by a branch of the great Indo-European 
family. About 550 b. c, under Cyrus the Persian, 
the Medes were defeated and the foimdations laid 
for an empire which rapidly expanded, the Chaldean 
Empire of Babylon was overthrown and the Semitic 
east collapsed before the invaders from the north. 
In 525 Egypt was conquered by the Persian Cam- 
byses, and under Darius the Persians developed an 
administrative system which rivaled that of the 
early Assyrians. 

Another branch of the great Indo-European fam- 
ily pushed into India and reached the Ganges, per- 
haps as early as 1500 b. c. There they developed a 
culture based on the caste system and their religion 
was Brahmanism, which embodied the doctrine of 
the transmigration of the soifi. In the fifth century 
b. c. Buddhism was developed and for a time dis- 
placed Brahmanism, but was graduaUy driven out of 
India proper. It still floiu-ishes, however, in eastern 
Asia, where it numbers as its adherents nearly a third 
of the human race. 

StiU farther to the east the Chinese civilization 



was developed. This came neither from the Semitic 
nor from the Indo-Eiu-opean race, but from the Tu- 
ranians who settled in the valley of the Hwang 
River sometime before 3000 b. c. Here was devel- 
oped the Confucian religion, which ranks in num- 
ber of adherents next to Buddliism. The Chinese 
at a very early era developed a system of pictorial 
writing from which modern Cliinese characters were 
developed. A hterature. the most prized portion of 
which is included in the Nine Classics, was devel- 
oped sometime before the third century b. r. In 
the third century, moreover, was built the great Chi- 
nese wall, as a defense against the Huns. 

The Hittlte Empire existed in Asia Minor be- 
tween 1450 and 1250 b. c. The Hittites served as 
the great cormecting link between the east and the 
west, and although they developed a culture of their 
own which, as has been seen, influenced some of the 
Semitic empires, it was as carriers of cultiu"e from 
one region to another that the Hittites were most 
Important. 

In the Mediterranean at Troy (2500-1500 b. c.) 
and at Mycente m Greece (1500) and at Knossos in 
Crete (1600-1500), a civiUzation was developed 
which has been described by the poet Homer and 
was formerly known as Greek clvlllzadon. Ex- 
cavations have later proved that tliis civilization 
existed long before the Greek invasion; and it is now 
called the Minoan, Mycenaean, or Mediterra- 
nean. It was characterized by vast palaces and 
buildings and a profusion of gold. Great advances 
were made in architecture and engineering, and the 
metal workers developed extraordinary skill. 

This civilization fell before the invasions of an- 
other branch of the Indo-European race, the 
Greeks. Contrary to the formerly accepted opin- 
ion of history, the Greeks on their entrance into the 
Balkan Peninsula were still in the barbaric, nomadic 
stage of ctUture. Beginning about 2000 b. c, the 
Greeks in a series of invasions attacked and over- 
threw the Mycentean states they foimd. But the 
conquered gave to their conquerors their culture; 
and the Greeks, taking what was best from the My- 
cenaean civilization, developed in their little city- 
states a civilization superior to any that the world 
had yet seen. About the Sth century b. c. the 
Greeks began to send out colonies and settled on the 
islands and shores of the .^Egean Sea. in Sicily and 
Italy, and even in southern France. 

These colonies spread the Greek ideas, Greek 
trade, and Greek culture throughout the Mediter- 
ranean bases. Coming into conflict with the Per- 
sian Empire in the 5fh century, they held their own 
(5) 



WORLD HISTORY. 



4500 b. c.— l 184 B.C. 



against Darius and Xerxes and maintained their in- 

IVI dependence. Later in the same century Athens, 

under Pericles, was tlie center of a classic culture 
which has never been equaled. The independence 
of the Greek city-states gave way before the growtli 
of the JMacedonian Empire. Under Alexander 
the Great, Asia Minor. SjTia. Egypt, and even In- 
dia were brought, at least for a time, imdcr Greek 
control. More important tlian the conquest of 

^i^ these coimtries was the diffusion of the Greek culture. 

O which in a decadent form continued tliroughout an- 

cient history and even into medieval times. 

In Italy, city-states were foimded by the Etrus- 
cans, another branch of the Indo-Eiu-opeans. per- 
haps contemporary with the building of the city- 
states in Greece. The Italians followed with small 
states, of which Rome, the legendary date of whose 
foimdation is J53 B. C'.. was the most important. 

P At an early date a repubUcan form of government 

was established and a military system developed 
wliich enabled the Romans to conquer the surround- 
ing tribes and gradually to extend their dominion 
over Italy south of the Po. In so doing they came In 
contact with the Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily. 
Even more important was their contJict with the 
Carthaginians. Tliis was,Aheir first non-Italian 

Q campaign and tlic success of the Romans eliminated 

the Semitic Plicenician state as a possible rival in the 
Mediterranean. After this first foreign war, the 
Roman conquest proceeded rapidlj-. First Greece, 
then Asia Minor and SjTia, then Gaul and Britain 
were subdued, mitil by the reign of Augustus, the 
flrst Roman emperor (27 b. c -14 a. d.), all the 
countries adjacint to the Mediterranean Sea were 
includi'd in liisdomiuion. AUIlougli e.xiiaildrd undii- 
f^ Trajan, the boundaries of Rome remained sub.staii- 

tially the same until the onslaught of tlie barbarians. 
Just as the Greeks and Romans had overthrown an 
earlier civilization, so the Romans themselvBS suc- 
cumbed to barbarian invasions from the north 
and east. This process, begimiing perhaps with the 
onslaught of the Cimbri and Teutones (11.3-101 
B. c), became serious with the invasion of the Mar- 

Scomanni in ISO \. d. With ever-mcreasing fre- 
quency and mtensity the Teutonic tribes pushed into 
the empire and foimded Germanic kingdoms. In 
456 A. D. the last emperor of the west, Romulus 
Augustulus, was detlironed by Odoacer, the leader of 
the Herminones, or Hcrulians. and the Roman 
Empire in the West was at au end. 

Chronology. 

T Baslsof Ancient Chronology. To construct an 

exact chronology of ancient history from the 
earliest times is quite impossible. The reason for 
this is obvious. Such a chronology requires not only 
contemporaneous and continuous historical records, 
or writings embodying them, wliich are frequently 
wanting, but also a fLxed method of reckoning years ; 
an era or some other similar device must have been 
adopted. The need, however, of tliis is felt only 
after a long period of civilization. The Egyptians, 
with all their care to preserve records of events, had 
no historical era. If they dated at all. with very few 
exceptions they dated only '>>' the years of their sov- 
ereigns. From this fact, with the fragmentary char- 
acter of their monmnents and literature, and with the 
possible synchronism of dynasties, arises the great 

. • difficulty of determining the Egyptian chronology. 

V The AssjTians during the latter part of their liistory 
had an exact method of reckoning years. They 
named each year after an officer, tisually called by us 
an eponym. Lists of these eponyms hav(ibeen discov- 
ered, several copies, all of wliicli closely agree, cover- 
ing the period from 893 to 666 b. c. From the record 
of a total eclipse, 763 b. c., is determined the dates of 
all these years. This Assyrian canon, from the men- 

^^ tion of Ahab, Jehu. Uzziah, and a few other kings of 

Israel and Judah in the Ass>Tian amials, has fixed tlie 
periods of these monarchs and compelled a modifica- 
tion of the previous tmderstanding of Old Testament 
chronology. The Hebrews seem to have preserved 
but few records of their early history, and the lapses 
of time given in the Old Testament from the period 
of creation down to the fall of Jerusalem are ui a 

X large degree conjectural. In addition to the Assyr- 

ian canon for determining dates of partially the same 
period, there is the Canon of Ptolemy, a chronolog- 
ical compilation, with astronomical notes, of Baby- 
lonian. Persian, Greek, and Roman kings, commenc- 
ing 747 B. c., and extending to 137 .\. d. This so far 
as te.sted has proved an accurate and reliable docu- 
ment, and has been of the greatest service in deter- 
minmg ancient clironology. F6r the periods of Bab- 

Y ylonian and AssjTian iiistory earlier than these 
canons, there are lists of monarchs, with the length 
of their reigns, going back to 2800 b, c. These lists 
have not been preserved or discovered entirely with- 
out breaks. 

Lists of magistrates or priests preserved in temples 
or in archives of state were the basis of the ordinary 
Greek chronology. Thucydides designates the year 
^ of the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War as the 

^ forty-eighth year of the priestess Chrysis at Argos, 

when iEnesias was ephor at Sparta, and Pythodorus 
was archon at Athens. From about 500 b. c. to 293 



u 



B. c, we possess a complete list of the Athenian ar- 
chons, and for the earlier period (from the establish- 
ment of the office in 6S3 B. c.) and for the later period 
(to 26.5 .\. D,), an incomplete list. Tliis method of 
reckoning by local magistrates or priests was never 
wholly abandoned, but in the third century b. c. the 
Macedonian Kings of Syria computed the years of 
their reigns from the foimding of the dyiiasty in 312 
B. c, and the era thus established — the Era of the 
Seleucids — set an example widelj' followed in later 
Greek and Roman times. After the fourth century 
B. f. Greek historians reckoned cliiefiy from the 
Olympian games, which were held in 776 b. e., and 
once in four years thereafter for more than a millen- 
niimi. Tims, the mvasion of Greece by Xerxes feU 
in the flrst year of the seventy-fifth Oljiiipiad, or 
480 B. c. 

The Romans dated an event by giving the name of 
the two men in whose consulsliip the event occmred, 
or occasionally and less formally by giving the name 
of one consul. Formal lists of the consuls were kept 
as a part of the pubhc record. Some copies of these 
lists, in Latin and in CSreek, have been preserved and 
may be foimd in the " Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- 
narum." Vol. I.; they form the basis of Roman chro- 
nology. But it is probable that the puliUc records 
were destroyed when Rome was captm-ed by the 
Gauls, B. c. 390. and that the lists for the years 509- 
390 were made up from priestly records or from tra- 
dition. For the earlier years, before the expulsion of 
tlio kings, the dates rest upon tradition or legend, 
and have litfiie value. The date of the foimding of 
the city, 753 b, <■., however, was universally accepted 
by the lionians and was occasionally used as a date 
to rcclioTi finni, especially when the period of time 
that had (lapsed was regarded as significant. The 
system of reckoning ab urbe condita is modern and 
conventional. In medieval and modern times, his- 
torians of antiquity long continued to compute time 
from the founding of Rome or the first year of Abra- 
ham (2016 B. c.) or the creation of the world or some 
similar pomt; but smce the end of the 18th century 
the practice of dating events, before as well as after 
the birth of Clirist. from a pomt which is fixed as mid- 
night between Dec. 31st. 1 b. c. and Jan. 1st, 1 a. d., 
has come into general use. Astronomers, however, 
have taken a whole year. 1 b. c., as their point of de- 
parture, designating it 0. so that the year 323 b. c, 
e.g.. appears in their calculations as 322 b. c. 

In this clironological history the dates of the early 
Egyptian dynasties I. -XVIII. are from the Cliro- 
nology of Eduard Meyer and Breasted, which are al- 
ways the latest that can be given for Egyptian eras. 
The much earlier dates once current are now pretty 
generally abandoned by Egj-ptologists. 

The following dates must be received as only 
approximate: Babylonian and Assyrian dates 
before the ninth century B. C, Biblical dates 
before the middle of the seventh century B. ('., 
Greek dates before the middle of the sixth cen- 
tury B. C, Roman dates before the beginning 
of the third century B. C. 

Many dates subsequent to these periods camiot be 
exactly fixed, and hence they are given differently by 
historical authorities. Sometimes dilTerences arise 
from different modes of reckonmg. Some writers, 
for example, coimt as the first year of a ruler the year 
in the course of which he came to the tiirone, others 
begin with the fu'st full calendar year of his reign. 

EASTERN NATIONS AND JUDEA. 

4500 B. C. Predj-nastic Kingdoms (nonies) of 
Egypt flourisliing. 

4000. Kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt prob- 
ably fiourishing. 

3500-3000. Rise of Babylonian city kingdoms. 

3400-2390. The Old Kingdom in Egypt. 

3400-2900. First (Thinitei Egypiian dynasty, bc- 
girming with Menes, reputed founder of Mem- 
phis. Second (Thmite) Egji'tian dynas(y. 

3000-2700. Sumerian ascendancy m Babylonia. 

3000-2500. Early Minoan Age:developmentof cop- 
lier and bronze culture in Crete and ^Egean Basin. 

2900-2840. Third (Memphite) Egyptian d.vnasty. 

2840-2(i»0. Foiu-th (Memphite) Egyptian dynasty. 
Era of Snefcru, pyramid builder who had com- 
mercial relations with Phoenicia, and worked 
mines in the Sinaitic peninsiUa. Era also of 
Khufu (Cheops), builder of the Great Pyramid 
of Gizeh, and of Khafra, builder of the second 
pjTamid. 

2700-2500. Dynasty of Alikad: Semitic ascend- 
ancy in Babylonia. Sargon I., king of Akkad 
(Agade). reigns over a wide territory; conquers 
North Syria. Naram-Sin, king of Akkad, 
builder of the Temple of the Sun in Sippar, 
reigns in Balijionia and is lord of Mesopotamia. 

2G80-2540. Fifth Egyptian djTiasty. Copper and 
malachite mines worked in the Sinaitic peninsula: 
the proverbs of Ptah-hotep are composed. 

2540-2390. Sixth (iMemphite) Egyptian djTiasty. 
Era of Pepi I. First Egyptian invasion of Pales- 
tine: Palestine and Plioenicia already occupied by 
Canaanites. Era of (Jueen Nitocris. 

2500-2350. First djiiasty of U.r. Ur Engur and 
Dimgi consolidate city kingdoms of Babylonia. 



2500 1850. Middle Minoan Age (I. and II.) in 
Crete and the ^gean Basin. Contact between 
Crete and Egypt. Greeks enter Greece. 

2500. Gudea patesi (lord) of Lagash (TcUoh) in S. 
Balij Ionia: a higlily advanced civilization, of 
which there are many remains; commerce extends 
into Syria and Arabia. 

2390-2000. Seventh and eighth (Memphite), ninth 
and tenth (Heracleopolite), eleventh (Theban) 
Egyptian dynasties. The flrst four of these dynas- 
ties cover an obscure period of civil wars and for- 
eign invasion ; of this period there are few remains. 
During the eleventh occurred the rise of Thebes. 

2350-2092. The djiiasty of Larsa m N. Babylonia 
and of Nisin in S. Bal^ylonia. 

2225-1920. The flrst Babylonian d>-na.sty. Baby- 
lon becomes the chief city in Babylonia. As- 
syria first heard of. 

2160-1788. The Middle Kingdom in Egypt. 

2123-2081. Reign of Hammurabi — author of 
the oldest code of law extant, llamnuirabi uni- 
fies Babylonia and imposes code on all cities of 
N. and S. Babylonia and on Asliur and Nmeveh. 
Babylonian l)ecomes the diplomatic language of 
the entire Near East. 

2000-1788. Twelfth Egyptian dynasty. An era of 
great prosperity under Amenemhat I. -III., User- 
tesenl.-III. Ethiopia is conquered. Trade is ex- 
tended tlirough Syria and Arabia. The reservoir 
Lake Moerls is excavated: great monuments at 

r, Karnak, Beni Hassan, and elsewhere are erected. 

2000. Tlie Aryans — forenumers of the Medes and 
Persians, as well as of the Indians — flrst appear 
on the eastern frontier of Babylonia and Assyria. 

1926. Hittites raid Babylon — flrst appearance of 
Hittites in history. 

1850-1600. Great (palace) age of Knossos in Crete: 
Middle Minoan Age (III ). Extension of Cre- 
tan culture to Greek mainland. 

1850-1630. Era computed by some modem schol- 
ars for the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, 
and Jacob, according to BibUcal tradition. 
(Abraham is also placed in connection with Ham- 
murabi, 2100.) 

1788-1580. Thirteenth (Theban) . fourteenth (Xoite), 
fifteenth and sixteenth (Hyksos), seventeenth 
(Tlicban) Egyptian dynasties: a period of decline 
anrl the domination of the foreign Hyksos, or 
Shepherd kings (probably Asiatic Bedouins). 

1736-1185. The third (Kassite, non-Semitic) Baby- 
lonian djTiasty. 

1630-1200. Era according to Hebrew tradition of 
the sojourn of the Children of Israel In Egypt. 
(Another terminus about 1415.) 

1600-1350. Late Minoan Age (I. and II.) in 
Crete. Rise of Tiryns and Mycenaj. 

1580-1350. Eighteenth (Diospolite) Egj-ptian dy- 
nasty. Beginning of the " New Empire." Era of 
Ahmes I., Amenophis I. -IV., Thotmes I.-IV., 
Queen Hatasu, 

1580. Ahmes I. completes the expulsion of the 
Hyksos: captures Sharulien in S. Judah. 

1501-1443. Thotmes III. reigns in Egypt, con- 
quers Palestine and Syria at battles of Megiddo 
and Kadesh (overtlirow of Hittites) , conquers Nu- 
bia, erects a great temple at Kaniak. Greatest 
extent of Egyptian power. 

1500. Assyria is independent of Babylonia. 

1400-1110. Equilibrium between Babylonia and 
Ass>Tia. 

1376-1358. Amenophis IV (Chuenaten or Ikhna^ 
ton) introduces solar monotheism into Egypt. 
Era of the Tel-el-Amarna letters, a correspond- 
ence of Egyptian viceroys in Palestine, of kings 
of Babylon, and of a king of Mitanni with the 
Egyptian court. Egypt's possessions in Syria are 
threatened. 

1375. Hebrews threaten land of Canaan. 

1350-1100. Mycenaean Age (Late Minoan III.). 
Greeks become masters of /Egeaii arcliipelago and 
OCCUP.V west coast af Asia Minor. Decline of 
Mycenrean civilization. 
1350-1200. Ninetee/th (Diospolite) Egyptian dy- 
nasty. Era of Sed I.-II., Ramses II., Meneptah. 
1313-1292. Setil^^ claims to have reconquered Pal- 
estme and S>Ti&; defeats the Libyans and allies. 

1292-1225. Ramses II. (Sesostris) subdues Pales- 
tine and Syria: concludes peace with Hittites: is 
prolialily the Pharaoh of Israel's oppression. 

1200-1090. Twentieth (Diospolite) Egyptian dy- 
nasty. Era of'I^amses III., who mines in Sinai, 
trades in the south, and gains a great victory over 
pirijitical invaders of Palestine. Close of the pe- 
riod of the New Empire and begirming of decline. 

1200. Plirygians enter. Hittites leave, central Asia 
Minor. Fall of Hittite power. Near this time, 
probalily, under Meneptah or his successors, the 
Children of Israel, led by Moses, leave Egypt. 
(Another date about 1415 b. c.) 

1193. The Trojan War begins, led by Agamem- 
non of Mycense. (According to a late Greek com- 
putation.) 

1190. Philistines occupy coast of Palestine. 
1185-1053. Fourth (Pashe, Semitic) Babylonian 
d\'nasty. 

1184. Troy is taken and destroyed. 



1160 B. C. — 446 b. C. 



ANCIENT PERIOD. 



1160. Era of IsraePs entrance Into Canaan. 

(Another reckoning two centuries earlier.) 

1150-900. During the weakness of Egypt, Balij- 
lonia. and Assyria, the small states in Palestine 
and SjTia become important and the Phoeni- 
cians are the cliicf seafaring people of the 
Medit^-^rranean . 

1140-1040. Era of tlic Judges in Israel. (An- 
other reckoning 1340-1240.) 

1140. Nebuciiadnezzar I., king of Babylon, a 
great conqueror, defeats the Elaraites and the Lu- 
lumi, and wages war with the Assyrians. 

1110. Tigiatli-pileser I. firmly establishes the 
Assyrian Empire; he advances westward beyond 
the Eupiirates. 

1100. Epoch of the return of the legendary Hera- 
clidae, and of the Dorian migration into Pel- 
oponnesus. 

IOSO-1020. Era of Eii, Samuei, and Saul in Israel. 

1050-945. Twenty-first (Tanitic) Egyptian dy- 
nasty of priest kings. 

1017. David reigns at Hebron over Judali, prob- 
ably as vassal of the Philistines. 

1010. David is king over aii Israel, makes Jeru- 
salem his capital, and defeats tiie Pliilistines. 

1000. Phoenicians devise their alphabet. 

975-9.35. Solomon, succeeding his father, David. 
reigns over Israel. 

973. The Temple at Jerusalem is foimded. 

945-745. Twenty-second (Buljastite) Egyptian dy- 
nasty. Era of .Shishak and Osorkon; a Libyan 
domination. 

935. On the death of Solomon, his kingdom is 
divided. Rehoboani reigns over Judali and 
Jeroboam over N. Israel. 

930-913. Ashur-dan II. reigns in Assyria. 

936. Shishak, king of Egypt, invades Palestine. 
917-876. Asa reigns in Judah. 
914. Baasha destroys the house of Jeroboam and 

reigns over N. Israel. 

911-889. Adad-nirari III. reigns in Assyria; after 
a long war concludes peace with Babylon. 

900-700. Greek epic poetry is at its best. Age 
of Homer. 

889-884. Tukulti-Ninib II. reigns m Assyria. 

889. Omri seizes the throne in N. Israel. He 
builds the city of Samaria. 

884-860. Ashur-nasir-pal, famous for cruelty, 
reigns in Assyria ; extends its boimdaries and beau 
titles its cities. 

875-853. Ahab and Jezebel reign in N. Israel. 
Period of Elijah. 

867-851. Jehoshaphat reigns in Judah. 

860-825. Shalmaneser II., a great warrior, reigns 
in Assyria: makes extensive concjuests inW. Asia. 

854. Battle of Karkar — first fixed date in He- 
brew history: — Shalmaneser II. defeats Hada- 
dezer, king of Damascus, Ahab, king of N. Israel, 
and their allies. 

852-842. Joram reigns in N. Israel: Moab revolts 
under Mesha: the Moabite stone is inscribed; era 
of Elisha. 

851-843. Jehoram reigns ui Judah. Edom revolts 

842. Jehu seizes throne of Israel; Athahah seizes 
that of Judah; Shalmaneser II. defeats Hazaoi. 
king of Damascus; receives tribute from Jehu. 

825-812. Shamshi-Adad reigns in Assyria. 

815-798. Jehoahaz reigns m N. Israel. Benhadad 
III. of Damascus ravages Israel. 

814. Carthage founded. 

812-783. Adad-nirari IV. reigns in Assyria. 
" Semiramis " of the Greek writers is his mother. 

797. Adad-nirari captures Damascus, and Israel is 
freed from Syria. 

789-740. Uzziah (Azariah) reigns in Judah. 

783-773. Shalmaneser III. reigns in Assyria. It 
begins to decline. 

782-741. Jeroboam II. reigns in N. Israel. A pe- 
riod of external prosperity. Amos prophesies in 
the middle and Bosea at the close of his reign. 

776. The first Olympiad begins 

773-755. Ashur-dan III. reigns in Assyria. 

763. A solar eclipse is recorded which determines 
dates of A.ssjTian Canon. 

756-745. Ashur-nirari V. reigns in As.syria. 

763. Legendary founding of Bome by Romulus. 

752. Archons appointed at Athens with ten years' 
term of service. 

750-560. Age of Greek colonization. 

745-718. Twenty-third (Tanitic) Egyptian dy- 
nasty; an era of disintegration. Egypt is con- 
quered by Pianchi, king of Ethiopia. ^. 

745-727. Tiglath-pileser III. reigns in Assyria; an 
era of conquest and enlarged dominions. 

743. Rhegium is foiuided by the Chalcidians and 
Messenians. 

740-701. Ministry of Isaiah; Micah is a younger 
contemporary. 

740-736. Within this period Uzziah, king of Judah, 
dies; Jothani, his son, becomes sole ruler. 

738. Menahem, king of N. Israel, pays tribute to 
the Assyrians. 

735. Accession of Ahaz, king of Judah until 725 or 
715. A coalition of Syria and N. Israel tmder 
Rezin and Pekah is formed against Judah. 

734-732. Pekah, king of Israel, is deposed and 



slain. Hoshea, with Assyrians' help, is appointed 
king in his place. Aliaz pays tribute. Tiglath- 
pileser carries into captivity uihabitants of N. E. 
Galilee. [rinthians. i 

734. Syracuse and Corcyra are foimded by the Co- 1 

732. Damascus is taken by Tiglath-pileser. 

731. Merodach-baladan of Babylonia offers his al- 
legiance to Tigl'dth-pileser. [sieges Samaria. | 

727-722. Shalmaneser IV. reigns in Assyria; be-1 

723-705. Sargon II. reigns in Assyria. 

722-721. Fall of Samaria and end of the kingdom 
- of Israel. 

731. Babylonia tmder Merodach-baladan revolts 
against Assyria; he is made king of Babylon. 
Sybaris foimded in Magna Gra?cia by Achteans. 

730. Battle of Kaphia: great defeat «f Egyptians 
under Shabaka by Sargon. 

718-713. Twenty-fourth (Saite) Egyptian dyiiasty. 
Bekenrcnf (Bocchoris) reigns and Is deposed by 
Shabaka of Ethiopia. 

715. Accession of Hezekiah, king of Judah. (An- 
other date, 725 b. c.) 

712-613. Twenty-fifth (Ethiopian) Egyptian dy- 
nasty. Era of kings Shabaka, Shabataka, Tar- 
kaka; coalitions w'ith Israel; Assyrian invasions. 

711. Sargon invades Philistia and possibly Judah. 

710. Sargon defeats Merodach-baladan and is pro- 
claimed king of Babylon. 

705-681. Sennacherib reigns in Assyria. 

705. Sennacherib defeats Merodach-ialadan and 
despoils his palace. 

701. Sennacherib invades Palestine, tlefeats 
Tarkaka, nephew of the king of Egypt, at Eltekeh, 
invests Jerusalem ; his aniiy is smitten with pesti- 
lence and he retires. 

AGE OF GREEKS. 
700-460. Bloom of lyric poetry in Greece: 

Archilochus, followed by Tyrtjeus, Terpander, 
Alcman, Sappho, Alca?iis, Simonides, Baccliylides, 
and, greatest of all, Pindar, 

700. Hesiod Uves. Period of Dajaukku (Deioces), 
foimder of the Median Empire. 

696-641. Manasseh reigns in Judah (or 688-641> 

688. Gela in Sicily is founded by the Rhodians. 

683. The term of office of the archons at Athens i.s 
reduced to one year. 

681-668. Esarhaddon reigns in Assyria: restores 
Babylon: anne.xes Egypt. Era of Assyria's wid- 
est domain. 

668-626. Ashiu--bani-pal (Sardanapalus) reigns 
in Assyria; appoints his brother, Shamash-Shumu- 
kin, king of Babylonia. 

664. First recorded naval conflict in Greek his- 
tory, between the Corinthians and CorcyTBeans. 

663-525. Twenty-sixth (Saite) Egyptian dynasty; 
era of Psammetichiis, Necho, and Hophra: of the 
Egyptian renaissance. 

657. Byzantium is founded by the Megarians. 

650-625. Phraortes reigns in Media and conquers 
Persia and Armenia. 

648. Shaniash-Shunuddn destroys himself after an 
luisuccessful re\olt against A.shur-bani-pal. 
Eclipse of the sun mentioned by Archilochus. 

645. Assyrian domination over Egypt ends. 

641-639. Anion reigns in Judah. 

639-608. Josiah reigns in Judah. 

636. Scythians invade western Asia. 

632. Cylon attempts to seize tyTanny at Athens. 

630-600. Revolt of the Messenians against Sparta. 

626-586. The ministry of the prophet Jeremiah. 

636-005. Nabopalassar. the Chaldean, reigns in 
Babylon, first as an AssyTian viceroy; later he es- 
tablishes an independent empire. 

625. Cyaxares reigns ui Media imtil after 585. 

634. Cyrenc in Libya is founded by a colony 
from Thera. 

621. The Book of the Law (Deuteronomy) is 
foimd in the Temple at Jerusalem and occasions 
the reforms of Josiah. 
Draco codifies the laws of Athens. 

610. Tlirasybulus tjTant of Miletus. 

008. At the battle of Megiddo Josiah is defeated 
and killed by the Egyptians under Necho. 

608-597. Jehoiakini reigns in Judah. 

606. Nineveh destroyed by the Medes, Chalde- 
ans, and others. 

60S. Battle of Carehemish; Necho, of Egypt, de- 
feated by Nebuchadnezzar. 

604-561. Nebuchadnezzar II. reigns in Babylon. 

601. Nebuchadnezzar conquers Judah and 

^ Jehoiakini pays tribute. 

600-500. Etiiiscans the dominant people in Italy. 

600. Periander tyrant of Corinth. 

597-586. Zedekiah reigns in Jerusalem. 

597. Judah having rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar 
takes Jerusalem; Jehoiacliin, successor of Jehoi- 
akini, and many other Jews are carried to Babylon . 

594. Solon is archon at Athens. 

692-670. Prophetic ministry of Ezekiel. 

590. The Seven Wise Men of Greece; 

588-569. Apries (Hophra) reigns in Egypt. 

586. Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and the Jews carried captive to Babylon. 

585. Battle of the eclipse: fighting between Medi- 
ans and Lydians ceases; triple league formed: 



Babylon, Media, and Lydia. Thales of Miletus 

flom-ishes. 

582. Pythian games instituted at Delphi. 

580-550. Astyages reigns in Media until dethroned 
by Cyrus. 

569-625. Amasis reigns in Egypt. 

560. Pisistratus becomes tjTant at Athens. Croe- 
sus succeeds to tlirone of Lydia. 

659-539. Cyrus, king of Persia, reigns: conquers 
Media, dethroning Astyages, in 550: Lydia. de- 
throning Croesus, in 547 or .546; the Greek cities in 
western Asia Minor and Babylon, in 546-539. 

555-539. Nabonidus reigns in Babylon. 

546. CyTus captures Sardis. 

540. Carthagmians and Etruscans, allied, expel 
tireeks from Corsica. [CyTus.l 

539. Babylon siu-renders to Gobryas, a general ofl 

538. Edict of Cyrus for the return of the Jews. 

630. Polycrates. tyrant of Samos, flourishes. 

639. CjTus is killed in battle with tlie Massagetae. 

539-533. Cambyses reigns on Persian tlirone; in 
S27 or 525 conquers Egypt. (Psammetichus III.) 

527. Death of Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. 

525-414. Twenty-seventh (Persian) Egyptian dy- 
nasty. 

522-485. Darius 1., son of Hystaspes, reigns on 
the Persian throne. The first years of his reign 
are marked with many insurrections : a formidable 
one at Babylon. His empire extends from Mace- 
donia to India, and from the Danube and ti^' 
Black Sea to Nubia. 

520. Theprophets Haggai and Zechariah advocate 
the rfsto'rrftion of the temple at Jerusalem. 

515. The.«?cond Jewish temple is completed at 
Jerusalem. 

614. Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus, assassinated, 

510. Hiiipias, the tjTant, expelled from Athens. 

509. Patrician commonwealth is established at 
Bome. Rome makes a treaty with Carthage. 

508. Constitutional reforms of Cleisthenes ai6 
'\thens. '.., ' 

500-406. Highest development of Greek tragedy. 

499. The Ionian Greeks revolt from Persia. ,-" ' 

49S. The Ionian Greeks, assisted by Athenians and 
Eretrians, bum Sardis: are defeated at Ephesus. 

498-454. Alexander I. reigns in Macedonia. 

494. The Persians destroy Miletus. 
First secession of the plebs at Rome. (Prob- 
ably legendary.) 

The office of Tribune of the people is established 
at Rome. (An alternate date is 471.) 

493. Themistocles, archon at Athens, creates naval 
base at Pireeus. 

492. Expedition of the Persians under Mardonius 
against Greece. 

490. Tlie Persians, mider Datis, are defeated at 
Marathon (September 12). 

488. Ostracism introduced at Athens. 

487. Election by lot applied to archonships at Ath- 
ens: generals become chief magistrates of the 
state; contest of comedies organized. 

485. Darius dies; Xerxes I. succeeds liini on the 
tlirone of Persia. 

484. Xerxes conquers Egypt (revolted in 486). 

480. Xerxes sets out from Sardis for the invasion of 
Greece; is checked by the Spartan Leonidas at 
Thermopylae (August): is defeated in the great 
naval battle of Salamis (September 27 or 2S). 
Carthaginians defeated by Gelo of Syracuse in 
battle of Himera. 

479. The Greeks are victorious over the Persians at 
Mycale and Plata?a (about September 10). 

478. Athens heads tlic Delian Confederacy. 
Hiero follows Gelo as tyrant of Syracuse. 

474. Hiero defeats Etruscans in great sea Hght at 
Cumae. 

471. Themistocles, ostracized from Athens, goes to 
Argos, and later to Asia. 

467. The battle of Eurymedon. Death of Hiero. 
465. Xerxes assassinated by Artabanus. 
464-424. Artaxerxes I. {Longimanus) is sovereign 

of Persia. 
464-466. Messenians in revolt against Sparta. 
463. Revolt of Thasos from Athens is suppressed. 
462. Areopagus loses power in Athens. 
461. Ostracism of Cinion: Pericles comes to 

power; radical democracy established in Athens. 
459. Expedition of Athenians to Egypt to assist 

Inarus. 

468. Mission of Ezra to Jerusalem. 

467. Spartans defeat the Athenians at Tanagra; 

Athens. conquers Boeotia. 
456. ^,gma is subjugated by the Athenians: .aischy- 

lus dies at Gela in Sicily. 
454-413. Perdiccas II. reigns in Macedonia. 
454. Athenian catastrophe in Egypt; treasury of 

confederacy transferred from Delos to Athens. 
451-449. Decemviri rule in Rome. 
449. Expedition of the Athenians against Cyprus: 

the}' are victorious near the Cyprian Salamis. 
448. The Phocians attack Delphi ; the Sacred War; 

renewal of hostilities between Athens and Sparta. 

Peace between Athens and Persia. 
447. Thebans defeat Athenians at Coronea; end 

of Athenian power in Bceotia. 
446. Herodotus is in Athens. 



8 



WORLD HISTORY. 



445 B. C. — 251 B. C. 



N 



U 



W 



44S. Nehemiah's first visit to Jerusalem; the 

walls of the city are rebuilt . Promulgation of the 

Mosaic law at Jerusalem. 

Thirty years' peace made between Athens and 

Sparta. 

Canuleian law pemiits marriage between Roman 

patricians and plebeians. 

443. The censorship is instituted at Rome. 

Thurii, in eastern Italy, is founded by Athenians. 

438. Parthenon at Atliens, begim in 447, com- 
pleted, (^ampaniuns tak(.' C^apua from Etruscans. 

437. Building of thi' Priipyla'a at .Athrns is bcgtm. 

436. AmphipoUs, in 'riii-acc. is founded by Athe- 
nians. Corinthians make war on the Corcyrseans. 

432. Potidaea revolts from the Athenian alliance. 
Nehemiah's second visit to Jertisalem. 
Priest Manasseh e.xpelled from Jerusalem: finds 
shelter with his fatlier-in-law. Prince Sanballat, 
wlio builds him a temple on Mt. Gerizim. Tliis is 
tlie beginning of the Samaritan Church. 

431. Peloponnesian War in Greece begins (lasts 
till 404); Thebans attack Plataea. 

430. Plague at Athens. 

429. Potidtea is subdued by Athens. Pericles dies. 

4'J8. Revolt of Lestos. 

427. Arlstopiianes produces first comedy. Con- 
flicts between the Dorian and Ionian cities of Sicily. 

425. The Spartans at Sphacteria surrender to Cleon 
after a long siege. 

424. Arta.xerxes dies; his son, Xer.\es II., is slain by 
his brother, Sogdianus. who in tm-n is slain by his 
brother Darius II. (.A'olhus), who reigns until 404. 
Athenians are defeated at Deiium, in Boeotia. 
Thucydides, historian, banished from Athens. 

421. Peace of Nicias; alliance for fifty years be- 
tween Athens and Sparta. 
Cimice taken by the Campanians. 

420. Argos forms an alhance with Athens, and 
Thebes with Sparta. 

418. Argives defeated at Mantineia by Sparta. 

415. Athens sends an expedition against Syractiso, 
under Nicias, Lamachus, and Alcibiades. Alci- 
biades is recalled, but withdraws to Sparta. 

414. Lamachus falls before Syracuse. 

41.1. Archelaus seizes the Macedonian throne and 
kills Perdiccas. 

Athenian expedition against Syracuse Is de- 
stroyed miserably; Nicias is put to death; Decelea 
in Attica is occupied by Spartan troops. 

412. Revolt of Athenian allies. 

411. Athenian democracy overthrown; oli- 
garchy of the Four Hundred is established in 
March, but falls after a rule of foiu' months; a 
moderate democracy succeeds. 

410. The Spartan Heet is destroyed by the Athe- 
nians off Cyzicus. 

409. Hannibal of Carthage invades Sicily. 

408. Cyrus appointed Persian commander in 
chief in Asia Minor; Lysander put in charge of 
Spartan naval operations; Alcibiades returns in 
trimnph to Athens, but goes into exile again sLx 
months later. 

406. Death of the Athenian tragic poets, Sopho- 
cles and Euripides. Victory of the Athenian fleet 
off the Arginusas islands. 
Agrigentum taken by Carthaginians. 

405. Battle of .,X!gospotami; Dionysius made 
tyrant of Syracuse. 

404-359. Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon) reigns in Persia. 

404. Peace between Athens and Sparta after the 
Peloponnesian War; walls of Athens de- 
stroyed; the Thirty Tyrants are established in 
power at Athens, but are deposed after eight 
months' rule, in February, 403, and the former 
constitution is restored. 

401. Cyrus the Yotmger, in revolt against his 
brother, Artaxerxes II., is killed in the battle of 
CL.naxa, and Xenophon leads the retreat of the 
Ten Thousand Greeks to the Black Sea. 

400-394. Sparta conducts war in Asia Minor 
against Persians. 

400. Gauls occupy Po valley. 

399. Archelaus of Macedonia is assassinated. 
Socrates put to death at Athens, aged 70 years. 

396. Agesilaus takes command of Spartan army in 
Asia. The Roman troops tmder Camillus take 
Veil after a ten years' siege. 

395-387. Corinthian War; Athens and Thebes, 
Corinth and Argos, tmited against Sparta. 

394. The Athenian Conon, commanding a Persian 
fleet, is victorious over the Spartans, off Cnidus. 
Agesilaus recalled from Asia ; victorious at Coronea. 

393. Long Walls of Athens rebuilt by Conon 

390. Great defeat of the Romans by the Gatfls 
in the battle of tlie Allia. 

387. The peace of Antalcidas is consummated be- 
tween Greece and Persia; the cities of Ionia are 
left in the power of the Persians. 

383-379. War of Sparta against Olynthus. 

383. Demosthenes born. 

380. Isocrates's Panegijricus — plea for Hellenic 
union — published. 

379-362. Prominence of Thebes in Greece; 
Epaminondas and Pelopidas are the leaders. 

379. Theban oligarchy is overthrown. 

878. Second Dellan Confederacy founded. 



377-351. Matisolus reigns over Caria at Halicar- 
nassus. 

376. Naval victory of the Athenians over the Spar- 
tans, near Naxos. 

374. Peace is made between Athens and Sparta. 

371. Epaminondas of Thebes defeats the Spar- 
tans at Leuctra; Thebes gains the ascendancy in 
Greece. 

370. Megalopolis is foimded in Arcadia; Mantineia 
is restored ; death of Jason of Phcrae. 

369. Expedition of Thclians tmder Pelopidas into 
Thcssaly and Macedonia. Icuse. | 

367-357. Dionysius, the Yotmger, tyrant of SjTa- 1 

367. Office of praetor created m Rome for the ad- 
ministration of justice; end of period of military 
tribimes with consular powers. 

366. Lucius Sextitis is chosen first consul from 
the plebeians at Rome. Epaminondas mvades 
Peloponnesus for the third time. 

364. Pelopidas invades Thessaly and is slain at 
Cynoscephato, near Pharsalus. 

364-359. Perdiccas III reigns in Macedonia. 

362. Battle of Mantineia. 

361-285. Romans repel raids of Gauls. 

360. Agesilaus of Si>arta dies. 

359-338. Artaxer.xes III. (.Oelius) reigns in Persia. 

359-336. Pliilip II., youngest son of Amyntas II., 
reigns m Macedonia; he institutes reforms in the 
Macedonian army. 

358. Philip defeats Paeonians and lUyrians. 

357-354. Dion tjTant at SjTacuse. 

357. Philip seizes AmphipoUs and Pydna; war 
with Athens restilts. 

356. Philip seizes Potidaea and foimds Philippi. 
Alexander III. (the Great) bom, son of Pliilip II. 

355. Second Athenian Empire dis.solved. 

354-350. Eubulus controls policies of Athens. 

354. Caere becomes first Roman mimicipium. 
Demosthenes first appears before the people in an 
affair of state. 

351. First Philippic delivered by Demosthenes. 
Death of Mau.solus of Caria. 

348. Rome makes a commercial treaty with 
Carthage. Pliilip of Maccdon extends iiis em- 
pire in Thrace as far as Byzantium. 

347. Plato dies (born in 427; pupil of Socrates). 

346. Philip makes peace with Athens (Peace of 
Philocrates) ; goes to Delphi; lays waste Phocis. 

345-337. Timoleon general in Sicily; defeats Car- 
thaginians at Crimisiis, 

343-341. First Samnite War (between Rome and 
Sanmiimi) . 

342. Philip overruns Thrace Aristotle, pupil of 
Plato, becomes Alexander's tutor. [League. I 

340-338. Great Latin War; dissolution of Latin I 

340. The Athenians opjiose Philip with arms as he 
advances agamst Byzantium, and he is obliged to 
abandon the advance. 

339-338. Sacred War; Philip, chosen ampliicty- 
onic general, seizes Elatea. 

338. Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans 
near Chaeronea (August); Macedonian hegem- 
ony over Greece established; Hellenic League 
formed, with sjTiod at Corinth. 
Roman silver coins issued in Campania. 

336. Darius III. (Corfo7na?i7ms) succeeds to the sov- 
ereignty of Persia. 

Philip of Macedon assassinated by one of his 
bodyguard. Pausanias (August), and is succeeded 
by Alexander the Great. 

335. Alexander subdues the Triballi, and razes 
Thebes (September). 

334. He undertakes the conquest of Persia and 
defeats the Persian army at the tiranicus (May). 

333. Alexander defeats Darius near Issus (No- 
vember) ; overruns Syria. 

332. Alexander besieges and destroys Tyre; takes 
Gaza and (possibly) enters Jerusalem; occupies 
Egypt and founds Alexandria. 

331. Alexander overcomes the Persians at Gauga- 
mela, 60 miles from Arbela, and not far from the 
ancient Nineveh (October); goes to Babylon, 
Susa, and Persepolis. 
Aristotle's PoHHci finished. 

330. Darius seized by his kinsman, Bessus, and slain. 
Alexander marclu's tlirough Parthia and Media: 
he puts his gent-ral, Parmenio, to death. 

329. Alexander invades Bactria. 

327-304. Second Samnite War. 

327. Alexander marries Roxana, daughter of Oxy- 
artes, the satrap of Sogdiana; he Invades India. 

326. Alexander contiuers Porus, an Indian king 

325. Nearchus (imder Alexander's orders) in about 
seventy-five days sails down the Indus, across the 
sea. and up the Euphrates. 

324. Alexander returns to Babylon. 

323. He dies there: Philip III. (ArrhiJxus), Alex- 
ander's half brother, nominally succeeds to the 
throne of Macedonia; Perdiccas is made regent; 
Alexander's conquered territories divided 
among his generals; Lysimachus receives 
Tlirace; Antipater is made niler of the remaining 
Macedonian Empire in Europe. 
Ptolemy I. (SoUr), son of Lagus. becomes ruler, 
and alK)ut 305 king, of Egypt. 

322. Death of Demosthenes at Calauria; death 



of Aristotle at Chalkis; Lamlan War; Antipater 
and the Macedonians defeat the Greeks neap 
Cramion: the.Etolians are the cliief cliampionsof 
HeUa.s; vH^tolian League formed. 

321. Romans defeated by the Sanmites at the 
Caudine Forks. 
Death of Pertliccas; Antipater follows as regent. 

.320. Ptolemy takes Jerusalem. [Asia. I 

319. Antipater dies; Eumenes is made General of I 

317-307. Demetrius of Phalerum rules Athens; age 
of ]Menander. 

317. Pliilip Arrhidaeus is put to death by Olympias. 

316-289. Agathocles is tyrant at Syracuse. 

316. Cassander, Antipater's son, rules in Mace- 
donia. 

31 2-308. Appius Claudius Caecus censor ; work begtm 
onthe Appian Way from Rome to Capua. Applan 
aqueduct built; powers of Senate assailCKl. 

312. Battle of Gaza; Babylon reoccupled by 
Seleucus Nicator: era of the Seleucldae begins. 

311. Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and An- 
tigonus make a treaty of peace. 

310. Cassander puts to death Alexander's widow, 
Roxana, and her son, Alexander IV. 
Agathocles carries the war with the Carthagin- 
ians Into Africa. 

The Romans cross the Ciminian forest and defeat 
the Etruscans, who had joined the .Saranites. 

307. Demetrius Poliorcetes (son of Antigonus) lib- 
erates Athens. [king. 1 

306. Battle of Salamls. Antigonus takes title of I 

305. Siege of Rhodes. 

304. End of second Samnite War. 

301. Antigonus is defeated and slain at the battle of 
Ipsus by Lysimachus and .Seleucus. 

AGE OF ROMAN REPUBLIC. 

300. Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea are 
foimded by Seleucus. 

298. Third Samnite War begins. 

297. Cassander dies; Alexander V. and Antipater 
reign m Macedonia. PjTrhus restored to throne 
of Epirus. [Samnites at Sentinum.l 

295. Fabius overcomes tlie EtriLscans, Gauls, and! 

294. Demetrius I. (Polwrce(cs) takes Athens; 
murders Alexander ; seizes Macedonian throne. 

290. Third Samnite War of the Romans ends. 

288. Pyrrhus rules in Macedonia. 

287. Horteusian law enacted in Rome, making 
the votes of the Comitia tributa binding on all 
citizens. Secession of the plebeians to Janiculum. 

285-247. Ptolemy II. (Philadelphus) reigns in 
Egypt; the Museum in Alexandria flourishes 
with distinguished men of science and literature; 
Jewish Scripttu-es begin to be translated into CJreek 
for the Jews at Alexandria (Septuagint version); 
bucolic poetry (Theocritus) at it3 best. 

283. Demetrius Poliorcetes dies. [Tarentum.l 

282. War between Rome and the Greek city of I 

281. Pyrrhus of Epirus is summoned to Italy to aid 
Tarentimi. Seleucus defeats Lysimachus at 
Corupedion: Lysimachus falls. 

280-261. Antiochus I. {Soler) reigns in Syria. 

280. Achaean League formed. Pyrrhus wins the 
battle of Heraclea, but with heavy loss. First 
meeting of Greek phalanx and Roman legion. 
Death of Seleucus (2S1 7). 

279. The Gauls under Brennus Invade Mace- 
donia, and pillage Delphi. 

Pyrrhus is victorious over the Romans in the bat- 
tle of Asculum, but again with heavy loss (" Pyr- 
rhic victory." See in the Dictionary.) 

278-246. Nicomedes I. reigns in Bithynia; he in- 
vites the Gauls to enter Asia. 

278. Alliance between Rome and Carthage; 
PjTrhus in SicUy. 

277. Gauls driven from Macedonlaby Antigonus. 

276-240. Antigonus (Conalnis) reigns in Macedonia. 

276-195 ? Eratosthenes computes the circumfer- 
ence of the earth with substantial correctness. 

275. Pyrrhus is beaten by the Romans under Cu- 
rius Dentatus at Beneventum; from this victory 
may be dated the supremacy of Rome in Italy. 

274. Pyrrhus defeats Antigonus and is declared 
king of Macedon, but in 272 he is slain near Argos, 
and the crown is restored to Antigonus. [plius. I 

273. Treaty between Rome and Ptolemy Pluladel- 1 

272. Surrender of Tarentum to Rome. 

270. The philosopher Epicurus (bom 342 7) dies. 

268. Hiero is recognized as tjTant of Syracuse. 
First coinage of silver in Rome. 

266. Treaty between Athens, Sparta, and Ptolemy. 

264. First Punic War between Rome and Carthage 
begins. Zeno, pliilosopher, dies (another date, 261). 

281-246. Antiochus II. {Theos) reigns in Syria. 

261. Antigonus conquers .\thens. 

260. A Roman fleet, constructed to meet the Car- 
thaginians, is victorious off Mylae. 
Aristarchus of Samos launches the heliocentric 
theory (that the earth moves round the sim). 

256. Second and greater victory of the Roman 
fleet off Ecnomus. The consul M. Atilius Regu- 
lus " carries the war into Africa," but in the fol- 
lowing year is defeated and captured. 

251. Aratus frees Sicjon from t>Tanny and annexes 
it to the Achaean League. 



250 B. c. — 44 B. c. 



ANCIENT PERIOD. 



9 



260. Arsaces leads a revolt against the Seleucids 
and founds Parthian Empire. Era of the Arsac- 
idae begins. 

248-242. The Carthaginian general. Hamilrar, 
liolds Eryx (in Sicily) against all Roman attacks. 

247-222. Ptolemy ill. (Euergetes) reigns in Egypt; 
conquers Syria and holds it a few years. Struggle 
with INIacedou for sea power in eastern Mediterra- 
nean ends with destruction of Egyptian fleet. 

246-226. Seleucus II. iCallinicuti) reigns in S>Tia. 
Djiiastic war rends Seleucid Empire for 20 years. 

245-213. Aratus is general of the Achcean League in 
practically every aUemate year. 

242. Corinth joins the Achaean League. 

241-197. Attalus I. (Soter) reigns in Pergamum. 

241. First Punic War ends with the Roman vic- 
tory at the .^gades islands ; Carthage agrees to pay 
an indemnity of 3,200 talents, and the larger part 
of Sicily becomes the first Roman province. 

240. Livius Andronicus, the translator of the Odys- 
sey into Latin, exliibits first play at Rome. 

239-229. Demetrius II. reigns in Macedonia. 

238. Sardinia, taken from Carthage, is made 
the second Roman province, .^tolian and 
Achtean Leagues unite to expel Macedonia from 
Greece. 

235-220. Cleomenes III. reigns in Sparta. 

231. Clu'ysippus becomes head of the Stoic school. 

229-221. Antigonus (Doson) reigns in Macedonia. 

229. The suppression of the lllyrian pirates leads 
to a treaty between Rome and Corcyra and other 
Greek powers. 

228. Argos joins the Achaean League; Athens is 
freed from Macedonian garrisons, and adopts a 
policy of strict neutrality: age of Eurycleides and 
ISIicion. Prusias I. reigns in Bithynia; dies about 
1S5; is succeeded by Prusias II. 

227. The Spartans under Cleomenes III. defeat the 
Achfeans at Laodicea, and Lydiades falls. 

225-222. The Gauls of northeni Italy advance 
upon Rome, but are utterly routed by the Ro- 
mans; Cisalpine Gaul is subdued and colonies are 
estabhshed; all Italy is now Roman. 

223-137. Antiochus III. (the Great) reigns in S>Tia. 

223. Aratus calls the Macedonians imder Antigo- 
nus to the aid of the Achaeans against Cleomenes 
of Sparta ; glory of the Achaaan League passes away. 

222-205. Ptolemy IV. {Philopator) reigns in 
Egypt. 

221-179. Philip V. reigns in Macedon. 

221. Tlie Macedonians vanquish the Spartans un- 
der Cleomenes at Sellasia. 

220-217. The ^Etolians ravage Achaia; Social War 

(between Acheean and ^t-olian leagues) follows. 

319. Second Mlyrian War of Rome. 

215. Second Punic War b<_-gins; Hanniba3, hav- 
ing cstal>lished the Carthaginian power in Spain, 
crosses the Alps into Italy and defeats the Ro- 
cnans in the battles of the Ticinus and Trebbia; 
the Gauls of northern Italy join him. 

217, Piiihp makes peace with the /Etolians at Nau- 
pactus. 

Ptolemy defeats Antiochus III. of SjTia 
at Raphia. 

The Romans are defeated in battle of Lake 
Trasimcnus by Hannibal. 

216. Philip V. of iMacedon makes an alliance with 
Hannibal. 

Romans defeated by Hannibal at Cannae* — 
the severest defeat ever sustained by Rome; Han- 
nibal winters in Capua; some Italian towns re- 
nounce the Roman alhance; the Romans, by great 
efforts, raise and equip two new armies. [gins.j 

215. First war between Rome and Macedonia be-1 

213. The Achaean general Aratus dies. 

212. Marcelius captures Syracuse and drives 
Carthaginians from Sicily; death of Archimedes: 
close of the greatest epoch of Greek science. 
^tolia joins Rome against Philip; Romans in- 
vade Greece. 

208- Pubhus Scipio fails to prevent Hasdrubal, the 
brother of Hamiibal, from crossing the Pyrenees 
to march into Italy. 

207-192. Nabis is tyrant at Sparta. 

207. Hasdrubal is defeated and killed in battle near 
the Metaurus before he is able to join Hannibal; 
Hannibal retires to southern Italy. 

206. .etolians make peace with the Macedonians. 

205(203 ?)-181. Ptolemy V. (Epiphaties) reigns in 
Egypt; Philip of jNIacedon and Antiochus of SjTia 
conspire to divide Empire of Egj-pt between them. 

205. Philip of Macedon makes peace with Romans. 

204. Pubhus Comehus Scipio {Africanus) lands in 
Africa and is joined by Masinissa. 

203. Hannibal retires from Italy to Carthage. 

202. Seipio defeats Hannibal in the decisive bat- 
tle of Zama. 

201. Peace between Rome and Carthage. 

200. Rome interferes again in Grecian affairs, and 
second war between Rome and Macedonia begins. 
Antiochus III. defeats Egj-ptians at Panium. 

198. The Achaean League makes its first treaty 
with Rome. 

197-159. Eumenes II. reigns in Pergamum. 

J.97. Romans defeat Philip V. at CjTioscephalse, 
and end Macedonian supremacy In Greece. 



196. At the Isthmian games, the states. which 
had been subject to Macedon are proclaimed 
free. 

193. Antiochus of Syria makes treaty with Egypt, 
by which he retains Palestine and grants its trib- 
ute to Ptolemy as dowry with lus daughter, Cleo- 
patra I. 

192. Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, murdered by the 
.Etolians: Sparta joins the Achaean League. 
Antiochus enters Greece. 

191. Elis and Messenia join the Achaean League. 
Antiochus and his allies are defeated by the Ro- 
mans at Thermopylae. 

190. Battle of Magnesia. 

189. Fulvius, commanding Romans, conquers .Eto- 
lian League. Antiochus yields Asia Minor to Rome. 

187-175. Seleucus IV. (Philopator) reigns in Syria. 

187. Hannibal takes refuge at the court of Prusias. 

183. Scipio Africanus, the Elder, dies (born 237). 
Hannibal, to escape fallmg into the hands of the 
Romans, commits suicide in BithJ^lia. 

182-148. Prusias II. reigns in BithJ^lia. 

181-146. I*to\emyYlI. (Philo/netor) rules in Egypt. 

179-168. Perseus rules in Macedonia. 

175-164. Antiochus IV. (Epiphajies) rules in SyTia. 

171. The tlurd Macedonian War with Rome be- 
gins; dissolution of the Boeotian League. 

170. Antiochus visits Jerusalem. 

169. Death of Ennius (bom 239), the first great 
Roman epic poet. 

168. Perseus is defeated in the battle of Pydna 
(June); end of the Macedonian monarchy. Per- 
secution of the Jews by Antiochus (Epiphanes); 
the temple at Jerusalem is defiled. 

167. The .Etohan patriots are put to death, and 
1,000 Achaean patriots (including the liistorian 
Polybius) are transported to Rome. 
Jewish revolt against Antiochus by Mattathias 
and his five sons (the Maccabees). 

166. Delos given by Rome to Athens. 

162. Demetrius Soter kills Antiochus V. (ruled 
164-162) and reigns in his stead until 150. 

161. The Jews make a treaty with Rome. 

IGO. Judas Maccabaeus. leader of the Jews, is slain. 
Jonathan Maccabseus takes his place. 

159-138. Attalus II. reigns at Pergamum. 

153. Celtiberian War begins. 

150-145. ' Alexander Balas, ha\'ing dethroned 
Demetrius, reigns in Syria. 

150. Roman senate releases the surviving leaders 
of the Achaean League. 

149-92. Nicomedes II., having killed his father, 
Prusias II., reigns in Bithj'nia. 

149. Cato (the Censor), writer on history and on 
agricultiu-e, dies (bom 234) . Senate, through 
court of extortion, assumes control of provincial 
government: height of senatorial power. 

148. The revolt in Macedonia is suppressed: 
Macedonia a Roman province. 

146-117. Ptolemy IX. (Euergetes II., Pkyscon) 
reigns in Eg>-pt. 

146. Carthage is captured by Publius Cornelius 
Scipio, the Younger, and utterly destroyed; 
Africa a Roman province. 

The Roman consul Mummins defeats the Achae- 
ans at Leucopetra, near Corinth; the Romans 
destroy Corinth; Achaean League dissolved, 
and all Greece becomes practically subject to 
Rome as a sort of dependency of the Roman prov- 
ince of Macedonia. 

145-138. Demetrius Nicator overthrows Alexander 
Balas; reigns m SjTia. 

143-135. Simon Maccabeeus, high priest and prince 
at Jerusalem, obtains from Demetrius a recogni- 
tion of Jewish independence, 

143-133. Numantine War in Spain. 

139-129. Antiochus VII. (Sideles), ha\ing slain the 
usurper Trj'phon, reigns in SjTia, in the stead of 
his captive brother, Demetrius Nicator. 

139. Parthians, under Mithridates L, take Deme- 
trius Nicator prisoner and conquer Babylonia. 
The Greek djTiasty of Bactria succumbs to Tatar 
tril:)e of Su. 

136-132. The Servile "War m Sicily. 

135-105. John HjTCanus I. is high priest and 
prince at Jerusalem. 

133. Antiochus destroys the walls of Jerusalem. 
Attalus III. of Pergamum bequeaths his kingdom 
to Rome. 

Publius Scipio. the Younger, takes Numantia after 
a siege of more than a year; death of Tiberius 
Gracchus, who had attempted agrarian reforms. 

129. Assassination of Scipio Africanus, the 
Younger.!, 

Antiochus invades Parthia; he is defeated and 
killed. Demetrius Nicator is restored to the 
throne of S>Tia, and reigns until 125. 

125-96. Antiochus VIII. (Cri/pus) reigns in SjTia. 

123--121. Cains Sempronius Gracchus '^contin- 
ues his brother's agitation in favor of constitu- 
tional and agrarian reforms; he is slain. 
Knights given control of court of extortion and 
provincial administration. 

120. Mithridates VI. (Eupafor) succeeds his father 
in Greater Phrj-gia and Pontus, and, about 115, 
takes government into his own hands. 



118. Foundation of Narbo. Jugurtha shares 
with liis cousins the throne of Numidia. 

117. Ptolemy IX. dies; Ptolemy X. (Soter II.) 
reigns Ui Egypt from 117 to 107 and from 88 to 81. 

113-101. AVar between the Romans and the Cim- 
bri and Teutones. 

112-105. War of the Romans with Jugurtha, king 
of Numidia. 

HI. Antiochus IX. (Cyzicemis) reigns over Cosle- 
S>Tia; his brother, Grypus, reigns at Antioch. 

107-88. Ptolemy XL reigns in Egypt. 

105. Jugurthine War ends by the betrayal of 
Jugiu-tha to Marius. 
Two Roman armies destroyed at Arausio. 

104-99. Revolt of slaves in Sicily, Italy, and Attica. 

103-76. Alexander Jannaeus is king and high priest 
of the Jews. 

102. Caius Marius overcomes the Teutones in 
tlie battle of the Aq\ue Sextia*. 

101. Marius annihilates the Cimbri at Vercellse; 
reform of the Roman army organization. 

100. Marius, consul for the sixth time, crushes the 
revolutionists Satiuninus and Glaucia. 

95-83. Antiochus X. (Eusebes) reigns in Syria. 

95-54. Tigrancs II. (the Great) reigns in Armenia. 

92-90. Reforms and assassination of M. Livius 
Diiisus. [thynia. I 

92-74. Nicomedes III. (Philopator) reigns in Bi-I 

90-88. Revolt of Italian allies against Rome. 

88. Civil war begms between Marius and L. Cor- 
nelius Sulla. Mitlu-idates invades Asia Muior, 
and in one day massacres great numbers of Roman 
citizens (80,000-150.000). (Cuma. I 

87. Massacre of Sulla's partisans by Marius and I 

86. Marius dies at Rome in his 7th consulsliip. 
Athens is stormed by Sulla. 

83. Romans restore Nicomedes to BithjTiian tlu"one. 

82. Sulla, having concluded theMitliridatic War, 
becomes dictator of Rome; proscription of the 
leaders of the party of Marius. Sulla reforms the 
constitution in the interest of the optimate (sena- 
torial) party. 

81. Ptolemy XIII. (Attletes) gains Egyptian throne. 

79. Sulla abdicates; dies the following year. 

77-71. Campaigns of Pompey against Scrtorius in 
Spain. 

74. Nicomedes of BithjTiia bequeaths iiis kingdom 
to Rome. Third Mitlu-idatic War begins. 

73. Spartacus, the gladiator, leads a revolt of 
slaves against Rome. 

71. Crassus crushes revolt of slaves. 

70. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Consti- 
tution of Sulla overthrown. 

69-64. Antiochus XIII. (Asiaticns) reigns in Syria. 

69. Lucullus defeats Tigrancs of Armenia. 

67. Gabinian Law, by wliich Pompey is given 
command against pirates, passed. 

66. Manilian Law; Pompey against Mithridates. 

64. Pompey conquers Syria, and dethiones Anti- 
ochus. 

63-40. Hyrcanus II. is liigh priest and ethnarch of 
the Jews. 

63. Pompey takes Jerusalem. 

The Mitliridatic War is ended; SjTia becomes a 

Roman province. 

Cicero puts down the conspiracy of Catiline. 

61. Caius Julius Caesar (qnrestor in 69, sedile in 
65. PontifexMaximus since 64. prsetor in 62) gains 
militarj' experience as proprsetor of Farther Spain. 

60. Ca?sar, Pompey, and Crassus, form the First 
Triumvirate. 

59. Consulship of Caesar. Ptolemy XIII. 
(Auletes) recognized as king of Egypt. 

58-51. Csesar conquers Gaul. 

56. Conference at Luca; rt-newal of the triumvirate. 

55. Ca?sar invades Britain. 

54. Ca'sar invades Britain for the second time. 

53. Crassus is defeated by the Parthians at Car- 
rae and killed. 

52. Pompey, sole consul, opens attack on Caesar. 

51. Death of Ptolemy Auletes; he Is succeeded 
by his daughter Cleopatra (bom b. c. 69) and her 
brother Ptolemy XIV., yoimger than herself. 

49. Ca?sar crosses the Rubicon, and war breaks 
out between him and the senatorial party in Rome, 
led by Pompey. 

48. Pompey conquered at Pharsalia.andmurdered 
on the coast of Egj^pt by the order of Ptolemy. 

47. Caesar conquers Ptolemy. Cleopatra 
reigns in Egypt with her younger brother, Ptol- 
emy XV. Library at Alexandria burned. 
Caesar defeats Phamaces at Zela. and sends to 
the senate the famous message: " Veni, vWl, 
vici." 

46. The followers of Pompey are defeated at Thap- 
sus. and Marcus Porcius Cato commits suicide 
at Utica. 
Julian calendar introduced (s6e calendar, in 

the Dictionary) . 

45. Battle of Munda; Csesar gains victory over the 
sons of Pompey. 

44. Ceesar founds Roman colonies at Corinth and 
Carthage. Caesar, autocrat tlu-ough a Ufe tenure 
of dictatorial, consular, censorial, and tribunicial 
power, is assassinated in the senate house at 
Rome, March 15. 



10 



WORLD HISTORY. 



43 b. C — 476 A. I». 



N 



Q 



U 



W 



X 



AGE OF ROMAN EMPIRE. 

43- Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus form the 
Second Triumvirate. Cicero delivers the 
Philippics against Antony. Proscription of lead- 
ers of the senate; Cicero is slain. 

42. Brutus and Cassius, leaders of the Republi- 
can party, are vanquished at Philippi by Octa- 
vianus and Antony. 

41. Cleopatra is summoned before Antony to an- 
swer for the murder of her brother; he becomes in- 
fatuated with her and follows her to Egypt. 

40. Herod the Great is proclaimed king of Judea. 

36. Octavianus crushes Sextus Pompeius and 
forces Lepidus to withdraw from the trium\1rate. 

31. Octavianus defeats Antony and Cleopatra in 
the battle of Actium, September 2. 

30. Octavianus occupies Egypt; Antony and 
Cleopatra commit suicide. 

27. Octavianus receives the title of Augusiiis from 
the senate; beginning of the principate. 

27-14 A. D. Augustan age of Latin literature 
(Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, Livy; 
Maecenas the patron of hteratiu-e). 

27-19. Augustus rearranges the provinces. 

23. Augustus abandons consulship and governs 
through tribunicial power. 

20. Peace arranged with Parthian Empire. 

19-16. Great domestic reforms of Augustus. 

15. Roman frontier advanced to include Rhietia 
and Noriciun. 

13-6 A. D. Germany conquered; Roman fron- 
tier advance<l from Rliine to Elbe. 

12. Death of Agrippa (bom 63.) 

11-9. Konian frontier advanced to Danube; 
Pannonia and Moesia organized. [Rhodes. I 

6 B. C.-2 A. D. Tiberius in retirement at| 

BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 

4 B. C. Jesus the Christ is bom. See Chris- 
tian Era, in the Dictionary. 

4 A. D. Death of Caius Ca?sar. grandson of Au- 
gustus; Tiberius adopted by Augustus and made 
his colleague. 

6-41. Judea imder Roman procurators. 

9. Arminius (Hermann), the great leader of the 
Teutonic nations, defeats Varus, and destroys 
tliree legions; Germany abandoned by Rome. 

14. Death of the emperor Augustus; he is suc- 
ceeded by his stepson, Tiberius. 

14-37. Principate of Tiberius. 

26-36. Pontius Pilate procurator of Judea. 

27. John the Baptist begins his mission. 

Tiberius withdraws from Rome to the island of 
Caprece (now Capri). [Tiberius.] 

27-31. Sejauus master of Rome in the absence of I 

£8. The Christ begins his teaching in Galilee. 

80 (or 31). He is crucified by order of the Roman 
prociu-ator. 

35. Conversion of Saul of Tarsus. 

37. Caius Caesar (Caligula) succeeds Tiberius. 

41. Claudius made emperor by Pr<>?torian Guard. 

41-44. Herod Agrippa king of Judea. 

43. Aulus Plautius occupies parts of Britain. 

44-66. Judea under Roman procurators. 

46-120. Plutarch lives. 

47. Tlie Romans subdue South Britain. 

48. Claudius orders the taking of a census of the 
whole Roman Empire. 

49. He banishes the Jews from Rome; he con- 
structs a camp on the site of London. 

60. Ostorius overcomes Caractacus, British king. 

61. Caractacus is carried in chains to Rome. 
64-68. Nero emperor. 

61. Boadicea, ciuoen of the Iceni, defeats the Ro- 
mans, but is Anally herself defeated. 
St. Paul is brought a prisoner to Rome. 

64. Rome burned; Nero begins a persecution of 
the Christians. 

65. Seneca, the philosopher, and Lucan, the 
poet, are put to death. [Romans.! 

66. Nero in Greece; Jews in Palestmo rebel against I 

67. St. Paul perishes by martyrdom. 

68. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius become emperors in 
succession. 

60. Mutiny of the frontier armies: Vespasian pro- 
claimed emperor by the legions in S>Tia. 

70. Titus partially destroys Jerusalem. 

75. A''espasian begins building of Colosseum. 

79. Titus succeeds Vespasian. 

Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by 
an eruption of Vesuvius. Agricola defeats the 
Caledonians imder Galgacus and completes the 
conquest of Britain for the Romans. 
Death of the elder Pliny. 

81. Domitian becomes emperor, succeeding his 
elder brother, Titus. [philosophers. I 

93. Domitian persecutes the Jews, Cluistians. and I 

96. Domitian is assassinated, and is succeeded by 
Nerva, flrst of the " five good emperors." 

98. Trajan becomes emperor. 

103. Pliny the Yoimger is proconsul in Bithynia. 



106. Trajan persecutes the Christians; he creates 
the province of Dacia. 

110 (107?). Martyrdom at Rome of Ignatius, 
bishop of Antioch. 

113. Trajan's column is reared in Rome. 

115. Trajan annexes Partiiia; Roman Empire 
reaches its greatest extent; silver age of Ro- 
man literature (Tacitus, Pliny, Quintilian, Ju- 
venal) falls chiefly witliin Trajan's reign. (See 
Latin, n., 1, in the Dictionary). 

117-138. Hadrian emperor in Rome. 

121. Hadrian builds the wall from the Solway to 
the Tyne. 

122. Hadrian visits Egypt and Greece. 
132. Bar-cocheba captures Jerusalem. 

135. Romans subdue a revolt In Judea; half a 

million Jews perish. 
138-161. Antoninus Pius emperor in Rome. 
139. Wall built by the Romans between the Forth 

and the Clyde. 
155. Martyrdom of Polycarp, a pupil of the 

apostle John. 
161-180, Marcus Aurelius emperor in Rome. 
162, The Parlhians invade Syria. 
166. Persecution of the Christians throughout 

the Roman Empire. 
180-192. Commodus emperor in Rome. 
193. Pertinax emperor. Julian buys the empire 

from the Pnetorian G uard . 
193-211. Mutmy of the frontier armies. Septim- 

ius Severus emperor. 

196. Byzantium taken by the emperor Severus; 
he protects the Jews. 

197. He defeats Albinus, governor of Britain, in a 
great battle at Lyons. 

200. Age of Papinian. the great Roman jurist. 

204. South Britain is divided into two provinces. 

208. Severus establishes his court at Eboracum 
(York), and dies there in 211. 

212. Edict of Caracalla (emperor 211-2X7) gives Ro- 
man citizenship to all freemen in the empire. 

215. Caracalla causes massacres in Alexandria. 

222. Ulpian, the great jurist, becomes pratorian 
prefect; Alexander Severus. emperor (222-235). 

227. Ardshir (Artaxerxes), having come to the Per- 
sian throne in 211 or 212, overthrows the Parthian 
Empire and foimds the Persian monarchy of the 
Sassanidie (Sassanian Empire). 

235284. Disintegration of the Roman Em- 
pire. Repeated mutinies of the frontier armies, 
followed by invasions of the barbarianr. 

240-271. Sapor I. reigns over Persians. Rise of 
Manichseism. 

250. The Goths invade the Roman Empire. 
A persecution of the Christians begun by Decius. 

252. Roman Empire stricken with a pestilence. 
252-260. Sapor I. wages war against the Romans: 

he occupies Armenia, invades SjTia, and cai^tures 
the emperor Valerian. 

253. Franks invade Gaul, Spain, and Africa. 
255. The Goths overrun Thrace. 

267. Athens taken by the Goths. 
369. Claudius II. (Gothicus) triumphs over Goths. 
Zenobia, queen of PalmjTa. conquers Egypt. 

270. Aurelian becomes emperor; abandons Da- 
cia to the Goths. 

271. Aurelian reestablishes Roman sway in Eg>-pt. 
273. Zenobia is brought as prisoner to Rome, after 

the capture of Palmj-ra by AureHan. 

Tctricus is crushed in Gaul and unity is restored 

to the Roman Empire. 

277. Emperor Probus drives Germans out of Gaul. 

283. Cams invades Persia and conquers Seleucia 
and Ctesiphon. 

284-305. Diocletian emperor in Rome. Diocle- 
tian makes Maximian his colleague. 

286. Carausius in Britain makes himself Roman 
emperor. 

293. Constantius and Galerius associated as Cae- 
sars with the emperors Diocletian and Maximian. 

294. Allectus slays Carausius and seizes the Brit- 
ish dominion. 

296. Constantius recovers Britain. 

298. Galerius defeats Narses. king of Persia, and 
restores Tiridates to the Annenian throne. Per- 
sia makes peace with Diocletian. 

303. Diocletian begins the so-called " tenth " perse- 
cution by an edict against the Cliristians. 

305. Abdication of Diocletian. 

306. Constantius dies at York, July 25; Constan- 
tine succeeds him. 

308. Six emperors exist simultaneously In the 
Roman Empire. (sian crown. I 

310. Sapor (Shapurj II., a babe, receives the Per-| 

311. Galerius, in the name of Constantine, issues 
an edict of toleration of the Christians. 

312. Constantine converted to Christianity. 
Battle of the- Mihian Bridge. 

313. Edict of Milan. 

3'24. Constantine defeats Licinius at Clirysopolis 

and rules alone. 
325. Constantine convokes first general council 



of the Christian Church at Mcsea; it formulates 
the Nlcene Creed; Arlan controversy. 

326. Eoundatlon of Constanttnopfe. 

332. Tenant farmers (co/o nObomid to the soil. (See 
cOLONus in the Dictionary.) 

334. Sarmatians allowed to settle in Thrace. 

337. Constantine dies. May 22. Empire di- 
vided again into four parts. 

Sapor begins a war against the Romans, which is 
waged for twenty-five years. 

339. Awful persecution of Christians in Persia. 

348. Ulfllas bishop to the Goths. 

353-361. Constantius rules reunited empire. 

360. Britain invaded by the Scots and the PIcts. 

361. Julian proclaimed emperor of the West by 
the Roman army in Gaul. He abjures Chris- 
tianity and reopens the pagan temples. 

363. Julian is slain in battle in Persia, near the 
Tigris. Jmie 26. 

Jovian, making peace with Sapor, yields up the 
Persian provinces; he restores Christianity. 

364. Division of the empire; Valentinian takes 
the western di\ision. Valens the eastern. 

365. Sapor annexes Armenia to Persia; is soon 
again at war with the Romans. 

371. Cessation of war between Persicuis and Ro- 
mans. 

374. St. Ambrose elected Bishop of Milan; he 
champions the cause of the CathoUcs against the 
Arians and pagans; he excommunicates the em- 
peror Theodosius for his cruelty in the massacre 
of Thessalonica (390). 

378. Valens defeated and slain by the Visigoths 
in the battle of Adrianople. 

379-395. Theodosius the Great is emperor. 
Prohibits paganism. 

381. Second ecumenical council, at Constan- 
tmople; the Apollinarian controversy. 

382. HieronjTnus, known as St. Jerome, one of 
the Fathers of the Latin Chtu-ch. removes from An- 
tioch to Rome: here he begins and completes the 
Latin version of the Bible known as the Vulgate. 

387. St. Augustine of Hippo is baptized by St. 
Ambrose. 

389. "W'orsliip of Serapis in Egypt abohshed and his 
temple destroyed. 

390. Armenia divided by treaty between Persia 
and Rome. 

394. Olympian games abolished. 

395. Triumph and death of Theodosius. 
Roman Empire finally divided into Eastern 
and Western. 

St. Augustine is made Bishop of Hippo. He be- 
comes the champion of the orthodox faith against 
the Donatists and the Pelagians. 
395-408. Stilicho. the power behind the throne of 
the Western Emperor Honorius. Arcadius reigns 
in the East. 

396. Alaric invades Greece. 

402. Honorius, the "Western emperor, fixes his resi- 
dence at Ravenna. 

404. St. Chrysostom of Antioch is exiled to Cap- 
padocia. where he composes his principal works. 

408-450. Theodosius II. reigns in the East. 

409. The Vandals Invade Spain. 

416. Honorius renounces the sovereignty of Britain. 
Alaric and the Goths sack Rome, August 24. 

420. Bahram (Varanes) V., a favorite hero of Per- 
sian tradition, becomes kmg of Persia. 

422. Romans (Eastern Empire) and Persians make 
peace; religious freedom granted the Christians 
in Persia and 2Soroastrians in the Roman Empire. 

425-455. Valentinian III. emperor m the "West; 
Aetius the power behind the throne. 

425. Tniversity of Constantinople organized. 
Vortigem reigns in Britain. 

426. St. Augustine of Hippo publishes the De 
Civitate Dei, "Concerning the City of God." 

429. Armenia is united to Persia. 
TI]e Vandals imder Gcnseric invade Africa. 

431. Third ecumenical council at Ephesus; Nesto- 
rian controversy. 

439. Carthage captured by Vandals. 

440-461. Leo I., smiiamed the Great, is pope. 

441. Attlla invades Thrace. 

449. Hengist and liorsa, Saxon invaders, land in 
England. 

450-.'>00. Saxons and Jutesmakeconquestsand set- 
tlements in England; era of so-called heptarchy. 

451. Attlla Invades Gaul and besieges Orleans; 
battle of Chalons. 

fourth ecu menical council, at Chalcedon : 
Eutychian controversy. 

455. Genseric and the Vandals capture Rome, 
July 15. 

476. Barbarian mercenaries demand a third of 
the land of Italy, and on refusal revolt, overthrow 
the remnant of Roman imperial power, de- 
throning Romulus Augustulus and proclaiming 
the Rerulian Odoacer, their learler, king. This 
ends the Western Roman Empire and closes 
what is conventionally called Ancient History. 



11. MEDIEVAL PERIOD: 477 A. D. TO 1492. 



Historical Outline. 

The word " mwlifval " is used of the long period 
beginning at the extinction of the Roman Empire in 
Western Europe. Its end has l^een variously con- 
ceived, sometimes as Ijeiug coincident with the fall 
of Constantinople, in 1453. sometimes witli the spread 
of the Renaissance over Western F-urejn- ahoyt M(M); 
more often, with the chscovery of tfie Xew World, in 
1492, or the outbreak of the Protestant Revolution, 
in 1517. The transitions from ancient to medieval 
and from medieval to modern times were gradual 
and, of com-se, not iHTceive<l by contemix)raries. 

These great divisions of history are made 
mainly for convenience of treatment. But they are 
based on something more than this, for the cliief 
ideas and forces that imderlie the development are, 
in the Middle Ages, strikmgly different from those 
of either ancient or modem history. OiU" choice of 
the particular points of division, however, wUl de- 
pend upon which of these ideas and forces we con- 
sider fimdamental In this work the expression 
" Medieval History " is applied to all the series of 
European events and transformations Ix^tween the 
establishment of the first barbarian kingdom in 
Italy, in 477 a. d. and the discovery of America, in 
1492. the period formmg an epoch of great changes 
In the conditions and grouping of European na- 
tions. 

Whatever may be the historical phraseology, the 
old forces of civilization in Europe certainly .seemed 
markedly to decline with the decadence and extmc- 
tion of tlie western division of the Roman Empire, 
and Em-ope wtis transforme<l into a condition .so im- 
iike that which prevailed during the iong Roman 
ascendancy as to mark a new era in iiuman liis- 
tory. It was an era in wlilch civil society was 
broken up and new races and new mstitutions were 
forcibly implanted. Only in the towns and cities of 
the south of Europe, and in a few other favored lo- 
calities were the remams of the old acti\ities of the 
Romans any longer discoverable. 

Two groups of causes of this great transmutation 
of Europe may he noted The first relates to the in- 
ternal decay of tlie Boman race and of the institu- 
tions wliich it had created. The second relates to 
the upheaval and progressive westward and southern 
movement of tlie barbarian nations across the 
line of the Danul>e and the Rhine. 

The causes of this movement of the Teutonic 
nations arc obscure and difflctilt to separate from 
legend. The fact of the barbarian invasions is sufll- 
ciently tangible, but not the impelling forces. The 
Germanic nations, seated in the north and far east, 
after having been held at bay for several centuries, 
at last broke over the frontiers of Rome and. pouring 
through the passes of the Alps, overran Italj'. center 
of the Empire, defeated the arn^es of the degener- 
ates, took the capital, uprooted the unreal govern- 
ment of Romulus Augustulus, and instituted a bar- 
barian kingdom in its stead. This was the l<iDg- 
dom of the Heruiians; and with this event the 
chronological outline of Medieval History may 
properly begin. 

While the barbarian invasions were sweeping over 
the Roman Empire, the Eastern Emp're main- 
tained itself and was powerful and flourished long 
after the Western Empire was extmgtiished. Jus- 
tinian performed one of the greatest of services to 
Rome by the codification of the Boman law, which 
later served as the foundation for the civii law 
of nearly all the civilized nations. With the faU of 
the Western Empire, the political supremacy of 
Italy vanished and its influence on subsequent liis- 
tory was chiefly due to the power of the papacy, 
seated at Rome, and to the vigor of the Renaissance. 

A new and unexpected force arose on the eastern 
borders of European commerce and influence, when, 
in 570. was bom IVIohanimed, the Arabian prophet, 
founder o£.the religion which to-day rivals Cliristian- 
ity m the mmibers of its adherents. This religion, 
originating in Arabia, spread through Persia, Pales- 
tine, and SjTia into Africa and Spam. Its tri- 
umphal progress was checked by the Franks tmder 
Charles Martei in 732. the Saracens were driven 
beyond the Pyrenees, and then slowly yielded till, in 
1492. the last of their kingdoms. Grenada, went out 
of existence. In 1300 the Ottoman Turljs, from 
the interior of northern Asia Minor, who were also 
followers of the Prophet, and who had long assailed 
the Eastern Empire, l.X'gan their conquests, wliich 
culminated in the capture of Constantinople, in 
14.53. and the destruction of the empire. The Tm-ks 
held Asia Minor, Greece, Northern .\frica, and the 
Balkan and Danube region Till the end of the 17tii 
centiuy they tlireatened Christian civilization in 
Eastern Eiu-ope. The Ottoman Empire mam- 
tained itself over Christian subject peoples till the 
close of the World War in 1918. 



The barbarian kingdoms wliich were founded in 
Italy had little subsequent effect on Europe. The 
central power was shifted to Gaul, where the 
Franks, tmder Clovis, accepted Cliristiamty and 
laid the foundations for the modem state of France. 
It was a prince of the Fraiikish royal house founded 
by Clovis, Charles Martei, who checked the Mo- 
hammedan mvasions, and tmder Charlemagne the 
Western Empire was revived. After Charlemagne's 
death (814) liis empire soon fell to pieces, but was re- 
vived imder Otto the Great as the "Holy Roman 
Empire of the German Nation," wliich claimmg, 
but never exercismg, world dommion. was the strong- 
est temporal force m Em-ope diu-ing the Middle Ages. 
A second force of even wider importance was the 
papacy. Through the agency of the missionaries, 
priests, and monks of the church, the barbarians 
were everywhere Christianized and brought to adopt 
the esseaitials of Westei-n civihzation. What Uttle 
1 remained of the classical learning of antiquity was 
kept alive m the monasteries of the church. The in- 
fluence of the pope, however, was not confined to 
spiritual affairs: he claimed the right to excom- 
mimicate and depose sovereigns who disobeyed the 
commands of the church: and eventually brought 
together a temporal dominion, enveloping Rome, as 
a defense of his person and rights m rude times. 

The political and social system of Western Europe 
throughout the greater part of the period was based 
upon the feudal system, by wliich the fimctions of 
the state were transferred from the central authority 
and exercised by individuals. Socia]I.v, the individ- 
ual and the land were closely associated and, accord- 
ing to the strict feudal theory-, there was no land 
without its landlord and no man without his over- 
lord. Allegiance was owed, not to the state, but to 
the overlord, who in turn might be the vassal of a 
greater noble. 

In Asia the Sui dy-nasty flourished in Cliina, but 
was overtlirow-n m the llth century- by the Tatars; 
and the great Mongol emperor, Kublai Khan, es- 
tablished an empire w-hich included all of Asia, save 
HindiLstan and Arabia, and stretched mto Europe. 
Buddhism was mtroduced into Japan, winch meant 
the introduction of Chinese civilization into that 
kingdom, and m the 7th century the imperial dy- 
nasty of the mikado was estabhshed. 

In the medieval period two great spiritual and in- 
tellectual movements took hold on Europe, — the 
Crusades and the Renaissance. In the spiritual 
sphere, begimimg m the llth century, came an out- 
biunst of religious enthusiasm wliich culminated m 
the Crusades. This passionate revival resulted m 
seven military expedi tions to recover Jerusalem and 
the Holy Land from the possession of the Infidels, 
and lasted through the 12th and 13th centuries. 
The Crusades were among the greatest events in 
medieval liistory: they mcreased the power and au- 
thority of the papacy and the chiu-ch, and also of the 
prmces, stimulated intellectual growth, widened 
men's horizons, developed commerce, hastened the 
rise of towns, and established a tradition of the right 
and ability of Europe to exercise power m Asia. 

About the year 1300, bef:an the revival of learning 
known as the Renaissance, which first showed itself 
m Italy with the appearance of Dante, but quickly ' 
spread tlu-oughout Western Europe. It began with 
an almost passionate study of classical learning and 
antiquities: it widened into a magnificent literature 
in the modem tongues, wliich were by this time es- 
tablished. Greek philosophers and mathematicians 
had long before reached Europe through the Arabic 
versions. After the capture of Constantinople by 
the Turks m 1453. these WTitings stimulated the 
thought of European philosophers and literary men, 
and ultimately led to the questiomng of the religious 
authority of the church. 

From being purely a literary revival, the Renais- 
sance becan:e an artistic movement and the sculp- 
tors and painters of that period have never smce 
been equaled. As a result of this movement, men 
sought to widen their knowledge of the world and 
in the Age of Discoveries, begmning with the 
15th century, tmder the lead of Prince Henry the 
Navigator, explored the coast of Africa, discov- 
ered the Cape of Good Hope, and finally reached 
America. 

In England, the Saxon kingdom fell before the 
invasion of the Normans in the llth century, and a 
strong monarchy was established by William the 
Conqueror, which was developed and protected 
by his successor, Henry II., at the expense of the 
great feudal lords. During the reign of John, the 
germ of popular government was estabhshed in the 
Great Charter, while just at the end of the pe- 
riod the Tudor reignmg house was established by 
Henry VII., which made England a strong national 
state. 

In Spain the period closes with the accession 



of Ferdinand and Isabella and the miion of \ari- 
ous little kingdoms mto a powerful national despot- 
ism. 

In France feudahsm retained its hold, and the 
development of a supreme national monarchy was 
postponed : while in Italy the Italian cities and duch- 
ies prevented the growth of a national state, but by 
their rivalries stmiulated the mtellectual revival. 
Germany and Austria, though jKissessmg an m- 
choate nationahty, developed no strong govemment.^ 
but consisted of a mullitude of jiu-isdictions, owing 
sl^adowy allegiance to the Emperor. 

Thus nu-dieval liistorj- mcludes the long struggle 
of the Christian Church to mamtain itself m a 
contest w-ith the new bai-barian conditions, to resist 
the aggressive assaidts of Islam, and finally to read- 
just itself to the changing forces of the tmie. eco- 
nomic, political, and InteUectual. It leads up to the 
story of the Crusades and of the mstitutions of chiv- 
ah-y which came afterwards. It describes the strug- 
gle of the papacy and its graduaUy developed consti- 
tution, first with the Empu-e. then with the national 
states whose pow-ers and orgamzations were matiu-- 
ing as a result of the Empire's weakness. 

It includes the revelation of a new world hith- 
erto unknown except vaguely in the storj- of Atlan- 
tis, the sagas of Icelandic bards, and the tradition re- 
peated liy Mandeville. It is the background of the 
growth of representative institutions, the economic 
and political advance of the towns, and in the west^ 
emniost parts of Europe the mcreased participatiout 
in govemment of the middle class. It brings Europe 
up to the revival of art and leammg, the reformation 
of rehglon, the di\ision of the Continent into nations 
under conditions political and ecclesiastical which 
prepared the groimd for the division of the church 
and nations into CathoUc and Protestant. 



Chronology. 

THE BARBAEIAN ASCENDANCY IN EDKOPE. 

477 A. D. The Herulian king, Odoacer, confirms 
his authority m Italy. From Us capital of Ra- 
venna he maintains his authority m Italy for four- 
teen years and is recognized as " Patrician " by 
the Emperor Zeno. 

4SG. Clovis, or Chlodwig, king of the Franks, In- 
vades Gaul, defeats the Roman Govemor Sya- 
grius at Soissons, and by this victory destroys 
the Roman ascendancy north of the Alps. 

493. Theodoric the Great, kmg of the East Goths, 
lays siege to Ravenna and compels Odoacer to 
surrender it. Theodoric establishes the Ostro- 
gothic kingdom in Italy, and Odoacer is put to 
death. 

496. Clovis converted to Christianity and baptized. 

507. Clovis engages in a war with the Visigoths, 
whom he signaUy defeats in a battle at Poitiers, 
and obtams the mastery' of Aquitania. 

511. He dies and his territory is divided among his 
sons, Theodoric, Cliildcbert,C'lodomir,andClotaire. 

625. Bocthlus, the philosopher, author of the 
" Consolation of Philosophy," after filling the 
highest offices under Theodoric the Great, is 
falsely accused of treason by his enemies: he is 
Impri.soned and execi;ted by the order of Theod- 
oric, who dies m the following year. 

637-565. Justinian reigns over the Eastern Ro- 
man, or Byzantine, En:pire. 

529-534. Justmian promulgates the Code, Insti- 
tutes, and Digest — law books w liich have pro- 
foimdly infiuenced the whole subsequent European 
legal development. 

Chosroes I., greatest of the Sas.sanid dj-nasty, 
ascends the Persian throne: he divides the em- 
pire into four districts, encoiu-ages learning, and 
introduces many r(-forn?s. 

534-5. Justmian's general, Belisarius, leads an 
army against the Vandals in Afr-ica and the Ostro- 
goths in Italy. He regains Sicily. 

536. Behsarius continues successful warfare against 
the Ostrogoths and enters Rome in triumph. 

637. Justinian consecrates the cathedral of Sau.t 
Sophia, which still stands, m Constantinople. 

538. Vitiges, kmg of the Ostrogoths, besieges Beli- 
sarius in Rome, but is repulsed. 

539. Belisarius attacks Vitiges in Ravenna and 
takes the city. 

641. He is recalled from Italy and carries on a war 
m SjTia against the Persian invasion of Chosroes 
I., whom he successfully withstands. 

562. Narses, who sucV;eeds Belisarius in the com- 
mand of the Itahan army, vanquishes and slays 
Totila (Bnduila), kmg of the Ostrogoths. In tlie 
following year the Ostrogothic kingdom is 
finally destroyed by Narses, and Italy is restored 
to the dominion of the Emperor Justmian : Narses 
Is appointed the first exarch (i.e., govemor) of 
Italy, with Ravenna as his capital. 

(11) 



12 



WORLD HISTORY. 



554 A. D. — 1066 A. D, 



554. The Alemanni and Franks invade Italy ; they 
are routed by Narses. 

538. Clotaire I. unites Franks into a liingdom. 

661. On Clotaire's death the nation is again di- 
vided into petty states. 

566. Tlie kingdom of the Gepida?, in Pannonia, is 
destroyed by the Lombards and Avars tinder Al- 
boin. wlio marries Rosamimda, daughter of the 
king of the Gepida;. 

5T0 or .571. Muhaiiimed is born. 

573. AUxiin, after many conflicts, succeeds in form- 
ing a kingdom of the Lombards in Itaiy. though 
it relapses into independent ducfiies after his 
death, in 574. (prestige of the papacy. I 

590-604. Gregoo' the Great adds to the power and I 

£97. St. Augustine, Apostle of the English, be- 
gins his missionary works among the Anglo-Sax- 
ons under the direction of Pope Gregory the Great, 
and Kent is con\erted. 

611. Chosroes II., of Persia, makes successful 
wars against the Byzajitine Empire, in which he 
conquers Egypt. Syria, and Asia JNIinor. 

613. The Fraiiks are again tmitcd into one king- 
dom for a short time tmder the sway of Clotaire II. 

623. Herachus, the Byzantine emperor. Ijegins a 
victorious campaign against the Persians. 

THE MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDANCY. 

62Z. Mohammed flees from Mecca to Bledina, 
this •' Hegira " marldug the begiiming of the 
cycle Of Mohammedan chronology. 

63J. Heraclius wins a decisive victor}- over Chos- 
roes II. at Nineveli. 

629. Mohammed forces INIecca to acloiowledge 
his sway; he makes an tuvasion of Palestine. 

63'J. The Prophet dies and Abu-Bekr, Ids father-in- 
law, succeeds to the primacy of Islam as first of 
the caliphs; he imdcrtakes the conquest of Syria. 

634. Omar, another father-in-law of Mohammed, 
becomes caliph on the death of Abii-Bekr. 

635. In the battle of Cadesia Omar overwhelm- 
ingly defeats the Persians. 

636. The calipii gains a series of victories ending 
with the conquest of Palestine and Syria. 

641. Omar wrests Egypt from the possession of the 
Byzantine Empire. The Saracens imder Omar 
win the battle of Nehavend ; the Persian monarchy 
passes under the sway of Islam. 

644. Omar is murdered; Otbman, Moham- 
med's son-in-Iuw, succeeds liim. 

658. Othniau is assassinated, and All, another 
of the sons-in-law of the Prophet, becomes caliph. 

6G1. The dj-nasty of the Oramiads is foimtled by 
Moawiyali, a governor of SjTia, son of Abu Soflan, 
•who has refused allegiance to Ali : he transfers the 
capital from Kufa to Damascus, and makes the 
succession to the caliphate hereditary. 

CSS. Yesid, son of the caliph, i^egins the first siege 
of Constantinople by the Arabs. It continues 
for seven years. 

711. Tarik, the general of Islam, after the con- 
quest of North Africa, leads the Saracens into 
Spain, where they vanciiush tlie Visigoths tmder 
Koderick at the battle of Jerez de la Frontera : after 
three years the larger part of Spain is dominated 
by the invaders. 

717. Second siege of Constantinople by the Arabs, 
lasts thirteen months. Its failure seciu'es the Ciiris- 
tian occupation of Constantinople for the time. 

719. The Saracens capture Narboime. 

738. Luitprand. Lombard Idng, capttu'es Ravenna. 

733. Charles Martel, at the head of the Franks, 
overthrows the Saracens in battle of Poitiers 
and drives them back beyond the PjTenees. 

750. Abbassides, of the lixie of Abbas, oneof Mo- 
hammed's uncles, overtiirow the Ommiad dynasty. 

731. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, 
dethrones Childeric III. of the Mero^lngian line. 
establishes a new dynasty (afterwards known as 
the Carolingian, or Carlovingian), and reigns 
over the Franks. 

753. The exarchate of Ravenna is destroyed by the 
Lombards, imder tlie leadership of Aistulf. 

755. Aistulf is conquered by Pepin the Sliort, who 
bestows Ravenna, the Pentapolis, and otlier ]x>s- 
sessions taken from the Lombards upon Pope 
Stephen II., thus laying the foundation of the 
Papal States. 

756. Abderrahman, the only Ommiad prince to es- 
cape death at the hands of the Abl)assides, foimds 
in Spain the Ommiad caliphate of Cordoba. 

763. The caliph Al-Mansur transfers the capital of 
the Abbasside cahphate to Bagdad, of which he is 
the founder. 

768. On the death of Pepin his two sons. Carlo- 
man and Charles (Charlemagne), succeed to 
the rule of the Prankish Empire. 

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 
771. Karl, or Charles, the Great (Charlemagne), 

on the death of Iiis brother Carloman, becomes 

sole ruler of the Franks. 
773. Desiderius having led the Lombards to seize 

the pope's patrimony, Charlemagne destroys the 

liingdom of the Lombards and is crowned king of 

f he Lombards, 773. 



778. In response to the Arabian governor's request 
for aid against Abderrahman, Charlemagne in- 
vades Spain and aimexes the coimtry between the 
Ebro and the Pyrenees tmder the name of the 
" Spanish March." 

786. Uarun-ai-Rashld (the Just) becomes caliph 
of the Arabian Empire, and introduces an era of 
remarkal3le enlightenment and prosperity. 

787. Northmen begin invasions of England. 

788. Charlemagne makes Bavaria a part of liis 
dominions. 

796. Charlemagne, after a campaign of five years, 
reduces the Avars to subjection and incorporates 
their territory with the Frankish kingdom tmder 
the name of the " Avaric March." 

800. Dec. 35. Pope Leo 111., having obtained the 
aid of Charlemagne to overcome an insurrection 
of the Romans, crowns his benefactor as succes- 
sor of the Ca?sars. 

804. After a war of thirty-two years' din*ation 
C'harlemagne subjugates the Saxons; they are 
compelled to embrace Christianity. 

814. On the death of Charlemagne, Louis the 
Debonair succeeds to the throne of the so- 
called Roman Empire. 

837. States of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy ac- 
knowledge suzerainty of Egbert, king of Wessex. 
Saracens begin a campaign against Byzantines for 
possession of Siciiy. 

840. Lotus dies, and the three sons, Lothaire, Louis 
the German, and Charles the Bald, claim the suc- 
cession; they war for possession of the kingdom. 

841. In a battle of the brothers fought at Fonte- 
nailles, Louis and Charles defeat Lothaire. 

843. The tiu'ee rivals make a treaty at Verdun by 
wliich the empire is divided into three parts; 
Lothaire receives Italy and the Central Franldsh 
territories; Louis the German accepts Germany, 
the " Eastern Frankish lands "; and Charles the 
Bald takes France, or the " Western Frankish 
lands." The Treaty of Verdun marks the be- 
ginning of national history for the tliree states. 
Italy, Germany, and France; also, the beginning 
of tlie middle land of Lorraine. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF EUROPEAN STATES. 

845. The Northmen continue to invade France; 
they plimder Paris. 

846. The Saracens make a campaign in Italy and 
lay siege to Rome. 1941). | 

860. Russian attack on Constantinople (another in 1 
803. Rurik, chief of the Varangians, establishes 
liis power at Novgorod and thus lays the founda- 
tion of the Russian Empire. 

866. Alfonso the Great becomes kmg of Astm-ias. 
the Christian monarchy in Spain, afterward 
called Leon. 

867. The contests between the Latin and the Greek 
Cluistians cidminate in the excommimication of 
the pope by Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
head of the Greek Chiu-ch. 

870. Svatopluk II., a W^est Slavic chieftain, leads 
a successful rebeUion against the Emperor of Ger- 
many, Louis the German, great-grandson of 
Charlemagne: Svatopluk foimds the kmgdom of 
Great Moravia. 

871. Alfred the Great becomes king of England 
and furthers development of law and learning. 

873. Oxford (Univei'sity College) foimded, accord- 
ing to tradition. 

874. Iceland is colonized by the Northmen. 
Nearer to the Western continent than the Eastern. 

878. Alfred defeats the Danes at Edington and 
compels Gutlu'um, the Danish king, to emtjrace 
Christianity and be baptized. 
SicUy is subjugated by the Saracens. 

887. Charies the Fat, great-grandson of Charle- 
magne, reunites the empire of Charlemagne, 
with the exception of cisjurane Burgimdy, which 
becomes an independent kingdom imder Boso; is 
deposed by the Franks of the East and the West. 

891. The Northmen are beaten at Louvain by Ar- 
nulf , who has been elected king by the East Franks 
in place of Charles the Fat. 

893. The Magyars under Prince Arpdd cross the 
Carpatliians. defeat the Moravians imder Svato- 
pluk, and settle in the valley of the Tisza (Theiss) 
River. 

899 900. Alfred the Great dies, and Ins son. 
EdwaVd the Elder, ascends the throne of England. 

906. Magyars conquer the kingdom of Great Mo- 
ravia, wliich later (1029) becomes a part of Bo- 
hemia. 

911. The Caroiinglan dynasty in Germany be- 
comes extinct with the death of Louis the Cluld, 
last heir in right descent from C'harlemagne, and 
Conrad, duke of Franconia, is chosen king. 
Rollo, chief of the Northmen, receives from 
Charles the Simple, king of France, a grant of the 
province of Neustria, which becomes the duchy 
of Normandy. 

913. Abderrahman III, begins to reign in C6rdoba. 
introducing the golden age of Arabian power 
in Spain. 

919. On the death of Conrad, the Germans elect 
Henry the Fowler king, the first of the Sa.\on line. 



933. Henry the Fowler defeats the Himgarians. 
The kingdom of Aries is estabUshed by union of 
the two Burgimdies, and so continues for a century. 

936. Otto the Great becomes Idng of the'Germans. 

937. Athelstan, king of England, wins a victory 
over the Danes and Scots at Brunanburh. 

951. Berenger 11. of Italy is driven from liis tlirone 
by Otto of Ciermany, but is restored in 952 and 
allowed to reign tmder Otto's suzerainty. 

955. Hungarians defeated by Otto on the Lecli. 

961. Berenger II. is finally deprived of liis crown, 
and the sovereignty of Italy passes from the line of 
Cliarlemagne to Otto. 

963. Pope John XII. crowns Otto Emperor of the 
Romans. 

963. Nicepliorus Phocas accedes to the throne of 
the Byzantine Empire, and undertakes successful 
campaigns agauist the Asian Saracens. 

966. Miecislas. king of Poland, becomes a con- 
vert to Christianity. 

969. Fatiuiites (d.vnasty of Ali, who married Fa- 
tima, daughterof the Prophet) subjugate Egypt. 
Nicephorus is assassmated by ills general, Jolm 
Zimisces, who seizes the Byzantine crown. 

973. Otto the Great dies, and his son. Otto II., 
succeeds to the tlirone of the German Empire. 

978. Otto II. makes victorious invasion of France. 

983. He is defeated by the Saracens and Greeks in 
South Italy. 

986. The Norseman Herjulfson sights the coast of 
North America. 

987. Hugh Capet seizes the sovereignty of 
France, and estabhshes the Capetian dynasty. 

988. Vladimir the Great of Russia becomes a 
convert to Ciiristianity. 

997. The doge of Venice is proclaimed duke of Dal- 
matia; in tills era Venice becomes the dominant 
power of the Mediterranean. 

998. Otto III., Emperor of Germany, grandson of 
Otto the Great, conquers and slays Crescentius, 
who has seized the rule in Rome. 

1000. Pope Sylvester 11. crowns St. Stephen 
king of Himgary. Marks acceptance of Cluis- 
tianity imder the Roman Cliurch by Himgary. 
Leif Erieson discovers Nortli America. 

1001. Mahmud of Ghazni invades India. 

THE EMPIRE AND THE POPE. 
1013. Danes imder Swe.\-u subjugate England. 

1016. Edmund Ironside, son of Ethelred II., and 
Canute, son of Swein, who has succeeded to the 
rule in Denmark, war for the English tlirone. 

1017. Canute victorious assumes the crown. 
lOlS, Basil 11. adds Bulgaria to Byzantme Empire. 
1019. Yaroslav gains the tlirone of Russia. 
1034. Conrad II., first of the Franconian djTiasty, 

ascends the German tlirone. 

1037. Conrad yields Schleswig to the Danes. 

1038. The Danes under Canute invade Norway. 
1031. Ommiad caliphate of Cordoba extuiguished. 

1033. Saneho the Great, of Navarre, constitutes 
Castile a kingdom. 

1034. Conrad II. of Germany adds the domaui of 
Aries to liis empire. 

1037. Togrul Beg estabhshes the rule of the Sel- 
jLiks in Persia. 

1039. Conrad II. is succeeded by Henry III. in 
Germany. 

Macbeth, thane of Cawdor, after slaying Dun- 
can, becomes king of the Scots. 

1041. The Normans overtlirow the Byzantine 
dominion in Apulia. 

1043. Hardecanute dies, and with his death tlie 
Danish ascendancy in England ceases; Ed- 
ward the Confessor ascends tiie tlirone. 

1046. Clement II. is decreed pope by Henry III. of 
Germany hi a comicil iield at Sutri to consider the 
cases of the rival claimants. 

1050. The Scljukian Turkomans become masters 
of Persia. 

1054. Schism between the Latin and Greek 
Catholics becomes complete. Russia, on tlie 
death of Yaroslav, is dismembered; pruicipali- 
ties are created out of the imperial domhiions. 

1055. Togrul Beg establislies the suzerainty of the 
Seljuks over the caliphate of Bagdad. Arabian 
empire succeeded by Seljukian. 

1056. Henry III. of Germany dies: succeeded by 
Henry IV., with liis mother. Queen Agnes, regent. 

1057. Sept. 2. Isaac Conmonus is crowned em- 
peror at Byzantium, but remains on the throne 
only a year, and the dynasty of the Comneni does 
not begui imtil 1081. 

1059. The establishment of a college of cardi- 
nals for the election of the popes is proclaimed by 
Pope Nicholas II. 

1061. Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia and Cala- 
bria, leads Normans against Saracens in Sicily. 

1062. Henry IV. of Germany, while yet a cliild, is 
seized by Harmo, archbishop of Cologne, who 
usurps the imperial functions. 

1066. Edward the Confessor is succeeded by Harold 
II. in England, who defeats Harold Hardraade, 
king of Norway, and Tostig his brother, at Stam- 
ford Bridge; thereupon William, duke of Nor- 
mandy, called the Conqueror, leads a second 



1066 A. D. — 1213 A. D. 



MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 



13 



10G6 (conliiiued). 

invasion, in whicli he triumplis over UaroM at 
tfie battle of Hastings (Seiilae), October 14, 
and establishes liimself as king of England; this 
is called the Norman Conquest. 

1071. Komanus Diogenes, the Byzantine emperor, 
is couquerud, and made captive by the Seljuks 
under Alp-Arslan. Constantinople still safe. 

1073. Palermo is wrested from tiie Saracens hy 
Roger Guiscard. duke of ApuHa and Calabria, who 
thus secures entire control of .Sicily. 

1074. Pope Gregory VII. iHildebrand) summons 
a council in wliich simony is forbidden and the 
celibacy of the clergy Is decreed. 

1075. The pope declares against the lay investiture 
of the clergy and engages in a controversy con- 
cerning it with Henry IV'. of Germany. 

1076. The pope Is deposed at a council held in 
Worms by Henrys summons; the Emperor in 
turn Is deposed and excommimicated by the pope, 
who secures the cooperation of the German princes. 

1077. Henry obhged to visit the poi>e and to hiun- 
ble liimself for three days in the courtyard at 
Canossa before he is admitted to an audience. 
The pope extends absolution to the penitent Em- 
peror; but a rival emperor, Rudolph of Swabia, 
is elected to the imperial dignity m Germany. 

1080. Pope Gregory is again deposed at a council 
lield by Henry, and Guibert. Icnown as Antipope 
Clement III., is elected to the pontifical throne; 
in the same year Rudolph of Swabia dies. 

1081. Henry makes an misuccessful advance on 
Rome, and Hermann of Luxemburg is elected to 
succeed Rudolph of Swabia. 

Constantinople captured by Alexius (I.) Coni- 
nenus, who proclaims himself emperor of the 
Byzantine dominion, beginning the Comneniau 
dynasty. 

1084. The Seljuks overrun Syria and Asia Minor. 
Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) is besieged in the 
castle of Sant" Angelo by Henry IV., but is deUv- 
ered by Robert Guiscard. 

1086. William the Conqueror completes the survey 
of the English realm, the results of wliich are re- 
corded in Domesday Book. 

1087. OuiWilliam's death one son, William Rufas. 
succeeds to the English tiirone, while the other, 
Robert, rules in Normandy. [Alalek Shah. I 

1093. Seljuklan Empire is disrupted by death ofl 

FIRST EPOCH OF CRUSADES. 

1095. Councils are held at Placenza and Cler- 
mont by Pope Urban II. He proclaims a cru- 
sade of Christians for tlie recovery of the Holy 

Sepuleher from the infidel Turks, who possess 
Jerusalem and levy a tax on all Ciiristian pilgrims 
visiting the city. 

1096. Vast masses of men, incited by the exhorta- 
tions of Peter the Hermit and Waiter the Pen- 
niless* form an imdisciplined army of crusaders 
and march in four bands tlirough central Europe, 
Himgary, and the Danubian countries toward 
Constantinople; the Himgarians and Bulgarians, 
angered at the ravages of the crusaders, attack 
them, and only two of the four divisions reach 
Turkey where they are destroyed by the Turks. 
The proper army of crusaders, the chivalry of 
medieval Europe, set out for the East under God- 
frey of Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois, Stephen of 
Blois, Robert of Flanders. Bohemond of Taren- 
tum, Raymond of Toulouse, and others. 

1097. Nica?a is captured by the crusaders in July, 
and they win a battle with the sultan of Iconium 
at Dorylseum; the principality of Edessa is created 
by Baldwin of Flanders. 

1098. Antioch is stormed and yields to tlie cru- 
saders, who. in their turn, are besieged, but rout 
their foes and open the way to Jerusalem. 

1099. Bohemond is proclaimed prince of Antioch. 
July 15, Jerusalem is stormed and conquered; 
Godfrey of Bouillon assumes the sovereignty of 
the city; the Islamites are defeated at Ascalon by 
Godfrey and Tancred. 

1106. Henry I., the successor of William Rufus in 
England, defeats his brother Robert at Tmchebrai 
and restores Normandy to the English cromi. 

1111. Pope Paschal II. is placed under arrest 
by Henry V. of Germany, who thus secures the 
pontiff's consent to imperial investiture; the pope 
emphasizes his defeat by crowning the king, only 
to cancel all his concessions in the year following 
and to cause the excommunication of Henry. 

1131. Abelard, notable among the founders of 
scholastic theology, is cited Ijefore the Synod of 
Soissons and his books are burned. 

1122. Pope Calixtus II. having succeeded Paschal 
II., the difficulties l>etween Henry IV. and Henry 
V. of Germany, on the one side, and the papal see 
on the other, are settled by the Concordat of 
Worms. The German Emperor concedes the 
privilege of a free election of bishops; the first 
Lateran council follows in the next year. 

1125. The death of Henry V. of Germany puts 
an end to the Franconlan dynasty; Lothaire 
II., duke of Saxony, is elected to succeed to the 
crown. 



1127. The count of Sicily, Roger II., consolidates 
the Norman territories In Italy; he is pro- 
claimed duke of Apulia and Calabria. 

ll'iS. Coprad. duke of Franconia, is declared king 
of the Lombards in opposition to Lothahe of Sax- 
ony, with whom he has engaged in war; the strug- 
gle does not terminate until seven years later, 
when Lothaire subjugates his enemies. 

1133. Lothaire makes a successsful campaign in 
Italy, to sustain Pope Innocent II. against the at- 
tacks of the antipope Anacletus II. 

1138. Conrad III , first of the Hohenstaufen 
line, becomes Emperor; engages in a struggle with 
Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria and Saxony. 
Henry defeats All^ert the Bear, on whom Conrad 
has bestowed Saxony, -but dies the followuig year. 

1139. Guelph VI. is defeat^ by Conrad m an 
effort to obtain Bavaria; the Emperor, however, 
ultimately gives Saxony to Henry the Lion, son 
and heir of Henry the Proud. 

The right of Stephen, grandson of the Con- 
queror, to the crown of England is disputed by 
Matilda, wife of GeofTrey Plantagenet of Anjou 
and daughter of Henry I. 

Gratian's Decretum. the first part of the Corpus 
Juris CaiLonici, Is written. 

1140. Abelard before the Council of Sens is ac- 
cused of heresy, but is reconciled to Saint Ber- 
nard, who has prosecuted Iiim. 

1143. Manuel Comnenus reigns in Byzantium; 
he begins a series of wars against the Normans. 
Magyars, and Seljulis. iasthig nearly twenty years. 

1146. A new crusade is preached by St. Bernard, 
the cause of the movement being the capture of 
Edessa by the Fatimites and the massacre of the 
Christians there. 

1147. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of 
France support the crusade; their armies march 
to Constantinople, where they are hmdered by 
the secret hostility of Manuel Conmenus. 

1149. Christians, after at tt-mpting to storm Damas- 
cus, are forced to retreat; they return to Europe. 

1152. On the death of Conrad III.. Frederick I. 
(Barbarossa) becomes Emperor of Germany. 

1153. A treaty is concluded at Wallmgford be- 
tween Stephen and Henry Plantagenet. Matilda's 
son, by wliich Henry is recognized as heir to the 
English crown. 

1154. Stephen of England dies and is succeeded by 
Henry of AnJou (Henry II.). the first of the An- 
gevin or Plantagenet dynasty; Henry holds 
large parts of France besides Enghsh realm. 

1155. Frederick I., making an expedition into 
Italy, restores the authority of Pope Adrian 
IV., wliich has been overturned in a repubUcan 
revolution led by Arnold of Brescia eleven years 
previously; Arnold is put to death. 

1157. Frederick Barbarossa moves on Poland and 
forces that power to yield to his suzeramty. 

1158. He malies a successful siege of Milan, which 
has refused to acknowledge his authority. 

1159. Alexander III, accedes to the papacy, 
whereupon Frederick in opposition sets up Victor 
IV. as anti-pope. 

1160. Frederick conquers Crema after a hard 
siege; he is then formally excommunicated by i 
Alexander. 

1162. Frederick replies to the exconinumication of ' 
the pope by razing Milan; a league of the Lom- 
bard cities is formed against him and fourteen i 
years after (1176), at Legnano, the forces of the j 
league defeat Frederick. 

1170. Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canter- 
bury, is murdered in Canterbury Cathedral and 
as a resiUt Henry II. has to relinquish many of his 
claims against the church made in the Constitu- 
tions of Clarendon, in 1164. 

1171. The Fatimite dynasty of caliphs ceases in 
Egypt with the vict^^ies of Saladln, who estab- 
lishes the line of the Ajaibites. 

1174. William the Lion, king of Scotland, is 
taken prisoner by the English; he acloiowledges 
the suzerainty of Henry II. 

1177. The difficulties between Emperor Frederick 
of Germany and the league of the Lombard cities 
(Lombard League) are peaceably adjusted at 
Venice by the intervention o^ the pope. 

1180. Henry tlie Lion, representative of the Saxon 
line, is deprived of his dominions by Frederick 
of Germany, who grants Bavaria to the House of 
\Vitt«lsbach; the remamder of Saxony is divided, 
the duchy of Westphalia falling to Cologne, and 
the eastern territory to Bernard of Ascania. 

1183. The Peace of Constance is declared by Em- 
peror Frederick and the Lombard League; by the 
terms of settlement independence is conceded to 
the cities of the league. 

1185. Dynasty of the Comneni in Constanti- 
nople ceases, but a yoiftiger line of the original 
house later (1204) secures a fragmentof the empire 
in AsiaMinor, and founds theempireof Trobizond. 

1187. The Christian kingdom established In Je- 
rusalem in 1099by the crusaders imderGodfrey of 
Bouillon is overcome by Saladin, who dethrones 
King Guy of Lusignan; William, archbishop of 
TjTe, thereupon preaches the Third Crusade. 



SECOND EPOCH OF CRUSADES. 

1189. Richard I. .succeeds his father, Henry II., 
as king of England. 

Frederick Barbarossa begins a crusade; forces 
from all parts of Europe hasten lo join (iuy of 
Lusignan in the siege of Acre. 

1190. Frederick meets the uifidels at Iconium and 
defeats them, but is afterward drowned in Cilicia; 
Ilenrj- VI. succeeds to the crown of Germany. 
liichard, king of England, joins the crusaders 
together with Philip Augustus, king of France. 

1191. Acre yields to the besiegers; dissensions 
arise among the Ciiristian princes, and Philip re- 
tires to his kingdom. 

1193. Richard arranges a peace with Saladin 
and then starts on liis return to Europe, but is im- 
prisoned by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the com- 
mand of Henry VI. of Germany. 

1193. John Lackland, the brother of Richard, 
plots to seize the English tlirone. 

1191. Richard regains his liberty, returns to 
England, resumes lijs authority, and puts down 
the civil war caused by the intrigues of Jolm and 
Philip of France; he then engage.s in a successful 
war with Phihp, but dies in l)ic fifth year of the 
campaign. His brother Jolm succeeds him. 1199. 
The rule of the Hohenstaufen sovereigns is ex- 
tended over the Two Sicilies. 

1195. The Moors defeat Alfonso, king of Castile, 
at Alarcos. 

1197. Henry VI. dies and leaves the German 
crown to liis son Frederick II. 

1198. Otto of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion, is 
proposed as Emperor by the Guelphs, and Pliilip 
of Swabia. brother of Henrj-. is chosen by the Ghib- 
ellines; the War of the Guelphs and the Ghlb- 
ellines ensues, in wliich Philip is victorious. 

1201. A new crusade ha^Tng been proclaimed 
(I19S) by Pope Innocent HI., Baklwui of Flan- 
ders. Boniface of ^Slontferrat, and Simon de Mont- 
fort, with their forces and those of other princes, 
imdertake an expedition; they engage the Vene- 
tians to transport them to the Holy Land, and in 
return they agree lo conquer Zai'a. 

1*203. The crusaders attack the Eastern Empire 
and capture Constantinople: the emperor, 
Isaac Ajigelus. is restored to the throne from 
which he had been deposed. 

1304. Saint Dominic (Domingo de Guzman) re- 
moves from Osma, liis native diocese in Spain, to 
Languedoc and foimds the order of the Domini- 
cans, wliich is confli-med by the pope, 1216. 
A revolution in Constantinople follows the 
restoration of the Emperor, whereupon the cru- 
saders again take the city and plunder it; the By- 
zantine Empire is di\'ided. and with this division 
the Latin Empire in the East supplants the 
Greek Empire, Baldwin of Flanders ascending 
the throne. Much of the imperial teri-itory is 
gained by the Venetians and by the Italian and 
French nobles. The Greek empire of Trebizond 
is founded by Alexius (V.) Comnenus, who thus 
estabhshes a secondary Conmenian djTiasty (see 
1185.) which continues imtil the fall of Trebizond 
before Mohammed II, (1461); m 1205 the empire 
of Xicsea is estabhshed by Theodore Lascaris. 

1205. King John of England loses Normandy, 
.Maine, Poitou, Touraine, and Anjou, to Philip 
Augustus of France. 

Baldwin, Latin emperor of Constantinople, is de- 
feated in battle and taken prisoner by Joannice, 
czar of the Bulgarians, 

1206. The empire of the Mongols is established 
by Genghis Khan, who invades Clihia and sub- 
dues the Chowaresmians. whose territory reaches 
from India to the Ciispian Sea, 

1208. A crusade against the Albigenses imder 
the protection of Raymond of Toulouse, having 
been decreed by Pope Iimocent III., amassacre of 
them takes place at B^ziers (1209). 
King John of England refuses to receive St^ephen 
Langton, elected archbishop of Canterbury by 
command of Pope Innocent III.; aU England 
is laid under an interdict by the supreme 
pontiff. 

1210. Saint Francis of Assist, famous Italian 
monk and preacher, founds the order of Francis- 
cans, which is confirmed by the pope thirteen 
years afterwards. 

Pliilip of Swabia is murdered; Otto IV, of Bnms- 
wick succeeds him as Emixror of the Germans. 

1211. Otto IV. makes an effort to win tlie Two 
Sicilies from Frederick IL of Hohenstaufen, but 
fails ;,^Frederick begins a struggle for the Ger- 
man crown, aided by Pope Innocent HI. 

1212. The Almohade ascendancy of tlie Mc>ors in 
Spain is broken by the imited efforts of the kings 
of Castile, Navarre, and Aragom 

Thousands of French and German boys start for 
the Holy Land in the Children's Crusade; many 
perish on the way: many are sold into sla-iery. 

1213. England is threatened by tlie French; King 
John yields to the pope, receives Langton as 
archbishop of Canterbury, delivers his kuigdom to 
the pope; receives it back as a fief of the papacy. 



14 



U 



w 



X 



1214 Otto n' of Germany and John of England 
are defeated by Philip Augustus of iYanco at the 
battle of Bouvines. ^ , u „ ko- 

1215 Kins John of England is forced by his bar- 
ons to grant Magna Charta (the Great Chax- 
tor) The pope declares the charter null and void, 
and' Langton is suspended from his archbish- 
ooric The French taction among the barons sets 
up Prince Louis, son of Philip of France, as king 
of England; in 1216 the prince conies to England, 
but the death of John and the accession of his son, 
Henry III . put an end to the pretensions of Louis. 
Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen gains the German 

crown 

Genghis, the Great Khan of the Tatar hordes, 
captures Peking; the city is pillaged and burned. 
The armies of Genghis in twelve years overrun the 
greater part of Asia. , „ , j 

1216. Henry III. accedes to the throne of England, 
'and Uonorius III. becomes pope. 

1217. The Fifth Crusade is imdertaken by An- 
drew II. of Huugarj' with other princes. 

I'lS He abandons the expedition; it is then led by 
'william I . Count of Holland, and John of Brienne. 
l'>19 Damietta is conquered by the crusaders. 
St. Francis becomes a hermit at Monte Alvemo, 
and announces the miracle of the stigmata. 
V'oi The crusaders are defeated in Egypt and 
"forced to accept disadvantageous terms of peace. 
looo Andrew II. is compelled to sign the Golden 
'buII, the constitutional charter of Hungary and 
the foundation of the privileges of the nobility. 
1224 The Mongols who have subdued Bokiiara, 
Turkestan, and Samarkand, attack and defeat 
the Kussians on the Kalka River. 

1226. East Prussia conquered by the Teutonic 
Ivnights. . , ^. 
Louis VIII of France dies after a reign of three 
years. Louis IX. becomes king; his mother, 
Blanche of Castile, being regent. 
The Lombard cities reestablish their league to op- 
pose the domination of Frederick II. of Germany, 

1227. Genghis Khan, on the eve of tmdertaking 
"the conquest of Europe, dies; his empire is di- 
vided among his four sons. , ■ cj i 

1228. Frederick leads a crusade agamst the mfldels, 
and att«r a year arranges a peace with the sultan of 
Egypt by wliich the Christians receive Jerusa- 
lem; Gregory IX , who has succeeded Honorius 
III. as pope (1227), makes an nffort to secure the 
territories of Frederick. _ 

1229. Gregory IX. establishes the Inquisition 
as a tribunal. . . . 

1230. Formal organization of the Holy Inquisition. 

1236. Frederick II. of Germany makes war on cities 
of the Lombard League. 

1237. He defeats them at Cortenuova; tliree years 
later he advances against Gregory; in 1241 the 
death of the pope ends the war. 

123S. Batu Khan leads his Mongolian hordes into 
Russia and subjugates the Slavic princes. 

1239. The French and the English undertake a 
new crusade imder the leadership of Richard, 
Earl of Cornwall, and Thibaud, King of Navarre. 
It ends in failure. 

1241. Mongols advance on central Europe, 
conquermg the Poles, Silesians, and Hungarians. 

1242. They overrun Asia Mmor; destroy the SeljiUis. 
124S. At the Coimcil of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. 

annomiccs deposition of Frederick II. of Germany. 

1248. A new crusade, led by Louis IX. (Saint 
Louis.) of France, is caused by the capture of 
Jerusalem by the Tui-ks. 

1249. Damietta is taken by the French crusaders. 
1250-1669. The Hanseatic League of maritime 

and other commercial cities flourishes, with capi- 
tal at Liibeck. Long in control of the Baltic 

1250. The Egyptians defeat the crusaders; St. 
Louis is matle a prisoner, but is ransomed. 
The Mamelukes become the rulers of Egypt. 
Conrad IV. succeeds Frederick II, in Germany; he 
is opposed by Wilham II,. Count of Holland, 

1254. Conrad' dies, and with him the Hohenstau- 
fen line of emperors ends. Knights of the sliire 
fli-st attend an English parUament, the beginning 
of an elective part of the National Assembly. 

1257. William of Holland having been slain (1256) 
in battle, Alfonso of Castile and Richard of Corn- 
wall, younger son of King John of England, are 
chosen to the throne of Germany ; the latter, though 
crowned at ALx-la-Chai)elle, fails of recognition. 

1258. Manfred proclaims himself king of Sicily. 
A war breaks out between Venice and Genoa. 
Hulaku Khan, the Mongol, destroys the caliphate 
of Bagdad. 

1260. Bela IV. of Hungary loses Styria to Ottocar 
II. of Bohemia. 

1261. The Latin Empire m the East is usurped 
by Michael Palajologus. emperor of Niraea. who 
founds a dynasty in Byzantium. 

1264. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 
heads a rebellion of the English barons, who 
make Henry III. a prisoner. 

1265. Simon de Montfort summons representa- 
tives from EngUsh boroughs to a parliament for 



WORLD HISTORY. 

the first time. He is slain at battle of Evesham. 
Kuger Bacon, the famous English philosopher 
and monk of the order of St. Francis, begins the 
composition of liis Opus Majus. 
Dante Alighieri is bom at Florence. 

1268. Bibars, sultan of Egypt and Syria, subdues 
the Christian prmcipality of Antioch and makes it 
a part of his realm. 

1270. Louis IX. leads a new crusade agamst the 
Mamelukes; m the course of the expedition he dies, 
near Tunis, August 25; Pliilip III, succeeds to the 
tlirone of France. 

1272. Prince Edward of England, who has accom- 
panied St. Louis, withdraws from the crusade 
and it is abandoned; the attempt to recover 
the Holy Land is not again renewed. 
Edward I. succeeds to the English crown. 



IRROPTION OF ASIATICS. 

1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg is chosen Emperor of 
Germany; this is the tx-gimimg of the ascendancy 
of the House of Hapsburg. 

1274. Murch 7. St. Thomas Aquinas, the fa- 
mous Italian scholastic theologian and pliiloso- 
pher, dies near Terracma, Italy. His cliief work, 
Summa Theologim, greatly influences the opinions 
of succeeding philosophers. 

1275. Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen dynasty 
in China, 

1276. Rudolph of Germany wins Austria and other 
territories from Ottocar of Bohemia and sets his 
sons, All)ert and Rudolph, to rule them (1278). 

1278. ' Ottocar, trymg to regain his dominions, per- 
ishes in the attempt. 

The writings of Roger Bacon are condemned as 
contumacious and he himself is imprisoned for 
ten years. He spends the rest of his life m scien- 
tific experimentation and pliilo.sophical mquiries, 

1279. Seat of government in China is trans- 
ferred by the Mongols under Kublai lilian to 
Peking. 

1280. Kublai IQian makes the Mongolian power 
supreme in China. 

1282. A successful revolution against the rule of 
Charles of Anjou m Sicily begms with a massacre 
of the French in Palermo, known as the Sicilian 
Vespers; Pedro III. of Aragon is made king. 

1283. Edward I, of England subdues Wales. 
Prussia, after a war of ftfty years, is conquered 
by the Teutons. 

1288. Osman or Othman (the Conqueror), a Tiu'k- 
ish adventurer, begms a war of thhty-eight years' 
duration wtiich establishes the Turkish Empire m 
Asia Mmor under the Ottoman djiiasty. 

1290. On the death of Margaret, tiuecn of Scot- 
land, Robert Bruce and John Baliol begin a 
civil war for the possession of the tlirone, which, 
two years later, Edward of England adjudges to 
Baliol- Baliol is renounced by Edward (1296), 
Iwcause of Ills aUiance with France in a war against 
England. . 

1291. Malek el-Ashref, sultan of Egyi)t and SjTia, 
conquei-s Acre, thus termmating the kingdom of 
.Jerusalem; end of the Christian power in the 
Holy Land. 

First league of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden to 
resist control by their lords. 
Adolphus'of Nassau is chosen Emperor of Germany. 

1295. Edward I, of England summons the '■ Model 
ParUament." mcludmg knights and burgesses, 

1296. John Baliol of Scotland refuses to acknowl- 
edge Edward I, of England as his feudal lord; an 
Anglo-Scotch war of 33 years' duration begins. 

1297. William Wallace leads the Scots to a vic- 
tory over the Englisli at Stirling; he is defeated 
in-the followmg year at Falkirk. 

1298. Albert of Austria, son of Rudolph of Haps- 
burg, maltes war on Adolphus of Nassau, Emperor 
of Germany; Adolphus is defeated and slam, and 
Albert ascends the throne. 

1300. The pope proclaims a jubilee of the 
Church, with indulgences to all who make pil- 
grimages to Rome. 

Dante becomes one of the priors of Florence and 
is embroiled in poUtical contentions. 

1301. With the end of the AriiAd dynasty, the 
crown of Hungary becomes elective. 
Duns Scotus becomes professor of theology at 
Oxford. . 

1302. Philip IV. (the Fan-) of France summons the 
first assembly of the States-General, wliich 
mcludes the third estate, or representatives of the 
burghers. 

Flanders rebels agamst the French rule (estab- 
Ushed in 1279) and defeats Philip at Coiu-trai. 

1303. The long-continued disputes between 
France and the papacy, growmg out of the 
king's tax on ecclesiastical property and out of the 
pope's declaration of his superiority to all temporal 
sovereigns, culminate in Philip's arrest of Boni- 
face VIII.; pope is rescued from prison, but dies. 

1304. Scotland Is conquered by Edward I. of 
England. 

Birth of Petrarch, Italian poet (Sonnets, Odes) 
Dies 1374. ^ ^^ 

1305. William Wallace of Scotland put to death. 



1214 a. D.-1355 a. D, 

1306. Robert Bruce, the grandson of Baliol j 
ri\al, leads a reteUion against the English donima- 
tion and is proclaimed king. 

1307. Edward II , son of Edward I., succeeds his 
father as king of England. 

1308. Albert of Hapsburg, Emperor of Germany, is 
assassmated, and Henry VII of Luxemburg is 
elected his successor. 

1309. Pope Clement V., a Frenchman, removes 
the papal court from Rome to Avignon, then 
follows (1309-77) the so-called "Babylonian 
Captivity " of sixty-eight yeai-s, ended by the 
return of Pope Gregory XL to Rome. 

1312. The Knights Templars are condemned 
by the Council of Vienne; De Molay, the grand 
master, and others of the order are burned in 
France two years afterwards. 

Henr\' VII. of Germany, having led an expedition 
mto Italy, fails in the siege of Florence and dies 
in the following year. 

1313. Birth of Boccaccio. Italian novelist and poet 
(Decameroti 1353). Dies 1375, 

1314. June S4. Robert Bruce and the Scots win a 
victory over the Enghsh at Bannockburn. 
An eight years' war for the possession of the Ger- 
man tliroiie begins between Louis of Bavaria and 
Frederick of Austria; Louis is at last the victor. 

1315. Formal Swiss League of Confederation. 
November 15, battle of Morgarten, in wliich 
Swiss infantry defeat mailed horeemen. 

1318. Dante completes the Divina Com media 
after eighteen years of composition. He goes to 
Ravenna m 1320 and dies in the followmg year. 

1324. Louis of Bavaria is excommunicated by 
Pope John XXII,, whereupon the German king 
invades Italy and decrees the deposition of the 
pope; he is ultimately compelled to retreat (1328). 

1326. The pohcy of Edward II, in supporting for- 
eign favorites leads to a domestic reljellion; the 
queen, with Roger Mortimer, takes Edward pris- 
oner; in the following year Edward is deposed by 
Parliament, and soon afterwards is assassinated; 
on his deposition Edward III, becomes king. 

1328. Scotland is recognized as independent 
by the English king, and the war between the two 
nations ends. 

The direct Capctian dynasty ceases in France 
with the death of Charles IV., and Philip VI. of 
Valois institutes a new dynasty. 

1330. Turks under Orklian conquer Nica?a. thus 
fli-mly estabhshhig the Ottomans in Asia Minor, 

1332. Edward Baliol attempts to dethrone David 
Brace of Scotland, 

1333. Edward III, of England mvades Scotland 
and defeats the forces of the regent, Archibald 
Douglas, m the battle of Halidon Hill. 

1334. Giotto begms his work on the cathedral of 
Florence. 

1337. Flanders, imder leadersliip of Jacob van Arte- 
veld, refuses to submit to rule of Count Louis of 
Flanders. .,,.,, 

Edward III. of England, with the aid of the Low 
Countries and Germany, undertakes a war against 
France for the purpose of imiting the two realms 
under the Plantagenet crovm: thus Ix-gms an 
Anglo-French strife, the Hundred Years' War, 
destined to continue intermittently mitil 1453. 

1339. Edward fails m an hivasion of Flanders, but 
is successful elsewhere; proclaimed king of France, 



RENAISSANCE EPOCH. 

1340 ' Chaucer, the " Father of English Poetry," 
is born in London, He dies Octolier 25, 1400, 

1342. Edward III, supports Jolm of Montfort in 
opposition to France, which aids Jeanne de Pen- 
tliievTe; the Enghsh king mvades Brittany. 

1346. Pope Clement VI. secures the election of 
Charles of Luxemburg as Emperor of Germany to 
displace Louis of Bavaria; the latter dies, and 
Charles is eventually accepted as Emiieror (13491. 
Edward III. defeats Plillip VI, of France m the 
great national battle at Crecy, August 26. 
David Bruce invades England; he is overcome 
and taken captive, 

1347. Calais is captiu-ed by the English, 

Cola di Rienzi, called " the last of the Roman 
tribunes," leads a revolution in Rome. 

1348. The black death spreads to Europe from the 
Orient, reappearing several times m the next few 
years and killing thousands of the people, (.see 
BLACK DEATH, in the Dicdonor!/.) „. ,,,^,^ 

1353. Completion of the League of the Eight Old 
Places m Switzerland, cities joming with the moun- 
tain cantons. 

1354 The Genoese meet the allied V enetians, By- 
zantines, and Catalans m a naval battle off Con- 
stantmople; the war contmues for 27 years. 
Rienzi, the tribune, rules in Rome for a season, 
but is overthrown and assassinated. October 8, 

1355. Marino Falieri. doge of Venice, heads an 
imsuccessful conspiracy against the CouncU of 
Ten- he is seized, condemned, and beheaded 
Capture of Gallipoli l5y the Turks, giving them 
control of the Dardanelles. They take Adnan- 
ople (1361) and Thessalonica (1430). By 147S 
they have conquered the greater part of the Bal- 



1355 A. D 1492 A. D. 



MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 



15 



1355 (contittued). 

kans and subdued the Christian peoples. This 
Asiatic occupation in Europe is not eflfectiveiy 
opposed by the int<?rior European- powers, and 
Turliey remains a European power. 

1356. The Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV. 
confines the riglit of electing tlie emperor to seven 
electoral princes. At tlie decisive battle of Poi- 
tiers, September 19, John the Good, of PYance. 
is taken prisoner by the English imder Edward tlie 
Black Prince. Victories of the Enghsh at Crecy 
and Poitiei's. due chiefly to the valor and efficiency 
of the archers, demonstrate the equality of bow- 
men with mailed warriors, antl thus contribute 
powerfully to the extinction of feudalism. 

135S. The peasants of France revolt. The 
uprising is called in French the Jacquerie. (See 
.Iacquerie. in the Did.) 

l,'!(il. Turks capture Adrianople. 

13(>4. Charles V. ascends the tlirone of France and 
tiic war with England is renewed. 

13I>5-1S00. Foimdation of German universitie.s, 
especially Vienna (1365), Erfurt (1378). Heidel- 
berg (1380), Leipzig (1409), Wittenberg (1502). 

1368. The Ming djniasty is established in China; 
distinguished for its arts and culture. 

1369. Timm- Lenk (Tamerlane), the Asiatic con- 
queror, descendant of Genghis Khan, revives the 
Mongolian Empire; he makes a successful cam- 
paign against Ivhorassau. and captures Balkli 
after a siege of three years. 

1371. David Bruce dies: Robert II., succeeding 
to tlirone of .Scotland, foimds Stuart dynasty. 
Casiaiir tlic Great of Poland dies; witli him ends 
the Piast dj-nasty; Louis the Great of Hmigarj- 
acquires the Pohsh sovereignty. 

1377. Gregory XI. leaves Avignon and ends the 
" Babylonian Captivity " by restoring the papal 
court to Rome. 

1378. Urban VI. succeeds Gregory XI. in the pa- 
pacy, and Clement VII. is elected antipope: with 
the election of Clement the great schism in west- 
ern Christendom Ijegins, which does not end for 
nearly 40 years (1417). 

1379. The Genoese fight the Venetians for suprem- 
acy of the sea. 

1380. The Genoese are defeated by the Venetians 
at Ciiioggia and never recover their equality. 

1381. The English peasants revolt mider the 
leadership of Wat Tyler and Jolm Ball; they seize 
London, but are soon overcome, and Tyler is put 
to death. (See Peasants' Revolt, in the Did.) 

1382. The rule of Count Louis II. is rejected by the 
citizens of Ghent, and Pliilip van Arteveld. theh- 
leader, is made governor; the French interfere to 
restore Louis, and Philip is slain. 

John Wycliffe translates Bible mto English. 
1384. Phihp the Bold, of Burgundy, gets Flanders, 
1386. Chaucer becomes knight of the shire for 
Kent. In the foiu-teen years following he com- 
poses the Canterbury Tales. 
Jagellon is made king of Poland, as Ladisias II.; 
he thus establishes the Jagellonlan dynasty. 
The Duke of Gloucester takes the place of regent 
for Richard II. of England. 
1397. The Union of Kalmar is effected, by which 
Norway, Sweden, and IDenniark are united 
imder one crown, Queen Margaret, the " Seniira- 
niis of the North," being the first sovereign. 

1399. Richard II. of England is depo.sed and the 
line of Lancaster is established by Henry IV. 

1400. Emperor Wenceslaus of Germany is deposed 
and Rupert of the Palatinate succeeds him. 
Completion of Froissart's Chronicles of France, 
England, Scotland, and Spain. 

1401. The English Parliament decrees the burning 
of heretics. Statute is aimed agamst Lollards, 
a religious sect following the tenets of Wycliffe. 

1403. Heno' IV. of England overcomes the con- 
spiracy of the Percys at battle of Shrewsbury. 

1409. Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. are de- 
posed from the papacy at the Council of Pisa, and 
Alexander V. becomes pope; three popes instead 
of two contend for the tiara. 

1413. Rome is captured by Ladislas of Naples. 

1414-1418. The Council of Constance. 



1415. Henry V. of England defeats the french 
at Agincourt, October 25. 

The t'niverslty of Salamanca, chief seat of 
classical learning in .Spain, is founded. 
Pope Jolm XXIII. is deposed by the Council of 
Const^mce. 

John Huss, at one time rector of the University 
of Prague, an advocate of the doctrines of Wyc- 
liffe, is condemned for heresy by tlie Council of 
Constance in defiance of a safe-conduct from the 
Emperor and burned at the stake; ui the foOow- 
ing year Jerome of Prague, another prominent 
reformer, suffers tlie like martjTdom. 

1417. Pope Martm V. accepted by the whole 
churcii. 

1419. The Hussites gain in numbers and make an 
attack on the town hall in Prague. A year later a 
crusade is made against them, but imder the lead- 
ership of Jdn Zlska they are victorious. After- 
wards they ravage Sa.\on.v, Franconia, and Ba- 
varia; their uprising ends with the Treaty of Iglau, 
by whicli Sigismund is accepted as king of Bohe- 
mia (14:56). 

The Portuguese, under the patronage of Henry the 
Navigator, sail to the Madeira Islands. 

1430. By the Treaty of Troyes, Henry V. of Eng- 
land succeeds to the French crown: he enters 
Paris. Two years later both he and Cliarles VI. 
of Prance die. Henry VI. is proclaimed king of 
France. The French support Cliarles VII . tlie 
son of Charles VI., and the war between the two 
nations is resumed. 

143S. James I. is .set at Uberty by the Enghsh: he 
gains the throne of Scotland. 

14?8. The city of Orleans is besieged by the Eng- 
lish ; a year later Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, 
inspires the French to raise the siege. 

1431. Joan of Arc is burned at the stake by the 
English in the market place of Rouen, in May; 
in Decemlier Henry VI. is crowned in Paris. 

1437. James I. of Scotland is assassinated ; James 
II. succeeds hira. 

With the death of Sigismund, the LiLxemburg 
dynasty m Germany and Bohemia comes to an 
end and .\Iliert II. of Hapsburg succeeds to the 
crown. 

1438-1450. Invention of printing by Gutenberg 
and others. Tlie Mazarin Bible printed 1450-55. 
(See under Bible, in the Dictionary.) 

1439. The union of the Lathi and Greek Churches 
is decreed by the Council of Florence, but the 
scliism remains practically unaltered. 

1442. Alfonso V. of Aragon gains possession of 
Naples. 

1444. The importation of slaves from Africa is 
begun by the Portuguese. 

1450. Normandy is regained by the French, and 
Guienne is taken from the Englisli m the following 
year; the English are again defeated at Castilloii 
(1453), where the Hundred Years' War ends; 
only Calais remains to England of all her Conti- 
nental conquests. 

1452. Great exodus of Greek scholars from Con- 
stantinople; they make their way into the more 
enlightened parts of western Europe and greatly 
promote the revival of arts and leamuig. 

Birth of Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, archi- 
tect, and sculptor. Dies 1519. 

1453. Constantinople falls before Mohammed 
II. (the Conqueror). May 29; the Emperor Con- 
stantine XIII., the last representative of the East- 
ern Empire, is killed. Thee.xtmction of the East- 
ern Empire marks the final subsidence of the forces 
of the ancient civilization. 

EVENTS LEADING TO FOUNDATION OF 
MODERN EUROPE. 

1455. The Wars of the Roses, in which the crown 
of England is fought for by the houses of York 
huhite ro.ie) and Lancaster (red ro.sc) break out; 
the Duke of York takes up arms agamst Henry 
VI. and Ills supporters, 

1456. Turks capture Athens and in four years' 
campaign gain possession of nearly all Greece. 
Pope Pius II. (iEneas Sylvius), a Renaissance 
pope. 



1461. The Yorkists, defeated by the Lancas- 
trians at St. Albans, February 17, are afterward 
successful, and Edward IV, is proclaimed king. 

1405. Henry VI. is captured and Imprisoned In 
the Tower of London; a Yorkist ascendancy of 
five years follows. 

1470. Henry VI, restored by Earl of Warwick. 
Completion of Sir Thomas Malory'sMorted'Artftur. 

1471. Edward IV. mvades Englatid; the Lancas- 
trians are overcome at Barnet, April 14, where 
Warwick is killed, and agam at Tewkesbury, 
May 4, where Margaret's force is destroyed; in 
May Henry VI. is murdered in the Tower. 

1473. Louis XI. of France begins a war against 
his feudatory princes; m a contest of nearly five 
years, he is successful in breaking then' power. 

1474. Isabella ascends the tlu-one of Castile and 
Leon. By her marriage with Ferdinand of Ara- 
gon (in 1469) the way is prepared for the union 
of all Spain mider their grandson Charles V. 
Birth of Ariosto, Italian poet (.Orlando Furioso 
1510). Dies 1533. 

1475. Edward IV. of England undertakes a brief 
war against France. 

The Turks g.ain an ascendancy in the Black Sea, 
and subdue the Crimea. 

Birth of Michelangelo. Italian painter, sculptor, 
architect, and poet. Dies 15(54. 

1476. Charles the Bold defeated by the Swiss at 
the battle of Grauson, March 2. 

1477. Rene of Lorraine conquers and slays Charles 
the Bold at Nancy, January 5; LouisXL of France 
makes a conquest of Burgundy; Mary, the daugh- 
ter of Charles, retains possession of the Nether- 
lands and Franche-Comte, and is married to Ma.\- 
imilian of Austria. Three years later, on the death 
of Rene. Louis seizes Aujou, and m the following 
year Provence is added to the French realm. 
William Caxton, first English printer, sets up his 
press near Westmmster Abbey, and prints the first 
book in England. 

1483. The war between Maximilian of Austria and 
Louis of France relative to tlie French seizmcs of 
territory terminates with the Treaty of Arras. 

1483. Edward IV, of England, having put to death 
Ills brother (the Duke of Clarence), dies; and 

' Richard III., last of the Plantagenet kings, 
succeeds to the throne. 
Birth of Raphael. Italian painter. Dies 1520. 

1485. Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, vanquishes 
and slays Richard at Bosworth Field, August 22; 
tliis ends the Wars of the Roses, and the Duke 
of Richmond takes the tlirone as Henry VII., 
thus establishing the Tudor dynasty. 

1486. By his marriage with the princess Ehzabeth 
of York, daughter of Edward IV., Henry VII. 
effects a union of the Houses of York and 
Lancaster. 

1487. Bartholomeu Dias, in a voyage along the 
coast of Africa southward, discovers the Cape 
of Good Hope. 

1488. Anne of France (dame de Beaujeu). regent 
for her brother, Charles VIII. of France, defeats 
the forces of Louis, duke of Orleans, who has 
tried to seize the French crown ; the duke is made a 
prisoner, 

James III. of Scotland is slain in a struggle 
with his nobles, and liis son ascends the throne as 
James IV. 

1489. Treaty of Medma del Campo between 
Heiirj- VII. of England and Ferdinand of Aragon 
provides for tlie marriage of Arthur, Prince of 
Wales, and Catherine, Ferdinand's daughter. 

1491. Charles VIII. of France, by his marriage 
with the Duchess Anne of Brittany, gains posses- 
sion of Brittany; m the next year Henry VII. of 
England, makes a campaign against the French, 
but a treaty of peace is concluded at Staples. 

1492. Alexander VI. (Borgia) pope. 
Ferdmand and Isabella of Spam, after a war of t«n 
years agamst the Moorish kingdom of Granada, 
enter the capital as victors, in Januarj-; witli this 
event the dominion of the Moors in Spain 
terminates. Granada is incorporated with the 
Cliristian kingdoms. The Jews are expelled from 
the territories of Spain. 



N 



III. EARLY MODERN PERIOD: 1492 TO 1814. 



Historical Outline. 

Modern history strictly includes tlie whole recent 
progress of mankind to the present day. It is con- 
venient, however, to group together the events and 
tendencies of the tliree centuries ending with the close 
of the Napoleonic period, during which the habits of 
thought and government, the organization of society, 
and the religious beliefs of the Christian world took 
on the forms with wiilch men of to-day are familiar. 

The modem era opens with the Age of Discovery. 
During the Renaissance man was finding himself; 
now he foimd the world. No change in the whole 
course of history is more significant than that which 
restilted from the expansion of the Roman and the 
Medieval world, which took no account of anj'thing 
outside the Mediterranean region and western Eu- 
rope, into the world which includes Asia and the 
Americas. The epoch-making voyage of Columbus 
and the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco 
da Gama meant more than the discovery of new land 
and the opening up of new spheres of trade. It 
opened the way for expansion from Europe and the 
foundation of colonies east and west, which devel- 
oped into new nations, holding different ideas from 
those of the mother countries. 

In this Age of Discovery Spain was preeminent. 
The strong monarchy established by Ferdinand and 
Isabella was in a position more favorable than that of 
any other European state to throw its strength and 
resources into the foimdation of a colonial empire, 
and the Spaniards were bold and successfid naviga- 
tors and traders. Spain took full advantage of her 
opportimity and laid the foimdation for a colonial 
empire not inferior in extent and even in duration to 
that of ancient Rome or of the modern British Em- 
pire. She impressed her language, her religion, and 
her culture upon South America, the West Indies, 
portions of North America, and the Philippines: and 
down to 1815 her control was still active. Then the 
empire collapsed and finally disappeared, except for 
Cuba. Porto Rico, and the Philippines, but the 
Spanish language and religion remained the basis of 
South American cultiu'e. 

In this period came the logical result of the ques- 
tionings of the Renaissance — the Protestant Ret- 
orniatlon. Beginning in a series of attempts to 
remedy abuses of the Roman Catholic Church the 
movement, tmder Luther, Calvin. Zwingli. Ivnox, 
Huss, and their followers, caused a schism which 
has never been liealed. The chief issue was the de- 
nial of the authority of a imiversal church and a reli- 
ance on the dictates of the individual conscience. 
Not only did the Reformation put an end to the 
imiversality of the Roman Church, but in the reli- 
gious wars which followed it dislocated the political 
power and weakened the influence of that other great 
medieval institution, the Holy Roman Empire. 

The Age of Discovery opened the world to Euro- 
pean settlement, while the Reformation led to the 
foundation of Protestant powers which denied the 
papal authority. Both Catholic and Protestant na- 
tions entered the race for colonial expansion. Thus 
France, tlirough the discovery of the St. Lawrence 
and the explorations of her voyafjeurs and missiona- 
ries, opened up and acquired an empire in North 
America, including the valleys of the St. Lawrence 
and the Mississippi. So, too. England, after 
breaking the naval supremacy of Spain, founded 
colonics along the Atlantic seaboard wliich were 
a perpetual ctiallcnge not only to the papal power, 
but to the sovereignty which Spain claimed over 
that region. In the Eastern Hemisphere, first the 
Portuguese and then the Dutch acquired colonial 
possessions and tapped the lucrative trade of India. 

The period was favorable to the development of 
strong national states. England had a system 
of representative government in the elective House 
of Commons, but allowed Henry VIII. to exercise 
an almost absolute monarchy. Henry's daughter 
Elizabetli, also, was a genuine national sovereign, 
though arbitrary. The popular element in the gov- 
ernment, however, joined issue with the Stuart 
kings, and the civil war against Charles I. laid the 
fomidations for a real parliamentary government 
which was superior to the cro\vn and which with the 
accession of William III. became supreme. 

In Kussia Ivan the Terrible and, at a later date, 
Peter the Great, by imchecketi absolutism brought 
the nation into contact with Europe and made a be- 
giiming in modem state organization. In Austria 
and Germany the Holy Roman Empire persisted 
in a feeble and decUning form, a bar to the develop- 
ment of vigorous nationalism, a poor defense against 
the onslaughts of the Turks. During this period the 
Baltic powers of Denmark and Sweden had brief 
periods of prosperity and wide European influence, 
especially tmder Gustavus Adolphus and Charles 
XII. of Sweden. Italy was the prey of the ambition 



of the greater Eiu'opean powers and the scene of 
frecjuent wars and invasions. In France, beginning 
with Francis I., a strong national state was developed 
which, though torn by the religious wars of the Hu- 
guenot period, became, imder Louis XIV., the strong- 
est factor in Eiu-opean life and politics. 

The 18th centiu-y witnessed the struggle of Europe 
against the supremacy of Louis XIV. In a series 
of wars wiiidi encircled the world, France was de- 
feated in India, America, and EMope, and England 
emerged as the most powerful state with the widest 
colonial possessions. Prussia rose as a force to be 
reckoned with and became the center of Germany. 

The 18th century closed with what may be called 
the Era of Revolution. In America the English 
colonists, questioning the right of England to con- 
trol their economic development, and demanding 
wider powers of self-government, declared their 
independence. With France as their ally, they 
achieved their aim, and the United States of 
America was foimded, which was destmed to make 
the militaiy force and political ideas of the New 
World a factor in European policy. In France the 
revolution was of even greater effect: it gave point 
to the teachings of the philosophers of the previous 
age. The despotism, which had continued from the 
days of Louis XIV., based on the feudal system, fell 
before the attack of democratic ideas. Feudalism 
was destroyed. France became a republic, and 
her republican ideas permeated even the most des- 
potic systems of Eiu-ope, while her revolutionary 
armies attempted by military force to mold these 
ideals into states. 

From the democratic enthusiasm of the French 
revolutionary- rcpubhc developed the military em- 
pire of Napoleon. Once again, as in the time of 
Louis XIV., France dominated Europe and one man 
dominated France. Spain and Italy were con- 
quered: Prussia and Austria were humbled: and Na- 
poleon drew the botmdaries of new states, placed new 
sovereigns on old and new tlu-ones, and impressed 
his system on aU Europe. Only England and Rus- 
sia remained outside his power. In 1812 he invaded 
Russia, but the very vastness of that empire defeated 
him, and a disastrous retreat was the begiiming of 
his downfall. Under the lead of England, the Eu- 
ropean nations rallied and on the field of Waterloo 
were finally successful and put an end to the ambi- 
tion of France to dominate Europe. 

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 remade the 
map of Europe and established botmdaries and poli- 
cies which, with the exception of the imification of 
Italy and Germany, remained tlu'oughout tiie 19th 
century. Tlius the year 1815 may well be taken as 
the ending of early modem history and the begin- 
ning of nineteenth-centiu'y history. 

Chronology. 

For events affecting any one cotmtry only, or es- 
pecially, see the historj' of that cotmtry in the 
Natio.n'.\l Histories, begiiming page 39. 

ERA OF THE RENAISSAMCE AND REFORMATION. 

1492. Christopher Columbus, leading an expe- 
dition imder tile auspices of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella, reaches America, October 12, discovering 
Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba: on his second voy- 
age, made in 1493, he discovers Porto Rico, and 
on liis third voyage, in 1498. he reaches Trinidad 
and the coast of South America. From Hisjjan- 
iola he is sent bacic to Spain in chains (1501), 
but is allowed his liberty and makes his fourth 
and last voyage in 1502. Columbus dies in 
neglect and penury at Valladolid. May 20, 150G. 

1493. Charles VIII. of France makes a treaty of 
peace with Maximilian, just made Emperor of Ger- 
many, at Senlis. Maximilian attempts to reform 
the Empire. Institutes the Aulic Council (1501). 

1494. The Medici are driven from Florence, and 
Savonarola, the Italian reformer, restores the re- 
pubhcan form of govemment. 

Tlie Franco-Italian wars, waged between France 
and Spam, break out; they continue for twenty- 
five years, having for their cause the claim of 
Charles VIII. to the tlu'one of Naples. In these 
, conflicts the Italians range themselves alternately 
with the Spaniards and with the French. 
Birth of Hans Sachs, November 5; most famous 
of the German Meistersingers. Died 1576. 

1495. After a year's campaign, Charles conquers 
Naples, but is forced to withdraw from Italy, 
owing to a league formed against liim by the pope 
and Ferdinand (of Naples), who regains the Nea- 
politan crown. 

1497. Mainland of North America discovered by 
John Cabot. 

Vasco da Gama sails around the Cape of Good 
Hope. [arrives in India. I 

1498. Vasco da Gama finds an all-water route and I 



Sebastian Cabot traces a great part of the At- 
lantic coast of North .Vmerica. [May 23.1 
Savonarola executed as a heretic at Florence.] 

1499. Vespucci and Ojeda trace the coast of South 
America. 

The Swiss practically acknowledged as Inde- 
pendent after war with Maximilian of Germany. 
1500-1600. Period of Renaissance in Fionch 
literature: Rabelais (Pantagruel 1.533), Marot, 
Calvm. Amyot. Bodin. Montaigne {Essaye: 1580). 

1500. Ludovico Sforza regains Milan from the 
French, who had seized it a year before. 

Birth of Benvenuto Cellini, Italian artist in metal 
and author (Autohioaraphy). Died 1.571. 

1501. The French, by Louis XII 's conquest ol 
Naples and with the aid of Ferdmand of Aragon, 
reestablish their power in Italy. 

Cesarc Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI., gains 
dominion of Faenza, Rimini, and Pesaro, with the 
title of Duke of Romagna. 

150%. War In Italy breaks out again between 
the French and Spaniards, the French being driven 
from Naples after a conflict of nearly a year. 

1506. On the death of Pliilip I. of Castile, Ferdi- 
nand assumes the rule as regent for Joan the Mad 
Madagascar is discovered by Portuguese. 
Chiu'ch of St. Peter at Rome begun on site of an- 
cient church, completed in 1590; dedicated 1626.. 

1508. IMa.ximilian of Germany, Pope Julius II., 
Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand of Aragon 
form the League of Cambrai against Venice; the 
Venetians are overcome at Agnadello (1509). 

1511. Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League for 
protection against France; in this Spain, Venice, 
and England (imder Henry VIII., who has mar- 
ried Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother 
Arthur, and daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) 
are united against Louis XII. 

1513. The French win a victory at Ravenna, 
April 11, but are forced to withdraw from Lom- 
bardy, and Sforza djTiasty is restored in Milan: 
Ferdinand of Aragon conquers Spanish Navarre. 
The Medici regain their authority in Florence. 

1513. Henry VIIl. of England, with the aid of 
Maximilian of Germany, invades France; the 
French are overwhelmed in the battle of the 
Spurs at Giunegate, August 16: Therouarme and 
Toiu-nai are taken by the English. [pope. I 
Pope Leo X, one of the Medici: a renaissance I 
England is invaded by the Scots tmder James IV.; 
the Scots are defeated at Flodden Field, Septem- 
ber 9, and James is killed: Queen JSlargaret be- 
comes regent for her son, James V. 

Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 

Niccolo Machiavelii WTites The Prince, a classic 

in the history of political thought. 

1514. Henry VIIL makes treaties of jjeace -with 
Scotland and France. 

1515. 'Francis I., succeeding Louis XII. as king of 
France, marches into Italy, and with the aid of 
the Venetians defeats the Swiss allies of Milan at 
Marignano, September 13 and 14, thus breaking 
the prestige of the Swiss infantry: he gains posses- 
sion of Lombardy. Early in the next year he es- 
tablishes the Perpetual Peace with the Sw iss and 
makes a concordat with Pope Leo X. From 
tltis time Switzerland is a recruiting groimd for the 
Frencli army. 

1510. Sir Thomas More's Vtopia. an account of 
an imaginary Commonwealth, is published. 
New Testament in C:reek published by Erasmus. 

1517. Leo X. decrees preaching of indulgences 
for the benefit of St. Peter's Ciiurch in Rome. In 
October, Martin Luther puts forth his 95 
theses at Wittenberg, and the Reformation be- 
gins in Germany. [the .Swiss. I 

1518. Zwingli begins the Reformation amongi 

1519. On the death of Ma-\iiiiilian of Germany, 
Charles I. of Spain, his grandson, who is also the 
grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, is elected 
Emperor as Charles V.; Germany, Spain, the 
Netherlands, the Sicilies, and Sardinia are thus 
joined under one sovereignty. 

Fernando Magellan, a Portuguese, makes a voy- 
age for Spain through the straits separating Tierra 
del Fuego from Patagonia: two years later lio lantis 
on the Ladrones and reaches the Philipphies 
(March, 1521), where he is killed; one of his sliips 
completes circumnavigation of globe (1522). 

1520. Francis I. of France entertains Henry VIII. 
of England at a meeting on the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, near Guines. 

Pope Leo X. issues a bull of excommunication 
against Luther, but the refiTrmer burns the 
papal edict. 

Cliristian II. of Denmark invades Sweden and es- 
tablishes liimself in its sovereignty: overtlirown 
in 1521 in a revolt of the Swedes led by Gustavus 
Vasa, who eventually Isecomes king (1523). 
(16) 



1521 A. D. — 1569 A. D. 



EARLY MODERN PKKIOU. 



17 



1531. Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of 
France engage in a series of wars covering a period 
of more than a score of years; the conflict origi- 
nates in counterclaims to the possession of Na- 
varre, Naples, Milan, and Burgundy. 
Hernando Cortes, the Spanish conqueror, in- 
vades Mexico and after a long siege takes the 
capital city. 

Lutlier is summoned before the Diet of Worms 
(■■ Here I stand ") ; he is adjudged guilty of heresy 
against the teacliings of the Catholic Chui-ch. 

1533. Charles V. of Germany attacks the French 
and defeats them at La Bicocca, m April. 

1534. The French withch-aw from Italy and the 
Cbevalier Bayard, one of their leaders, falls in 
the retreat. 

German Peasants' War Ijreaks out in Swabia 
and Franconia, accompanied with frightful out- 
rages. The disturbance lasts nearly a year. 

1535. The Imperial troops defeat the army of Fran- 
cis at Pavia, February 24, and make the French 
king prisoner. 

East Prussia is made by Albert of Brandenburg a 
hereditary principality. 
1526. Treaty is made at Madrid, January 14, be- 
tween Charles V. and Francis I., by wloich the 
French king is set at liberty. 

The sultan, Soiyman tlie Magnifleent, who has 
conquered Belgrade (1521), vanquishes the Htm- 
garians at Mohdcs, August 20. Hungarian power 
broken for more than a century. 
Iljraltim Lodi of Delhi is overcome by the Mogul 
Baber, descendant of Tamerlane, at Panipat. The 
Mogul dynasty in India is thus established. 
New Testament (Tyndale's version) introduced 
into England. 

1537. Second war between the French and Impe- 
rialists, in wliich France is aided by the pope, the 
Venetians, and the Storzas (the League of Co- 
gnac). Rome is captured by the forces of the 
Constable Bourbon; the pope is made prisoner- 
Frightful sack of the city. 

The Medici are driven from Florence. 

1538. Henry VIII. of England and Francis I.- of 
France join forces m the war.against diaries V. of 
Germany. 

1539. Cardinal Wolsey, lord chancellor of Eng- 
land, loses the favor of Henry VIII., and is de- 
prived of his offices. 

The reformers in Germany present a protest 
(hence the name Protestant) to the Diet of 
Spires, April 19. 

Charles V. and Francis I, make a treaty at Cam- 
bral, August 5, by which Italy is surrendered to 
the Empire; restored by German forces (1530). 
Suitan Soiyman seizes Buda and makes ari ^'n- 
successful attack on Vienna; he then esta^Bies 
on the Himgarian tlirone Jolm Zapolya, -v^^de 
of Transylvania. 

1530. Pope Clement VII. crowns Charles V. of 
Germany at Bologna as Kuig of the Lombards and 
Emperor of the Romans; the Emperor makes a 
grant of Malta to the Knights of St. John (see 
HospiT.\LLER, in the Dictionary). The Protes- 
tant Confession of Faith is presented to the 
Diet of Augsbiu'g. 

1531. The Protestant states of Germany, with 
the Saxon elector at their head, form the League 
of Schmaikalden, for mutual protection. 

Tlie Swiss Catholics rout the army of Zurich in the 
battle of Kappel, Oct. 11, and Zwlngll is l<illed. 

1533. Christian II. of Denmark is deposed by liis 
subjects, and imprisoned by Frederick II., his suc- 
cessor, 

ISS.?. Francisco Pizarro, the Spanish adven- 
tiu'er, completes the conquest of Peru. 
Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbm-y, pronoimces 
null and void the marriage of Henry VIII. of Eng- 
land and Catherine of Aragon (who has a daugh- 
ter. Mary), disregarding the decision of Pope 
Clement Vll.; the king makes Anne Boieyn his 
queen (who bears him a daughter, Elizabeth). 

1534. England renounces the sovereignty of 
the pope, and the parliament passes the Act of 
Supremacy declaring the king and his successors 
to be the protectors and only sui)reme heads of the 
church in England. 

The Anabaptists, under John of Leyden. insti- 
tute an anarchistic community at MUnster, which 
continues for a year. 

Order of the Jesuits founded by Ignatius Lo- 
yola, a Spaniard. [monwealth.l 
Geneva becomes an independent Protestant com- 1 
Tlie translation of the Bible into German is 
completed by Martin Luther. 

1535. Henry VHI. is formally proclaimed the su- 
preme head of the English Church. He in- 
corporates Wales into the kingdom, and gives it 
reprt^entation in Parliament. 

Sir Thomas More, succe-s.sor of Cardinal Wolsey 
as lord chancellor, having refused to take the oath 
of succession, is foimd guilty of treason and be- 
headed. 

Charles V. of Germany subjugates Tunis. 
The dj'nasty of the Sforzas in Milan ends and 
Charles V. seizes the territory. 



The French navigator Jacques Cartier ascends 
the River St. Lawrence. 

1536. Henry VIII. causes Anne Boieyn to be put 

to death on a charge of infidelity ; he then marries 
Jane Seymour (who has a son, Edward). Later 
she dies and he marries Anne of Cleves; divorces 
her: marries Catherine Howard; then marries 
Catherine Parr (sixth wife), who survives liim. 
Cliristian HI. gains the ascendancy in Denmark; 
he proscribes the Catbohc Church in liis realm. 
John Calvin publishes his Institutes of the 
Christian Religion; he makes his residence in 
Geneva, but in 153S is expelled from the city for 
a time. [assassinated. I 

1537. .41essandro de' INIedici, Duke of Florence, is I 
1S3S. Charles V. and Francis I. make a truce of ten 

years at Nice. [cles, definuig heresy. 1 

1539. The English Parliament passes the Six Arti- 1 

1540. Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, the 
kings vicegerent in ecclesiastical concerns, is put 
to death on a charge of treason. 

Pope Paul III. sanctions the Society of Jesus 
(Jesuits) founded in 1534. 

1541. Hungary is agam overrun by the troops of 
Sultan Soiyman. [Lord) of Ireland,! 
Henry VIII. assumes the title of King (instead of I 

1543. In Scotland the English army wins the battle 
of Solway Moss, in November. On the death of 
James V., Mary Stuart succeeds to the throne; 
Earl of Arran is regent. 

1543. Henry VIII. of England jotas Charles V, 
against France, 

Copernicus publishes a work on the solar sys- 
tem ; shows that the earth is a planet. (See Coper- 
NICAN SYSTE.M, lu tllc Dictionary.) 

1545. The Council of Trent begins its sittmgs, but 
without attendance on the part of the Protestants: 
it continues in session, with some interruptions, 
until 1.563. 

1546. CarcUnal Beaton, primate of Scotland, orders 
the burning of George Wishart as a heretic; the 
cardinal is assassinated. 

1547. Henry VIII. of England dies; he is suc- 
ceeded by liis son Edward VI., son of Jane Sey- 
mour, with the Duke of Somerset as Lord Protec- 
tor. A Protestant regime. 

Ji. war between Charles V. of Germany and the 
iallied Protestant princes of the Schmalkaldic 

League ends in a victory for the Emperor at 

Mulilberg, April 24. 

Birth of Cervantes, October 9: Spanish novelist 

and poet (Don Quixote 1605, 1615). Dies 1610. 

1548. The Augsburg Interim is promulgated in 
Germany, in wliich the decree of toleration to the 
reformers is declared, pending the decisions of the 
Coimcil of Trent. 

ERA OF RELIGIOUS WARS, 

1549. The Act of Uniformity in Public Worship 
is declared in England; the Book of Common 
Prayer is adopted. 

1550-1600. The Pleiad of France (see Pleiad, 2 c, 
in the Diet.). Followed by Malherbe and R^gnier. 

1550. The English make treaties of peace with the 
French and the Scots. 

1553. The Duke of Somerset, convicted of treason, 
is put to death. 

The Forty-two Articles of the reformed religion 
in England are established by law; the number is 
afterward (1563) reduced to Thirty-nine; they 
continue to be a test of orthodoxy for tliree and a 
half centuries 

Charles V. of Germany is attacked by Maurice of 
Saxony, the champion of Protestantism: the Em- 
peror is forced to yield and by the Treaty of Pas- 
sau freedom of worship is accorded to the fol- 
lowers of Luther. 

Ivan the Terrible e.xtends the Russian domin- 
ion : he makes a successful campaign against the 
Tatars of Kazan, and two years later overcomes 
Astrakhan. 

1553. Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII. and 
Catherine of Aragon, succeeds to the tlirone of 
England on the death of her brother, Edward VI.; 
an imsticces.sftil effort is made by the Duke of 
Northumberland to secure the crown for his 
daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey; she is put to 
death in the following year. 

Michael Servetus, the Spanish philosopher and 
physiologist, is burned at the stake in Geneva 
with the approval of Calvin. 

1554. Queen Mary of England espouses Philip 
II. of Spain, son of Charles V.; he is made king of 
Naples and Sicily by his father, and a year later he 
receives the sovereignty of the Netherlands. He 
comes to England expecting to be cosovereign of 
that country. 

1555. The Peace of Augsburg makes an end in 
Germany of the war between the Catholics and 
Lutherans. 

1556. Cranmer, Protestant archbishop of Canter- 
bury, is burned at the stake as a heretic, March 
21. Many executions at Smithfleld. 
Charles V. abdicates the crown of Spain to his 
son Pliilip; he is succeeded in the Empire by his 
brother, Ferdinand I. 



Accession of Akbar the Great as Mogul emperor: 
extends his power over the greater part of India ; his 
reign notable for progress in social and economic 
reforms, architecture, and religion. Dies in 1605. 

1657. The French are defeated by the army of 
Philip II. at Saint-Quentin, August 10. 

1558-1589. Early period of Elizabethan Age of 
English hterature: Drama — Kyd (Spanish 
Tragedy 1SS5?), Nash, Lyly, Peele, Greene (Friar 
Bacon and Friar Bungay 1589?), Marlowe (Tain- 
burlaine 15S7); Poetry — Spenser (Fiiiirie Queene 
1590): Prose — Lyly (Euphues 1.579.), Sidney (Ar- 
cadia 1590), Hooker (Ecclesiastical Polity 1594). 

1558. Calais, the last stronghold of England in 
France, is retaken by France. 

Francis, the dauphin of France, marries Mary 
Stuart of Scotland. 

Elizabeth Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII, and 
Anne Bolej-n, succeeds to the throne of Eng- 
land, November 17, on death of Mary. Protes- 
tant religion established. 

1559. France, England, and Spain conclude the 
Peace of Cateau-Canibresis: Philip II. takes in 
marriage the Princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter 
of the French king. 

John Knox preaches in Scotland; the Protestant 
reformers in that country rebel against the regent, 
Marj' of Guise. 

Pliilip II. of Spain makes his half sister, Margaret 
of Parma, regent of the Netherlands, wliich are on 
the point of rebellion over religion. 

June S4. Sigismund attacks Dulvc of Kurland. 

1560. The Scottish reformers make a treaty with 
Queen Elizal:>eth at Berwick by which they seciu-e 
the English forces as' allies. Mary of Guise dies. 
Mary Stuart and her husband Francis II., now 
king of France, conclude with tlie reformers and 
Elizabeth the Treaty of Edinburgh. 

1561. Mary, Queen of Scots, arrives in her realm 
from France. lO'Neill.l 
The Irish rebel imder the leadership of Shanel 
The Livonian Knights, or Sword bearers (see port- 
GL.AivE, in the Diet.) are forced to cede Livonia to 
Sigismimd Augustus of Poland and Lithuania; the 
last grand master of the order becomes a vassal as 
Duke of Kurland 

1563. A limited privilege of worship is extended 
to the Huguenots by the Edict of Saint-Germain 
issued by the Cathohc king. Massacres of the 
Protestants occur at various places. Huguenot 
wars begin. The Huguenots imder Condc and 
Coiigny are overcome at Dreux, December 19. 
In the following year (February) the Dul:e of 
Guise is murdered; lijs death is followed by the 
Pacification of Amboise. 

1563. The Calvinists proclaim the Heidelberg 
Catechism (see in the Dictionary). 

1565. Mary Stuart marries her cousin, Henry Stu- 
art, Lord Damley. [is repulsed. I 
Mustafa Pasha makes an attack on INlalta, which! 
St. Augustine, the oldest permanent .settlement 
of the white race witliin the present limits of the 
United States, is founded by the Spaniards. 

1566. The nobles of the Netherlands form the 
league of the Gucui, or " Beggars " (seeCtEux, 
in the Diet.) : the refusal of their demands precipi- 
tates a civil war. 

Himgary is invaded for the last time by Soiyman 
the Magnificent, who dies at the siege of Sziget; 
his successor, Selim II., storms and takes the city. 

1567. Lord Darnley, the husband of Queen Mary 
of Scotland, is assassinated, and the qiuvn mar- 
ries the Earl of Bothweil, who is openly accused 
of the murder of Darnley: she is thereupon impris- 
oned and forced to abdicate in favor of her son, 
James VI., who reigns tuider regency of Miu'ray. 
The rebellion of Shane O'Neill in Ireland is sup- 
pressed and the leader is killed. 

The Huguenot wars in France break out afresh. 
The Duke of Alva reaches the Netherlands with a 
Spanish army to aid the contest against the league 
of the GueiLx: institutes the Blood Council (see 

in the Dictionary). 

1568. Mary of Scotland, having escaped from Im- 
prisonment, is met by the regent Murray, at Lang- 
side (^lay 13) ; the queen is defeated and flees for 
refuge to England, but is made a captive by 
Queen Elizabeth. , 

The temporary' Peace of Longjumeau is concluded 
between the Catholics and Huguenots in France: 
the strife is renewed after the assembly of the 
Protestant leaders at La Rochelle, 
IVIargaret of Parma, the regent William of Orange, 
and many of the nobles having withdrawn from 
the Netherlands, the Duke of Alva, with great 
cruelty, causes many to be put to death, including 
the coimts of Egmont and Horn. William of 
Orange and his brother, Louis of Nassau, make 
a Protestant campaign against the Spanish forces 
in the Netherlands, but are repulsed. 

1569. The Moriscos in Spain rebel ; in the following 
year they are overcome by Don John of Austria. 
The Huguenots are beaten at Jamac, March 13: 
the Duke of Conde is taken prisoner and shot; the 
Huguenot army imder Coiigny is routed at Mon- 
contour, October 3. 



18 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1689 {continued). 

Cosmo de' Medici the Great becomes grand duJiO 
of Florence. [sovereignty.! 

Poland and Lithuania are united under onel 



u 



w 



ERA OF DECLINE OF SPAIN. 
1570-1610. Elizabethan era in England; spirit of 
adventure and discovery, a greater freedom of 
thought and action, and a remarkable develop- 
ment of literature, especially of the drama. 

1570. Murray, the regent of Scotland, is murdered. 
The Enghsii make an invasion of Scotland. 
The Catholics and Huguenots in Prance make 
peace by the Treaty of Saint^Ciermam. 

1571. The pope, the Spaniards, and the Venetians 
unite in the Holy League against the Turks; 
the fleet of the league, under Don John of Austria, 
victorious at Lepanto, October /. 

1573. Henry, king of Navarre, marries Margaret 
of -Valois. sister of Charles IX. 
The Massacre of St. Bartholomew m Pans, 
with the sanction of the kmg, August 24; Cohgny 
and manv other Huguenots are slain, where- 
upon the Huguenots again take up arms. 
A general rising of the Dutch against Spanish 
rule takes place under William of Orange. In the 
following year the troops of Spain conquer Haar- 
lem but besiege Leiden without success. 
With the death of Sigisraimd Augustus, the crown 
of Poland becomes elective; a year later Henry, 
Duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., is chosen 
king but on the death of Charles he ascends the 
French throne as Henry III.; he gives up the Po - 
jsh cro™. to which Stephen Bithori of Transyl- 
vania is ultimately elected (157.5). 
Pubhcation of the Lusiad of Camoens, the great 
epic of Portugal. , , . , , 

1573 The Huguenots, after a successful defense of 
La Rochelle, are granted a measure of toleration 
In France; two years afterward Heiu-y of Navarre 
escapes from Paris and becomes their leader. 
1576. Catholic League is formed in France agamst 

The rerolttag provinces of the Netherlands, both 
Catholic and Protestant, put aside all differences 
among themselves, and unite in the Pacification 
of Ghent, to resist Spanish dominion; Don John 
of Austria is appointed governor by his half 
brother, Philip II. of Spain; he is not accepted by 

1577-1580.' Voyage of Sir Francis Drake for Eng- 
land (second circumnavigation). 

1677 Henry III- of France and the Huguenots 
conclude the Treaty of Bergerac. 

1678. Don John of Austria, governor of the Nether- 
lands, is victorious over the army of the reljels at 
the bkttle of Gembloux. January 31 ; ho dies, and 
Alessandro Famese, Duke of Parma, succeeds him. 

1579 The Union of Utrecht is formed by the 
seven Protestant provinces of the Netherlands; 
this union, two years later, renounces the authority 
of Spain, declares complete independence, and set- 
tles the hereditary stadholdership of the nf'on on 
William of Orange-Nassau, called the Silent. This 
event is the foundation of the Dutch Republic. 

1 SSO Philip 1 1 . of Spain makes a campaign agamst 
Portugal and subdues it. [Concord.l 

The German Lutherans publish the Formula of I 

1881. Annexation of Portugal by Spam. 

1582. Ermak-Timofeevich leads the Cossacks to 
the conquest of Siberia. 

Pone Gregory XIII. reforms the calendar and 
declares that October 5 of the current year be 
changed to October 15; hence the Gregoria,n calen- 
dar or New Style, gradually adopted and still m 
general use (see c^lend.ir. in the Dichanary). 
Jesuit missionaries reach Chma. 

1583. Newfoundland is granted to Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert by Queen Elizabeth: the first 
English colony." j r.i.in. 

1584. William of Orange is murdered, JiUy 10. 
his son, Maurice of Nassau, becomes the head of 
the seven provmces of the Netherlands; the Duke 
of Parma, Spanish governor of the Netherlands, ^ 
besieges Antwerp, and in the toUowmg year cap- 
tures the city. , ^ .. , 
The Catholic league of France makes a treaty of 
alliance with PhiUp II. of Spain against the French 
Huguenots. , 
North Carolina is reached by an expedition or 
Sir Walter Raleigh; the territory is named Vir- 
ginia by the queen. . 

1585. The CathoUc League takes up arms against 
Henry III of France, but the king and the Catho- 
lics are reconcUed by the Treaty of Nemours; the 
war against the Huguenots is resumed. 
Sir Francis Drake leads an English expedition 
against the Spanish colonies in America without 
formal war. 

John Davis, English navigator, sets out on a two 
years' cruise In search of northwest passage to Asia. 

1587 Mary, Queen of Scots, imphcatedm the con- 
spiracy of Savage. Ballard, Babington. and others, is 
beheaded February 8, by order of Queen Elizabeth. 
Henry III. of France is defeated by Henry of Na- 
varre" at the battle of Coutras. 



1688. Philip II. of Spain sends the Invincible Ar- 
mada against England; the Spanish fleet, under 
the Duke of Medma-Sidonia, is assailed by Eng- 
Ush ships under Drake and Howard ; it is terrorized 
by fire ships, over«'helmed by a tempest, and only 
a remnant escapes. 

Henry of Guise enters Paris; the king, Henry 111., 
is forced to flee from the city; the sovereign sum- 
mons a meetmg of the States-General at Blois; the 
assassination of the Duke of Guise is ordered, and 
the duke is slain. December 23. 

1589-1620. Shakespeare and Elizabethan 
literature: Shakespeare, dramatist and poet 
(about 37 plays — comedies, histories, tragedies 
1588-1611; poems 1593-1594; sonnets 1609); died 
1616 Other dramatists — Ben Jonson (.The 
Alchemist 1610). Lodge, Chapman, Beaumont and 
Fletcher (Philasler 1609?), Middlcton, Webster, 
Dekker, Massinger; Poetry — Drayton, Donne; 
Prose — Bacon (Essays 1597), Hakluyt,, Raleigh^ 

1589. Henry III. makes an alliance with Henry of 
Navarre and the Huguenots, and the combined 
forces move agamst Paris. The king is stabbed 
by an assassin wliile at Samt-Cloud, August 1 ;_he 
dies on the following day, thus ending the dy- 
nasty of Valois. Henry of Navarre (Henry IV ) 
succeeds to the throne and establishes the 
Bourbon line of French sovereigns. „ . ,. 

1590. Henry IV. defeats the forces of the Catholic 
League uilder the Duke of Mayenne at Ivry, 
March 14 ; a Spanish army, under command of tlie 
Duke of Alva, joins the Catholic troops and de- 
livers Paris from the kuig's attack. 

1592. The Presbyterian Church is established as 
the National Church of Scotland, to supersede 
the Episcopal ecclesiarchy. ..^ „ * „ 

1593 Henry IV. of France abjures the Protes- 
tant faith; he is crowned in the following yea. at 
Chartres. February 27. On March 22 of the same 
year he enters Paris without opposition. 

1595. Henry IV. undertakes a campaign agamst 
Spain. _.. , . 

1596. The Catholic League is dissolved. 

1597. The Spaniards are defeated at Turnliout by 
the Dutch under Maurice of Nassau, aided by his 
English allies. 

The Dutch complete their first voyage to the 
East Indies bv way of the Cape of Good Hope. 

1598. Toleration is conceded to the Huguenots by 
the Edict of Nantes, proclaimed by Henry IV. ol 
France, April 13; on May 2 a treaty between 
France and Spain is concluded at "\ ervms. 
The Rurik dynasty, Scandmavian in origin, ends 
in Russia with the death of Feodor I., and Boris 
Godunov ascends the tlirone. , ,. ^ , „ ,, 

1599 Sigismund Vasa tries to establish the Cath 
olic religion in Sweden and is driven from h'S 
throne for his defection from the national faith. 

1600. The Archduke Albert of Austria, governor of 
the Netherlands, is overcome by the Dutch under 
Maurice of Nassau at Nieuport. 
The philosopher Giordano Bruno, after seven 
years' imprisonment m Rome by the Inqmsitiou 
on a charge of heresy, is burned at the stake. 
The English East India Company is formed. 

1602 The Dutch East India Company is formed 

1603 The Tudor dynasty in England ends with 
the death of Queen Elizabeth, March 24 panics 
VI of Scotland, the son of Marj' Stuart, a Protes- 
tant, and descendant of Henry VII. of England, 
receives the crown as James I. A conspiracy to 
place ArabeUa Stuart on the ttoone is unsuccessful, 
and its alleged promoter, Sir Walter Raleigh, is 
Imprisoned. Peace made with Spam. 



ERA OF THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 

1604 The English bishops and the Piu-itan leaders 
meet James I. in a conference at Hampton 
Court. He objects to Presbytcrianism as a limit 
on royal power, . 

1605. A conspiracy is formed to blow up the king 
and Parliament of England, but the plot is dis- 
covered and the leaders seized, November 5. 
" Gunpowder Plot " (see Gunpowder Plot, in 
the Dictionary). „ . xi, i,„ i„ 

Feodor II succeeds to the Russian throne, he is 
aftcnvard dethroned by the Pseudo Demetrius 
The Turks are overcome at Busrah by Abbas the 
Great, of Persia. [Reigns tUl 162 , . | 

lahangir, son of Akbar, becomes Mogul emperor I 
1606. Pseudo Demetrius of Russia is slam; suc- 
ceeded by Shuiski, who takes the title of Basil IV. 
The London and Plymouth companies are 
chartered by patents of James I. of England. 
Australia discovered by Dutch, who land at 
Carpentaria. ^ 

1007. Jamestown, m Virgmia, first permanent 
English settlement m North America, Is founded 
by the London Company, May 14. 
1608. The Protestant states of Germany establish 
the Evangelical Union. 

Rudolph II. of Germany is forced to give uP Aus- 
tria, Moravia, and Hungary to his brother Mat- 
thias (found ({uebec.i 
The French under Samuel de Chaniplaln 
Invention of the telescope. 



1569 a. d. — 1625 A. D. 

1609. A Catholic league is formed m Germany; 
Rudolph II. is compelled to grant religious tolera- 
tion to the Bohemians; two years later (1611) he 
is forced to surrender his crown to Matthias. 
A treaty of peace for two years is made by Spam 
and the Netherlands. [Philip III. I 
The Morlscos are finally driven out of Spain by I 
Henry Hudson, sailmg under the flag of the 
Dutch East India Company, ascends the Hudson 
River; m the followmg year he explores Hudson 
Bay, but iierishes on the voyage. 

1610. The second Pseudo Demetrius gains the 
throne of Russia by the aid of Polish nobles; in a 
short time he is assassinated. 
Henry IV. of France is assassinated by Ravail- 
lac, May 14; Louis XIII. becomes kmg, with 
Marie de Medicis as regent. 

By means of the newly invented telescope Galileo 
discovers the satellites of Jupiter. 
Authorized Version, or King James Bible, 
completed; the work is issued the followmg year. 

1613 The Romanov dynasty begins in Russia 
with the accession of Mikhail Romanov as czar; 
first national sovereign. 

1614 The Dutch build a fort on Manhattan 
Island and afterward purchase the territory from 
the Indians (1626). , ^ , , h 
The system _of logarithms is mvented by Lora 
John Napier!" . 

1615. Louis XIII. of France marries Anne of Aus- 
tria daughter of Philip HL of Spam. Founda- 
tion of later French claim to Spanish throne. 
First regular newspaper in 'Europe (Frank.iurter 
Journal). ^ . , 

1616. The circulation of the blood is demon- 
strated by William Harvey. 
Shakespeare dies, April 23. 

1617. By the Peace of Stolbova, Russia cedes Ka- 
relia and Ingria to Sweden. 

1618. Crisis In the religious rivalries ol Ger- 
many. Most of northeni states and cit.cs are 
Protestant — either Lutheran or Calv.nistic. 
Iilany Protestants in Bohemia. Austria, and Hun- 
gary Southern Germany mostly Catholic. 
Constant dlHiculWes m the Imperial Diet. Settle- 
ment of Augsburg ol 1555 overthrown. 
The Thirty Years' War begms in Germany with 
the msurrection of the Bohemians under Count 
Thum- the conflict is caused by the msistence of 
the Emperor Matthias on securmg the succession 
in Bohemia and Hungary- to his cousm, Ferdinand, 
Duke of Styria, a Catholic, and therefore unac- 
ceptable to the Protestant states. 

1619. Arminlanlsm, a Protestant doctrine em- 
phasizing free wUl, is condemned as heresy at the 
Synod of Dort. (See Arminhnism, and Synod 
r^ DnnT. in the Dictionary.) 
Btdiiiand of Austria, havmg succeeded Matthias, 
is elected Emperor as Ferdinand II.; Freder.ck \ .. 
elector palatine and son-in-law of James I. of Eng- 
land, becomes king of Bohemia. 
The first legislative assembly elected m America 
sits in Vu-ghiia; the same year the cultivation of i 
cotton is begim. 

Negroes are brought by a Dutch vessel to James- 
tovm and are sold as slaves; this event is the 
origin of African slavery Ui the United States. 

1620-1680. Puritan Age of English literature: 
Poetry — Milton (Muior poems lfi29-1637. 
Paradise Lost 1667; Prose works 1641-1654), Her- 
rick Herbert. Daniel; Prose — Bunyan (Pd„Tim s 
Prooress 167S), Burton. Browne, Fuller, Taylor, 
Waiton (Compleal Angler 1653). 

1620-1665. Most brilliant period of Spanish 
drama: Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and Calderon 
delaBarca (1600-16S1). 

1620. Ferdinand II. of Germany is supported by 
the Catholic League: tlie forces of the Protestants . 
are defeated at White Mountahi, m Noven tier. 
The Protestants are massacred m the Valtellma. 
The Pilgrim Fathers of New England land at 
Plymouth, Decemter 21; first permanent Eng- 
lish colony m northern section of the contment. 

1621. Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam, lord chan- 
cellor of England, is impeached on a charge of ac- 
ceptmg bribes and is deprived of his offices. 
Philip IV. ascends Spanish throne; he renews war 
with the Netherlands. . 
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden begms a victori- 
ous campaign of nine years' duration agamst the 
Poles. -^ 

1622. War breaks out between Louis XIII. of 
France and the Huguenots. 
Ferdmand II. and Gdbor Bethlen, prmce of 
Transylvania, who invaded Hungary m 1619, 
conclude a peace at Nikolsburg. 
The Dutch West India Company successfully 
colonizes the New Netherlands. ^ ., , „ . 

1623. Dutch colonists of Manliattan build I'ort 
Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. ^ 

1624 The London Company is abolished ant! V ir- 
ginia is place<l under the direct control of the 
English crown. ^ , u 

1625. The wars of the Huguenots break out afresh 
in France, but a treaty of peace is made with 
Louis XIII. in the followmg year. 



1625 A D.-1679 A. D 



EARLY MODERN PERIOD. 



19 



1625 icoriti,ued). 

The cause of the German Protestants is espoused 
by CbristlaD IV. of Denmark ; he is defeated by 
the Catholics under Tilly at the battle of Lutt«r. 

1638. Charles I. of England, who succeeded his 
fatlier in 1625, is forced to assent to the Petition 
of Blgbt, providing against the abuse of the royal 
prerogative. 

La Rocbelle, stronghold of the Huguenots, after 
resisting the besiegers forayear,is forced to yield. 
Sbab Jaban, son of Jahangir, ascends (he 
throne as Mogul emperor of India. Founds 
modem Delhi and builds the famous Taj Mahal, 
1631-1645 (see T.u MiH.iL. in the DicL). Reigns 
mi til I6.^S. 

16t!t. The Huguenot wars in France are terminated : 
Louis XIII. makes Richelieu liis prime ministi.'r. 
The Edict of Restitution is proclaimed by 
Ferdinand II., whereby the Protestants are or- 
dered to restore to the Catholic Church all the 
property of wliicli it has been dispossessed. A 
peace is concluded with Denmark. 

1630 1700. Seventeenth century period of 
French prose writers: J. G. de Balzac, La Roche- 
foucauld, La Bruyere, Madame de Sevign^, Des- 
cartes, Pascal, Bossuet, Fenelon, Boileau, La 
Fontaine. 

1631. Count Johann Tilly and Count Gottfried Pap- 
penheini, the Imperial generals, storm Magde- 
burg with great atrocities. May 20, Gustavus 
Adolphus. of Sweden, enters the war in Gernian,\- 
and defeats the Imperialist general Tilly al 
Breitenfeld (Septemlwr 17). Gustavus moves for- 
ward to the Rhine. 

1633. Gustavus defeats Tilly at Rain, and enters 
Munich. He besieges Wallenstein, greatest of 
Imperial generals, near Nuremberg, and defeats 
him at Liitzen (November 16), but falls on the 
field of battle. Gustavus is succeeded on the 
throne of Sweden by his daugliter, Christina, 
with Count 0,\enstiern as recent. [terbury.l I 

1633. William Laud is made archbishop of Can-I 
The Swiss cantons and tlie German Protestant 
states form the L'nion of Ileilbronn : they under- [ 
take a war against the Emperor and the Catholics, [ 
but are overcome (1634) at Nordlingen, Sept. 6. 
Galileo. It.>lian scientist, prosecuted by the In- 
quisition for asserting that the world is round. 

1634. Wallcnstein is treacherously murdered at 
Eger, B'ebniary 25. 

1635. Ferdinand II. and the elector of Saxony con- 
clude the Peace of Prague. [and Spahi.l 
Richelieu undertakes a campaign against Austria! 
The French Academy is founded. 

1636. John Hampden refu.ses to pay ship money 
as required by the writs of ship money issued by 
Charles I. of England : the Court of Exchequer re- 
fuses hy a vote of 7 to 5 to sustain his resistance. 
(See SHIP MONEY, in the Diclio/iary.) 

1637. An attempt to hitroduce the English forms 
of worship into Scotland meets with vehement 
resistance. 

1638. The Scots declare the abolition of episco- 
pacy in Scotland and publish the National Cove- 
nant. ' [Rheinfelden.l 
Bernard of Weimar defeats the Imperial army at I 

1639. The National Covenant is defended with 
arms by the Scots. [the Downs. I 
Spaniards defeated by Dutch in a sea battle in | 

1640-1700. Classic period of French drama: 
Rotrou, Comeille (Le Cul 1636), Moliere (V Avare\ 
166S), Racine tAihaUi- 1601). 

1640. The Short Parliament sits in .\pril and [ 
May and is followed by the Long Parliament, • 
which begins its session in November; the Scots 
invade England. i 
Frederick William, the Great Elector, becomes 
ruler of Brandenburg; the foundation of the 
later Prussia. 

Catalonia revolts from Spain; Portugal regains 
her freedom, with John, Duke of Braganza, as 
king, styled John IV. 

1641. Archbishop Laud is Imprisoned in the 
Tower of London; the Earl of Strafford, tlie 
king's adviser, is put to death. In the same 
year the Star Chamber and the Court of High 
Commission are abolished. A rebellion breaks 
out in Ireland. 

Descartes publishes his philosophical system, in 
which the superstructure of all positive knowledge 
is based on self-consciousness. 

164"!. Charles I. of England engages in open war 
with the Parliament; the battle of Edge Hill 
is fought, October 23, without decisive results. 
Richelieu dies. 

Jansen's teaching as to the doctrine of St. Augus- 
tine is condemned by Pope Urban VIII. (See 
J.^NSEMSM, in the Dictionary.) 
Tasman, a Dutch voyager, discovers Van Die- 
men's Land, or Tasmania, and New Zealand. 

1643. The Westminster Assembly, meeting to 
formulate a body of doctrine, continues its session 
until 1649. 

Prince Rupert capturas Bristol; the battle of 
Newbury is fought, September 20; the Parlia- 
ment subscribes to the Solemn League and 



Covenant as a bond between the Scots and the 

English, having for its end the support of Presby- 

terianism in Scotland and a contention for its 

supremacy in England and Ireland. 

Louis XIH. of France is succeeded by iiis minor 

son, the boy Louis XIV., May 14, witli his mother 

Anne of Austria as regent, and Mazariu as 

prime minister. Louis XIV. assumes power in 

1661; reigns till 1715. 

The Duke d'Engliien defeats the Spanish at Ro- 

croi, but the French are beaten by the Imperial 

army at Tuttlingen. 

Sweden is attacked by Christian IV. of Dermiark. 

Torricelli invents the barometer. 

1644. The Scots enter England; at the battle 
of Marston Moor, July 2, the Royalists under 
Prince Rupert are overcome by the allietl armies 
of the Scots and the Parliament; the Covenanters 
are vanquished at Tippermuir. 

The Ming d>-nasty in China overthrown by Man- 
chus invited in to defend a faction. The Manchu 
dynasty thus founded lasts imtil 1912. 
Roger Wilhams secures a patent for the confeder- 
ate government of the colonies of Rhode Island. 

1645. Jan. 10. William Laud, archbishop of 
Canterburj-, having tx^en impeached for treason in 
1643, is beheaded. 

At tlie battle of Naseby, Jime 14, Royalists de- 
feated by Fairfax, assisted by Cromwell and Ireton. 

1646. Charles 1. of England gives himself up to 
the Scots m May; the Prince of Wales seeks ref- 
uge in Holland. 

1647. The Scots deliver Charles I. to the English 
Parliament; he is cast into prison, January 30. 
Masaniello leads an insurrection in Naples. 
Beginning of the Quaker movement by George 
Fox. 

1648. The English Royalists rise in arms for the 
deliverance of Charles I.; they are aided by the 
.Scots, but are defeated by Cromwell. The 
Parliament adopts the Westminster Confession 
of Faith, and the Long Parliament (later desig- 
nated tlie Rump Parliament) is purged by 
Cromwell, [Spain.] 
Independence of Holland is acknowledged byl 
The Thirty Years' War ends; treaties are signed 
at Osnabruck and Miinster, A general treaty is 
signed at Miinster and the Peace of Westphalia 
is completed, October 24. Holland and Switzer- 
land are independent. Alsace is assigned to 
Prance, with Metz, Toul, and Verdun; Sweden re- 
ceives German Baltic territory; Sa,xony is mucli 
enlarged; the Upper Palatinate is apportioned to 
Bavaria; and a new electorate is instituted for the 
Rhine Palatinate. The Catholic, the Lutheran, 
and the Reformed creeds in Germany are recog- 
nized in full equality. The ecclesiastical connec- 
tion of the states becomes definitely fixed on the 
principle of cujus regio ejus religio [Latin, " the 
ruler establishes the religion "] . each prince or city 
to decide what the faith of tlie people shall be. 
Since 164S no European nation has formally and 
permanently changed its religion. The political 
status of Modern Europe is in large measure de- 
termined by this treaty. The principle of the 
balance of power, asserted at various times in 
ancient and medieval iiistory, receives confirma- 
tion and may be said to have become established 
as a part of international law. 

1648-1689. Decay of Poland, due to decline of 
royal power and the weakness and confusion of ttie 
Diet. Tills body, composed of a senate of bish- 
ops, voivodes, and castellans, and a Ixidy of rep- 
resentatives chosen by the total nobility, leaves 
the common people out of accoimt. It elects the 
king, makes war, and passes laws: but the Slav 
principle of unanimous consent (liberum veto) 
makes imity impossible. Rivalry, force, and the 
machinations of outside sovereigns eventually 
bring about anarchy. 

ERA OF LOmS FOURTEENTH. 

1649. England nominally a republic, the 

" Commonwealth," in whose name acts are done 
and " Ordinances " passed by Parliament. Mili- 
tary authority comes in: the Protectorate (1653) 
becomes virtually a monarchy. 

1653. July 8. Naval war between England and 
Holland. Ends in 16,54. 

1654. Charles X. becomes king of Sweden. 
He invades Poland in 1655. War ends m 1660. 
Air pump invented by von Guericke. 

1655. Alexander VII. pope. 

1656. Russia, Denmark, and the Emperor declare 
war on Sweden; joined by the elector of Bran- 
denburg. 

1657. Poland in the Treaty of Wehlau recognizes 
the elector's sovereignty over East Prussia. 

1658. Aurangzeb, Mogul emperor. A long and 
splendid reign, renowned for its buildings and arts, 
which continues till 1707. 

Dutch of New Netherland annex the Swedish pos- 
sessions on the Delaware : end of Swedish power on 
the continent of Nortli America. 

1659. Peace of the Pyrenees (France and Spain) 
includes marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria 



Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. Basis 
of later claim of Louis- of right to dispose of 
Spanish crown. 
1660 1700. Period of the Restoration in Eng- 
lish literature: Poetry — Dryden (Absalom 
and Achitophel 16S1), Butler (lluilibras 1603); 
Drama — Congreve, Otway, Wycherley; Prose 

— Pepys {Diary 1660-1669), Evelj-n, Hobbes 
(Leriathan 1651), Locke. First English news- 
paper. Public Jntellir/encer. 1663. Followed by 
Publick Occurrences (Boston, IMasS-, 1690). 

1660. Peace of Copenhagen; Denryark surren- 
ders to Sweden southern part of the Scandinavian 
peninsula. Never again lost. 

May S. Peace of Oliva (Sweden with Poland, 
Brandenburg, and Holy Roman Empire) ; Livonia 
to Sweden, East Prussia to Brandenburg. 

1661. Cliinese emperor Kang-hi conies to the 
tlirone; reigns till 1721. Conquers Tibet and 
Formosa. For first time China is involved with 
a European power; war with Russia (1GS4- 
l(i89). Reign noted for science and literature. 
French and English traders settle at Canton. 
Death of Mazarin. Beginning of personal gov- 
ernment of Louis XIV., a spirited yoimg prince 
who at once forms plans of war and conquest (" Le 
Grand Monarque "). 

Bombay is part of the dowry of Catherine of 
Braganza; ceded to England in 1665. Granted 
to the East India Company in 1668. 
1G63. The Diet of the Holy Roman Empire fixed 
formally at Regensburg (Ratisbon), which remains 
the legislative capital. 

1665. Feb. Si. Englandatwarwith Holland, due 
to rivalry of trade and colonies. New Amsterdam 
(captured in 16fi4) becomes New York; con- 
firmed, 1667, at end of war. 

April. Plague in London; great loss of life. 

1666. Jan. 16. War breaks out with France; 
ends in 1667. 

1667. July 31. Peace of Breda (England, Hol- 
land, France). Acadia returned to Franci', Init 
she loses some West India islands; England cides 
Surinam to the Dutch. 

Clement IX. pope. [deposcd-1 

Portuguese revolution at Lisbon. King Pedro II , | 

1668. Reflecting telescope made by Newton. 
Jan. ~'S. Triple Alliance (England, Holland, 

and Sweden) formed to check Louis XIV., who 
buys off Charles II., king of England, by a secret 
subsidy treaty (1670). 

May 2. Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle (France, 
Spain) stops war; question of claims to Spanish 
crown postponed. 

1669. Crete taken from Venice by the Turks, who 
hold it tiU 189S. 

1670. Clement X. pope. 

Hudson's Bay Company chartered by the Brit- 
ish crown. Sets up himtjng and trading posts on 
the watershed of Hudson Bay and subsequently 
west of the mountains. Charter given up in 1S69 
as a territorial authority. Still continues in trade. 

1673. Third war of England against Holland. 
Ends in 1674. Made possible by influence of 
France over Charles II. [of ZaraMio. 1(576 I 

Tm-ksmakewaron Poland. Defeated 1673. Peace! 
Augusi. Mob kills the De Witt brothers, lead- 
ers of the aristocratic republican party in Holland. 
Question of war or peace with France. 

1675. June 18. Battle of Fehrbellin. Frederick 
William, " The Great Elector " of Brandenburg, 
defeats the Swedish allies of Louis XIV., and 
tlius establishes Brandenl:nirg as a European power 

— predecessor of Prussia. War ends in 1679. 
St. Paul's, London, begtm, from designs of Chris- 
topher Wren. Completed in 1710. 

1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, 
eldest daughter of the Duke of York, who later be- 
comes King James II. of England. Makes possi- 
ble the later revolution in England and the organi- 
zation of opposition to Louis XIV. 

1678. Turkey, which has now subjugated most of 
Hungary, Moldavia, and Wallaclua, pushes north- 
east and engages in the first war with Russia. 
This reveals the great rivalry between the two na- 
tions. 

" Popish Plot " excitement in England. Marks 
revival of Cathohc-Protestarit rivalries. 
1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen (Nijmegen), a 
series of treaties which brought to a close the 
war between the French and the Dutch and their 
allies caused by Ixiuis XIV.'s invasion of the 
Netherlands in 1672. It made various territo- 
rial adjustments and included a treaty between 
France and Holland (.\ug. 10, 1S7.S), to which 
was annexed a separate commercial treaty; one 
between France and Spain (Sept. 17, 1678): one 
between the Emperor and France and Sweden 
(Feb. 6, 16791; and one between Holland and 
Sweden (Oct. 12. 1679); also, the following trea- 
ties: atFontainebleau, between France and Den- 
mark (Sept. 2, 1679); at Lund, between Denmark 
and Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 

1679. Ju7ie 211. Peace of Saint-Germain (Bran- 
denburg and Louis XIV., in name of S\^eden) 
German territory (Pomerania) restored to Sweden. 



20 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1680 A. D. — 1740 A. D. 



1080? Tramways with wooden rails used near 
M Newcastle, Enyland. 

1682. Discovery and exiiloration of the lower Mis- 
sissippi by La Salle for France. He names the 
region Louisiana, for Louis XIV. (April 9). 

less. Siege of Vienna. Successful relief by joint 
German and Polish army under Charles of Lor- 
raine and Jolm Sobieski. king of Poland. Far- 
tliest point of Turiiish advance and beginning of 

Owithdrawai. 
French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, 
occupation of Luxemburg, and seiziu-e of Treves 
(Trier) (1684). Lorraine permanently occupied 
by France, but Treves is given up. 

1684. Truce of Begensburg (Louis XIV. retains 
all the " reimions " made up to August 1, 1681, 
including Strassbiu-g, which is held till 1871). 

1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Many 
P Huguenots emigrate to England, Holland, and 

Germany; and some to the English colonies, in 
spite of prohibition. Protestant services are for- 
bidden and Protestants not to engage in professions 
or arms. Enforced by dragomiades, with quarter- 
ing of licentious soldiery in Protestant houses. 

1686. Foundation of Caicutta, in India. 

Buda, capital of Himgary, retalien by Austrians 

Q after being held by tlie Turks 145 years. Perma- 

nent loss of west of Himgary for the Turks. 
League of Augsburg (Holy Roman Emperor, 
Sweden, Spain, Holland, and German states) 
against France. Louis XIV. at once invades 
Palatinate and his army frightfully ravages the 
coimtry. Leaves deep impression of the terrors 
of French conquest. 
—^ 168J. Aug. 12. Battle of Harkiny. Most impor- 

R tant single e\ent in overthrow of Turkish as- 

cendancy in Hungary. 

Joseph I. of Austria crowned king of Hungary. 
Principia published by Sir Isaac Newton (theory 
of attraction of gravitation). 
1688. ttevolution in Engiand. James II. driven 
out, and received by Louis XIV. William, stad- 
holder of Holland, lands and assiunes power. 

S ERA OF GRAND ALLIANCE. 

1689-1748. England develops a navy to protect 
her commerce and colonies, wliich subsequently 
is to serve as her favorite instrument in war. 
France, Spain, and the northern sea powers lose 
prestige. In all wars privateers freely used to 
destroy enemy's commerce. Islands and other 

_— coast colonies frequently change hands. 

I 16S9. Peter I., " tlie Great," reigns as sole monarch 

of Russia (till 1725). 

William III. and Mary (imtil 1694), sovereigns 
of England, by will of Parliament. William reigns 
solely from 1604 tiU 1702. 

Grand Alliance against France, on principle of 
** balance of power " in Eiu-ope. Engineered 
by William III.; includes Holy Roman Emperor, 

I! Sweden, England, Holland, small German states, 

and Savoy. Resulting war continues till 1697. 
Alexander VIII. pope. 

May 7. England at war with France. 

1690. War extends to America. Port Royal taken 
by a colonial expedition (see United States). 

1691. Innocent XII. pope. IHoly Roman Empire.! 
169?. Hanover l)ecomes the ninth electorate in the] 

V Witchcraft trials in New England. Revulsion 

there and m Europe follows, 
1093. National debt of England begins by a 

loan made by associated goldsmiths. 
1694. Bank of England founded. First modem 

national bank. 
1697-1698. Peter the Great undertakes a journey, 
for his instruction, tlirough Germany to Holland. 
Works as ship carpenter in Saardam (Zaandam), 
y^ and afterwards goes to England. 

1697. Charles XII. king of Sweden. A great sol- 
dier and conqueror; in a war with Russia advances 
as far as present Ukraine. Reigns till 1718. 
Peace of Eyswick (France, England, Spam, Hol- 
land). Ends the long war against Louis XIV., 
who formally recognizes the Protestant sovereign 
of England. Mutual restoration of conquests. 

X Proves only a breathing space. 

Augustus II. » elector of Saxony, becomes king 
of Poland after the death of John Sobieski, and 
adopts the Catholic faith of the coimtry. 

1698. First Treaty of Partition of Spain (Eng- 
land, France, and Holland). Foreseeing the death 
of Charles II. of Spain without heirs, they propose 
to recognize Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria as sov- 
ereign of Spain, India, and Spanish Netherlands; 

Y and to apportion other Spanish dependencies. 

Never carried out. 

March. Darien settlement on isthmus of Pan- 
ama, foimded by Paterson for a company of Scot- 
tish subscribers. Expects it to become a world- 
commercial city. England does not support him ; 
colony fails in 1700. 
1099. Jan. 28. Peace of Karlowitz (Turkey, Aus- 

Ztria, Venice). Turkey yields all Hungary except 
TemesvAr; and also cedes the Morea (peninsula of 
Greece) to Venice. 
1700-1750. Age of Voltaire: Voltaire { Henriade 



1728; Zaire 1732), Saint^Simon, Fontenelle, Vau- 
venargues, Montesquieu (Esprit des lots 1748), 
Le Sage (.Gil Bias 1735), Abb6 Prevost. 
1700-1745. Early Eighteenth Century of Eng- 
lish literature, sometimes called the Age of Pope: 
Poetry — Pope (Essay on Man 1732-1734), Yoimg 
(Night Thoughts 1742-1745), Watts (Hymns 1707), 
Thomson (Seasons 1726-1730); Prose — Addison 
(Sijectalor 1711-1712), Steele, Swift (GuUivers 
Travels 1726), Defoe (Robinson Crusoe 1719). 

1700. Clement XL pope. 

A'or. 1. Death of Charles II. As he is child- 
less, a great dispute about the Spanish Succes- 
sion arises. Louis XIV. claims through his wife 
Maria Theresa, older sister of Charles, but Louis at 
the marriage renounced all claims to the throne for 
liis descendants. Leopold I., Emperor, claims 
tlirough his marriage to Margaret Theresa, 
younger sister of Charles II. Louis insists that his 
grandson Philip of Anjou (who is eventually 
seated) is the rightfid heir. Leopold puts forward 
his second son Charles. Joseph Ferdinand, 
electoral prince of Bavaria and grandson of Mar- 
garet Theresa tlu'ough his mother (Maria An- 
toinette), claims also to be rightful heir, but dies 
Fel3ruary6, 1699. (partition treaty. I 

Nov. 13. France and England make a second I 
Pliilip of Anjou, designated by will of Charles as 
heir to the throne, goes to Spain and becomes king 
as Philip V. [over the Russians at Narva. I 

Non. 30. Victory of Charles XII. of Sweden! 

1701. . Frederick 111. of Brandenburg assumes 
title of " King of Prussia, wiiich is a possession 
not in the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor ap- 
proves, and Frederick crowns himself as Frederick 
I. at Konigsberg, thus establishing the Hohen- 
zollern dynasty, wliich lasts till 1918. 

Sevt. 17. Second Grand Alliance (Emperor, 
England, Holland, German states, Portugal, Sa- 
voy) against France. The real issue is whether 
IiYance shall control the na\'y and colonies of 
Spain. War rages in northern, central, and south- 
ern Europe and in America. Lasts till 1713. 

1702. Anne, second daughter of James II.. wife of 
Prince George of Denmark, becomes queen of 
England on the death of WiUiam III, (March 8). 
Reigns till 1714, Becomes patroness of Churchill, 
made Duke of Marlliorough, the principal British 
commander in this period. 

Pubhcation of Cotton Mather's Magnolia; first 
comprehensive ^Vmerican work. 

1703. Peter the Great establishes the capital of 
Russia at the new city of St. Petersburg (now 
Petrograd) near the Baltic. [land, I 

1704. Stanislas Leszczynski elected king of Po-I 
Gibraltar taken by Rooke and auxiliary Dutch 
troops. Becomes the greatest naval fortress of 
Great Britain; still held in 1920, 

Aug. IS. Battle of HocJistiidt and Blindheim 
(Blenheim). Eugene and Marlborough defeat 
the French. 

1705. Death of Emperor Leopold I. His son Jo- 
seph I. becomes Emperor. Jo.seph's younger 
brother Charles is Austrian candidate for throne 
of Spain, supported by the .\Uiance. [millles.l 

1706. May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ka-I 
Se-pt. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin. 

Sept. H. Peace of Altranstadt between 
Sw'eden and Augustus II, of Poland and Saxony. 
Augustus renoimces tlirone of Poland in favor of 
.Stanislas LeszczjTiski 

1707. Mayl. Union of Engiand and Scotland 
imder the name of Great Britain goes into effect- 
One Parhament, but Scottish laws continue in 
effect. Scotland oflficially called North Britain. 
Scotchmen thenceforth prominent in the activities 
of the empire, [Quickly suppressed, I 

1708. Revolt of the Cossack leader Mazeppa. I 
July 11. French defeated at Oudenarde. 

1709. July 8. Russian victory at Poltava, wliich 
establishes Peter s approach to the Baltic, and de- 
stroys the Swedish power in eastern Eiu'ope. 
Charles XII. joins the Turks. 

Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough defeat the 
French at Malplaquet. 

1711. Charles, brother of Joseph, .succeeds on 
Joseph's death as Emperor of the Holy Roman 
Empire and sovereign of Austria and Himgary. 
Reigns tUl 1740, His accession to the Imperial 
tlirone destroj'S the interest of the allies in Ills 
claim to Spain, Hence the Grand .Alliance ends. 
Czar Peter makes the Peace of the Pruth by 
bribing the Turks. Ends the war with Sweden 
and Charles XII. is allowed to return home. 

1713. Frederick William I., son of Frederick I., 
king of Prussia. Builds up an effective army; a 
harsh sovereign and parent. Reigns till 1740. 

April 11. Peace of Utrecht (several docu- 
ments), Philip V. recognized as rightful sover- 
eign of Spain, Spanish Netherlands go to Aus- 
tria. Spain grants asslento (slave-trade privi- 
lege) to English, who receive territory in America 
from France. Emperor refuses to recognize 
Pliiiip, but makes peace with France (Rastatt and 
Baden; March-September). Spain thencefor- 
ward pursues an independent pohcy; and after 



death of Louis XIV. in 1715, France is weak. 
The expected combmation of the two states fails. 
April 19. Charles VI. establishes succession 
m Ills Austrian and Hmigarian domains (" Prag- 
matic Sanction"). All lands belongmg to the 
Austrian group of states to be mdi visible ; in case 
of lack of male heirs, Charles's daughters should 
inlicrit. Eldest was Maria Theresa. Their heirs 
should follow in primogeniture. 

ERA OF BALANCE OF PO'WERS. 
1714-1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 
1716 with the Emperor. Easy conquest of Morea 
by the Tiu-ks. 

1714. George, Elector of Hanover, becomes king 
of England (as George I.) by descent from So- 
phia, granddaughter of James I., on death of 
Queen Anne. Lands in England, September 14, 
and. is accepted as king by the ^\^ligs, who are in 
power. Personal union of Great Britain and Han- 
over wliich lasts tUl 1830. Till 1745 repeated 
plots of the "Jacobites." 

1715. Louis XV. becomes king of France at age of 
Ave years; great-gi-andson of Louis XIV, Long 
regency, which is a weak and profligate govern- 
ment, Louis reigns till 1774. 

Barrier Treaty (Kiigland. Austria, Netherlands). 

1716. Aug. a. Defeat of Turks (Austro- Venetian 
war against Turkey) by Prince Eugene at Peter- 
wardein (Hungary). 

1717. Yoshimune, one of the ablest of the Toku- 
gawa clan, becomes shogun, the actual luler 
of Japan, though the mikado is titular emperor. 
Reigns tiU 1744. 

1718-1720. " Mississippi Bubble." Speculation 
in France of Jolm Law. Seeks to exploit the re- 
sources of Louisiana ; includes issue of paper money. 
Fails disastrously. 

1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Pozare- 
vac) between the Turks. Venice, and the Empu'e. 
Turks accept the loss of Hungary; also cede 
Serbia (Belgrade), northern Bosnia, and Little 
Wallachia. Venice cedes the Morea to Turkey, 
but keeps posts in Albania and Dalmatia, 

Aug. 2. Quadruple Alliance (France, Eng- 
land, the Emperor, and after 1719, Holland), 
Object, to support the settlement of the Peace of 
Utrecht. Holland nominally governed by their 
High Mightinesses the States-General, as a fed- 
eration, drifts into a kind of limited monarchy 
under the House of Orange. 

Dec. 11. Charles XII. of Sweden assassinated. 
1721. Peter assumes the title "Czar of all the 
Russias," first borne by Ivan the Terrible. 
Inoculation as a preventive of severe smallpox 
introduced into England by Lady Montagu. A 
palliative of a world scourge. 

Aug. SO. Peace of Nystad (Sweden and Rus- 
sia). Sweden cedes Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia, 
and eastern Finland with Viborg. thus abandonuig 
control of Baltic Provhices. End of significance 
of Sweden in eastern Europe. 

1723. Louis XV. assumes the government, and the 
regency comes to an end. 

1724-1800. Revival of Italian drama: Metastasio, 
Goldoni, Alfieri. 

1724. Benedict XIII. pope. 

1725. Catherine I., widow of Peter, assumes the 
tlirone m Russia. Accepts the advice of Menshi- 
kov, trusted by Peter. Reigns till 1727, 

1727. June 1. George II. assumes the crown of 
England on death of his fatlier, George I. 

Peter II. of Russia, grandson of Peter I,, becomes 
titular emperor, at 12 years of age. Reigns till 1730. 

1728. Bering Strait discovered and named by 
Bering, a Dane in Russian service. 

1730-1800. Methodism in England. An attempt 
to reform Church of England; results in anew 
nonconformist church (" Wesleyan"). John and 
Charles Wesley leaders. The Wesleys and White- 
fleld visit the English colonies of North America. 

1730. Clement XII. pope. 
Anna Ivanovna. yoimger daughter of the elder 
brother of Peter the Great, empress of Russia. 

1733. Augustus II., king of Poland, dies. War of 
Polish Succession follows. Diet prevented from 
seeking a national candidate. A king, Frederick 
Augustus (Augustus III.), chosen by external 
pressure w^hich is reducing Poland to impotence. 

1735. Linnfeus publishes Ills Systema Naturae. A 
great step in scientiflc research and classification. 

1738. Nor. IS. Peace of Vieniia. Atendof Pol- 
ish War; Lorraine ceded to France (for Stanislas). 

1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia. 
Sackof Dellii. 

ERA OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

1740. Ivan VI., son of Anna of Brunswick, is czar of 
Russia. Reigns only a year. 

At death of Charles VI., Maria Theresa, his 
daughter, becomes queen of the Austrian lands. 
As a woman cannot take the Empire. Charles Al- 
bert of Bavaria is made Emperor (1742) and also 
coregent of the Austrian lands from 1740. 
At death of Frederick William I. of Prussia, his son 
Frederick II. (" the Great ") becomes king and 



1740 A. D. 1795 A. D. 



EARLY MODERN PERIOD. 



21 



1740 UorUinue^l). 

begins the War of the Austrian Succession, or flrst 

Silesian War. 
17«. Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the 

Great, empress of Russia. Reigns til! 1762. 

Mainland of Alaska discovered hy Bering and 

Chirikov. Settlements on Kodiak Island m 1784 

and Baranof Island (Sitka) in 1709. 
1743. May, July. Separate Peace of Breslau and 

Berlin between Austria and Prussia ends first 

.Silesian War. o 

1743. May 7. Peace of Abo (Sweden and Rus- 
sia): ends war brought on by the "Hats" of 
Sweden. Czarina Elizabeth victorious, yet agrees 
to surrender most of Fmland if her cousin. Adol- 
phus Frederick of Holsteln, is made heir to Swed- 
ish crovni. He succeeds in 1751. [Dettingen.l 

June er. Allies defeat French m battle ofl 

1744. Frederick of Prussia beguis second Silesian 
War. War between Great Britain and France in 
America called King George's War; is another 
installment of War of the Austrian Succession. 
In 174.T British navy and colonists take Louisburg 
(Cape Breton). War lasts till 1748. 

1745-1798. Latter half of Eighteenth Century of 
English literature; the Age of Johnson : Prose — 
Johnson {Lives of the English Poets 1779-1781), 
Hume, Gibbon, Bui'ke; Richardson (.Pamela 1740), 
Fieldmg (Tom Jones 1749), Smollett (Roderick 
Jiandom 1748), Sterne (SentimentalJ ourney 1768), 
Goldsmith (Vicar of Wakefield 1766): Poetry — 
Cowper (The Task 1785), Gray (Elegy 1751). Gold- 
smith (Traveler 1765: Deserted Village 1770); 
Drama — Goldsmith (She Stoops to Conquer 
1774), Sheridan {Rivals 1775). 

1743. ^:raneis I., husband of Maria Theresa, Em- 
peror. Reigns till 1765. 

January. Alliance between Austria, Sa.xony, 
England, and Holland against Prussia. 

April 2S. Separate Peace of Fiissen. Elector 
of Bavaria obtains restitution of his doojinions by 
acknowledging pragmatic sanction and supporting 
Imperial candidacy of Maria Theresa's husband. 

May 11. French victory of Fontenoy (" Irish 
Brigade ") over alhes. 

Dec. 2d. Peace of Dresden between Prussia 
and Austria (Saxony) ends second Silesian War. 

174G. Captiu-e of Madras by the French: restored 

. by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1748. 

1748-1832. Golden Era of German literature 
- and pliilosophy: Klopstock (Messias 1748), Les- 
sing (Minna von Barnhelm 1767), Wieland. Her- 
der, Goethe (Faust 1790. 1831), Schiller (Wilhelm 
Tell 1804), Richter: Kant (Critique of Pure Reason 
1781), Fichte, Hegel, the Schlegels. 

1748. Oct. 18. Peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle (Great 
Britain. France. Austria, Sardmia. Prussia. Spain. 
Holland); ends War of the Austrian Successioji. 
General rastitution of conquests: Parma. Piacenza, 
and Guastalla to Don Philip, restoration of Duke 
of Modena and republic of Genoa, recognition of 
pragmatic sanction and of Emperor Francis. Si- 
lesia guaranteed to Prussia. 

1750-1800. Period of the Revolution in French 
literature (includes also Rousseau and the En- 
cyclopedists): Buffon. Beaumarchais (Le Mariage 
de Figaro 1778). Bemardin de Saint-Pierre (Paul 
el Virginie 1787), Andre Chenier, M. J. Chenier. 

1751-1785. The Encyclopedists m France: Diderot 
and D'Alembert (see enxyclopedist. in the Did.) . 

1751. War between French and British in India. 
Defense of Arcot by Olive. War lasts till 1760. 

1753. England introduces the Gregorian calendar, 
already long used on the Continent. 
Franklin's discoveries in electricity. 

1754. Hostilities in upper Oliio Valley between 
English {George Washington) and Frencli devel- 
op into French and Indian War (see United 
States). [publislied.l 

1755. Joimson's Dictionary of the English Language] 
1756-1763. " Seven Years' War " to preserve 

balance of power among European states begins. 
Includes American (French and Indian) War and 
also hostilities In Asia and Africa. Fredericlt the 
Great again fights Austria. 

1757. Frederick the Great is almost crushed by 
Austrians and Russians, but is relieved by death 
of his enemy. Elizabeth of Russia, whose succes- 
sor, Peter III., withdraws Russian troops. 

War rages on the sea. with many naval battles. 
Great Britain in 1757 seems worsted, but revives 
imder William Pitt lEarl of Chatham), who re- 
organizes the management of tlie army and navy. 
Spain comes into the war in 1762. 

June 23. Clive at Piassey defeats great army 
of Siraj-ud-Daula. Nawab of Bengal. Establishes 
English supremacy in India. 

1758. Clement XIII. pope. 

1760. George III., son of George II.. first of the 
Hanoverian sovereigns bom in England , Pursues 
a policy of asserting royal power, combined with 
bribery of members of Parliament. The Whig 
nobles, who have directed the government since 
1689. lose prestige. George III. reigns till 1811 
when he goes insane: and his grandson George is 
regent till the king's death (1820). 



1761-1763. PubUcation of J. J. Rousseau's La 
nouvelle H^lolse, Le control social (" The Bible Of 
the French Revolution"), and £milc; of great 
influence in ecUication and social life. 

1761. Duke of Bridgewater's Canal in England. 
Is at about the beginning of an era of canal build- 
ing in Europe, whicli lasts till railroads come. 

1763. May S. Peace of St. Petersburg. Russia 
restores her conquests to Prussia. 

1763. Captain Cooli's voyages in the Pacific, in- 
cluding islands and parts of the northwest coast of 
America. The voyages continue till 1778. 

Feb. 10. Peace of Paris (Great Britain. France, 
and Spain). England gets Canada and Louisi- 
ana, east of Mississippi, from France; also Mi- 
norca, Dominica. Grenada, St. Vincent. Tobago, 
and Senegal. England restores conquests in India 
to France, also Goree. Guadeloupe. Martinique. 
Saint-Pierre, and Miquelon, and cedes St. Lucia 
to her. She gets Florida from Spain, restoring 
Cui^a and Manila. The war a terrible defeat for 
France by sea and land: destroys lier colonial 
empire. 

Feh. lo. Peace of Hubertsburg between the 
Empire and Central Eiu*opean powers. Termi- 
nates war in Central Europe. 

1764. Stanislas Poniatuwski king of Poland 
Last of the Polish sovereigns. Reigns till 1795. 

1765. Joseph II. Holy Roman Emperor and also 
sovereign of the Austrian lands. Reigns till 1790. 
Appearance of Blackstone's Cormnenlaries in 
England. Has great influence over field of law 
and government in England and the colonies. 

1767. James Hargreaves invents the spinning 
jenny, followed by Arkwright's spinning frame 
(1769). Crompton's mule spinner (1779). and 
Cartwright's power loom (1785). These inven- 
tions revolutionize the textile industries. 

1768. Catherine II., a German princess, widow of 
Czar Peter, becomes the greatest sovereign of 
Russia (ne.xt to Peter the Great) . A ruler of great 
energy: rules tlu'ough ministerial favorites. 

1769. Steam engine Invented by Watt. Even- 
tually revolutionizes industrj-. [edition).] 

1771. Encyclopedia Brltannica published (first I 
1773. Poland deprived of territory by Russia. 
Austria, and Prussia in the flrst partition: each 
of the three annexes a belt of territory. 

1773. Pope Clement aJjoiishes the order of Jesuits. 

1774. Warren Hastings governor-gen. of India. 
Later accused of oppression and unsuccessfully 
impeached in England. Recalled in 1785. 

July 12. Peace of Kiichiik Kainarja (Tur- 
•"key and Russia). Turkey renoimces suzerainty 
over Crimea and elsewhere in Black Sea region, 
and gives Russia indefinite right to protect the 
Orthodox churches in Turkish Enipire. 
Oxygen is discovered by Priestley in England (who 
called it dcphlogisticated air) and by Scheele. 

ERA OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
1775-1800. American political philosophers, 
statesmen, and writers. j^mesiOtis, Thomas 
Paine (Common Sense 1776; 'Age of^Reason 1794). 
Alexander Hamilton. Thomas Jefferson (Declara- 
tion of Independence 1776). Francis Hopkinson. 
Noah Webster. George "Washington. Benjamm 

Franklin (Aufobiography). 

1775-1783. War of Independence of the British 
Colonies in North America. SccL^mted States 
France allies with the colonies (1778), and Spain 
aids them. Holland goes into the war in 1780 and 
makes a treaty with the United States in 1782 
Many naval battles. France loses most of her com- 
mercial marine. Continental Congress as a federal 
government directs national affairs of the thirteen 
colonies till 1781, when Articles of Confederation 
go into effect. This is the first American nation: 
it is foimded on the right of revolution, denies 
the divine right of kings, establishes a successful 
democracy, and creates a workable federation. 

1775. Pius VI. is pope. 

1776. Appearance of Adam Smith's Wealth of Na- 
tions, tirst systematic treatise on the economic or- 
ganization of society. 

July 4. Adoption of Declaration of Inde- 
pendence by the American Congress, Formally 
signed August 2. First official use of term L^nited 
States of America. A model for many revolu- 
tionary bodies in other countries, and a land- 
mark in the history of liberty. 
1778-1779. War of the Bavarian Succession, 
resulting from Joseph II. 's (see 1765) attempt to 
acquire territory in Bavaria. 

1779. May IS. Peace of Teschen settles the 
differences arising from the Bavarian question. 
Palatinate and Bavaria being united. 

Sept. 23. John Paul Jones defeats and 
captures British ship Serapis off English coast. 
First decisive naval victory of the United States. 

1780. Reforms of Joseph II. in Austrian lands. 
Freedom of religion, suppression of monasteries, 
etc. Ahead of his time. Dies. 1790: reforms fail. 
Declaration of Armed Neutrality (Russia. Den- 
mark, and Sweden) to protect neutral flags from 
right of search claimed by Great Britain. 



United States invited to come in. but never actu- 
ally ratifies. Partlj' checks the British practices. 

1783. Nov. SO. Peace of Versailles and Paris 
(definitive treaty same terms Sept. 3. 17,S3) (Great 
Britain and United States, and separately with 
France and Spain). Independence of United 
States together with very favorable western 
boitndary (Mississippi River): Senegal to France; 
Minorca and Florida to Spam. Acknowledges 
the new order of things in the Western Hemi- 
sphere. Is followed by recognition of the United 
States by most civilized nations. 

1784. Feb. 2. Ship Ejnpress starts on a voyage 
from New York to Chma: arrives jMay 14, 17S5, 
and opens up Oriental trade to the United States. 

1785. July. League of the German Princes 
(Prussia. Saxony and Hanover. Brun.swick. Mamz, 
Hesse-Cassel. Baden. ^MecklenburgxAnlialt. and 
the Thuringian lands). Intended as a substitute 
for the decaying Empire. 

1786. Aug. IT. Death of Frederick the Great. 
Succeeded by Kmg Frederick William II., who 
reigns till 1797. 

1787. Drafting of the Constitution of the 
United States by the Federal Convention (ISlay 
5-Sept. 17). It is ratified by tlie States (1787- 
1790). Goes into effect in 1789. Becomes a 
model for federal governments in other coimtries. 
Catherine's second war with the Turks: caused by 
Russian claims in Georgia and her annexation of 
the Crimea. Austria aids Russia. Ends in 1792. 
Triple Alliance (Prussia. Great Britain. Holland) 
opposed to aggrandizement of Russia and Austria. 
Austria later abandons Russian alliance and 
makes peace with Turkey (Sistova. Aug 4. 1791). 

1788. Swedish war with Russia, in Russian Fin- 
land. Ends in 1790. (stored for the time. I 
Austrian Netherlands revolt. Authority re-l 
London Times newspaperestablished. Becomes 
a great pohtical force. 

1789. AijrilS. George Washington president of the 
United States; serves till 1797. 

ERA OF FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

1789. June 17. I Oath of the Tennis Court, which 
marks the beginning of the French Revolution 
and the rise of antimonarchical spirit in Euroje. 
Develops into a Constituent Assembly, which 
draws up a constitution on the general model of 
Great Britain. Mirabeau is the leading figure. 

1790. On death of Joseph II . Leopold II. becomes 
Emperor and king. Reigns till 1792. 

1791. Warning against Revolution by Confer- 
ence of Pillnitz (Leopold II. and Frederick Wil- 
liam II.). Beginning of coalition against France. 

Oct. 1. French Legislative Assembly meets: 
practically the government of France under a 
limited monarchy. Lasts till September, 1792. 

1793. Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy between Russia and 
Turkey. Danger of a European war over Eastern 
question. England and Prussia both threaten Cath- 
erine. War by Austria and Prussia against 
France. Offensive manifesto of Duke of 
Brunswick. French take Austrian Netherlands, 
but lose them again. Allied successes lead to 
massacres in French prisons (September 2) and 
to proclamation of a republic (September 21). 
Tide turAs in favor of French arms in 1793. 

September. National Convention of the French 
Repubhc. Lasts till October, 1795. Louis XVI. 
(Capet) eiecuted January 21. 1793. 

1793-1797. First coalition agamst France (Great 
Britam, Austria. Prussia, the German Empire, 
Spain. Holland, and other smaller states). 

1793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. .System 
of Committee of Public Safety. Revolutionary 
tribunals and public guillotining. Robespierre, 
extreme radical, falls July 27. 1794; is executed. 

1793. April 22. Neutrality proclamation of 
President Washington. Beginning of policy of 
keeping out of European complications, and new 
assertion of the status of neutrals. 

Sept. 23. Second partition of Poland by 
Russia and Prussia. Prussia gets Posen. Danzig, 
and Thoi'n. Ru.ssia gets all the eastern provinces 
from Livonia to Moldavia. 

In Haiti freedom for Negroes proclaimed by 
French Convention. Later withdrawn. 
First British embassy (Lord George Macartney) 
to China. [cotton culture). 

Whitney patents his cotton gin (revolutionizes] 

1794. Nov. 19. Jay Treaty (Great Britain and 
the ITnited States): neutral trade, botmdaries, 
commerce. Followed by treaty with Spain 
(1795): boimdaries, Mississippi navigation, com- 
merce. These treaties give the United States the 
full status of a member of the then existing family 
of nations, and open up international commerce. 
Polish revolt imder Kosciusko, who is defeated 
at Maciejowice. Last effort, to save the nation, 

1795. French invade Austrian Netherlands and 
states of Holland. Batavian Republic setup; 
under French control in various forms till 1814. 
Final partition of Poland (Ru.ssia. Prussia, and 
Austria). The kingdom extirpated: but the peo- 
ple adhere to their language, religion, and national 



22 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1795 A. D. - 1814 A. D. 



N 



R 



U 



V 



W 



1795 (continued). 

traditions. Kussia assured possession of the Bal- 
t.c Provinces. Ition of the Niger. I 

Mungo Park, African traveler, tiegins explora-l 
April 0. Peace of Basel (Prance and German 
states) . Prussia cedes west bank Kliine to France. 
July. Peace of Basel with Spain (France and 
Spain). Slaiu.^ quo, except cession of Santo Do- 
mingo to France. 

Oct. S. Directory established in France Ijy 
Constitution in face of Parisian insurrection, sup- 
pressed ctiiefly by Bonaparte. Directory sup- 
ported by popular desire for peace, order, and prop- 
erty. Aclniowledges personal rights won by revo- 
hition, but is an oligarchy supiwrted by bayonets. 

179l>-17»3. General Bonaparte makes a daring 
campaign in Italy. Crushes the Sardinians, 
beats the Italians (Lodi), and forces the pope to 
cede part of the papal territory. 

1796. Dr. Jenner begins to practice vaccination, 
wliich slowly supersedes inoculation, and reduces 
the dreaded smallpox. 

May IS. Peace between France and Sardinia, 
the latter ceding Savoy and Nice. 

1797. John Adams president of the United States 
till 1801. X Y Z episode with France. 
Napoleon's Alpine and Italian campaign. Vene- 
tian Republic fails. 

Frederick William II. of Prussia dies. Fredericli 
William III. .succeeds; reigns till 1840. 

Oct. 1 7. Peace of Campoformido (France and 
Austria) closmg war which Iwgan in 1792. Aus- 
tria cedes large areas including Netherlands, but 
receives Venice and IlljTia. 
1798-1799. Bonaparte in Egypt. Captures 
Malta, Cairo (after battle of the Pyramids). 
Defeated in sea fight of battle of the Nile (Au- 
gust 1. 1798). Invades Palestine, 1799: abandons 
his army and retvmis to France in October. 

1798. Koman Uepublic takes the place of the 
papal government. Swiss Confederation is 
brought to an end after five centiu-ies. Replaced 
by the Helvetic Kcpublic, a centralized state. 

1799-1801. Second coalition (Russia, Austria, 
England, Portugal, Naples, and the Ottoman 
Porte). Defeated by French in every campaign 
(Marengo, Hohenlinden) . Obliged to accept peace. 

1799. JnnuaTxj. Partbenopcan Republic set up 
in Naples. Lasts only a few months. 

In France the Directory falls (June) ; establish- 
ment of the Consulate (November) by Constitu- 
tion of Year VIII. (of the French Revolutionary 
Calendar). Nominally a republic, actually a dic- 
tatorsliip by First Consul Bonaparte. Naval war 
between France and the United States. Cap- 
ture of merchantmen and a few ship duels. 
Ended by Convention of September 30. 180O. 

ERA OF NAPOLEON. 
1800-18S0. Era of stone roads. Makes possible a 
system of stagecoaches and diligences. 
' ISOO-lSll. Early Russian national literature; 

Krylov, Zhukovski, Pushkin (Boris Oodunov), Ka- 
ramzin, Lermontov. 
1800-1840. Steam power, textile macliinery, and 
improvements in metaLs make it possible to man- 
ufacture many lines of goods on a large scale. 
This leads to the factory system, particularly in 
Great Britain, by which workpeople are assembled 
in large numbers and the processes are divided 
(" division of labor "). The result is the growth 
of manufacturing towns with poor conditions 
of life and with woman and child labor. Begin- 
ning of modern industrial legislation . 
1800-1832. Early Nineteenth-Century litera- 
ture in England; Age of Wordsworth: Poetry — 
Wordsworth, Burns, Scott iLadij of the Lake 1810), 
Coleridge {.indent Mariner 1798), BjTon iChitde 
Harold 1812-1818), Shelley (.Prometheus Unbound 
1820) . Keats (Ei-e of St. Agnes 1820) ; Prose — De 
' Quincey. Coleridge, Lamb {Essays of Eha 1820- 
1833). Himt. Landor. Hazlitt. Jane Austen. Scott 
{Warerley 1814: Ivanhoe 1820). 
1800-1830. Reaction period in French literature: 
Chateaubriand {Alala 1800). Madame de Stacl 
(De I'Atlemagne 1810). J. de Maistre. Nodier. 

1800. Pius VII. is pope. [States till 1809.1 

1801. Thomas Jefferson president of the United | 
Restoration of Catholic worship in France. Na- 
poleon agrees to a ** concordat " regulating the 
relations of papal power with the government and 

'. Catholic Church of France. 

Feb. H. Peace of Luneville. Germany west 
of t^e Rhine in the possession of France. Recog- 
nition of the various " republics " France had set 
up. Tuscany ceded to Parma. Deposed princes 
west of the Rhine to be compensated out of chiu-ch 
and free-city territory east of the river. 

March S3. Paul I . emperor of Russia miu-dered . 
Succeeded by his son. Alexander 1. (1801-1825). 
1803. Italian Republic: Bonaparte president. 

March S7. Peace of Amiens (Great Britain, 
France, Spain, and Holland). British to restore 
all over-sea conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon. 
First peace by Great Britain since 1793. Proves 
to be only a truce. 



Aug. S. By new constitution (5th for France) 
Napoleon made Consul for life, virtually sovereign 

I80S. April so. Napoleon agrees to a treaty 
with the United States ceding Louisiana, and 
thus giving up a plan for reviving the French col- 
onies in North America. Makes the United 
States the strongest North American power. 
War renewed between France and England, the 
latter refusing to give up Malta. Napoleon as- 
sembles a large army at Boulogne and tlu-eatens 
the invasion of England. Has no sufficient naval 
force to break British control of the Channel. 
Report of the special committee of the Holy Ro- 
man Empire on the " mediatization " of small 
states and cities by incorporating them in larger 
neighlx)rs (Reichsdeputationshauptschtuss). All 
the free cities but six thus lose their privileges. 
Breaks uporganizationot Holy Roman Empire. 
Act of Mediation, a federal constitution drawn 
by Napoleon for Switzerland. 

1S04-I806. Explorations of Lewis and Clark, for 
I'nited States government (see United States). 

1804. First locomotive steam engine, used on 
the MerthjT Tydfil road in Wales. 

February. Conspu'acy against life of Bonaparte. 

May IS. Napoleon I. declared Emperor of 
the French. A hereditary monarchy is thus es- 
tablished. Crowns himself (December 2). Sets 
up a new nobility, chiefly of succe-ssfiU generals 
and diplomats. At first is not admitted to the 
fellowship of " legitimate " European sovereigns. 
In 1805 takes title of Kmg of Italy. 
The German emperor, who is also archduke of 
Austria, assimies the title of " Hereditary Em- 
peror of Austria and King of Bohemia and Him- 
gary." (See Austria.) 

Duke d'Enghien seized outside of France and 
shot (March 21) on suspicion of complicity in 
plots against Napoleon. Enrages conservative 
Europe and makes enemies for Napoleon. 

1805. Third coalition against France (Eng- 
land, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Naples) to re- 
store the balance of power. France makes Spain 
its ally and builds up joint fleet that is defeated by 
British tmder Nelson at Trafalgar (Oct. 21. 1805). 

October. Napoleon breaks loose against coali- 
tion: captures Ulm: penetrates Austria, defeats 
allies at Austerlitz ("Battle of TlireeEmpcrors"). 
Thus prevents Prussia from joining and forces a 
peace. Abandons hope of invading England. 

Dec. 26. Peace of Pressburg (France and 
Austria) . Venice ceded to Italy, much of Austria 
to Bavaria, the elector of which is made a king. 
Formation after this treaty of Confederation of 
the Rhine carries control of the small states of 
the Holy Roman Empire. 
1806-1807. Fourth coalition against France 
(Prussia, Russia. Great Britain. Sweden). Prussia 
cru.shed at Jena and Auerstiidt (October 14. 1806). 
Prussian military system collapses : Napoleon oc- 
cupies large part of Prussia and enters Berlin 
(Oct, 27. 1806). 

1806. Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, is 
made king of Holland. 

Aug. 6-8. Francis abdicates as "German 
Emperor." and the Holy Roman Empire comes 
to an end after 1000 years. 
Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's elder brother, 
made king of Naples. Boiu-bon com-t with- 
draws to Sicily. [1812.1 
War between Russia and Turkey. Lasts till I 
Nov. 21. Berlin decree in which Napoleon 
proclaims a paper blockade of Great Britain and 
the closing of the Continent to British trade 
("Continental system"). Intended to counter- 
act British naval and commercial supremacy 
(" War of whale and elephant "). Is a reply to 
IJritish order in coimcil of May 16. 
1807-181?. Persistent opposition of the United 
States to both French and British systems by pro- 
tests, limitation of commerce, and hints of war. 

1807. First successful trial of a steamboat. Ful- 
ton's Clermont on the Hudson. 

Slave trade for English colonies or by English 
sliips forbidden by Act of Parliament, effective 
March 1. 1809. Secured by a propaganda. 

Fch.-June. Battles of Eylau and Friedland. 
Deadlock of armies. Napoleon offers peace. 

Jidy 7-9. Peace of Tilsit. Prussia cut down 
in area and inhabitants. Russia recognizes Na- 
poleonic kingdoms and new duchy of Warsaw (Po- 
land), accepts Continental system, but is encour- 
aged in ambitions to the east and south. 

.4 lujusl. Foimdation of the kingdom of West- 
phalia. Napoleon's brother Jerome made king. 

November. Portugal refuses to accept the 
Continental system and is occupied by the 
French. King and family take refuge in Brazil. 

Dec. 17. Milan decree, intensifying the Ber- 
lin decree and Continental system at expense of 
neutrals, esp. United States, which passes an Em- 
bargo Act against France and Great Britain. Re- 
pealed m 1809. 
1808-1812. Revival of Prussia under Stein, who 
reforms courts, frees serfs, and looks after business 
New school system. University at Berlin (1810). 



Napoleon forces Stein out of pubhc life, recogniz- 
ing the effectiveness of these reforms. 
1808-1811. Revoltof some Spanish colonies in .South 
America (Venezuela. Uruguay. Paraguay. Chile, 
Buenos Aires, and Mexico). All put down. 

1808. Invasion of Spain by Napoleon, who aims 
at conquest, carrying with it the Spanish colonies. 
He. therefore, in May seizes the (abdicated) king 
(Charles IV.) and the heir to the throne, and 
makes his brother Joseph king of Spain, giving 
throne of Naples to his brother-in-law, Murat. 
Napoleon checked by the defeat of his troops in 
Portugal by a British army (" Peninsular War"). 

September, October. Assembly of Princes at Er- 
furt docs homage to Napoleon, who is at the 
zenith of his career. [ally king) of Sweden. I 

1809. Bernadotte becomes prince royal (eventu-| 
Fifth coalition (England and Austria). British 
under Sir Arthiu* Wellesley (later Duke of Wel- 
lington, " Iron Duke ") push back the French in 
Portugal and Spain. Austria again ventures war. 
is defeated at Wagram (July 5-6) and forced to 
accept Peace of Vienna (October 14), making 
great territorial sacrifices, including the northern 
coast of the Adriatic. [1S17.1 
James Madison president of the United States till I 

Sept. 17. Peace of Fredrlkshamn (Russia. 
Sweden) . Finland is ceded to Russia : is promised 
a separate administration. 
1810-1813. Special session of the SpanLsh Cortes 
called at Cidiz. assimies the sovereignty and 
draws up a constitution (completed in 1812). 

1810. Several dependencies of France incorporated 
with the central French Empire: Holland. Old- 
enburg, canton of Vaiais, some German states, and 
the Hanseaticcities. 130 departments m France. 
Continental sovereigns give up jealousy of a self- 
made monarchy and accept Napoleon as a brother. 
Emperor of Austria gives his daughter. Marie 
Louise, in marriage to Napoleon. France free 
from land w-ar except in Spain, which proves a ter- 
rible drain. Louis, king of Holland, abdicates, 
rather than consent to ruin of his adopted country. 

1811. March. Birth of a son to Napoleon 
(" King of Rome "}. later Duke of Reichstadt. 
Sj-mptoms of hostility by Napoleon toward 
Russia, which is weary of the Continental system. 
British army presses bard on the Frencli in Spain. 

1813. Napoleon's campaign in Russia. Cirand 
army of 420.000 men, including contingents from 
Italy. Germany, and even Prussia and Austria. 
Crosses Niemen in Jime. Breaks tln-ough Rus- 
sians with heavy losses (Smolensk. Borodino). 
Reaches Moscow September 14. Russians 
burn the city October 19 Retreat begins. 
Frightful suffering, especially at the crossing of the 
Berezina: a remnant leaves Russia (December). 
Three foiu'ths of army lost. 

May S8. Peace of Bucharest. The Pruth 
made the boimdary between Tm"key and Russia; 
Russia takes parts of Bessarabia and Moldavia. 
181.3. Bolivar drives the Spaniards from Caracas. 
ISlexico again declares its independence. 
Rising of Europe against Napoleon. Feb. 13, 
appeal of Frederick William III. of Prussia for vol- 
unteers. Feb. 28. Treaty of Kalish with Russia. 
Prussian people rise. Landwelu- and Landsturm. 
Order of " Iron Cross " foimded. Napoleon raises 
new armies and accepts war. England furnishes 
navy and money. Sixth coalition against France 
(Prussia. Russia. Sweden. Great Britam. .\ustria) 
joins in war by land and sea. Leipzig. *' battle 
of the Nations" (Oct. 16 and IS). French 
defeated, their kinglets in western Germany flee. 
Napoleon forced to cross the Rhine (October). 

June SI. Wellington wins at Vitoria, and 
the French yield most of Spain. 

July s-Oct. 11. Effort to come to an tmder- 
standing with Napoleon at Congress of Prague. 
That failing. Austria joins the allies (August 12). 
Great campaign in central Germany (battle of 
Dresden. Aug. 26. 27). Ahies imite at Teplitz- 
Schonau (Sept. 9) in a declaration of purpose to 
continue war. Bavaria deserts Napoleon (Oct. 5). 

1814. Jan. 1. Prussian troops with Bliicher cross 
the Rliine. and carry the war into the French 
Empire, which has not seen an invader since 1795. 

Jan. 1.',. Peace of Kiel adjusts the relations of 
the Scandinavian powers. Russia, and England. 
Union of Sweden and Norway as two kingdoms 
tmder one monarch. 

Feb. 5-March l.'i. Congress at Chatillon. 
Napoleon offered boimdaries of 1792. but refuses. 

March SI. Allies enter Paris. Senate de- 
clares that Napoleon and his family have forfeited 
the throne, and he is forced to abdicate (April 6). 
Allies select the island of Elba as a prmcipaUty 
for Napoleon, who goes there May 4, 

May. Return of the Bourbon royal family 
and many of the Emigres, who expect a restoration 
of privileges. Spanish Bourbons are also restored. 

May SO. (First) Peace of Paris. France re- 
tains most of the boundaries of 1792. with some 
annexations. Most of lost colonies restored. 

September. Congress of Vienna assembles tO; 
reconstruct Europe. 



IV. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD: 1814 TO 1914. 



Historical Outline. 

The 19th cc-ntm-y, as here considered, practically 
includes the period from the Congress of Vienna in 
1S14 to the opening of the World War in 1914. 
Tbese hundred years bave a unity unusual in his- 
tory; the new poUtical. social, and economic condi- 
tions separate the period from earlier centuries and 
lead up to the World War. 

The century began with exliaustion and reaction. 
Europe was weary of the wars of revolutionary 
France. The Quadruple Alliance against Napoleon 
was successful not merely in the o\erthrow of Na- 
poleon, but also in the resistance to the new ideas 
by the autocracy of France, Austria, Prussia, and 
Spain. Europe had seen so many sovereigns de- 
posed and set up by France and Napoleon that the 
onlj^ safety for royalty seemed the " principle of 
legitimacy." Hence, the Holy Alliance, formed by 
Kussia, Prussia, Austria, and eventually France, 
wliich developed imder the leadership of Coimt 
MetttTnich as a bulwark of conservatism and 
weapon of repression. Autocracy was strengthened 
in the countries of the allies; and the Alliance used 
its power to suppress democratic movements else- 
where. Thus, the revolutions in Italy and in Spain 
were suppressed by the allies; and for years after the 
Congress of Vienna the forces of reaction controlled 
the world. 

Even in England, the freest state in Europe, the 
policy of suppression initiated m the previous cen- 
tiu-y continued until 1832. Not luitil the Reform 
Bill of that date, which extended, the vote to the mid- 
dle classes, could England l>e said to have a genu- 
inely popular or democratic government. In the 
United States, imder the influence of the ideas of the 
Revolution restatetl by Jefferson, a real democracy 
was growing up; and the success of federal govern- 
ment was attracting the attention of Europe. The 
conditions of the whole coimtry, and especially of 
the West, were favorable to a rough, good-humored, 
and active popular government, which revealed it-self 
in national affairs by the election of Jackson in 1828. 

The year 1830 was ushered in by revolutions. In 
France the Boui:bon monai'chy came to an end with 
the alxlication of Charles X. and the accession of 
Louis Philippe, the citizen king, who e,stalilished a 
constitutional monarchy of considerable liberalism 
in France, wliich lasted imtil 1S4S. Another revo- 
lution disrupted tlie artificial kingdom of the Neth- 
erlands, which the Congress of Vienna had created. 
Belgium declared her independence and was recog- 
nized ^ an independent state whose neutrality was 
guaranteed by the powers. The revolution blazed 
up far to the eastward in Poland, which the czar of 
Russia had erected as a separate kingdom imited to 
Russia by personal imion. The Poles desired greater 
liberality and, above ail, independence; and they re- 
volted. They were crushed and their country dis- 
appeared from the map, continuhig only as a Rus- 
sian province. Revolutions m the parts of Italy 
held by Aastria were easily suppressed and smalt 
disturbances in the minor states in Germany were 
imsuccessful. In England the movements of the 
period were mostly political. 

The 19th century was an age of Inventions. 
From the downfalj of Napoleon to the outbreak of 
the World War, greater mat<3rial changes took place 
than from the beginning of history to the Napoleonic j 
era. In science, new discoveries were made; new ! 
applications of knowledge in medicine and hygiene . 
checked or ended plagues and pestilences wliich had j 
decimated whole sections of the world. Humanity 
and sympathy demanded that the sufferings due to 
poverty, disease, and ignorance should be relieved. 

In material progress the greatest advance was 
In communication and transportation. At the 
begimiing of this period the journey from Boston to 
New York occupied as many days as it now does 
hours. In Europe large cities lived in fear of starva- 
tion because of the impossibility of the transporta- 
tion of supplies. The transportation of the raw cot- 
ton demanded by Manchester manufacturers from 
Liverpool, only 30 miles away, was often delayed 
a month. The invention of the steam engine and 
tlie building of railways altered these conditions. 
Moreovsr, the application of steam to navigation 
aided the rapid transport of the commerce of the 
world from one point to another. Danger from 
famine seemed to disappear and the resources of the 
whole world could be concentrated at any point and 
the products of every nation conid be exchanged 
throughout the world. 

Communication by steam was supplemented by 
electricity; and the telephone and telegraph, and 
later the wireless, made it possible for nations to 
transfer ideas even more quickly than they ex- 
changed products. The world of thought grew 
closer and what happened in one coimtry was al- 



most instantaneously known in another. Social, eco- 
nomic, and poUtical ideas became common property. 
Machinery, steam, and electricity were apphed 
in other fields. Industry was revolutionized. At 

the beginning of the century it was conducted by 
means of man or animal power, wind or water, in 
the homes of the workers. The relation between 
employer and employee was intimate and constant. 
With the application of steam came the factory sys- 
tem : transportation brought raw prod ucts to centers ; 
power was distributed in great factories employing 
hu'ge numbers of workers. These workers no longer 
were under the intimate observation of the owner, 
wlio now, instead of being an individual, was likely to 
be a corporation, less in touch with the ncx-ds and 
, demands of the workers and more intent on .securing 
profits. The massing of population in industrial 
centers caused a migration from coimtry districts 
and the rise of cities in wliich lived large populations 
of workmen, too often crowded in inadequate 
houses. 

In 1848 another series of revolutions swept over 
Europe, wliich, as in 1830, began in France. The 
monarchy of Louis Philippe gave way to the Second 
Republic, wliich was speedily replaced by the Second 
Empire. Hungary, under Kossuth, revolted from 
Austria and for a moment enjoyed independence. 
The Czeclis of Bohemia also demanded independence 
and their demands were temporarily conceded; but 
Austria, soon regaining her power, suppressed their 
aspirations. The Austrian provinces of Italy re- 
volted and renomiced Austrian control, but the jeal- 
ousies of the Italians as yet prevented united action, 
and the Austrian army restored authority. 

In Germany the revolutionary movement affected 
a large number of states. In the Parliament at 
Frankfurt am Main the attempt was made to estab- 
lish a German federal union, at the head of wliich 
should l>e the Prussian king; but on his refusal the 
idea was abandoned for a score of years. Neverthe- 
less, as a result of this movement Prussia and several 
other German states received constitutions which, 
by the standards of those days, seemed liberal. 

The 19th century was the period of develop- 
ment of nationalities. The Congress of Viemia 
had drawn the map of Europe for the benefit of 
dynasties, with scant regard to races or peoples. 
Tliroughout the century there was a steady revival 
of nationalism. It was seen in the imsuccessful strug- 
gles of Hungary and Bohemia for national independ- 
ence in 1848. Although Italy, also, failed in 1848 to 
realize her aspirations, Cavom- and Garibaldi suc- 
ceeded in driving out the Austrians and converting 
Italy from a geograpliical expression to a imited 
kingdom in ISGl. In 1S66 the German states freed 
themselves from the control of Austria, and under 
William I. of Prussia founded a strongly nationalistic 
federal empire. 

In southeastern Europe the Balkan peoples, who 
hiid suffered for centuries under the oppression of the 
Turks, struggled successfully for their freedom and 
founded national states, jealous of one another, 
whose conflicting claims and relations to their neigh- 
bors made a danger spot in Eiu-ope. The Poles and 
Bohemians and other peoples in Austria-Himgary 
still failed to achieve their legitimate national aspira- 
tions. In the Far East Japan opened her doors to 
Western influence, borrowed what she considered 
the best from Western culture, and developed a na- 
tionality and civiUzation peculiarly' her own. She 
sought expansion not merely in Korea, but also in 
China. After defeatmg China in 1895, she dared to 
challenge Russia and in the drawn conflict (1905J 
won not merely Korea, but also recognition as a first- 
rate power, to be reckoned with in world politics. 

The 19th century was a century of expansion. 
During the ISth centiu*y Great Britain appropriated 
much of the French colonial empire, and though slie 
lost some of her own colonies tlirough the successful 
American Revolution and the establishment of the 
United States of America, she was more than com- 
pensated for this loss by expansion elsewliere. In 
India she established an empire which in poi^uJation 
outranks that of ancient Rome or the Spanish Ameri- 
can empire. As in ancient times Rome strove to 
civilize the peoples conquered by her. so Great Brit^ 
ain tries in India to raise a people of lower standards 
of living to European conceptions. In Austraha and 
New Zealand the English colonies developed into 
great self-governing dominions; and in South Africa 
the British possessions were consolidated and by the 
conquest of the independent Boer states, the South 
African Union became the determining factor in that 
portion of the continent. 

This era of colonial expansion was affected by the 
dismemberment of empires and divisions of conti- 
nents. The Tiu-kish Empire lost most of its Euro- 
pean possessions to the newly formed Balkan states, 
its African suzerainties to England, Italy, and 



France. In eastern Europe Russia's ambition to 
find an outlet to the Mediterranean tlireatened Tur- 
key's possession of Constantinople and furnished a 
problem for European diplomacy. Thecontment of 
Africa was partitioned among the Eurojjean states. 
England, France, Portugal. Belgium. Spain, and 
later Germany, were rivals for portions of its terri- 
tory. Twice relations were strained Ix-tween Eng- 
land and France and twice between Germany and 
France in this rivalry for African possession. At 
the close of the century Africa was practically di- 
vided among the great states of Europe. 

Russia, unable to obtain Constantinople, sought 
expansion to the east, and havmg acquired Siberia 
and Central Asia attempted to dominate Mancluu-ia 
and Korea and thus came in conflict with Japan. 
The vast Chinese Empire at times seemed on the 
point of disintegration and about to suffer the fate of 
Africa and l>e partitioned among tlie powers. Only 
mutual jealousy and rivalries and the inertia of 
China itself seemed to prevent. Even the Ignited 
States sought expansion, and by her war with Spam 
put an end to Spain's once vast colonial empire and 
acquired Porto Rico and the Philippines, thus be- 
coming a world power with interests no longer con- 
fined to the Western Hemisphere. 

The artificial boimdarics of European states, 
which ignored nationalities, and the rivalry in ex- 
pansion, fomented natural jealousies. Pritssia had 
reached supremacy in Germany and expected to 
dominate Europe tlirough military force. The suc- 
cess of the military system of Prussia compeUed 
other states to adopt similar systems. Almost 
everywhere throughout Europe, save in England, 
military service was compulsory, and vast standing 
armies were maintained at ruinous cost. 

The inventions of the age outran the realm of in- 
dustry, and nations vied with each other in the pro- 
duction of new and more terrible means of destruc- 
tion. With the development of colonial empires 
overseas came the necessity of navies to protect 
these far-distant possessions. Thus developed a 
rivalry in military and naval etiuipment which 
threatened to bankrupt the less prosi>erous states 
and burden industry with a cnisliuig load of taxes. 
Moreover, the possession of such military equipment 
affected the tone of international intercourse, and 
the threat of force was too often ill concealed by the 
words of diplomacy. 

In 1899 the nations met at The Hague in a con- 
ference. This was called by the czar of Russia for 
the purpose of attempting to check the mcrease of 
armaments and to devise methods of maintaining 
peace. It was unsuccessful in its attempt to limit 
military preparations, but devised a scheme of arbi- 
tration with a permanent voluntary court which was 
of some use in settling international disputes. A 
second Hague Conference was held in 1907 which, 
although it still failed to limit armaments and to pro- 
vide for compulsory arbitration, did accomplish 
much m the codification of military law and the es- 
tablishment of rules for what, as was vainly hoped, 
would be more humane modes of warfare. 

The great world nations were engaged not only 
in colonial rivalry and the race for military prepared- 
ness, but also in economic rivalry, and vast revenue 
was needed to support the burdens of the colonial em- 
pires and the military establishments. National in- 
dustries were stimulated by protective tariffs, while 
each nation sought to market its products in the ter- 
ritories of others. Competition and trade rivalries 
characterized the last two decades of the period. In 
the countries less commerciaUy developed, such as 
Cliina, outside nations sought exclusive privileges; 
and even in higiily developed states they attempted, 
often by discreditable methods, to gain commercial 
advantage. 

The economic rivalry of the nations reacted 
upon the industrial conditions in each state. The 
factory systems based on capitalism were pushed to 
their extreme hmit. In protest there developed a 
school of thought which denied the very foimdation 
of the capitalistic system. The socialists, original- 
mg in the early decades of the 19th century, were 
successful, not in establisliing their theoretical so- 
cialist state, but in forcing the governments of most 
states to mitigate some of the more obvious evils 
of the capitalistic system. Not content with such 
results, in many states the sociahsts became a po- 
litical party, which in a few cases held the majority 
in the legislature. 

Outside the theoretical socialist movement, labor 
organized into unions and, at first little touched by 
socialist doctrine, sought by negotiation and strikes 
to improve its condition. Single imions were gradu- 
ally combined into national imions and these in 
turn into great federations. The "general strike " 
at the end of the century was held in reserve as an 
ultimate method of obtaining not simply industrial 
(23) 



24 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1814 a. D.-1852A. D. 



reforms, but, as in Russia, of extorting political and 
constitutional changes. 

The la.st years of the century saw a revival of the 
nationalistic movement of the mid-century. Tiie 
Czechs and the Poles were restive imder the control 
of Austria and Russia. In Russia, the nationalistic 
movement of the autocracy attempted the Russifi- 
cation of all the included nationalities, and was met 
by rival nationalistic movements in Finland, Poland, 
the Baltic Provinces, and the I'kraine. 

In Asia, China succ^KJed in throwing off the cen- 
turies-long control of tlie Manchus, and a republic 
was established. Japan was becoming more con- 
scious of her power and less ready to submit to Eu- 
ropean dictation in Asiatic questions. The Balkan 
states, in a temporary union, deprived Turkey of her 
European posse.ssions up to Constantinople, and 
each state hoped for a imion of the members of its 
nationality in a single, state. 

In 1914 England was distracted over the Irish 
question, and seemed for the moment unable to solve 
the labor problem. Russia was in the tlirocs of a 
general strike. The Balkans were dissatisfied with 
the results of their war with Turkey and distrustful 
of Atistria. The German Empire, alone, seemed 
at the height of its prosperity and strength ; and in 
1914 Germany attempted to gain world control. 

Chronology. 

HOLY-ALLIANCE ERA. 

1814-1815. Congress of Vienna to reeonstrurt 
Europe after the Napoleonic wars: starting point 
of present-day international relations. A congeries 
rather than a congress; final act, Jime 9, 1815, 
merely codifies the treaties between the various 
states; result, a patchwork that violates the prin- 
ciple of the Congress, " legitimacy," and also the 
opposing principles of nationalism and liberalism. 
France reduced to boundaries of 1792 ; Russia aug- 
ment.e<i l>y Finland (from Swe<:ieu), part of Prus- 
sian Polaud, and Turldsh territory. Prussia loses 
part .of Poland but gains part of Saxony, Pome- 
rania (from Sweden) , and Rliine territory. Austria 
gains compactness by giving up her Netherlands 
and gets part of northern Italy (Lombardy and 
Venetia), Illyria, and some extension into tlie 
Alps. Great Britain increases her colonial empire. 
These additions are at the expense of smaller 
states; but Sweden receives Norway from Den- 
mark, and Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) is 
miited to Holland. Italy is left as 10 states with 
Austria dominating and the repubhcs abolislied 
Various German princes are " mediatized." and a 
loose confederation of 38 states formed, with the 
presidency in Austria. 

1814-18S0. Prohibition of the slave trade by 
all civiUzed nations. Previously (1807) by Eng- 
land and United States. Urged in Congress of 
Viemia. Abolition of slavery in British Colonies 
(1833); takes effect 1838. Abolition in French 
colonies (1S48). Also by Latin American states. 
Controversy of Quintuple Treaty (1841) ; Joint 
Cruising Convention of U. S. and England (1842) . 
Era of improved transportation in the LTnited 
States. Turnpikes, especially the Cumberland 
Road (1820); canals, especially Erie Canal (1825); 
steamboats on lakes and rivers, clipper ships on 
the sea. Beginning of railroads and ocean steamers. 

1814-1860. Development of factory system in Eu- 
rope and U. S. and constant improvement of ma- 
chinery ant^i^ocesses. Clieap iron makes cheap 
machinery possible. Division of Labor increases 
product. Cheap transportation brings raw ma- 
terials together and distributes manufactured 
goods. Opening up of \nrgln lands furnishes new 
materials and enlarges food products. 

1814-I8S4. Change in colonial conditions of the 
world. The Spanish and Portuguese empires 
break up in America. Great Britain gives respon- 
sible government to the large colonies settled by 
Englishmen. Colonial trade is opened up. 
France expands in .Vfrica and Great Britain in the 
East and m North America. 

1815. For Napoleon's escape from Elba, his tri- 
umphal entry into Paris, the "Hundred Days," 
and the battle of Waterloo, see France. 

Sept. 26, Holy Alliance formed by Austria, 
Prussia, and Russia, and later acceded to by most 
of Europe: a proclamation of government by 
Cliristian ideas, due to the pietism of the czar, but 
popularly connected with the repression wliich 
develops. This reaction is the work of the Quad- 
ruple Alliance {four powers) , formed with England 
by treaty of November 20, to prevent by concert 
and annual congresses a renewal of the liberal 
ideas of the French Revolution. Metternich, 
Austrian minister, is the leader of the system of 
reaction and absolutism. 

Nov. W. Neutrality of Switzerland is guaran- 
teed by a convention at Paris signed by the four 
powers, also by France and Portugal. 

1818. Stethoscope invented. 

1819. Discovery of electro magnetism by Oer- 
sted. Leads to many mechanical appliances. 

1820-1850. Middle Nineteenth Century period 



of American literature: Historians, Bancroft, 
Prescott, Parkman, Motley: Statesmen, Webster, 
Clay, Calhoun, Lincoln : Novelist.^, Cooper, Irving, 
Hawthorne, Poe, Harriet Beecher Stowe: Poetn, 
Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, 
Emerson; Travels, R. H. Dana, Kane, Fremont: So- 
cial Reformers, Dorothea DLx, William Lloyd Garri- 
son, Wendell Phillips, Neal Dow, Jolm B. Gough, 
Theodore Parker, William EUery Channing; Jour- 
nalists, James Gordon Bennett, Horace Greeley: 
Divines, Lyman Beecher, Horace Bushnell, Charles 
G. Finney, Henry Ward Beecher. 

1820. Use of anthracite coal begins (Pennsyl- 
vania). Bituminous coal first used for smelting 
iron in 1837. 

October. Liberal revolutions having taken place 
in Spain and Naples (the Two Sicilies) and an out- 
break in Portugal, the Congress of Troppau of the 
Ave allied powers (France having joined in 1818) 
adopts principle of intervention, though France 
and Great Britain do not support the measure. 
1820-1860. Era of emigration from Europe, es- 
pecially to the Ignited States. Smaller streams to 
Canada, Australia, and South America. Stimu- 
lated by Irish famine of 1846 and German revolu- 
tion of 1S4S. 

1821. Alliance commissions Austria to restore ab- 
solutism in Naples, wliich is done. A constitu- 
tional revolution in Piedmont (kingdom of Sar- 
dinia) is overthrown by the same means. 

March. Greek revolution begins, counte- 
nanced by Europe, notwithstanding" legitimacy." 
1823. Under the decision (November, 1822) of the 
Congress of Verona, a French army restores abso- 
lutism in Spain : Great Britain protests. A further 
congress is proposed to consider tlie regaining 
for Spain of her revolted colonies in America. 
Canning, British foreign secretary, negotiates 
with United States for mutual opposition tJb this: 
France eventually, on October 9, gives assurance 
of nontnter\'ention. 

Dec. £. Enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine 
(see United States): a warning to Europe that 
America is outside the European sphere and any 
intervention would be resisted by the United 
States. Holy Alliance has thus passed its zenith. 
1827. Jul!/ S. Treaty of London between Great 
Britain, Russia, and France demanding from 
Turkey that she erect Greece (in revolt, see 
Greece) ii)to an autonomous state. Turkey re- 
fuses and naval battle of Navarino takes place, Oc- 
tober 20. Later, Russia and France send armies, 
but England vacillates. Greek independence is 
won by these three of the memliers of the Alliance 
acting in direct contravention of its policy. Be- 
ginning of the Near-East question in European 
diplomacy. 

ERA OF EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS. 

1830-1900. Period of Russian novelists: Gogol, 
Goncharov, Dostoevski, Turgenev,X?ount Tolstoy. 
Later Nineteenth Century period of German 
literature: Heine, Scheffel, Freytag, Mommsen, 
Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, Storm, Heyse, Dalm, 
Wildcnbruch, Sudermaim, Hauptmaim. 
Italian literature of the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury: Manzoni, Lcopardi, Silvio Pellico. 

1830-1890. Victorian Age of English literature: 
Poelrif — Tennyson, Browning, Mrs. Browniing, 
Arnold, Swinburne, ^lorris; Prose — Carlyle, Ma- 
caiUay, Ruskin, Arnold, Newman, Pater. Borrow: 
Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot. Hardy, Mere- 
dith, Kingsley, the Brontes, Trollope: Scientists 
— Darwin. Spencer, Tj-ndall, Hu.\ley, Wallace. 

1830-1880. French poets and prose writers not 
affected by the Romantic movement: Berangcr. 
Guizot, Tocqueville, Thiers, Michelet, Cousin, 
Taine, Sainte-Beuve. 

French Romantic school: Lamartine, Victor 
Hugo. Gautier, Vigny, Musset, Dimias pirc, 
George Sand. 

1830-1860. Humanitarian movement in Eu- 
rope and America. Agitation against imprison- 
ment for delit, cruel treatment of prisoners and 
insane, slavery and slave trade: for women's 
rights, education, freedom of labor, and temper- 
ance. Carried on by societies, public meetings, 
literature, press, and petitions to legislatures. 
Introduction of agricultural machinery, partic- 
ularly horse mower invented by McCormick (1834) 
and horse reaper, improved plows, great improve- 
ments in cotton gins. 

Era of household inventions, mostly in United 
States. Matches, modem cookstoves, sewing ma- 
chines (patented by Howe in 1846), gas, rubber. 
These conveniences spread from the United States 
to other countries. Development of mechanical 
Inventions, especially saw-mill and wood-work- 
ing machinery: turbine water wheel (1834), rotary 
printing presses (invented by Hoe) . Large fac- 
tories, banks, and transportation carried on by 
incorporated companies. Profitable fur trade 
in West. 

1830-1850. Transcendental movement In New 
England: Emerson, Thoreau. Margaret Fuller, 
Dana, Higginson. 



1830. Revolutions in France, Poland, Italy, and 
Germany, and Belgium revolts from Holland. 
Members of the Alliance too busy at home to inter- 
vene elsewhere. 

Beginning of French conquest of Algeria; It revives 
imperialistic spirit in France. 

1831. May 21. Conference of the five powers (see 
1820, above) at Rome orders the pope to carry- 
out reforms in his dominions, following restoration 
of order there and elsewhere in Italy by Austria. 

Nov. 15. Convention of London by the five 
powers guarantees neutrality of Belgium. 
1832-1836. Epidemics of cholera. 

1832. On renewal of revolt in Papal States both 
France and Austria send armies, but in opposition 
instead of in alliance. 

First street railway in the world opened be- 
tween City Hall and Fourteenth St., New York 
City. 

1833. Kalevala, national epic of Finland, first col- 
lected and published. Ancient legends and songs 
orally transmitted. 

ilarch 32. Formal organization of the Zoll- 
verein, which becomes the entering wedge of Ger- 
man tmity. 

Sept. IS. At the Convention of Milnchen- 
griitz, Aastria, Prussia, and Russia guarantee in- 
tegrity of Turkish Empire: a revival by the tliree 
absolutist powers of the principles of the Alliance. 
1837. Commercial panic in United States. In- 
terest stopped on many State bonds held In Europe. 
Principal repudiated by some States. 

1839. Daguerreotypes invented by Daguerre in 
France. First automatic stm pictures. 

.4pri7 10. Further treaty guaranteeing neutral- 
ity of Belgium signed by the five powers. 

1840. Opium War in Cliina; based on principle 
that China must be forced to trade with Western 
nations (see China). 

July 15. Convention of London signed bj- four 
powers (lYance excluded) to check advance of 
■^ehemet Ali against Turkey (see Turkey). Me- 
hSmet All is driven back to Egypt. 

1841. July 13. At London the four powers sign 
with Turkey the Straits Convention, sustaining 
the sultan's policy of closing the Dardanelles and 
Bosporus to foreign warsliips when the Porte is 
at peace. 

Dec. 20. Quintuple Treaty signed at London 
by the powers for mutual right of search, which 
was intended to break up the slave trade. Strongly 
criticized by Cass, minister of the United States 
to France. 
1846. Nov. 6. Republic of Cracow incorporated 
by Austria with acquiescence of Russia and Prus- 
sia: a violation of the principles of the Congress 
of Vienna against which France and Great Britain 
protest. 

1848. Discovery of gold in California; followed 
in 1850 by similar discovery in Australia. Revo- 
lutionizes the use of specie as a basis of currency 
and trade. 

February- March. Revolutions in France. Italy, 
Germany, and Austria-Hungary; overthrow of 
INIettemich, March 13. Revolts, except that in 
France, all put down: Third Republic established 
there. Evident that such a thing as the Holy Al- 
liance is no longer possible for Europe in general: 
and little is left of the work of the Congress of 
Vienna as a European policy except the territorial 
settlements, which gall Poland and Italy. Immi-' 
gration of educated Germans to the United States 
of America. 
1848-1853. People of the United States show warm 
interest in the revolutions in Etirope and the at- 
tempts to form republics (Koszta incident: visit 
of Kossuth; Huelsemann incident). Do not go 
beyond sympathy. 

1849. Russia comes to the aid of Austria and re- 
duces Hungary, where declaration of independ- 
ence was being sustained. 

1850-1920. Renaissance of Spanish prose liter- 
ature, particularly the novel: Fem:5n Cabellero, 
Alarcon, Pereda, Valera, Perez, Galdos, Palacio 
Valdes, Pardo Bazdn, Blasco Ibdfiez, Pio Baroja. 

1850-1900. French novelists of Naturalist school: 
Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, M^rimde, Zola, Dau- 
det, Maupassant, Anatole lYance. 
Scandinavian literary men: Ibsen {Peer Gynt 
1867: Doll's House 1879); Bjomson (Sigurd the 
Crusader 1873: The Kini) 1879). 

1850. McClintock, English explorer, demonstrates 
continuous " Northwest Passage " (obstructed 
by ice) around the north of North America. Ee- 
ttmis, 1854. 

1851. May 1. World Eihlbition opened in Hyde 
Park, London. First of the great world ex- 
hibitions of which many have since taken place. 

1852. Revival of the Napoleonic empire in France, 
following the coup d'itat of 1851 (Napoleon 
"Third," "Emperor of the French"; national- 
istic ideals), and recognition of the emperor by 
the powers contravene the results of the Congress 
of Vienna in part, but as a reaction from the so- 
cialistic elements of the Revolution of 1848 in 
other respects support principles of the congress. 



1854 a. D.-1884 a. d. 



NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 



25 



EUROPEAN -WAR ERA. 

1854. March 12. Alliance of France and Great 
Britain to aid Turkey in war witli Russia; Frencli 
reasons largely personal; British, imperial and 
commercial. (See Turkey for Crimean War). 
Piedmont (Sardinia) joins the alliance later to get 
a " place in tile sim " and good will of allies. 

Ocl. IS. Ostend Manifesto dra^vn up by repre- 
sentatives of United States relative to Cuba. 

Dec. S. Dogma of Immaculate Conception 
promulgated by tlie Pope. 

1855. Bessemer process for steel making is pat- 
ented. Grows slowly. Introduced into tlic 
United States about 1S67. Makes possible steel 
rails, ships, and buildings. [Panama Railroad, I 

J tin. 3S. First train from ocean to ocean by thcl 
185G. March SO. Treaty of Paris ends Crimean 
AVar. First general congress since Vienna; at- 
tended by the five great powers. Piedmont, and 
Turkey. Turkey admitted to the European con- 
cert; her territorial integrity gtiaranteed; i:)eside6 
boimdary adjustments, treaty neutralizes the Black 
Sea and establishes free navigation of the Danube. 
April 16. The congress makes declaration on 
naval warfare that advances international law; 
privateering is abolished; neutral flag covers en- 
emy's goods not contraband; neutral goods not 
contraband safe imder enemy flag ; blockade must 
be efl'ective. I'nited States declmes to join be- 
cause capture of private property at sea is not 
proliibited. (China).! 

1857. Anglo-French expedition against China (seel 
Adjustment of long-pending controver-sy with 
Denmark over the Sound dues. United States 
active in the settlement. 

Commercial panic in United States and Europe, 
— caused in the United States by overljuilding 
railroads and speculation. Slow reco^e^y. 

Aug. e. First Atlantic cable laid from United 
States to Great Britain. Breaks immediately. 
Relaid in 18.58; messages pass in August, but ceases 
to work. A successful cable laid in July. 1866. 

1858. Building of steamship Great Eastern. 
First large iron steamer (20.000 tons); arrives in 
New York in 1860; is never profitable because not 
properly engined. 

^ Sources of the Nile (Victoria Nyanza) discovered 
by Speke and Grant. English explorers. 

July St. Conference at Plombieres-Ies-Bains 
between Napoleon III. and Cavour, Piedmontese 
minister; the emperor agrees to assist in driving 
Austria out of Italy upon proper pretext, in re- 
tui'n for cession of Savoy and Nice. 

1859. Publication of Darwin's Oriain of Species. 
Classic of the theory of " natural selection." 

April. Cavour goads Austria into beginning 
the war (see Italy). Napoleon takes an army to 
assist Piedmont, but on July 11 concludes an 
armistice far short of liis promise to Cavour (Lom- 
bardy alone ceded by Austria) , because he is im- 
certain of fuller success, tearfid of creating too 
strong a state in Italy, and distiu-bed because 
Prussia is mobilizing on the Rhine. He yields 
right to receive Savoy and Nice. 
1860-1900. Later Nineteenth Century period of 
American literature: Whitman. Taylor. Aldrich, 
Howells. Bret Harte. Crawford. Fiske. Parkraan. 
Burroughs. Mark Twain. Henry James. 

1860. Petroleum deposits, long known in north- 
western Pennsylvania, are opened up commer- 
cially. Begiiming of a great industry. 

March-June. First Japanese mission to a 
Western country, comes to the United States. 

March 11, 12. Plebiscites m Modena, Parma, 
Tuscany, and Bomagna (part of Papal States), 
favor annexation to Piedmont. Cireat Britain 
favors it and Napoleon permits it, getting, March 
24, Savoy and Nice as price for so doing, though 
by this he alienates England, while the Italians re- 
sent the earher armistice as well and factions at 
home oppose the participation in Italian alTairs. 

Nov. 4-.i. The Marches and Umbria of tlic 
Papal States vote to join Piedmont. Napoleon, 
who has an army at Rome, agrees, provided Rome 
and the " patrimony " be left to the pope. 

1861. March S t.N.S-). Imperial ukase in Russia 
assures the freedom of the agricultiu'al serfs. 
Takes efTect gradually. 

March 17. Following the conquest of Naples 
(Garibaldi's "Thousand" in Two Sicilies), the 
new kingdom of Italy is proclaimed over all the 
peninsula except Rome and Venetia. Tliis luii- 
flcation overthrows territorial settlement of Con- 
gr*s of Vienna, and Ijy adding another to the five 
Eiu-opean powers (see 1820. above) requires a re- 
ad.Iustnientofba'ance of power. Italian imity 
greatly influences Germany, where Prussia acts 
as Piedmont and Bismarck leads like Cavour. 
Bismarck's problem is to achieve German imity in 
the face of Austria and France. 

.4;)'i; 14. Civil War breaks out in the United 
States. Leads at once to difficulties with Great 
Britain and France as to contraband trade, block- 
ade, Confederate cruisers, and recognition. 

Ocl. SI. Treaty of London by Great Britain, 



Spain, and France for coercion of Alexlco in be- 

half of foreign l»ndholders. advantiige being taken 
of Civil War in United States. Expedition sent, 
but England and Spain withdraw, as France 
clearly intends to overtlirow Mexican republic 
(see jNIexico). In 1866 United States forces witli- 
drawal of French troops and empire established by 
them falls. Loss of money, men, and prestige, 
and preoccupation dtiring the time of Prussian 
aggrandizement eventually destroy Napoleon. 

186'^. Second International Exhibition, again 
held in London. 

1863. Jan. 1. Proclamation of Emancipation 
of slaves in the rebellious parts of the United 
States, by President Lincoln. 
- Feb. 8. Convention for Prussian support of 

■" Russia against Polish revolt, thereljy gaining 
Russia's neutraUty in her own plans. Great 
Britain. France, and Austria protest but attempt 
no Intervention. 

186*. Austro-Prussian war on Denmark caused Ijy 
Schleswig-Holstein (see Denmark), into which 
Bismarck has led Austria as a step toward the 
contest for leadership in central Em-ope. Confer- 
ence of powers at London accomplishes no adjust- 
ment. By treaty of Cctol:)er 30. Denmark reluc- 
tantly renotuices the duchies in favor of Prussia 
and Austria. 

Aug. 2i. Geneva Convention for the amelio- 
ration of tlie condition of wotmded in time of war 
(Red Cross Convention), framed hy 12 coun- 
tries and joined l3y most of tlie otlier nations later. 
Early example of international cooperation. 

1865. Aug. H. Treaty of Gastein; Austria and 
Prussia to retain joint ownersliip of the duchies, 
but Prussia to administer Sclileswig and Austria 
Holstein. 

October. Meeting of Napoleon and Bismarck 
at Biarritz; Bismarck satisfies liimself that he can 
proceed against Austria without fear of French 
intervention. 

December. Slavery abolished altogether In 
the United States by 13th Constitutional Amend- 
ment. 
1866-1890. Commercial panics; England. 1866; 
United States. 187.3 ; Australia and Argentina. 1890. 

1866. Aprils. Prusso-ltahan alliance agamst Aus- 
tria. Bismarck then picks a (juarrel with Austria 
over administration of tiie duchies, and Atostria 
causes German Diet to vote forces against Prussia. 

June 16-July 28. Seven Weeks' War of Prus- 
sia and Italy against Austria and other German 
states (see Austria). Bismarck hastens peace 
for fear of intervention by France, the chance for 
wliich Napoleon lets slip. Italy is given Venetia; 
Prussia amiexes Schleswig-Holstein and various 
C:erman states; the German Confederation is abol- 
islied and in its place rises the North German 
Confederation of 22 states north of the Main, 
luider Prussian leadership. 

1867. Prussia becomes dominant power of cen- 
tral Europe, and a war with France is considered 
I:)y Bismarck necessary to the firm unification of 
Germany. Napoleon demands compensation in 
Luxembiu-g and on the Rhine. Prussia to be repaid 
at expense of soutiiem German states. Bismarck 
discloses the demand to . these states, who form 
military alliance with the Confederation. 
Completion of Suez Canal by de Lesseps for a 
French company; formally opened in 1869. Brit^ 
ish government l)uys control of canal in 1875: and 
occupies Egypt (18.S2), 

April-November. World's Fair at Paris. E.x- 
position of industry of all nations. 

May 11. Convention of London by the six pow- 
ers (see 1861. above) and Belgium and the Nether- 
lands guarantees the neutrality of Luxemburg. 

1868. First Chinese mission (Burlingame) to the 
United States and Europe. 

1869. May 10. Through rail connection from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific (" transcontinental ") 
made at Promontory Point. Utah. 

1870-3914. Polish literature: Sienkiewicz (With 
Fire and Sword. lS90;QiioVadisf 1 895). only author 
widely known outside of Poland. 

1870. Completion of sub-Alpine tunnel of Mont 
Cenis; followed by St. Gothard (1882) and Sim- 
plon (1906). 

Jvly IS. Ecumenical Council of the Roman 
Catholic Church accepts dogma of infallibility 
of the Pope (" in matters of faith and morals.") 

July to. French declaration of war on 
Prussia, brought about by Hohenzollcra candi- 
dacy for the Spanish throne and Bismarck's con- 
densation of the Ems dispatch (see France). 
' France Is isolated; Great Britain declares neu- 
trality. Austria and Italy are blocked. France 
and Prussia (July 15. 16) give assurances of re- 
specting neutrality of Belgium and Luxemburg. 

Sept. SO. French troops being withdrawn from 
Rome. Italians capture the city, completing their 
iznification except as to the Trentino and Trieste 
(" Italia irredenta "). 

Oct. 31. Russia annotmces that she considers 
herself no longer toimd to observe the neutraliza- 
tion of the Black Sea; a " scrap of paper " action 



which Bismarck supports, Russia in return pre- 
vents Austria and Italy from aiding France. 
1871. Jan. IS. German Empire is proclaimed at 
Versailles. 

May 10. Peace of Fraiikfiu't: France forced to 
cede Alsace-Lorraine (French since the time of 
Louis XIV.) to Germany, a loss wliich keeps alive 
French resentment. 

May lo. Treaty of London between the sig- 
natories of the treaty of 1856, accepts Russia's 
denunciation of neutrality of Black Sea, and cov- 
ers the violation of the treaty by declaring (Janu- 
ary 17) that treaty engagements cannot ije de- 
noianced or modified by contracting powers with- 
out consent or understanding of other signatories. 

RECONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE. 

1873. August. Dreikaiscrbund (Three Emperors' 
League) formed informally by Austria. Germany, 
and Russia ; but soon after Russia and Prussia form 
a defensive alUance secretly without Austria. 

1873. World E.vposition at Vienna, [tablished.l 

1874. Oct. 7. International postal system es-l 

1875. Germany, alarmed at France's rapid recov- 
ery, seems bent upon another war, but Russia dis- 
approves and greatly weakens her alliance witii 
Germany. 

Sctence and Health with Key to the Scriptures pul> 
Ushed by Mary Baker Glover (Eddy). 

1876. Development of electrical Industry. Tele- 
phone invented by Graham Bell, 1876. Electric 
light (principle discovered by Davy in ISOO), ap- 
plied by Edison, 1879, electric welding. ISSl. 
Trolley cars. 1884 (Kansas City and Cleveland). 
Phonograph, 1S77; later perfected by Edison and 
otiiers. 

Centennial Exposition (himdrfedth anniversary 

of independence) lield at Philadelphia. JNIakes 

Americans acquainted with many inventions and 

processes. 

E-xploration of Central Africa by Henry M. 

Stanley. Locates the source of the Congo River. 

July S. Secret convention of Reichstadt be- 
tween Austria and Russia on united pohcy and ac- 
tion in the war then going on between Turkey and 
Serbia and Montenegro (see Serbia, under Jugo- 
slavia) ; result temporarily frustrated by Turkish 
success. 

Dec. BS. Conference of the powers begins at 
Constantinople to force reforms on the Porte; 
faiis, and Russia is left to carry out her tlireat of 
war (see Turkey). For his own' purposes Bis- 
marck agrees to the plan* and the Aiistro-Russian 
convention is renewed. January, 1877. 

1878. International Exposition at Pari.<i; fol- 
lowed liy another in 1,889 and another in 1900. 

March 3. Preliminary peace of San Stefano 
forced by Russia on Turkey following their w;u" 
(see Turkey); Russia disregards Austrian con- 
vention, and Vienna and London suggest a con- 
gress of the powers on the Eastern Question. 

June 4. Anglo-Turkish defensive alliance; in 
exchange for the occupation of Cyprus and prom- 
ise of reforms in Asia Minor, England agrees to 
prevent further expansion of Russia there. No 
reforms carried out. 

July 13. Treaty of Berlin signed by tlie pow- 
ers and Turkey, reducing Russian gains and at- 
tempting a further solution of the Near-East proti- 
lem (see Turkey). 

1879. First electric train; operated in Berlin. 
Foimdation of French company imder de I.esscps 
for construction of Panama Canal. Work be- 
gins, 1881. Company fails and work stops. 1889; 
work resumed 1897 ; canal and rights sold to United 
States. 1904. 

Russia's resentment of Bismarck's policy at the 
Congress of Berlin leads to a rupture of the Tlireo 
Emperors' League. 

Oct. 7. Secret Aii-sfro-German defensive al- 
liance, directed pri,marily against Russia and sec- 
ondarily against France; lasts imtil World War. 

1880-1920. Twentieth Century of English lit- 
erature: Morley. Kipling, Stevenson. Barrie, 
Conrad. Chesterton. Benson, Wells, Masefield, 
Galsworthy, Bennett, Shaw. 

1880-1914. Modem French and Belgian ^Titers: 
Rostand, Anatole France, Coppee. Claretie, 
Pierre Loti, Bazm, Brunetiere, Maeterlinck. 

1883. First observance of Labor Day (N.Y. City). 
May 22. Formation of the Triple Alliance 
by admission of Italy to the Austro-German de- 
fensive league. Italy being alienated from France 
by the Tunis affair and other affairs. 

1883. Application of storage batteries to producing 
power. First practical use of this principle. 

1884. Pasteur's serum for rabies. First use of 
this means of combating germ diseases. 
Completion of Brooklyn Bridge from New York; 
first crossing of East Elver. 

: Greenwich accepted as the international prime 
meridian by a conference at Washington. 

March St. Secret formal revival of the Drei- 
kaiscrbund (Tlu-ee Emperors' League), which, with 
the Triple Alliance, completely isolates France. 
Russia not really in sympatliy. 



w 



26 

1885. Eeviscd Version of the English Bible, 

based on King James Version of 1611. Is never 
adopted by the British or American Protestant 
churches. 

Feb. 36. General act of the Congo Conference 
(see Belgium), framed by 12 European nations 
and the United States: first participation of the 
American power in such a congress, it being un- 
derstood that her Interests are commercial only 
and in no wise concerned with African politics. 

Sept. IS. Eastern Roumelia Is united with Bul- 
garia, contrary to the Treaty of Berlin. Serbia de- 
clares war on Bulgaria and is quickly defeated, but 
is rescued from invasion by threats from Austria. 
The powers do not msist upon the observance 
of the treaty. 
18S7. On the expiration of the Three Emperors 
League Russia refuses to renew it, resenting Bal- 
kan events, but makes a secret alliance with Ger- 
many for tliree years more. During this period 
the aUenatlon from Germany l>ecomes complete, 
the aUiance Is dropped m 1890. and the entente 
with Trance advances. This is encoiu-aged by 
French loans to Russia and develops Into a formal 
alliance, but not acloiowledged for several years. 
1888 Ocl 29 Suez Canal Convention at Con- 
stantmople by the six powers, Netherlands, 
Spain, and Tiu-key: neutralization, but Great 
Britain, controlling the canal, does not agree to it 
until April S, 1901; and it does not prevent British 
ownership and operation or the blocking of the 
canal to Germany In the World War. 

1889. First Pan-American Congress (Washing- 
ton) Followed bv second at Mexico City (1901), 
third at Rio de Janeiro (1906), and fourth at Buenos 
Aires (1910). 

International Eiposltlon at Paris. 
Bridge over the Forth in Scotland completed; 
longest spans In the world. 

1890-1929. Great irrigation works in U. S. (es- 
pecially Roosevelt Dam, 1910). The system opens 
up lands for tillage and furnishes water power 
which is transformed into electricity and carried 
long distances. 

1890. July 1. Anglo-German treaty by which 
England cedes Helgoland to Germany m ex- 
change for concessions in Africa. Germany forti- 
fies this island, which Is of great strategic imi>or- 
tanco and becomes a menace to British naval con- 
trol diu-ing the World War. 

July 2- Brussels Convention for the repres- 
sion of the African slave trade; signed by 13 Euro- 
pean nations. United States, Congo Free State, 
and Zanzibar, and acceded to later by Abyssmia, 
Persia, and Orange Free State. United States 
ratifies with reservations — no poUtical uaterest m 
Africa. 

1891. Aug. 22. Secret Franco-Russian alliance 

signed. 
1894-1896. Armenian massacres (see Armeni.i). 
Powers imable to agree upon any effective action. 
British pohcy Is checked by German Intrigue with 
Turkey. 

1894. Argon discovered; an unexpected element; 
revolutionizes conceptions of chemistry. 
Kiel Canal from North Sea to Baltic completed 
by Germany. Officially opened June 21, 1895. 

1895. May. Intervention of Russia, Germany, 
and France m the Chmo-Japanese peace treaty, on 
the plea of preserving the integrity of Chinese ter- 
ritory; Japan prevented from gathermg the fruits 
of her victory. 

1896-1897. Cretan revolt and Turko-Greek war 
(see Greece). Powers, hopelessly split on the 
Balkan question, warn Greece not to expect any 
aid- but after Greek defeat Great Britain, France, 
Italy, and Russia (Austria and Germany, Tur- 
key's supporters, holding aloof) arrange an autono- 
mous government for Crete (1898). 

1896. Revival of ancient Olympian games by a 
score of coimtries at Athens. 

Gold discovered on the Klondike, a branch of 
the Yukon River, in British Canadian territory. 

1897-1898. European seiziu-es of territory in Chma. 
followed (1899) by the amioim cement of the Amer- 
ican policy of the " open door " (see China). 

1898. Radium and polonium discovered by the 
Curies, husband and wife, m Paris. Beglnnmg 
of great chemical advance. 

1899. Begimimg of Assuan Dam in Egypt, to aid 
in irrigation of Egypt. 

Modern system of wireless telegraphy In opera- 
tion between England and France. Fk^t message 
across the Atlantic in 1902. 



WORLD HISTORY. 



PRELIMIHARIES OF WAR. 
1899. ^fay IS-July 29. First Peace Conference 

St The Hague, suggested by the czar on August 
24 1898. Delegates from 26 states attend, in- 
cluding nearly all European states. Cliina. Japan, 
Persia, Slam, Mexico, and the United States, winch 
is very active. Foiu- conventions are adopted on 
July 29- (1) for the pacific settlements of mtcma- 
tional disputes by voluntary means; (2) prohibi- 
tion of laimcliing of projectiles from aircraft; (.3) 
adaptation to maritime warfare of the prmciples 
of the Geneva Convention; (4) amelioration of 
laws and conditions of war on land. Germany 
is chiefly mstrumental m blockmg any form of 
compulsory arbitration. 

1900. Boxer rising (see China). United States 
participates in rescuing the diplomats. 
International Exposition at Paris. 
Count Zeppelin successful in flight in a dirigible 
balloon, or airship. 

1901. Pan-American Exposition at Bxiffalo 
Second Pan-American Congress at Mexico City 
South Carolina and West Indian Exposition at 
Charleston. 

1903. Jan. SO. Anglo-Japanese defensive alliance 
(see Japan) brmgs Japan definitely mto European 
connection, her participation m the Boxer suppres- 
sion having been an earlier step m tills direction. 
April. Rhodes legacy for scholarships in 
English imiversities for Americans and others — 
to cultivate good feeling. 

December. Coercion of Venezuela (see Venezu- 
ela) primarily an excuse by Germany for mterfer- 
ence in South American poUties; checked by atti- 
tude of United States. 

1903. March B. Turkish convention for construc- 
tion of the Bagdad Railway under German aus- 
pices (■• Berlin to Bagdad "); a phase of German 
poUcy to control the Near East and Middle Eu- 
rope as an offset to the colonial empu-es of the other 
powers. Turkey falls completely under German 
influence. 

1904. Subway in New York City opened. 
March. First tunnel under the Hudson 

River completed from New York to Jersey City. 

April s Anglo-French agreements on Mo- 
rocco and Egypt and all other outstandmg ques- 
tions mark the beginning of the entente cordiale 
(see Great Britain, imder British Empire). Rus- 
sia's reverses In the Japanese War have left 
France again unprotected. Egyptian-Morocco 
agreement has a secret clause for mutual aid m 
case a tliird nation (Germany) attempts to dis- 
turb the arrangement. 

Oct. S. Franco-Spanish agreement on Morocco, 
with a secret clause similar to the above. 

1905. March SI. Emperor William's speech at 
Tangier, declarmg the sultan of Morocco an abso- 
lutely Independent sovereign, is adirect challenge of 
the Anglo-French and Franco-Spanish agreements, 
which Germany had hitherto accepted in prmciple. 
France not m a position to challenge Germany's 
demand for a voice in all such arrangements. 

June S. Roosevelt's offer of Ms good oflaces to 
end the Russo-Japanese War (see Japan) is a fur- 
ther step in American participation m general di- 
plomacy, begun at the Congo Conference and ad- 
vancedbv the participation in Chinese affairs. 

1906. Red Cross Convention ratified by the U. S. 
Third Pan-American CongressatRiodeJaneiro 

April 7. Algeciras Convention by the six 
powers. Belgium. Spam. Morocco, Netherlands, 
Portugal, and United States, a result of Germany's 
demands. It provides for the " open door " and 
leaves the control over Morocco nominally mter- 
national but actually with France and Spam imder 
conditions practicaUy unworkable, especially 
against German intrigue with the sultan. The 
UTnlted States, specially invited by the emperor, is 
responsible for the decision, which is imlavorable 
to Germany. 

July 6. Further Red Cross Convention. 
1907. June IB-Ocl. IS. Second Hague Peace Con- 
ference, attended by delegates of 21 European. 19 
American, and 4 Asiatic nations. United States 
agam promment. Fourteen conventions are 
adopted on: (1) pacific settlement of disputes and 
permanent court of arbitration; (2) nonemploy- 
ment of force to recover contract debts (Drago 
doctrme); (3) opening of hostilities; (4) ameliora- 
tion of war on land ; (5) right and duties of neutrals 
in war on land; (6) limitation on use of marine 
mines and torpedoes: (7) naval bombardment; 



1885 a. d.— 1913 A. D. 

(8) adaptation of Geneva Convention to naval 
warfare; (9) right of captures m naval warfare; 
(10) international prize court; (11) rights and 
duties of neutrals m naval war; (12) prohibition of 
discharge of projectiles from aircraft; (13) status 
of enemy merchant ships at outbreak of hostilities; 
(14) conversion of merchant ships mto war sliips. 
A final act registers the Conference as unitmg 
imaiumously on the desirability of the prmciple of 
compulsory arbitration. The conventions for 
lessening the horrors of war are repeatedly vio- 
lated durmg the World War (1914-1918). 

Auy. IS. Anglo-Russian treaty over spheres 
in Asia, the only matter m which the mterests of 
the two powers directly clash. This annoimces a 
rnpprorichement similar to the Anglo-French one 
and of a tripartite entente cordiale. No 
formal treaty of aUiance is made. 

1908. October. Austria annexes Bosnia and Herze- 
govma. and Bulgaria declares her complete mde- 
pendence; both violations of the Treaty of Bcrim 
and the declaration of 1S71. Serbia protests, but 
signatories of that treaty are now divided; Eng- 
land and France unwlUing to go to extremes. Ger- 
many supporting Austria, and Russia forced to 
yield" becau.se not equal to a great war. The vio- 
lations are formaUy condoned m 1909. 

1909. Alaska-Yukon-Paciflc Exposition at Se- 
attle. Washington. 

Feb. 9. Franco-German agreement on Morocco ; 
recognition of French permanent mterest at the 
price of joint economic control; a violation of the 
■■ open door " and fruitful of further controversy. 

Feb. 26. Convention of London on regula- 
tion of naval warfare; suggested and called by 
Great Britain: framed by delegates of Germany, 
Austria. Spam. France. Great Britam. Italy, 
Netherlands. Russia. United States, and Japan; 
signed by the British authorities: their assent then 
withdrawn by a technicality m the British Parlia- 
ment, and never put in operation; its principles 
nuUlfled durmg the World War. 

April 6. Peary discovers the North Pole. 

1910. July. Fourth Pan-American Congress 
at Buenos Aires. 

1911. April. France sends a force to Fez to restore 
order, and Spain occupies a part of Morocco. On 
July 1 Germany annoimces intention to send a 
warship to Morocco (Agadir affair), and interna- 
tional complications are renewed, mvolving Eng- 
land and also other African possessions. Matters 
are quieted on November 4 by a Franco-German 
treaty, admitting French protectorate in Morocco 
but ceding to Germany a portion of French Equa- 
torial Africa. People of neither nation satisfied; 
CaiUaiLx. French premier, later accused of playing 
into German hands. 

Sept. 20. Italy suddenly declares war on Tur- 
key for the possession of Tripoli (see Italy), and 
is permitted by the powers to work her wOl. proba- 
bly because of the danger of a general war if any 
nation mtervenes. 

Dec. le. South Pole discovered by the Nor- 
wegian explorer Roald Amundsen. 
1913. Aug. 26. Alliance of four Balkan states 
(not including Roumanla) agamst Turkey, proba- 
bly with Russian secret consent; aided by the in- 
difference of the powers to the Tiu-ko-Italian War. 
Also, the evident designs of Austria (Germany) on 
then- territory have caused them to abandon their 
internecine controversies. Teutonic powers ex- 
pect a Turkish victory over the allies. Turkey 
loses every battle m the open and every fortified 
place m Macedonia and Thrace. 
1913. May SO. Treaty of London at end of Bal- 
kan War deprives Turkey of all her European 
territory except neighborhood of Constantmople. 
but the Triple Alliance forbids Serbia to control 
Albania with its Adriatic frontage. Teutonic in. 
trigue is busy against the contmuation of the Bal- 
kan League, workmg on Bulgaria, which country 
on June 29, precipitates a second Balkan War on 
its erstwhile aUies (see Bulgaria), and is defeated, 
Roumanla joining the other states against her. 

Aug 10. Treaty of Bucharest between tht 
Ba'Uian states readjusts the boundaries at the ex- 
pense of Bulgaria, even Turkey regaimng somt 
territory Powers look on; Teutonic nations foi 
the moment not able to help either Turkey or BiU- 
garia, but ready to take advantage of the unsatis- 
factory domestic conditions of the memljersof tht 
Triple Entente. . 

Aug. 28. Palace of Peace at The Hague, gift 
of Andrew Carnegie. 



V. WORLD-WAR PERIOD: 1914 TO 1920. 



Historical Outline. 

OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. 
The occasion for the World War was found in the 
Balkans. Although Austria had succeeded m en- 
forcing her will in the settlement of the second 
Balkan War in 1913, and tlii-oiigh the erection of an 
Albanian kingdom had successfully prevented Serbia 
from gaining access to the sea, the Serbs were filled 
with resentment. The idea of nationality was 
strong in them and they hoped to imite their race 
in one autonomous state. Since Austria-Hungary 
ruled millions of Serb subjects, she could but regard 
this ambition as dangerous to her supremacy. Both 
In Serbia and in the Serbian regions governed by 
Austria, secret societies were formed and an active 
Pan-Serbian propaganda was initiated. Still, Serbia 
was obliged to submit in 1913, as she had done in 
1908 and 1909. Alone, she was in no condition to 
measure strength with Austria. 

On June 2S, 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdi- 
nand of Austria, heir to the ttirone. was assassi- 
nated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Altliough 
the assassins were Austrian subjects and natives of 
Bosnia, they were Serbians by race. Austria had 
been watching for an opix)rtunity to teach Serbia a 
lesson and forthwith assumed tliat tliis act was the 
result of Serbian propaganda, denoimced the Serbs 
as a nation of murderers, and held the Serbian gov- 
ernment responsible. 

On July 23 Austria carried out a long-planned de- 
sign and sent the fated ultimatum to Serbia con- 
taining demands of such a character as. Sir Edward 
Grey said, had never been laid upon an independent 
nation. The Pan-Serbian propaganda must \ye 
suppressed, all anti-Austrian propaganda, whetlier 
in newspapers, textbooks, or schools, must cease: 
oflBcers in the government and army whose names 
the Austrian government should submit must Ixi re- 
moved: Sertiia must accept Austrian aid in the in- 
vestigation of this conspiracy. FmaUy, Serbia was 
given 48 hoim* in which to siibmit to this humihat- 
ing ultimatum. The nature of the demands was such 
as to make it evident that Austria had resolved on war. 

On July 25 Serbia submitted to all demands save 
the last, wliich she offered to arbitrate; but this did 
not satisfy Austria, and on July 28 she declared 
war upon Serbia. Although the war began with 
the attempt of Austria to suppress a petty Balkan 
state, the real causes were far wider than the Balkan 
question. They were world-reaching. 

From the point of view of Germany, she and her 
ally, Austria, were in constant danger of a move- 
ment — commonly called Pan-SIa\ism — to imite 
the Slavs of the Balkans and the Slavs of Russia. 
To German eyes Pan-Slavism meant the extinction 
of Pan-Germanism and of the pecuhar Kultur for 
which Germany stood. Germany aUeged that she 
and Austria would be siuroimded by " an iron ring." 
— on the one side Russia and her aUies, on the other 
France with her ally. Great Britain. Germany was 
conscious of great material success; she was prosper- 
ous, efficient, and scientific and demanded a position 
equal to what she considered her due — "a place in 
the Sim." Germany's colonial empire was small 
compared with that of Great Britam and France, and 
the colonics she held were less lucrative and desirable 
than those in the hands of her rivals. The teachings 
of her philosophers emphasized that the state was 
might, and that war was the proper means to ex- 
pand her culture. Finally, the growth of the Social- 
ist party in Germany was a menace to the military 
regime and if Germany was ever to strike it must do 
so before this rising power prevented such action and 
destroyed the mihtary machine which had been so 
carefully prepared. For these reasons, among 
others, Germany supported her ally, Austria, in 
her demands on Serbia, and believed that the day had 
come when she might aspire to world domination. 

Russia could not allow her Slav protegee, Serbia, 
to be overridden by Austria. Twice before, Russia 
had been forced to assent to Austria's sUghts and 
must now take some decisive steps in order to retain 
her hifluenco in the Balkans. Therefore, on July 29, 
the day after Austria declared war upon Serbia. 
Russia mobiUzed the forces in the southern military 
districts; and the day after Belgrade was bom- 
barded by the Austrians, Russia ordered a general 
mobilization (July 31). 

Germany seized upon that action as a pretext for 
a war long agreed upon. While her regular armies 
were massing on the Ru.ssian border, she demanded 
that Russia cease mobilizing, and on August 1 de- 
clared war. An ultimatum was presented to 
France demanding whether France would support 
Russia. On August 2 Germany struck at France 
through the neutral state of Luxemburg and en- 
tered French territory. On the same day Germany 



demanded a passage for her armies tiirough the 
neutralized state of Belgium, wliich refuseti and 
bravely accepted the war thus thrust upon her. 

Throughout these events Great Britain did all 
in her power to mitigate the severity of the Austrian 
demands on Serbia and to mediate in the dispute be- 
tween Russia and Austria. She received no sym- 
pathy in tluwo steps from Germany, wliich insisted 
that mediation was impracticable. The evidence 
shows that Austria took no step without the consent 
if not the positive advice of her ally, Germany. 
The suppression of Serbia was part of the general 
policy of Germany, whicii desired not a peaceful set- 
tlement of the Serbian dispute, but an appeal to 
arms, in wliich she felt herself destmed to Ix) trium- 
phant. 

Still, Germany was not ready to measure strength 
with France and Russia if Great Britain were to be 
their ally. She therefore offered to respect the terri- 
torial integrity of France should England remain 
neutral (July 28), but refused to give a similar assur- 
ance with regard to the French colonial possessions. 
England was already bound by a secret agreement to 
protect the Channel coast of France. Her refusal of 
this offer led Germany to strike at France tbrougti 
Belgium; and the appeal of Belgium at once brought 
Great Britain into the war as the ally of France and 
Russia, contrary^ to Germany's expectations. 

In another respect the plans of the Teutonic allies 
miscarried. Italy, the tliird member of the Triple 
Alliance, issued a declaration of neutrality, Au- 
gust 3, correctly asserting that the Triple Alliance 
was a defensive, not an offensive, aUiance, and that 
she had not !>een consulted by her alhes in the 
steps wiiich brought on the war. 

Whether the war was necessary for Gerniany''$ 
defense or not, her actions soon alienated the 
sympathies of the world. The confession of the 
German chancellor that Germany was violatmg 
Belgian rights and his assertion that " Just for a 
word — neutrality — just for a scrap of paper Great 
Britain was gomg to make war on a kindred nation " 
showed a cynical disregard for international law and 
the rights of small nations. Furthermore, Ger- 
many's method of making war was more brutal and 
terrible than the world had seen in modem times. 
The invasion of Belgium was resisted by the Bel- 
gian army and the heroic opposition of this little force 
at Liege ohecl^ed the German advance and gave the 
AUies time to concentrate their forces. Thus 
thwarted, the Germans took savage revenge upon 
the Belgians. Louvain was destroyed, towns and 
villages along the route of the German advance were 
sacked, and hmidreds of irmocent civihans were ruth- 
lessly executed. A pohcy of terrorization was adopt- 
ed which, although preventing insurrection, failed to 
break the Belgian spirit, but won the sympathy of the 
world and gained universal opprobriiun for Germany. 

CAMPAIGNS OF 1914. 

Liege fell on August 7 ; on August 20 Brussels was 
occupied. Three days later Namur was occupied 
and Mens attacked, and the great retreat of the 
French and English forces began. France was 
invaded; for ten days and ten nights the retreat 
continued. The great fortresses proved useless 
against the most powerful gims ever moved by an 
advancmg army. Town after town in northern 
France was occupied as the British and French forces 
were obliged to retire to avoid being surrounded. 
The invaders came within striking distance of Paris, 
and German victory seemed certain. 

On September 6 the advance was halted and to 
liis generals Marshal Joffre sent word that " the hour 
has come to hold fast and let yourselves be killed 
rather than to yield." The decisive world battle of 
the Marne l>e^an with the desperate assault by 
the French, as is shown in the message which Gen- 
eral Foch sent to Joffre, " My right is in retreat, my 
center is yielding. Situation excellent. I shall 
attack." The attack was successful, and not only 
was the German advance checked, but the German 
army was driven back with enormous losses from the 
Marne to the Aisne. where it took refuge in a hne of 
trenches and resisted the French advance. 

The battle of the Mame saved Paris and France 
from German dominion. But Germany still occu- 
pied large portions of the French territory, and after 
their defeat on the Mame the Germans besieged and 
captured Antwerp and swept westward to occupy 
the Chaimel ports. Ostend was captured October 
15. but the Germans were checked before Dunkirk 
was reached and the first battle of Tpres began 
October 19. Here the British army, though out-- 
numlwred four to one and suffering a loss of one half, 
beat off the German attack. Both sides intrenched 
themselves and the opposing lines extended contin- 
uously from the Channel to Switzerland, in positions 
which varied little imtil March 1918. 



Although Germany failed to capture Paris and to 
destroy l«Yance, she occupied most valuable terri- 
tory, by possession of which her power to continue 
the war was augmented. The territory she held con- 
tained nine tenths of the iron ore and half of the coal 
of France: and the Belgian harlxjrs of Ostend and 
Zeebrugge fimiislied convenient bases for the sub- 
marine warfare :^he later adopted. 

On the Russian front Germany was disagreeably 
surprised. She had counted on the slowness of the 
unwieldy empire to mobilize, and hoped by a sud- 
den blow to paralyze Russia's western ally, and then 
to deal with the East at her leisure. Russia, how- 
ever, advanced more rapidly than was expected and 
invaded East Prussia on the north and Gahcia on the 
south, where the Austrians were defeated at Lem- 
berg (September 1) and Frzemysl was mvested, 
wlnle a central army struck hi the direction of Posen. 
On August 29 the Germans, with reenforced lines, de- 
feated the Russians at Tannenberg and drove them 
out of East Prussia; and by a combined attack of the 
German and Austrian forces the Russians were 
pushed back in Poland until General von Hinden- 
burg was on the outskirts of Warsaw. 

On Octolx^r 13 Grand Duke Nicholas, the Russian 
generahssimo, took the offensive, and the battle of 
the Marne was repeated on the Vistula. Hinden- 
burg struck again at Warsaw, but was checked, and 
after the Russian \ictory in the north at Avgustovo 
(October 4) the Russians again invaded East Prus- 
sia. On December 6, the Germans, though suffer- 
ing terrific losses, cut their way eastward to Lodz 
and by the end of the year estabUshed a Une twenty- 
five miles west of Warsaw. 

While Germany and Austria were occupied with 
Russia and France. Serbia, aided by Uttle Monte- 
negro, the only Balkan state to stand" by her, gained 
some initial >ictories. although the Austrians suc- 
ceeded in occupjing the Serbian capital, Belgrade. 
Because of the rehef from pressure resulting from the 
Russian a<:Ivance m Gahcia. the Serbians were able 
to retake it, drove the Austrian troops out of Serbia, 
and invaded Bosnia. 

Meanwliile the Central Powers enlisted an ally. 
On November 5, 1914, Turkey entered the war. 
Ever since the revolution which estabUshed the 
Yoimg Turks in control (1908), German influence 
had been dominant. The success of Russia might 
mean the loss of Constantinople to Turkey, wliile a 
German victory might insure the continuance of the 
Ottoman Empire. To Germany and her allies the 
adherence of Turkey was of great value. The sul- 
tan, as the head of the Mohammedan religion, was 
expected to proclaim a " jihad," or holy war, which 
would cause unrest among the milhons of Moham- 
medan subjects of Great Britain and Russia. More- 
over, the Turkish army, officered by Germans, would 
be a convenient instrument with which to detach 
a signiflcant part of the military strength of Russia 
and G reat Britain. Diu-mg 1914, although the 
Turks attempted to cross tlie Sinai peninsula and 
threaten Egypt, and to Invade the Caucasus, they 
were defeated; the immediate reply was the British 
occupation of Busrah at the head of the Persian Gulf, 
the final annexation of Cji^rus. and the announce- 
ment that Egypt had become a British colony. 

In the Far East. Japan as Great Britain's ally 
declared war upon Germany and demanded the 
surrender of Kiaochow. When this was refused, 
Japan captured the fortress by siege. Germany's 
widely scattered colonial empire was attacked 
elsewhere. In the Pacific, Apia was occupied by 
New Zealand troops (August 29), and the surrender 
of the German possessions in the Samoan group and 
of Kaiser-Willielmsland, Bismarck Archipelago, and 
the Solomon Islands rapidly foUowed. Octol>er 7, 
Japan seized the Marshall Islands. In Africa a 
Fran CO- British force captured Togo, and the forces 
of the South African Union began the conquest of 
other German possessions. 

British troops came to the rescue of France on 
the western front, while the British navj' upheld the 
cause of the Alhes all over the world. The fleet, on 
the declaration of war, at once began a blockade 
of the German northern coast, wliich continued 
throughout the war. At the same time, Ger- 
many's vast merchant marine was swept from 
the sea by British and French cruisers or interned in 
neutral harbors. During the early days of the war 
considerable damage was done to Allied commerce 
by the swift German cruisers Emden and Karlsruhe; 
but with the destruction of these vessels the danger 
was diminished and only the German main fleets were 
to be feared. 

The home fleet was mostly bottled up in the Kiel 
Canal; the small Pacific fleet (November 1) won a 
naval victory over an English squadron off the coast 
of Chile. December S, however, it was totally de- 
stroyed in the battle of the Falkland Islands. In 
(27) 



28 



WORLD HISl'ORY. 



Eurocean waters the British won a naval victory | Anglo-French troops aided by the AustraJian and 
iLuropean vvaucia ouc ^^ „„„..i x..,^ ■-/.oninnrt irmv Onrns Immvn as t he Anzacs. 



u 



w 



near Helgoland (August 2S, 1014): but soon alter 
lost three 12.000-ton cruisers, tlie Aboukir, Cressy, 
and Hague, by the attack of a German submarine. 
The main German fleet, however, did not take the 
sea and though a small port on the coast of England 
was bombarded (Dec. 16), little damage resulted. 

Great Britain also conunandcd the English Chan- 
nel and was able to transport an ever mcreasmg 
number of troops to France with the loss of only a 
few hundred men. Etiually vital was tlie blockade 
which Great Britain estabUshed agamst the German 
ports. Not only were ships prevented from entering 
the ports, but "the trade of neutrals was restricted 
tlirough the doctrine of ■' continuous voyage," so 
that Germany was cut off from commercial mter- 
coiu-se with all Ijut the neighljoring states. Thus 
l)egan an economic pressure which ultimately had 
the effect of breaking the morale of the German peo- 
ple and paving tlie way for the victory of the AUies. 
Although tlie battle of tlie Marne saved France, 
yet the Germans hold practically aU of Belgium and 
northwestern France and a hne of intrcnchments 
from the North Sea to Switzerland. Diu-ing the 
year 1915 the Allies attempted to dislodge them frotn 
these positions. The war was a war of " attrition," 
or as Joffre said, " of nibbling." For some months 
no engagements of importance were fought, but on 
March 10, at Neuve Chapclle the British began a 
tentative offensive. This battle was remarkable be- j 
cause intensive artillery preparation was first used. 
On a narrow front of less than foiu- miles, more than , 
300 British cannon were concentrated, and by means 
of high explosives the German defenses were liter- 
ally blasted away. In this single battle the British 
used more sheU than they had used in the whole of the 
Boer War. Following the artillery preparation, the 
infantry advanced and gamed about a mile. The 
German line was bent but not broken. The Ger- 
mans coimterattacked but the British in spite of 
enormous losses held their new front. 

On the part of the Germans an attempt to break 
the lines of the. Allies was made at Ypres (April 
22-25). This battle was noteworthy for the first 
use of poisonous gas. The Canadians, on whom 
the attack was made, were unprepared for such 
tactics. The use of poisonous gas had been expressly 
proliibited by the Hague Convention of 1907, to 
which Germany had given her assent. Her illegal 
methods were momentarily successful and the French 
and Canadians were forced back. But on May 24 
the fighting died down, and the Germans had suc- 
ceeded only in bending the Allies' Ime. 

Again, on September 25, the Allies took the offen- 
sive at the battle of Loos. Although the immedi- 
ate objective was obtained, yet the cost in Uves was 
enormous, and the British commanders failed to fol- 
low up their initial success. Thus the deadlock on 
the western front continued. 



1915 A. D. — 1916 A. D. 



on May 7, 1915, one of the largest Imers in passenger 



CAMPAIGNS OF 1915. 
On the Russian front the Allies had better suc- 
cess. On the north the Russians attempted a new 
inrasion of East Prussia, but von Hindenburg, 
to whom this territory was familiar, outmaneuvered 
them and decisively defeated them in the battle of 
the Masurian Lakes (Feb. 10-12, 1915). In this 
battle, the Russians lost in killed and wotmded 
150.000, and over 100,000 were taken prisoners. 

Against Austria Russia at fh-st won more success. 
From January imtil May the Russian army pushed 
into GaUcia." Przcniysl fell March 22, and the 
whole battle front moved forward imtil May 1. At 
this date the tables were turned. The Austrians, 
reenforced under von Hindenburg and von Mac- 
kensen, attacked the Russians on a wide front. The 
Germans and Austrians were everywliere successful, 
and the whole Russian line was forced to retreat. 
Przemysl was recaptured Jime 3; Lemberg, Jime 
22; Russian Poland was invaded and Warsaw was 
occupied. August 5; Russian Poland was conciuered 
and the provinces of Lithuania and Kiu-land were 
overrun. The Russian army was extricated by the 
skillful gcneralsliip of the Grand- Duke Nicholas. 
Yet for his iU success he was removed from his com- 
mand and sent to the Caucasus. 

The Allies suffered another severe blow In the 
Turkish campaign. An ambitious plan to cap- 
tm-e Constantinople was prepared. The impor- 
tance of the place was obvious. Constantmople. in 
tlie hand of the Turks, barred the Allies from reach- 
ing Russia by water. Tlirough the Dardanelles and 
the Black Sea ports munitions might be dispatched 
to Russia and from Russia provisions might be 
drawn to relieve the necessities of the Allies. More- 
over, the possession of Constantinople would cut 
Germany off from her Tm-kish ally and put an end 
to the Teutonic dream of uninterrupted German con- 
trol from Berlin to Bagdad . Furthermore, an Allied 
success in this quarter woidd have a wonderful effect 
upon the wavering coiu-age of the Balkan states. 

The first attempt to capture Constantinople 
was made at the Dardanelles (February 19. 1915) 
but was checked a month later by the loss of three 
battleships, two British r..nd one French. Although 
repulsed, the Allies, reenlorced by an army of the 



Now Zealand Army Corps, known as the " Anzacs, 
landed on the penmsula of Gallipoli. An attack 
was made at Achi Baba, the key to the Turkish 
positions, but the Turks, under the command of the 
German General von Sanders, repulsed them. Des- 
perate attempts were also made to cut the commu- 
nications with Constantinople,, but the operations 
failed. Although the troops, remamed tliroughout 
the year, notliing was accomplished. The evacua- 
tion of the AUied positions was accomplished by 
January 8, 1916. 

The British had some mitiaJ success in their cam- 
paign agamst the Turks in Mesopotamia. They 
succeeded in drivmg the Tiuks back bejond the 
Tigris and Euphrates by July, and pushed forward 
in the direction of Bagdad. On November 22-24 
General Townshend's colunm defeated more than 
13,000 Tiu-ks at Ctesiphon. The Tiu-ks, however, re- 
ceived reenforcements, and the British were com- 
pelled to retreat to Kut-cl-Amara, where they were 
besieged. 

One permanent gam was made by the Alhes. On 
May 23, 1915. Italy declared war on Austria- 
Himgary. Italy had been a member of the Triple 
Alliance for over 30 years, and in 1912 tliis aUiance 
had been renewed to last imtil 1920. But Italy was 
not consulted in the Serbian ultimatum, and tlie war 
was obviously offensive and not defensive. Under 
j these circumstances Italy was perfectly justified m 
refusing to enter the war on the side of her allies and 
[ in taking up a neutral position. 
j The kingdom of Italy, however, was not complete, 
as Austria still controlled himdreds of thousands of 
Italians in the Trentino and Trieste. This was 
■• Ilnlui irmhiila " — luiredeemed Italy. The Ital- 
ian government attempted to acquire this terri- 
tory from Austria by negotiations; but when this at- 
tempt failed, Italy, in response to an overwhelming 
popular demand, felt that her legitimate asphations 
coidd best be satisfied by'joming the Allies and 
therefore deciai'ed war upon Austria. 

A double offensive was laimched against Austria, 
one colunm niovmg into the Trentmo, and another 
against the positions beyond the Isonzo, flankmg 
Trieste. After some initial successes, both sides in- 
trenched themselves, and the Italian offensive came 
to a halt, largely because of the difficult nature of the 
coimtry. 

Tlie effect of the AUied failure at the DardaneUes 
was disastrous. Greece had been about to join the 
Allies, but now adopted a tortuous pohcy of benevo- 
lent neutrality towards Germany. On Bulgaria 
the result was even more decisive. Bulgaria liated 
Roumania, Serbia, and Greece and felt that these 
powers had deprived her of her legitimate territory 
by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913. (See Bulgaria.) 
Now that the Russians were driven from Galicia and 
the Allies unsuccessful at the Dardanelles, Bulgaria 
saw her opportimity to tear up the treaty and with 
German aid to acquire the territory and seaports 
she coveted. After a period of devious diplomacy 
the Bulgarian czar, Ferdmand, joined the Central 
Powers (Oct. 5, 1915), although war was not formally 
declared until Oct. 14. The effect was far-reachhig. 
It gave to Germany the long-wished-for " corridor " 
to Turkey and enabled her to hiurj- munitions and 
men to her Tm-kish allies. The accession of Bulgaria 
to the Central Powers sealed the doom of Serbia. 

1915 saw the vu-tual extinctton of the imwiUing 
pretext of the war, Serbia. In October a new cam- 
paign was organized against her; and the Austrians, 
freed from the danger of Russian invasion and reen- 
forced by the Germans and the Bulgarians, who had 
now jouied the Teutonic powers, swept through the 
coimtry. The renmant of the Serbian army was 
transported by Allied vessels to the island of Corfu. 
In German Southwest Africa, a division of the 
troops of the Union of South Africa, commanded by 
General Louis Botha, began operations in February. 
Windhuk, the capital, was captured on May 12, and 
on July 9 the German commander siu-rendered im- 
conditionally. In tlie Kamerun the AUies occu- 
pied the .seacoast and the raihoads and drove the 
Germans into the interior. In German East Africa 
the resistance was more obstmate and the British 
suffered minor repulses. 

No important fleet engagements took place durmg 
the year 1915. The Germans confined their naval 
activity to the use of the submarine. In Febru- 
ary, the British Isles were declared in a state of 
blockade, and Germany claimed the right to stalt 
merchant vessels bearing the British flag and boimd 
for British ports. Although international law al- 
lowed the destruction of the merchantmen of one 
belligerent by another, the dictates of humanity, 
wliich had hitherto been observed by contending 
powers, required that the crew and passengers sliould 
be removed before the destruction of the vessel. 
The submarhie was a craft imable either to capture 
a merchant vessel or adequately to provide for the 
safety of the crew and passengers. Thus the use of 
the submarme as a weapon against merchantmen 
was considered illegal. Unmoved by such consider- 
ations, the Germans with their submarines destroyed 
many merchant sliips, both neutral and English, and 



service — the Lusltanla — was sunk without warn- 
hig. Nearly 1 ,200 men, women, and cliUdren perished, 
among whom were more than a himdred Americans. 
In spite of the submarine menace. Great Britain 
continued to transport into France troops and muni- 
tions and, although suffering great losses in her mer- 
chant marine, was able to keep in touch with her 
colonial empire and to import food and munitions. 



CAMPAIGNS OF 1916. 
In 1916 Germany's supreme effort on the west- 
em front was made at Verdun, a place so strongly 
fortified as to be considered almost impregnable; and 
for that very reason there were few defenses of ma- 
jor importance between Verdun and Paris. The 
capture of such an important position woiUd paralyze 
the AlUed resistance and with the faU of Paris France 
might succumb. Moreover, the very difficulty of 
the military operations offered a chance for mihtarj- 
glory to the German Crown Prmce, who commanded 
that section of the line. 

The Germans made careful preparations and ac- 
cumulated enormous armies and vast supphes, and 
on February 21 tlie attack began. It seemed im- 
possible that human force could defy such destruc- 
tive artillery fire, or that troops could mauitain tlieir 
positions aiid check tlie advance of then- opponents, 
sheltered behmd the rain of high explosives. Al- 
though the French were driven from position to posi- 
tion and in four days retired four miles, tliey con- 
tested every mch of the ground. Reijnforcements 
were hurried to them, and the advance was tempo- 
rarily cheeked ; taut the Germans had resohed to cap- 
ture "Verdun whatever the cost. The French, mider 
Pctam, and, later, NiveUe, were equally resolved to 
check them and, with the Cry "lis ne passeront 
pas! " [" They shaU not pass! "1, they thwarted the 
efforts of the Germans and actually chove them out 
of most of the positions they had won. The battle 
lasted from February imtil July. It was renewed 
in October, and on December 15, by a surprise at- 
tack. General Nivelle recovered Fort de Vaux and 
two niUes of territory along a seven-mUe front and 
took 1 1,400 prisoners and 115 giuis. Tliis ten montlis' 
battle cost the Germans about 600,000 men and the 
French nearly 500,000. 

On July 1 began the great Allied offensive on 
the Somme. The intent was twofold. By at- 
tacking the Germans in tliis region it was hoped to 
relieve the pressure on Verdim. The immediate 
objective, however, was the captm-e of the railway 
centers of Peronne and Bapaume, which supported 
the German front. The AUies here perfected the 
method of artiUery preparation before attacking 
the German positions. After blastuig away the 
protective barriers of barbed wire and sliattermg the 
trenches, the infantry, foUowmg the barrage, occu- 
pied the German positions. Tliroughout the sum- 
mer the advance proceeded. Thiepval, Pozicres, 
Longueyal, and Combles were captm-ed and Peroime 
was threatened. In the autumn (September 15) the 
" tanks " first made their apiwarance, and betneen 
November 12 and 18 in the Ancre region the British 
gained the liigliland commandhig Bapaume. The 
rains of November brought the advance to an end, yet 
the Allies had gained 170 square mUes wliich tiiey re- 
tamed, unlike the Germans at Verdun, who had been 
driven out of most of the positions taken by them. 

The year 1916 marked the height of Russia's 
success. In Armenia, Grand Duke Nicholas was 
successful agamst the Tm-ks and captiu-ed the 
strongly fortified city of Erzerum (February 16, 
1916) and Trebi^ond (AprU 18), wliile another Rus- 
sian column penetrated the moimtaiiis and occupied 
" old Armenia." The Tm-ks thus lost over 30,000 
square mhes on a front of 750 mUes. 

In Europe General Brusilov started a great offen- 
sive in June. The immediate object was tlie cap- 
ture of Kovel and Lemberg and the recaptm-e of 
Bukowina. Along a front which extended from the 
Prlpyat marshes to the Roumanian frontier, the 
Russian forces advanced. The Austrian lines were 
broken and the fortresses of Lutsk and Dubno were 
captured. Czemowitz was reoccupicd (Jime 1 7) and 
Bukowina retaken. On the north, Brody was cap- 
tured and Kovel was tlireatened and the Russian 
Cossacks poiu-ed tlu-ough the Carpathian passes 
toward the Himgarian plain. As before, Germany 
came to the rescue of Austria. The Russians were 
halted at the Styr on the north, but on the south 
they almost reached Lemberg. At this pomt Bru- 
sUov's offensive came to an end. Tliis victory was 
the greatest Allied success since the battle of the 
Marne. The Russians took more than 420,000 pris- 
oners and over 15,000 square miles of territory. 

The Russian dri%e was intended to prepare the 
way for the entrance of Roumania on the side of the 
Allies. In Transylvania Austria governed miUions 
of the Roumanian race and the nationaUstic aspira- 
tions of Roumania led to the hope that these people 
might be jomed with the Roumanian state. More- 
over, Bulgaria, ne\-er forgetting the Treaty of Bucha- 
rest, was ready to take any advantage the war might 
offer to regain the territorj- she had surrendered to 
Roumania in 1913. 



1916 A. D. - 1917 A. D. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 



29 



On August 27. Roumania joined the Allies and 
made a spectacular raid into Transylvania. The 
results were tragic. Brusilov's offensive had come 
to a stop and Russia was not able to aid the Rou- 
manians. The German general, von Mackensen, 
commanding an army of Bulgarians, Turks, and 
Germans, swept into the Dobruja and captured a 
division of the Roumanian army. The mvading 
troops m Transylvania were ordered to withdraw, 
but a new German army commanded by von Falken- 
Ua.yn fell upon its rear and drove it across the bor- 
der. Alackensen crossed the Danube and the 
Roumanian forces were caught between two converg- 
ing armies. Bucharest was abandoned December G, 
and the Roumanian army souglu refuge in the Rus- 
sian lines. Like Serbia, l-ioumania was almost com- 
pletely conquered, and the grain fields and oil wells 
were at the service of the Teutonic allies. More- 
over, the Austro-German front now ran almost in a 
straight line from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In 
Mesopotamia the Turks pressed the siege of Kut- 
el-Amara, and General Townshend was forced to 
siu-render AprU 29, 1016. In Arabia the Grand 
Shereef of Mecca revolted from Turkish rule and es- 
tablished a government which included Mecca, Me- 
dina, and Jedda. 

In the southern Balkans the Austrians meted out 
to Montenegro the same fate that the Serbians had 
suffered and occupied Cetinje January 13 and Scu- 
tari, the chief trading center of Albania, January 2,3. 
To check tliis advance, or at least to prevent the 
Teutonic powers from overrunning Greece, the Al- 
lies occupied Salonilii, as a pomt from which they 
might attack the Bulgarians and possibly threaten 
the Teutonic lines of commimication. Large de- 
tachments of Frenoli and Enghsh troops were sent to 
Saloniki, and the Serbian army, which had been re- 
fitted by the French at Corfu, was given the position 
on the left flank. In September an offensive was 
begim wliich resulted in the Allied occupation of 
Monastir, Noven^er 19. 

On tlie Itaiiali front the Austrians launched a 
powerful offensive m May. Taking from the east- 
ern front large detachments of troops and guns, 
Austria struck south along the vaUey of the Adige 
and Brenta and approached the Venetian plain. 
Brusilov's drive in the east, however, forced Austria 
to htirry reenforcements to that front and saved the 
day for Italy. Takhig advantage of tliis. the Italian 
offensive began in August along tlie Isonzo, and 
Giirz (Gorizia) was captiu-ed August 9, thus redeem- 
ing the first important town of " Italia irredenta." 
A foothold was also gained on the Karst (Carso) 
plateau, and m October the Austrian line was 
broken in the Julian Alps. 

The year 1916 saw the extinction of German au- 
thority in Africa. In February the conquest of the 
Kamerim was completed and 900 German and 14,000 
colonial troops took refuge in Spanish Guinea. 
German East Africa, however, was stubbornly de- 
fended, and not until September were any large 
detaclunents of German troops defeated. By De- 
ceml)er the Allies were everywhere successful and 
German authority was at an end. 

The naval operations during 1916 included the 
continuous use by Germany of the submarine 
against both naval and merchant vessels. While 
Germany had an undoubted right to sinlc without 
warning the naval vessels, she had no right to sink 
the merchant ships without giving an opportimity to 
save the hves of the noncombatants, nor to attack 
ships of a neutral state, imless bound for a blockaded 
port or carrying contraband. Since the British fleet 
prevented an effective blockade of Allied ports, the 
only right of capture or destruction rested upon 
the carriage of contraband. Both Germany and 
the Allies had declared i)ractically aU articles of 
commerce, mcluding foodstuffs, contraband; and 
tiirough the doctrine of continuous voyage, by 
which merchandise consigned to a neutral port for 
ree.xportation to a belligerent was considered contra- 
band, practically all the commerce of the world was 
at the mercy of one belligerent or the other. Since 
Great Britain and her allies commanded the sea, they 
were able to enforce their plans, but tliis they did by 
the legitimate means of search and seizure. Against 
the extreme doctrine of continuous voyage, and the 
British system of ordering alt vessels to put in at Kirk- 
wall in the Orkneys, the United States protested. 

Germany, since the submarine was imable to 
search or captiu-e merchant vessels, re.sorted to 
destruction without warning. Against tliis the 
United States protested. As far back as February, 
1915, it warned Germany that " strict accoimtabil- 
ity " would be demanded of her for the destruction 
of American vessels. After the sinking of the Lusi- 
taitia, President Wilson demanded that Germany 
disavow the act and make reparation " as far as 
reparation is possible," and declared that the L^nited 
States would not " omit any word or any act neces- 
sary to the performance of its sacred duty of main- 
taining the rights of the ITnited States and its citi- 
zens and of safeguarding their free exercise and en- 
joyment." Germany evaded the issue, and in the 
correspondence wliich followed President Wilson 
again repeated his demand for reparation. Ulti- 



mately Germany offered to pay mdenmity and made 
a promise not to suik " Imers." No agreement was 
reached between the two governments and no fur- 
ther action taken. 

On March 24, 1916, a French packet, the Sussex, 
was torpedoed whUe crossmg the English Channel 
and two Americans were killed. President Wilson 
protested and declared that the United States would 
sever diplomatic relations imless the German gov- 
ernment should declare an effective abandonment of 
its submarine warfare against passenger and freights 
carrying vessels. On May 4 Germany apparently 
agreed, and promised tliat merchant vessels would 
not be sunk without warning nor without safeguard- 
ing human Ufe unless resistance was offered or escape 
attempted. Even tliis promise was conditioned 
uiion the success the United States should have in 
compelling Great Britain to observe what Germany 
held was international law. President Wilson ac- 
cepted the promise but repudiated the condition. 

On May 31 occiu-red the greatest navai battle 
of tlie war. For the first and last time the German 
Grand Fleet offered battle. The German high-seas 
fleet, commanded by Admiral von Scheer. was 
sighted by the British scouts imder Admiral Beatty 
sailmg northward up the western coast of Denmark. 
While signaling the British main fleet Admiral 
Beatty attacked without delay, hoping to cut off 
the German fleet from its base. The battle lasted im- 
til evening, and imder the cover of darkness the Ger- 
man fleet escaped. The result was inconclusive. 
The Enghsh admitted the loss of 14 vessels, includ- 
ing 3 of their largest battle cruisers, with which 
Beatty had attacked before JeUicoe came to liis aid. 
The English asserted that the German losses were 21 , 
but the Germans conceded the loss of only 1 1 ships. 
The real victory, however, lay with England, for her 
main fleet was imdamaged and the German high- 
seas fleet never took the sea ageiin imtil it left Kiel to 
surrender. 



CAMPAIGNS OF 1917. 

The two major events in 191J were the Russian 
revoiution and the entrance of tlie United 
States into the war. From the outbreak of the 
war in 1914, although shocked at German atrocities 
in Belgium, the government of the United States 
maintamed strict neutrahty; and although the ma- 
jority of the American citizens sympathized with the 
Allies the attitude of the government was genuinely 
impartial. As the war developed, the demand that 
the United States should become an active partici- 
pant on the side of the Alhes grew stronger, particu- 
larly in the East. The submarme campaign of Ger- 
many accentuated the feehng of hostihty toward the 
Teutonic powers. When this campaign resulted in 
the destruction of American vessels and loss of 
American lives, the demand for action greatly in- 
creased. Moreover, the action of German imder- 
agents in fomenting strikes and even in causing the 
destruction of property stu-red up a feeling of bit- 
ter hostility. In 1915 the Austrian ambassador, 
Dumba, and the German mihtary attaches von 
Papen and Boy-Ed, were forced to leave the coimtry 
because of the discovery of such activities. 

When, however, on January 31, 1917, Germany 
announced that in. a zone arotmd Great Britain, 
France, Italy, and in the eastern Mediterranean, all 
sliips there foimd woiUd be simk, the rights of the 
United States were infringed in a way no other na- 
tion had ever dared to suggest. As if to add insult, 
Germany conceded that one passenger vessel a week 
would be allowed to go to England, if it proceeded 
along a route laid down by Germany and if it were 
painted with stripes, the width of which was care- 
fuUy prescribed. To tills attack upon the rights of 
the United States there could be but one answer. 
On February 3 diplomatic intercourse was sev- 
ered. The German ambassador received his pass- 
ports and the ambassador of the United States was 
recalled from Germany. On April 2 President Wil- 
son addressed Congress and recommended a declara- 
tion of war. On April 6 war was formally declared 
as already existhig by the act of Germany. 

Meanwhile, a revoiution in Russia forced the 
abdication of the czar (March 15, 1917). The pro- 
visional government wliich was established at- 
tempted to carry on the war and disclaimed the in- 
tention of making a separate peace; but RiLssia had 
suffered more than any other countrj- in loss of men, 
her people were war-weary, and food shortage was 
common in the large centers. The provisional gov- 
ernment gave way first to a frankly socialistic repub- 
Uc under Kerenski, and he in turn was overtlirown 
liy the extreme socialists, or Bolshevik! (November 
7, 1917). The new government at once annoimced 
its poUcy of an immediate democratic peace, the con- 
fiscation of all landed property, the recognition of 
the supreme authority of the Soviets, or the work- 
ingmen's and soldiers' councils, and the election of a 
constitutional convention. An armistice was signed 
(December. 1917) and peace negotiations were at 
once started with Germany, resulting in the Peace of 
Brest-Litovsk (March, 191S) on terms very unfa- 
vorable to Russia. From this time Russia, which 
had served to counterbalance any success which Ger- 



many might obtain in the east, could no longer be 
counted upon to give mihtary aid to tlie ^Ulies. 

iVlong the western front the year was marked by 
the great German retreat to the Uindenburg line 
(February to April) . The British attacked this new 
position in the \1clnity of Arras and succttdcd in 
captiu-ing more than 20,000 prisoners and 257 guns 
(April and Ma,\). Tlie most notaljle exploit in this 
operation was the recapture of V'iniy Ridge by the 
Canadians. On Jime 7, after two weeks of inten- 
sive artUIery preparation, enormous mines were ex- 
ploded and the British captured Siessines KIdge, 
which dommated their salient at Yiires. On July 
31 began the battle of Fianders, during wliich the 
British advanced along the front from the Lys to the 
Yser. 6,000 prisoners were taken the first day, and 
dm-ing the next tliree months 16,000 more. 

The battle of Cambrai began November 20 and 
was a sequel to the battles of Arras and Flanders. 
Here the British by a siu-prise movement, employing 
tanks without previous artillery preparation, almost 
reached Cambrai and captured 10,000 prisoners 
and 150 guns. The Germans, howe\'er, counter- 
attacked with surprishig force and recovered most 
of the ground which had been gained. 

In the meantime, in April, the French had made 
an attack between Soissons and Reims, taking 24,000 
prisoners and 150 guns, but this victory had been 
purchased by an immense loss of hves. It was clear 
that though the Alhes won local victories in France 
and succeeded in bending the German line they 
failed to break it, and so far were unsuccessfid in 
their attempt to force the Germans back. 

In the Balkans Roumania was occupied by the 
Germans m January, 1917, and on December 19 ac- 
cepted a forced armistice. Nor were the actions of 
the Allied forces at Saloniki successfifl. It was felt 
imwise to reenforce the army in this region further, 
and a decision was reached (but never carried out) to 
withdraw the troops. 

On the Italian front the Allies were more suc- 
cessful. In May Italy began a formidable offensive 
north of Gorz. In two weeks the Italians took more 
than 50,000 prisoners and tiiroughout the summer 
continued to advance, tmtil by October they were 
near Trieste and the way to Laibach was open. 

At this jtmctm-e, the collapse of Russia hberated 
German troops from the eastern front. The Aus- 
tro-German offensive began October 24 with an 
attack upon the Italian flank upon the upper Isonzo 
and gradually forced a retreat beliind the Taglia- 
mento. Therefore the defense in the mountain dis- 
trict to the west collapsed -nith frightful losses to 
the Italians. This breakdown of the Italians was 
due partly to lack of supphes, partly to the superior- 
ity of the Austrian artillery, and partly to subtle 
propaganda and pacifist doctrmes, which were mak- 
ing considerable headway. The retreat was contin- 
ued mitil the Piave was reached, where the Italian 
line held against further assault. 

The most important military success of the Al- 
Ues durmg the year of 1917 was m Mesopotamia. 
After General Townshend's surrender at Kut-el- 
Amara (April 29, 1916), a new British expedition 
was formed imder General Maude. With 120,000 
East Indians General Maude marched against Kut- 
el-Amara. which he recaptm-ed P'cbruary 24, 1917. 
He pushed forward, and on March 11 captured Bag- 
dad, the ancient capital of the Mohammedan 
world. For a few weeks the British and Russian 
forces were m touch. In September the advance 
was renewed, the Turks were defeated at Ramadie 
on the Euphrates, and the British finally reached 
Tekrit. which they occupied Nov. 6, but did not hold. 
The Turkish power was threatened in another 
region. The British resolved that the dangers which 
had tlu-eatened the Suez Canal during the early years 
of the war should not be repeated. Consequently 
they sent an army into Palestine, which on March 
26-27 defeated the Turks near Gaza, but was com- 
pelled by the s umm er heat to remain idle tiU autumn. 
In October this force, now under General Allenby, 
inflicted great damage upon the Turkish troops, 
captured Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, in Novem- 
ber, and on December 1 1 occupied the Holy City 
itself. The capture of Jerusalem and its de- 
hverance from the Turks caused great rejoicing 
tiiroughout the Cliristian world, as the \ictory of the 
medieval Crusaders seemed to be repeated. More 
important, however, from a strategic point of -slew 
was the fact that the capture of Jenisalem prevented 
the dispatch to Bagdad of a Turkish force which was 
being formed under General Falkenhayn. 

There were no important naval operations during 
1917. The imrestrieted submarine warfare 
which Germany waged upon commerce was, how- 
ever, havuig its effect. The neutral countries, par- 
ticularly Norway, suffered great losses, but the brimt 
of the attack fell upon Great Britain. The British 
admu-alty admitted in December that the Germans 
had succeeded in destroying vessels faster than they 
could be built, but claimed that the British navy was 
destroying the German submarines faster than Ger- 
many could replace thom. Nevertheless, although 
the shrinkage of British tonnage from the outbreak of 
the war to January 191S, was 7,100,000 tons, the tre- 



30 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1918 a. D.- 1919 A. D. 



mendous burden placed upon the British marine in 
transporting troops and supplies, not simply for itself 
but for its allies, made the question of shipping one 
of the most important of the war. 

CAMPAIGNS OF 1918. 

The year 1918 was both the most disastrous and 
tlie most glorious year for the AUies. It opened 
with a tremendous German drive in France be- 
ginning on March 21. With Russia ehminated from 
the war the Germans could transfer their troops 
from the east«m to the westtTU front. With these 
at their disposal they felt seciu'e of success. " The 
prize of victory," said the Kaiser, " must not and 
will not tail us." 

The first attack was made in Picardy between the 
Scari)e and Oise on the British Fifth Army, which 
was commanded by General Gough. This held the 
position at the extreme right of the British army next 
the French and the brmit of the attack came upon 
the British. The Germans hoped to win a decisive 
success and force the British to withdraw. They 
chose the British rather than the French because a 
victory over the French would leave the British in 
the field, while a British defeat meant a French sur- 
render. The Germans were successful in breaking 
the British Ime and tlirowing it back, and a great dis- 
aster might have resulted had not the French cav- 
alry arrived in time to check the Germans. Never- 
theless, the Germans won a great success : Peronne, 
Bapaume, Ham, Albert, Noyon, and Montdidier feU. 
At this moment the American commander in 
chief, General Pershing, placed all his forces at the 
absolute disposal of Marshal Foch, and with French 
reenforcements the British retirement was checked. 
Nevertheless, the Germans had reached many 
points that they had previously reached In 1914. 

German activity was now turned toward the 
north. At the battle of Armentlercs, at the 
point where the British and Portuguese lines joined, 
they made a vicious limge. Their hope was to reach 
the Channel ports and cut off the British army from 
its base. During the first 10 days they won consid- 
erable groimd and forced the British to retreat. At 
this critical moment General Halg issued his fa- 
mous order: " Every position must be held to the 
last man. There must be no retirement. With oiu- 
backs to the wall, and believing in the justness of our 
cause, each one of us must fight to the end." In the 
bitter flghtmg wliich continued, the British lost 
Messines and W>tschaet« ridges and even Moimt 
Kemmel. But French reenforcements came in time 
and Ypres was not captured. 

On May 27 and Jime 9 two movements were di- 
rected against Paris, one between Reims and Noyon, 
wliich continued for several days and gained some 30 
miles, the other between Noyon and Montdidier, 
wliich was less successfiU. A month later the Ger- 
mans, in their fifth offensive, tlirust lietween Cha- 
teau-Thierry and the Argonne. Here they em- 
ployed more material and men than had been used 
since the March drive. In two days they succeeded 
in crossing the Mame and threatened Reims. But 
Foch had now American troops at his disposal, the 
advance was checked, and the counter-offensive at 
last began. 

In tlie meantime the Austrlans attaclted the 
Italian front for a hundred miles, from Asiago to 
the Adriatic, and captured thousands of prisoners. 
Although the Italians, aided by the AUies, made a 
coimt«rattack, the Austrians remained in possession 
of half of Venetia and the positions they had held at 
the end of 1917. The Italians in Albania, aided by 
a French contingent, began an offensive (July 6). 
But without support from the AlUes in Macedonia, 
they were obliged to halt and the Austrian counter- 
attacks forced a retreat. 

On the sea, Germany continued her ruthless sub- 
marine warfare and even dispatched submarines 
to operate off the coast of the United States. Al- 
though she was successful in sinldng many vessels, 
the combined na\ies of the Allies were able, through 
the system of convoys, to keep a stream of supplies 
and munitions poiuing into Europe. A greater 
achievement, however, was the transportation of 
the American army of 2,000,000 men across the 
Atlantic with the loss of only 732. Moreover, as the 
year progressed the Allies were more and more suc- 
cessful in checking the menace of the submarine. 
On April 23 the British succeeded in blocking the 
entrance to the harbor of Zeebru,e:ge, which had 
served as a submarine base, and on May 9 were par- 
tially successful m a similar attempt at Ostend. 
New inventions, such as the depth Ijombs, and the 
great mine barrage which the American navy laid 
down in the North Sea took heav-y toll. Germany 
was not only unable to destroy Alhed commerce 
and to prevent the transportation of the American 
anny, but was forced to see her most successful 
instrument, the submarine, fail. 

Meanwliile the Americans appeared on the west- 
ern front and came into contact with the ejiemy 
June 3. at Ch.ateau-Thicrry, followed by eleven daysof 
hard fightmg in Bclleau Wood. On July IS Foch as- 
sumed the counteroflensive. He attacked the enemy 
from Chateau-Thierry on the Mame to the river 



Aisne and advanced from four to six miles, reclaiming 
twenty villages and taking thousands of prisoners. 

On August 8 the British army moved forward 
between Albert and the Luce, a branch of the Avi-e. 
After five days of continuous fighting General Raw- 
linson advanced 12 miles, taking 30,000 prisoners 
and 750 guns. In the third week of August the 
French attacked the line between the Aisne and the 
Oise, while the British struck again between Arras 
and Albert, and advancing from Arras General 
Home broke the permanent German defenses, the 
Drocourt-Queant line. In six weeks the Allies took 
150,000 prisoners and 2,500 guns and 2,000 square 
miles of French territory. The next advance was 
made in the region of the Meuse where, on Septem- 
ber 12 and 13, the American array eliminated the 
Saint-Miliiel salient. In 24 hours the Germans lost 
25,000 prisoners and were forced to withdraw from 
150 square miles of French territory. 

On the Ballian front the Allied attack began on 
September 15. The lines were extended beyond 
Monastir and Lake Doiran with a front of more than 
a himdred miles. The French and Serbs took ad- 
vantage of tills gain and pushed up the valley of the 
Vardar, capturing important centers of communica- 
tions and splitting the Bulgarian army apiut.. On 
.September 23 the Italian, Greek, and French troops 
captiu'ed Prilep and on the 26th the British and Greek 
forces took Strumnitza. with a large quantity of raw 
material. The Bulgarians, thus cut off from retreat, 
made miconditional surrender on September 30. 

The Italian drive was renewed (October 24) and 
the Austrian line was broken. On Octol^r 26 and 27 
armies crosse<l the Piave and penetrated the Austrian 
lines m tliree places. The retreat became a rout and 
at the time of the signing of the Austrian armistice 
(November 3) it was estimated that the ItaUans had 
captured 300.(500 prisoners, 5,000 gims, and 250,000 
horses. Following tliis mihtary defeat the organi- 
zation of Austria-Hungary collapsed. 

In Palestine General AUenby advanced north 
cautiously and captured Jericho, February 21. 
On September 19 he made a surprise attack on the 
Turkish lines and. after three days of maneuvering, 
succeeded la encircling the Seventh and Eightli 
Turkish Armies, forcing them to surrender 80. OCX) 
men and 5.000 gims. The Arabs on his right were 
equally successful in disposing of the Fourth Turkish 
Army. The British army in Mesopotamia, now- 
commanded by General ]\IarshaU. made a slow but 
steady advance during the spring. Hit was captured 
March 9 and two montlis later the British force was 
within SO miles of Mosul. On October 30 Marshall 
attacked the Turkish forces on the Tigris and took 
7,000 prisoners. As a result of these successful blows 
in the oast and west of her Asiatic dominions Tur- 
key withdrew from the war, October 31. 

Willie these events were happening on other 
fronts, Foch began the final stage of his campaign. 
On September 26 Pershing ordered the advance of 
the AJnerican troops between the Argonne and 
Meuse. The terrain was most difficult and the 
American force was obliged to contest every inch of 
its advance. Nevertheless, it pushed steadily on 
despite heavy losses and by November 7 had broken 
the German lines and threatened Sedan. 

In the north, the British and Belgians attacked 
the enemy from the famous fighting groimd in the 
region of Ypres. Against this attack Ludendorff 
rushed liis reserves, hoping by a comiterattack not 
only to check the British advance but to reUeve the 
pressure on other parts of the line. 

Foch now struck his chief blow. On October 
8 an attack was made by tliree British armies imder 
Generals Byng, Rawlinson, and Home, aided by the 
French under Debeney. On a front of 12 miles, be- 
tween Cambrai and Saint-Quentin, the British drove 
12 miles, straight tlirough the Hindenburg line, and 
at a point where it was supposed to be the strongest. 
Both Saint-Quentin and Cambrai fell. The conse- 
quences of this victory were enormous. The 
British pushed tlirough into the open coimtry to- 
wards Valenciennes and renewed their acti\ity in the 
north. The Germans were forced to evacuate their 
stronghold at Laon and, October 16 to IS, had to 
give up the Belgian coast, Ostend, and Zeebrugge 
The advance continued, and the Germans were 
steadily pushed out of Belgium, evacuating 
Bruges and being forced back toward Brussels. On 
November 2 the Canadians entered Valenciennes 
and with the French, who were advancing down 
the Sambre valley, took IMaubeuge on November 9 
and entered Mons on November 11, a few hours be- 
fore the signing of the armistice. 

During the year 1918 various attempts were made 
to define the issues of the war in order that an under- 
standing might be reached upon wliich peace nego- 
tiations could be conducted. In January President 
Wilson laid down Ills famous " fourteen points,' 
which ultimately l:)ecame the basis of the peace nego- 
tiations. During the year these were supplemented 
and amplified on several occasions, especially in his 
address of Sept. 27 at the Metropolitan Opera House, 
when he insisted that a League of Nations was 
the indispensable agent for the making of any peace. 

Bulgaria surrendered September 30; and on Octo- 



ber 4 the first German peace proposal was made. 
Tills asked for negotiations on the basis of the " four- 
teen points." On October 8 President Wilson, in- 
stead of making a direct response, questioned 
whether the chanceUor was speaking " merely for 
the constituted authorities of the empire, who have 
so far conducted the war." and declined to propose an 
armistice as long as the Central Powers occupied 
AUied territory. This reply, while arousing some 
criticism in the United States, was regarded in Lon- 
don and Paris as a shrewd diplomatic move, in that 
it was an appeal from the Germin government to the 
people, showing the impossibility of cessation of war 
without surrender of the occupied territory. 

Meanwhile the German submarine warfare con- 
tinued and in their retreat the Germans were guilty 
of great devastation. This letl President Wilson to 
assert in his communication of October 14 tliat no 
armistice could be granted while the German forces 
continued their illegal and inliuman practices. On 
Oct. 5 Austria-Himgary sent an offer to the United 
States (rec'd Oct. 7) to conclude an armistice on the 
basis of the " fourteen points." On Oct. 19, the 
President, in replying to the Austrian suggestion, 
pointed out that conditions had altered since January 
and that by the recognition of the Czecho-Slovak re- 
pubhc the integrity of Austria could no longer be 
preserved. On Oct. 20 Prince Maximilian, tlie Ger- 
man chancellor, stated that the new government 
of Germany was now such as was desired by the 
vast majority of the German people and that in the 
future no government could take office without hav- 
ing the confidence of the Reichstag. In the reply of 
October 23 the L'nited States asserted that if it must 
deal with the mihtary masters of Germany, it must 
demand, not iieace negotiations, but surrender. 

On October 26 General Ludendorff resigned and 
on October 31 an armistice was granted to Tur- 
key by which the Allies gained control of the Dar- 
danelles and the Bosporus and forced the demobi- 
lization of the Turkish army and the surrender of all 
war vessels in Turkish waters. On November 3 an 
armistice was granted to Austria on even more 
severe terms than those given to Bulgaria and Tur- 
key. All Alhed territory was to l)e evacuated, half 
the mihtary equipment was to be handed over to the 
Allies, the Allies were to be given the right of free 
movement in Austro-Hungarian territory and to con- 
tinue the existing blockade. The result was the dis- 
integration of the Austro-Himgarian Monarchy and 
the alxhcation of the emi>eror. 

On November 8 a meeting between Marshal Foch 
and the German plenipotentiaries took place and on 
November 11 an armistice was signed. The mili- 
tary clauses of the armistice demanded not merely 
cessation of hostiUties but the immediate evacuation 
of Belgium. France, Alsace and Lorraine, and the 
left bank of the Rhine. Vast military stores and 
5,000 locomotives were to be turned over to the Al- 
lies to compensate for the seizure of French and Bel- 
gian material. Of the naval forces all submarines, 
6 battle cruisers, 10 battleships, 8 hght cniisers, and 
50 destroyers were to be interned in a place desig- 
nated by the Allies. German troops, moreover, 
were to evacuate the territories of Austria-Hungary, 
Roumania, Turkey, and Russia: and Germany was 
to renoimce the treaties of Bucharest and Brest- 
Litovsk. The terms of this armistice were such that 
Germany was deprived of all power of resistance and 
would be forced to accept the treaty which the 
United States and the Allies should impose upon her. 

PEACE NEGOTIATIONS. 

The Peace Conference assembled in Paris, Janu- 
ary 18, 1919. At this conference were represented 
the United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, 
and Japan, as the five principal powers who took 
part in all sessions. In addition, the following pow- 
ers were members of the conference and took part in 
sessions especiaUy affecting them: Belgium, Brazil, 
the four great British self-governing colonies, India, 
China, Cuba, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti. Hejaz. Hon- 
duras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Poland, Portu- 
gal, Roumania, Serbia, Siam. and Czecho-Slovakia. 

The representation of the several powers was fixed 
as foUows: five members each were allowed the 
United States, the British Empire, France, Italy, 
and Japan: Belgium, Brazil, and Serbia had three 
members each; China, Greece, Hejaz, Poland, Portu- 
gal, Roumania, Siam, Czecho-Slovakia, Australia, 
Canada, South Africa, and India, two meraters each ; 
Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti. Honduras. Liberia. Nicara- 
gua. Panama, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, and 
New Zealand, one memter each. All important deci- 
sions were reached in the Supreme Council, com- 
posed of the ranking delegates of the fivechief powers. 

The problems which faced this assembly were 
more important and far-reaching than had faced any 
previous international conference. Not only was it 
necessary to deal with Germany and her allies but 
with new and weak states which had been formed 
out of their territory. The national aspirations of 
the five principal powers were not always in har- 
mony, and these aspirations sometimes ran coimter 
to the best interests of some of the newly created 
states. Moreover, the collapse of the German Em- 



1913 a. D.-1914 a. D. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 



31 



pire and of the Austro-Hiingarian Monarchy and the 
disiiuegration of Kiissia presented almost insohible 
problems. The results of the conference were bound 
to be a series of compromises which would be com- 
pletely satisfactory to no nation. 

One of the most important accomplishments of 
the Peace Conference was the formation of a Cove- 
nant for a League of Nations. Tliis League was 
to consist of the powers represented at the confer- 
ence, together with such other powers as on invita- 
tion acceded to it. It provided for an Assembly at 
wtiich each state ha<:l one vote, and a Council whicii 
should consist of the five principal powers and repre- 
sentatives of four other members selected by the 
Assembly. Measures were adoptod to prevent war 
by the fixing of armaments and by arbitration, which 
should be carried out by the League, Members re- 
sorting to war in disregard of the Covenant would 
be debarred from intercourse with other members 
and the Council might take military, naval, or eco- 
nomic measures against them. A system, known as 
the mandatory, was evolved by wliich backward 
powers might be placed imder the tutelage of mem- 
bers of the League. Provisions were inserted for a 
permanent international lalx)r conference, the con- 
trol of trade in arras and ammimition. for freedom of 
communication, and ecjuitable treatment for com- 
merce of all members of the League. 

The second act of the conference was to prepare 
a treaty to terminate the war with Germany. 
By this treaty Alsace-Lorraine was restored to 
France, and France was given the occupation of the 
Saar coal fields for a limited period in recompense for 
the destruction of her coal mines. An independent 
state of Poland was erected, and the southern and 
eastern frontiers of East Prussia were to be deter- 
mined by plebiscites. More important to Ger- 
many, Danzig was made a free city under the super- 
vision of the League of Nations. Czecho-Slovakia 
was recopnlz;ed as an independent state, and the 
boimdary of the Schleswig-Hotstein region was to be 
readjusted in accordance with the expresso<:l wishes 
of the population. Germany, moreover, recognized 
the entire independence of German Austria. 

Outside of Europe. Germany surrendered all her 
colonies to the Allied and Associated powers, recog- 
nized the French protectorate in Morocco and the 
English protectorate in Eg.vpt and accepted, in ad- 
vance, all arrangements which might be made con- 
cerning Turkey and Bulgaria. To Japan Germany 
ceded all the rights and privileges she had acquired 
by lease from China in the peninsula of Shantung. 

The military and naval clauses of the treaty ampli- 
fied the terms of the armistice. Compulsory mili- 
tary service was prohibited for Germany, and the size 
of the army and navy was fixed. Germany was 
obliged to accept the responsibihty for the damage 
which the Allied and Associated powers had suf- 
fered and to make such restitution and reparation 
as might be determined upon. Stringent economic 
clauses and financial provisions were inserted which 
would seriously handicap any possible German com- 
mercial rivalry. The delegates of Germany signed 
this treaty June 2S, 1919, and it was subsequently 
ratified by the German National Assembly, July 9, 
and put in force January 10. 1920. 

The work of the Peace Conference, however, was 
not finished. A treaty was prepared for Austria, 
which she signed September 10, 1919, by which 
German Austria was separated from Czecho-Slovakia, 
from Hungary, and from Jugo-SJavia. Her posses- 
sions in southern Tirol and at the head of the Adriatic 
were lost and Austria was confined to the part of the 
coimtry occupied by Germans. Similar provisions 
were introduced by which Austria accepted the re- 
sponsibility for the loss and damage of the Allied and 
Associated governments and promised such repara- 
tion as the Allies might determine. Provisions were 
introduced for the protection of minority national- 
ities and for the transference of citizenship to the 
new states and to the territories acquired by Italy. 
Another perplexing question which faced the con- 
ference was the disposition of Fin me. This city, 
with a small majority of Italians, lay within terri- 
tory occupied from time immemorial by Slavs and 
claimed by the new Serb-Croats Slovene state (Jugo- 
slavia). Italy demanded Fiume, but the Peace 
Conference, acting upon the sugge.stion of President 
Wilson, refused to accede to this demand. It was 
seized by an unauthorized force of Italian troops, 
and held for many months. 

The most dil^cult problem which the Peace Con- 
ference faced was the question of Russia. Not 
only had the empire disintegrated, and certain por- 
tions, such as Finland and Poland been recognized 
as independent states by the Allies, but the Russian 
government, in the hands of the Bolsheviki. was such 
that no po^er was willing to treat with it, France, 
England, the United States, and Japan, had troops 
in her territory and were at war with the Bolshevist 
government. Various proposals were made looking 
to the settlement of tliis question but no solution was 
reached by the l^eginning of 1920. Thus, the eastern 
boundaries of Poland, the northern boimdarj- of Rou- 
mania, and the questions of the Baltic Provinces are 
still imsettled, nor does the solution seem imminent. 



Chronology. 

OUTBREAK OF THE WAR. 

Other events pertainmg to the war, of interest 
especially with reference to particular nations, 
will be found in the histories and chronologies of 
the nations involved. 

1913. End of Balkan Wars (see -Nineteenth-Cen- 
tury Peuiod) leaves Balkan states as formidable 
barriers to Teutonic plans for Middle Europe and 
control of the Near East. 

A ug. 9. Austria secretly informs Italy, her ally, 
of intention to take measures against Serbia as a 
necessary defensive action. Italy declines to con- 
sider the situation as defensive and so within 
terms of Triple Alliance. 

1914, June 2S. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, 
heir to Austrian throne, and wife assassinated at 
Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Bosnian Serbs. Austria 
holds Serbia responsible. 

July .;. Emperor WiUiam of Germany receives 
a letter and memorandum from Emperor Francis 
Joseph and Berchtold, Austro-Hungarian foreign 
minister, prepared for the most part before the 
assassination. Outlines a plan to ehrainate Serbia 
pohtically by alliance with Bulgaria and pressure 
on Roumania. and declares a friendly settlement 
with Serbia no longer to be thought of. 

July tj. Bethmann-Hollweg. German chancellor, 
assures Austrian ambassador that whatever 
Austria decides to do will be supported by 
Germany as ally and friend. Emperor William 
approves and urges quick action. They thus 
give Austria a free hand and commit Germany 
to a speedy but undetermined plan of action. 

July 7. Ministerial council at Vienna plans 
surprise attack on Serbia without informing Italy 
or Roumania. with whom Austria has alhances. 
Tisza, Himgarian premier, protests, and decision 
reached to send a prehminary demand of wliich the 
rejection may be foreseen. 

July IS. Berchtold receives report of agent on 
assassination, entirely exonerating Serbian gov- 
ernment. He suppresses it. 

July 23. Austrian demand and ultimatum 
to Serbia presented. Germanj- not informed of 
exact contents imtil too late to hold it up. Ser- 
bian officials accused of complicity in assassina- 
tion; Serbia ordered to publish in stated terms 
condemnation of propaganda against Austria, to 
suppress anti- Austrian plots and feeUng. and hold an 
investigation practically imder control of Austrian 
officers; only 48 hours allowed for an answer. 

July 25. Austria mobilizes against Serbia 
without waiting for reply. 

Serbia, on Russian, British, and French advice, 
makes a humihating and almost complete sub- 
mission, and offers further reference to Hague 
Tribunal or conference of powers. Austria re- 
jects reply as imsatisfactorj- and prepares for war 
in full knowledge that it will brmg in other powers. 
Russia, as protector of Balkan Slavs, cannot ignore 
the challenge. France pledged by alliance to sup- 
port Russia. Attitude of Great Britain uncer- 
tain; friendly to France and Russia, but without 
formal alliance. However, an agreement with 
France (1912) virtually requires her to protect 
French Atlantic and Channel ports from naval at- 
tack, which is equivalent to war under certain 
conditions. 

July 26. Sir Edward Grey proposes a confer- 
ence of France. Germany. Italy, and Great Britain 
at London. Russia approves. Germany rejects 
proposal, but has no alternative to suggest except 
leaving matters for Austria and Serbia to settle. 

July 27. Berchtold. warned by Germany that 
British proposals cannot be ignored, decides on 
early war to prevent attempts at intervention. 
July 2S. Austria declares war on Serbia. 
July 2.9. Russia orders a partial mobilization 
against Austria; also toward German frontier. 

July 31. Germany demands that Russia de- 
mobilize and answer within 12 hoiu^. Also de- 
mands of France within 18 hours statement of 
intention as to neutrality. 

Great Britain inquires of France and Germany 
if they intend to respect Belgian neutrality. 
France says yes; Germany gives no guarantee. 

Aug. 1. France orders a general mobiliza- 
tion. Germany does the same, having already 
placed a large regular army on Russian frontier. 
Germany declares war on Russia. 
Italy announces her neutrality, thus pronounc- 
ing Austrian action to be aggressive. 

Aug. 2. Germans enter LiLxemburg, though its 
neutrality has been guaranteed by the powers. 
Germany demands of Belgium passage of 
troops across te^^itorJ^ 

.\ug. 3. Belgium refuses to permit violation 
of her neutrahty. [France.! 

State of war exists between Germany and| 
Formal announcement of Italian neutrahty. Tliis 
action permits France to concentrate forces on 
German frontier, 

Aug. If Germany invades Belgium. Brit- 
ish ambassador at Berlin demands his passports 



("scrap of paper" episode). Both nations de- 
clare war. 

United States issues proclamation of neutrality. 
British issue first of various proclamations greatly 
enlarging Ust of contraband art.cles. 

Aug. 5. President Wilson offers his good offices 
to promote peace. 

Aug. G. Austria declares war on Russia. 
United States endeavors to get contestants to 
agree to follow in naval warfare the Declaration 
of London, wliich had never been put in force. 

Aug. S. Montenegro, as Serbia's aUy, de- 
clares war on Austria. Greece, equally bound, 
fails to do so. The queen of Greece is sister of 
Emperor William. 

Aug. 10. German warships Goeben and Breslau, 
piu^ued by Allied ships, escape by a ruse and en- 
ter the Dardanelles, contrary to Turkish treaties. 
On protest of the Alhes Turkey makes an ostensi- 
ble purchase of them. [on Austria i 

Aug. IS. Great Britain and France declare war[ 

Aug. IS. Japan .sends ultimatum to Ger- 
many to withdraw tlt^et from the Pacific and sur- 
render Kiaochow. Action taken imder British 
alhance and desire to eliminate Germany from 
Orient, as well as to revenge the interference in 
1S95 and "' yellow peril ' propaganda {see J.'ipan). 

Aug, 22. Great Britain, followed by other 
AUies, declines to accept Declaration of London 
without certain modifications. These being im- 
acceptable to United States, the suggestion of 
August 6 is withdrawn on October 22. 

Aug. 23. Japan declares war on Germany. 

Sept. 5. Great Britam, France, and Russia 
agree not to make peace separately. Later, Japan 
(October 19) and Italy accede to the agreement. 

Sept. 10. Turkey annuls the Capitulations, 
which permit exterritoriahty of citizens of West- 
em powers. 

St-pt. 2S. Dardanelles closed to all merchant- 
men, thus cutting off communications between 
Russia and her Allies by Black Sea ports. 

Oct. 29. Turks bombard a Black Sea port. 
Russia considers this an act of war. 

Nov. 2. Because of the German mines laid 
therein. Great Britain declares the North Sea a 
" military area " and warns merchant vessels of 
danger in traversmg it. 

A'or. a. Great Britain and France declare war 
on Turkey. Entrance of Turkey on side of 
Central Powers isolates Russia and compels her 
to fight on Caucasian front. Sultan as caliph, 
head of Islamic world, expected to tlireaten safety 
of colonies of Allies; but his proclamation of the 
jihad (holy war) is ignored. 

Nov. 23. Portugal, as British ally, authorizes 
mihtary intervention. Aid not called for at once. 
Dec. IS. Egypt declared a British protectorate, 
and thus entirely separated from Turkey. 

Dec. 26. Protest of U. S. against violation by 
Allies of neutral rights (see United States). 

WESTERN FRONT, 1914. 

Anig. 4- The main offensive German army 
crosses Belgian border on way to envelop Paris 
from northeast, by the (juickest and least heav- 
ily fortified route tlirough the valley of the Meuse. 
Halted by modern fortifications at Liege, which 
it besieges. Other German armies extend the ad- 
vance on the left on a line through Luxemburg, 
Lorraine, and Alsace to the Swiss border. 

Aug. 6. Belgian mobile troops at Liege 
withdraw to prevent envelopment. Forts con- 
tinue to hold out. though imable to withstand the 
Stirprisingly powerful German ordnj.nce. Last of 
forts not taken imtil August 17. Fiance has time 
to complete mobilization, and Anglo-French 
troops march into Belgium. 

Aug. 7. French, General Joffro in supreme 
command, endeavor to carry out prearranged war 
program by invasion of Alsace and Lorraine. 
Efforts continue until August 25, with httle suc- 
cess; then events to the north compel its cessation. 

Aug. 9. British forces, under General 
French, begin to land in France and advance 
into Belgium. 

Aug. 15. French troops cross Belgian border, 
take up line from Dinant through Namur to 
Charleroy. 

Aug. 19. Germans occupy Louvain, which, 
August 20, they sack and burn (see Belgium for 
German occupation during war). Treatment of 
Louvain arouses horror in various parts of the world. 

Aug. 20. Brussels occupied; no defense at- 
tempted. Belgian mobile army, cut off from junc- 
tion with Anglo-French forces, retires to defenses 
of Antwerp. 

Aug. 21. British take up position at Mons, 
prolonging French Namur - Charleroy line. 
Namur, second of barriers to German advance, 
invested. Engagement joined on Dinant - Mons 
line; some 400,000 Germans attack 270,000 Brit- 
ish and French. 

Aug. 22. Attack on French at Nancy begins. 

Aug. S3. Namur captured. French retire 
all along the line, Britlsb follow next day. Stra- 



32 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1914 a. d. — 1915 a. d. 



N 



U 



W 



19U (caninucJ). 

tegical retirument along whole line with Verdun 
as pivot continues until line of the Marne is 
reached, with left resting on Paris defenses. Re- 
treat prevents encirclement of left, but leaves the 
industrial section of France (Flanders, Picardy) 
in hands of enemy. Garrison left at Maubeuge, 
which holds out imtil September 7. 

Aug. 27. Germans occupy Lille. 

Aug. 31. Germans take Amiens. Change 
made in their strategy; plan to en\'elop Allied left 
giveji place to an attack on left center. German 
right, imder von Kluck, turning southeast ac- 
cordmgly, exposes its flank. '[Bordeaux.! 

Sept. 3. French government transferred tol 

Sept. 5. Germans take Reims. Allied re- 
treat stops. French .Sixth Ai-my moves out from 
Paris against von Kluck's flank. 

Sept. 6-10. First battle of the Marne. 
Wliile von Kluck turns to meet army from Paris, 
British and French south of the Mai-ne attack 
him. Further east Germans attempt to break 
through French army under Foch. September 9, 
von Kluck begins to retreat; Foch also compels 
German center to retire. Retirement conducted 
in good order to line of the Aisne and extending 
north of Reims to near Verdim. 

Sept. It- Germans fail in attempt before 
Nancy and this part of their line also retires. 

Sept. 13-2S. First battle of the Aisne. 
Joftre moves to encircle German right. Amiens 
and Reims reoccupied, but Alhes unable to com- 
pel Germans to retreat beyond the Aisne. Both 
armies extend northward in attempt to gain 
Channel ports. Eace for the sea. |by Germans. I 

Sept. go. First shelling of Reims Cathedral! 

Sept. 23. Germans captui-e .Saint-Mihiel, 
forming a sahent in line south of Verdim. Line 
south of the salient, extending to Swiss border, 
remains practically unchanged during rest of the 
war, within or close to border of Alsace. Hard 
fighting, but little advance. 

Sept. BS. Attack on Antwerp opens. Belgian 
army there a menace to German communications. 
Reduction accomplished by artillery. Belgian 
government and army retire October 9 and make 
their escape to jom AUied left in Flanders. City 
surrenders October 10. 

Oct. 1. Transfer of British army from Cham- 
pagne to left of Allied line in Flanders begms. 
Completed by October 19. [Lille. I 

Oct. IS, Germans occupy Ghent andreoccupyl 

Oct. IS. Zeebrugge and Ostend taken by 
Germans; they become submarine bases. Al- 
lies hold Channel ports from Nieuport westward. 

Oct. 19- Nov. 21. First battle of Ypres. 
Bloody attempt of Germans to break through Brit- 
ish lines to Dunkirk and Calais. They take 
Messines (November 1) , Neuve-Chapelle (Novem- 
ber 2), Dixmude (November 10) ; but British line, 
though drawn back, holds. Ypres region flooded. 
Farther south, German attack also fails. Lines 
become stabilized and elaborately intrenched. 
War of positions follows. Line, which continues 
with few changes to 1917, begins at North Sea at 
Nieuport, runs south to the Oise, leaving Ypres, 
Arras, and Amiens within AUied Imes; but with 
German control over Lille. Douai, Peronne, and 
Noyon, together with most of the French mdus- 
trial region, and coal and iron fields. At the Oise 
hue turns east to Verdun, leaving Soissons, Reims, 
and Verdun in French occupation; thence south by 
the Saint-Miliiel salient and the border of Alsace. 

EASTERN FRONT, 1914- 

Aug. 7. Russians invade East Prussia. 

Aug. 10. Austrians invade Poland. 

Aug. H. Russians begin a joint Invasion of 
Gallcia, moving on Lemberg. 

Aug. 18. Russian mobilization completed with 
such speed as to derange the German plan to de- 
stroy French army before Russia can take tlie field. 

Aug. 20. Battle of Gumblnnen; Russians 
defeat the Germans, who retire on Konigsberg, 
the siege of which begins August 29; soon raised. 

Aug. 22. Von Hindenburg appointed to com- 
mand German forces m East Prussia and reen- 
forcements sent. 

.•1 1/9. ^.3. Austrians defeat Russians at Krasnilc, 
Poland, but make little advance toward their ob- 
■ jective, Lyublin. 

Aug. 26-29. Battle of Tannenberg. Hin- 
denbm-g routs the Russian Second Army in East 
Prussia. Other Russian forces in that province 
retire and are further defeated at battle of Ma- 
surian Lakes (September 6-12). Hindenburg 
occupies SuvaUri (September 15). 

Aug. Sl-Sept. 2. First battle of Lemberg. 
Austrians defeated and evacuate the city, wliich 
Russians occupy September 3. 

Sept. 10. Second battle of lirasnik. Austrians 
defeated and retreat from Poland, as flank is e.x- 
posed by Russian advance in Galicia. 

Sept. 22. Russians besiege Przemysl. Next 
day they occupy Jaroslau, the Austrians continu- 
ing their retreat. Russians advance to the line of 



the Vistula and the passes in the Carpathians, and 
toward Cracow, gateway to Vienna and Berlin. 

Sept. 26-2S. Battle of the Niemen. Hinden- 
burg retires. 

Sept. 29-Oct. 4. Battle of Avgustovo. Rus- 
sians advancing from the Niemen defeat Ger- 
mans, reenter East Prussia and pursue to the 
Masurian Lakes. 

Oct. 1. Hindenburg begins an invasion of Poland 
from Silesia as a counter to Russian advance in 
Galicia. October 14, he gets witlhn range of War- 
saw but retreats (October 27) to prevent encu'cle- 
ment by Grand Duke Nicholas, Russian com- 
mander in chief, who lias temporarily withdrawn 
troops from Gahcia and raised the siege of 
Przemyil. On German retreat siege is resumed ; 
also advance on Cracow. 

Nov. 14. Hmdenburg and von Mackensen 
attempt another invasion of Poland. Lodz cap- 
tured December 6, but Germans unable to break 
the line along the Bzura and Rawka rivers. 

BALKAN FRONT, 1914. 

July 29. Austria opens the war by a bombard- 
ment of Belgrade. 

Aug. 12. Main Austrian attack on Serbia de- 
velops across the Drina from Bosnia, with Valjevo 
as objective. 

Aug. 16-25. Battle of the Jadar. Serbians 
defeat and drive the Austrians back into Bosnia 
and Slavonia. 

Sept. 7. Austrians again invade Serbia across 
the Drina; defeated, and again retire. 

Sept. 10. Serbians cross the Save and occupy 
SemUn, Hungary, but reth-e on September 17. 

Sept. 22. Serbians invade Bosnia, but are driven 
out by October 27. 

Nov. 1. Tliird Austrian invasion of Serbia. 
Serbs abandon Valjevo. Belgrade falls, Decem- 
ber 2. Russian advance in Gahcia (after PoUsh 
campaign) causes withdrawal of troops from Ser- 
bian front. 

Dec. 3-6. Battle of the Ridges. Putnik, 
Serbian commander, routs tlie Austrians, who 
again evacuate Serbia. Belgrade reoccupied by 
Serbians, December 15. 

OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1914. 

Aug. S. French and British troops enter Togo 
in Africa. It siurenders, August 26. 

Aug. 2o. Anglo-French attack on Kamerim 
begins. [Zealand troops. I 

Aug. 29. German Samoa occupied by New| 

Sept. 1. British expeditionary forces begm to 
arrive at Mombasa for an attack on German 
East Africa. 

Sept. 2. Japan begins operations against Kiao- 
chow. [Australians. I 

Sept. It. Bismarck Archipelago occupied by I 

Sept. 13. Australians take Solomon Islands. 

Sept. 19. Liideritzbucht hi German Southwest 
Africa occupied by troops from Union of South 
Africa; but Boer revolt checks operations (see South 
Africa, underBRiTisH Empire). [Guinea.! 

Sept. 24. Australians take German New I 

Oct. 7. Japanese occupy Marshall Islands 

November. Turks begin campaign agauist Suez 
Canal and Egj-pt, across the Sinai Peninsula. 

Nov. 3-5. British attack on Tanga, German 
East Africa, repulsed. 

Nov. 6. British-Indian troops begin invasion 
of Mesopotamia; Fao, at mouth of Shat el Arab, 
captured. 

Nov. 7. Tslngtau captured by Japanese. 
This ends Japanese active operations in the war, 
except naval patrol in the Mediterranean and 
later forces in Siberia. 

Nov. 21. British-Indian troops occupy Bus- 
rah, hi Mesopotamia. 

Nov. SO. Russians invade Turkish Armenia. 
Turks under Enver Pasha are also conducting 
offensive against Russians in Transcaucasia. 

Dec. 20. Battle of Sarykamlsh, Armenia, 
begms. Ends January 2, 1915. Turks routed; 
compelling also retreat of Turkish force wliich has 
occupied Ardahan, January 1. 

NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, 1914. 

August. German merchantmen take refuge in 
many neutral ports, where interned. Later most 
of them are seized as neutrals wliich have become 
combatants. Almost aU of German warships are 
at Kiel Canal, naval base; Austrian ones at Pola 
in the Adriatic. British fleet blockades German 
coast; French concentrate m Mediterranean. 
Allied sea power is almost complete from be- 
ginning of the war. The German Baltic fleet, a 
small Asiatic fleet, and a few commerce raiders re- 
main at sea. Mines are sown broadcast with- 
out reference to international obhgations. 

Aug. 5. British destroyer flotilla sinks a Ger- 
man mine-layer. 

Aug. 6. British cruiser Amphion simk by a 
mine in the North Sea. 

.■\.ug. to. Goeben and Breslau episode (see Out- 
break OF THE War, above). 



Aug. 13. British cruisers shell and raid Dares- 
salam, German East Africa. [Adriatic. I 

Aug. 16. Austrian cruiser Zenla simli in the I 

Aug. 26. British cruiser Highflyer suiks attxili- 
ary cruiser Kaiser WUhelm der Grosse off West 
African coast. 

.Aug. 27. German cruiser Magdeburg goes 
ashore in Gulf of Finland. Blown up. 

Aug. 28. Battle of Bight of Helgoland. 
Tlu'ee German cruisers and two destroyers siuik 
by British. [submarine, I 

Sept. 5. Biitish cruiser Pathfinder sunk by al 

Sept. 10. En^don, German raider, appears in 
Bay of Bengal. [marine. I 

Sept. IS. German cruiser Wrfa sunk by a sub- 1 

Sept. 14. German cruiser Cap Trafalgar sunk 
off Trinidad by British cruiser Carmania. 

Sept. 20. German, raiding cruiser Konigsberg 
sinks British cruiser Pegasus off Zanzibar. 

Sept. 22. Three British cruisers sunk within 
an hour by a submarine off Hook of HoUand. 
Emden shells Madras. Trifling damage. 
First British air raid; — on Diisseldorf. 

Oct. 11. Russian cruiser Pallada sunk by a 
submarine in the Baltic. 

Oct. 1.5. Britisli cruiser Hawke sunk by sub- 
marhie in North Sea. 

Germans occupy Zeebrugge and Ostend, which 
become great submarine bases. 

Oct. 17. British cruiser Undaunted and four 
destroyers sink four German destroyers off Dutch 
coast. 

Oct. IS. British monitors bombard German 
coast lines in Flanders. 

Oct. 27. British dreadnought Audacious sunk 
by a mine off coast of Ireland. 

Oct. 28. Emden sinks a Russian cruiser and 
French destroyer, in harbor of Penang, and escapes. 

Oc'. 30. Konigsberg discovered in Rufiji River, 
German East Africa. Blockaded but not de- 
stroyed until July 11, 1915. 

Nov. 1. German Asiatic fleet of flve cruisers 

imder von Spec destroys two of the three British 

cruisers under Cradock off Cape Coronel, Chile. 

Nov. 2. North Sea made a military area (see 

OuTBHE.\K OF THE War, abovc). [Yarmouth.l 

Nov. 3. German cruiser squadron bombards! 

Nov. 4. German cruiser Karlsruhe, operating 
since beginning of the war in the Pernanibuco 
area, destroyed by a mysterious explosion. Had 
captured 17 vessels. 

Nov. 9. Emden, after sinking 17 vessels, de- 
stroyed off Cocos Islands, by Australian cruiser 
Sydney. 

Dec. S. Battle of Falkland Islands. Heavy 
British fleet imder Sturdee amiiliilates all von 
Spec's squadron except the Dresden. 

Dec. 13. British submarine enters Dardanelles 
and sinks Turkish battleship Messudiyeh. 

Dec. 16. German cruisers bombard Scar- 
borough, Hartlepool, and Whitby, unfortified 
points on British coast. 

Dec. 25. German warships bombed by British 
seaplanes off Cuxliaven. 
German airplane attack on Dover. 

Dec. 30. German airplane raid on Dunkirk. 

DIPLOMACY AND DECLARATIONS, 1915. 

For events that affect especially the United States, 

see also Chronology Under United States. 

Jan. to. British preliminary reply to American 
protest. 

Jan. 28. Sinking of the William P. Frye. 

Feb. 2. Great Britam declares food " condi- 
tional contraband." 

Feb. 4. Germany declares waters arQund 
Great Britain and Ireland a war zone, within 
wliich all enemy merchantmen wUl be destroyed 
without regard to safety of crew or passengers: 
and within which neutral vessels will not be safe. 

Feb. 10. American note to Germany protest- 
ing against war zone. 

Feb. 11. British seizure of cargo of Wilhelmina, 
food-laden, bound from United States to Ger- 
many. Becomes test case. 

Feb. 16. German reply to war-zone note. 

Feb. 20. Further American note on war zone. 

Feb. 25. British foreign minister states that 
Allies approve of Russian desire for open-sea port ; 
this interpreted to mean Constantinor.le. Unfa- 
vorable mfluence on AUied diplomacy in Balkans, 

Feb. 2S. French seiziire of the Dacia. 

March 2. Further German reply on war zone. 

March 28. Sinking of the Fain ha by submarine. 

April 11-21. Von Bemstorff and American 
government discuss shipping of munitions. 

.April 26. Secret treaty of London between 
Italy and Allies (see It.^lt) . In previous nego- 
tiations, at German promptings, Austria offers 
Trentino and other concessions, which Italy re- 
jects as inadequate. 

April 28. Attack on the Culmg. 

May t. Sinking of the Gu' flight. 

May 7. Sinking of the Lusitania by a sub- 
marine. 114 American lives lost. [speech. I 

May 10. Wilson's "too proud to fight "I 



1915 A. D. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 



33 



1915 (continued). 

May IS. First American note on Lusitania. 
May 23. Italy declares war on Austria. 

May 25. Submarine attack on Nchruskan. 

May 2S. First German reply defending sinking 
of the Lusitania. 

June 4. German note on tlie Gulfliyht, promis- 
ing indemnity. [tania.\ 

June 9. Second American note on the Lusi-\ 

June 2S. Sinking of the Armenian. 

June 29. Austro-Hungarian protest on sale of 
munitions from the United States. 

July 8. Second German reply on the Lusitania. 

July 14. American protest on Britisli admiralty 
decisions imfavorable to American neutral trade. 

July IT. Bulgarian secret treaty with Cen- 
tral Powers, wlio have outbid Allies for lier sirpport. 

J uty 21. Third American note on Lusitania. 

July 28. Sinking of the Lee^nnauj. 

Aug. 19. Sinking of the Arabic. Disavowed 
by German government, October .5. 

.4 u(]. 34. Serbia consents to relinquish territory 
to Bulgaria to gain her support of Allied side. 

Sept. 1. German promise not to sink liners. 

Sept. 4. SinJving of the Hesperian. 

Sept. 9. Recall of Austrian ambassador at 
Washington requested because of violation of U. S. 
neutrality. 1g.\ria).| 

Sept. 10. Tiu-ko-BuIgarian treaty (.see Bul-| 

Sept. 14. Final Allied offer to Bulgaria (see 
Bulgabia). (traband.l 

Sept. 19. German promise on conditional con- 1 

■Sep!. 21. Venizelos, Greek premier, realizing 
that Bulgaria intends to attack Serbia, with whom 
Greece has a defensive alliance, asks troops of 
Allies. Promised, and Greece begins to mobi- 
lize on September 23. 

Oct. 2. Allies notify Greece of intention to 
occupy Saloniki in order to aid Serbia. 

Oct. 0. Bulgaria enters the war on side of 
Central Powers, though war is not formally de- 
clared by her imtil October 14. 
Venizelos is forced out of office by King Constan- 
tine. brother-in-law of German emperor. Venize- 
los secures a majority in new parliament. Again 
the king ignores the government. Mobilized Greek 
troops become a menace to Allies at Saloniki camp. 

Oct. 21. Protest of United States to Allies on 
neutral rights. 

November. Intrigue in Persia (see Persia). 

Nov. 9. Sinking of the Ancona. 

Dec. 1. Recall of German attaches at Wash- 
ington, von Papen and Boy-Ed, demanded, be- 
cause of violation of American neutrality. 

Dec. 4. Henry Ford's peace expedition to Eu- 
rope. No result. [on .\ncona.\ 

Dec. 6. American not« to Austria-Himgary I 

Dec. 30. Sinking of the Persia. 

WESTERN FRONT, 1915. 

Jan. S-14. Protracted battle of Solssons. 
First of various attempts on part of Allies to 
break tlirough: all of them imsuccessful. Allies 
still short of artillery. German policy during the 
year is to keep western line stationary while driv- 
ing back the Russians. 

Feb. 17-.ivril 12. Desperate French attempt 
to reduce the Saint^Mihiel salient. Fails. 

March 10-12. British attack at Neuve Cha- 
pelle. Minor gains at large expense after a great 
artillery preparation and imder a lifting barrage. 

April 22-S.5. Second battle of Ypres begins. 
German attack follows (for first time except ex- 
perimentally) a noxious gas preparation. French 
position penetrated, but Canadians hold the salient 
thus formed and prevent breaking or outflanking. 
Attack does not subside until May 24. 

May 9-Juue 19. Battle of Artols. French 
(Foch, Retain) attack on ridges south and west of 
Lens (Vimy and Notre Dame de Lorette) . First 
day Notre Dame taken, but Vimy holds out. As- 
sault continues, especially May 30-Jime 17 at the 
Labyrinth, which is finally taken. British assatdt 
on French left at Aubers (May 9) and Festubert 
(May 16-25) without essential success. 

Sept. 25. Joffre begins attack in Chanspagne 
on front of 16 miles, after 3 days bombarclment; 
overruns enemy's first line. At same time French 
capture Souchez, near Lens, but fail again at Vimy 
Ridge. British begin battle of Loos, north of 
Lens, and penetrate to enemy's third line; but 
lacking proper support fail to take Lens. Ger- 
mans coimterattack British September 26 and re- 
take most of the groimd. " French in Champagne 
later take German second line, but enemy coimter- 
attacks on October 8 and saves liis third line. 

Dec. 16. General French resigns command of 
British force; Haig succeeds. 

EASTERN FRONT, igiS- 
Jan. 19. Austrian army enters Gaiicia in efTort 
to reheve Przemysl. Other armies advance on 
Lemberg and into Buko*ina. Only success for 
Austria is in Bukowina, where Czemowitz is taken 
February 17. 
Feb. 7. Hindenburg advances on Russians in 



East Pnissia around Masurian Lakes and pushes 
them back; occupies Suvalki and advances to the 
Niemen, and also at the same time captures Przas- 
nysz in northern Poland (February 24). He fails, 
however, to reach the Warsaw - Petrograd rail- 
road, and retires into East Pnissia again. Ger- 
mans also attack on the Rawka - Bziu'a line be- 
fore Warsaw. 

March 22. Russians capture Przemysl after a 
second siege of four months. 

May 1. Great .\ustro-German offensive 
tmder Hindenburg and Mackensen begins. Rus- 
sian lack of guns and munitions decidmg factor in 
the campaign. Mackensen attacks on the Biala 
River south of Tam6w in Galicia. Russians, im- 
able to reply to the imexampled bombardment, re- 
treat, causing retirement of whole Ime. Tamow 
captiu'cd May 6, and Jaroslau May 14; Austrians 
advance from the south against Przemysl. 

June 3. Russians evacuate Przemysl and 
fall back on Lemberg. 

June s. Stanislau recaptured by Austrians. 

June 10. Mackensen pierces the Lemberg line; 
the city falls Jime 22 and all of Galicia is lost to 
the Russians. Retreat here exposes the Pohsh 
salient to attack from the south as well as from the 
west and north. 

July 14. Germans reoccupy Przasnysz. 

July 15. Germans advance against Riga. 

July 16-lS. Battle of Krasnostaw, in south- 
eastern Poland, Russians defeated and Austro- 
Germans occupy Ljaiblin, July 30. 

July 19. Hindenburg advances from Przas- 
nysz, forces the Narew River aroimd Ostrolenka. 
Enemy thus in rear of Warsaw to both north and 
south. City evacuated; occupied by Austrians 
August 5. Russians retreat fast enough to pre- 
vent encirclement by Mackensen's northward 
movement on Brest- Litovsk. 

July 30. Germans occupy Mitau, Ktu'land. 

.iug. 17. Hindenburg occupies Kovno on the 
Niemen. Ossovetz, farther south, falls August 
22. Mackensen is in Brest-Litovsk August 25. 
Vilno falls September 18, and Grodno, the last 
fortress of Russian second defense, September 20. 

Sept. 6. Grand Duke Nicholas relieved, and 
czar takes nominal personal command. Retreat 
continues imtil end of September, when Russians 
stop the Germans and occupy a line from Riga 
along the Dvina to Dvinsk, then south by Pinsk 
(Pripyat Marshes) and Rovno to before Czemo- 
witz. Retreat costs Russians about 350,000 
killed, 1,250,000 prisoners, and 100,000 square 
miles of territory — primarily because of lack of 
munitions. German attacks on Dvinsk (October 
3-10) and on Riga (November 10) fail. 

ITALIAN FRONT, 1915. 

May S5. Italian campaign under Cadorna 
up the Adige Valley against Trent and on the 
Isonzo River begins. Little progress is made on 
Trentino front; Rovereto on the Adige (Novem- 
ber 23) and, further east, Borgo occupied; but 
difficulties of mountain campaign almost 
insuperable. On the Isonzo, the bridgehead at 
Gorz (Gorizia) withstands Italian attacks, though 
on the nortli Monte Nero (Jime 2) and to the 
south Monfalcone (Jime 9) east of the river are 
captured. Combat becomes one of positions on 
this front also. 

July IS. Cadoma begins a determined attack 
on Karst (Carso) plateau, possession of which 
will open the way to Trieste and flank Gorz. Ac- 
tive operations continue into August and a foot- 
hold is gained on ttie edge of the plateau. 

Oct. 21 . Italians, after three days of bombard- 
ment along whole of Isonzo front, begin several 
attacks. Main effort at Gorz bridgehead results 
by beginning of December in .some gains. On the 
Karst during the same period more minor gains 
are made; but Austrian line not pierced. 

BALKAN FRONT, 1915. 

Feb. 19. Allied Gallipoli campaign begins 
with a naval attack on the forts at entrance of 
Dardanelles. Campaign has Constantinople and 
possession of straits as objective, to relieve Rus- 
sian and Near East communications and for 
moral effect on Moslem World, and, if possi- 
ble, to unite western and Russian fronts. Forts 
at entrance silenced by February 25. Forts at 
Narrows bombarded March 6, 7, and again on 
March IS; operation suspended (as develops later, 
just when Tiu-kish forts have about exhausted 
their ammunition) in order to await arrival of 
army. One French and two British battleships 
sunk by mines; a British battle cruiser beached. 

April 24~2S. Troops under Hamilton land; 
about 120,000 men on the peninsula, some French, 
but mostly British — Australians and New Zea- 
landers (Anzacs), East Indians, regulars, and 
marines. Objective — high ground commanding 
forts at Narrows. Delay of troops gives Turiis, 
under von Sanders, time to prepare defenses. 

May 1-S. Fighting at Krithia, at tip of penin- 
sula, fails to advance invaders and war of posi- 



tions results. Another attack June 4 also fails. 
Meanwhile, tliree more battlesliips siuik and most 
of navy withdraws. 

May 29. Italians occupy Aviona in Albania. 

Aug. 6-10. Assault by Anzacs at Sari-Bahr 
commanding the Narrows of the Dardanelles. 
Fails through lack of proper cooperation. This 
practically ends active operations of Gallipoli 
campaign. 

Oct. o. Allied troops land at Saloniki (see 
Diplomacy, above), but force too small to furnish 
effective aid to Serbia in ensuing campaign. 

Oct. 6. Joint German-Austrian-Bulgarian 
campaign against Serbia opens. Mackensen 
commands. October 8, Belgrade captured. 
Serbians steadily pushed southward, while Aus- 
trians attack from Bosnia and Bulgarians attack 
on the east. 

Oct. 19. Bulgarians, after hea\^- fighting, oc- 
cupy Vranja, cutting the commimication of Al- 
lies at Saloniki with Serbians centered at Nish. 
Advancing Allies occupy Stnminitza. 

A'oi>. 4. Main Serbian force evacuates NIsh 
and retreats to southwest toward Prishtina. 
Bulgarians and Germans from the north effect a 
jimction. Meanwhile another Serbian army far- 
ther west has been driven southward by Austrians 
advancing from southern Bosnia. Pursuing 
enemy occupies Prishtina November 26; and 
remnant of Serbian army with government and 
many refugees continue disordered retreat over 
the mountains into Albania. 

Nov. IS. Bulgarians capture Prilep; also 
Monastir, December 1, the remaining Serbian 
army retiring into Greek territory. Allies, having 
moved up the Vardar and Cema in aid of this 
army, retire to Salonild camp. 

Dec. S. Monro, who has succeeded Hamilton, 
begins the withdrawal from Gallipoli, which is 
accomphshed successfully. Last troops leave 
January S, 1916. 

OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1915. 

Jan. 9. Turks, wiio have invaded Persia in 
fall of 1914, take Tabriz, but are driven out by 
Russians January 30. In May Turks withdraw 
temporarily from Persia. 

Feb. S. Turks reach Suez Canal at three 
"points. Main attack at Tussum. Defeated, and 
retreat across Sinai again. 

Feb. 8. Boer rebels having been put down, 
Botha as commander of South African troops 
sails for Walfish Bay to reopen campaign against 
German Southwest Africa. 

April 11. British occupy Kuma, at confluence 
of Euphrates and Tigris rivers; April 14, defeat the 
Turks at Shaiba, near Busrah. Goal of expedi- 
tion, Bagdad, valuable for poUtical rather than 
military reasons, best reached up the Tigris. To 
protect flanks of this advance, movements made 
toward Persian frontier and up Euphrates, with 
success in both cases. 

May 12. Three converging columns occupy 
Windhuk, capital of German Southwest Africa. 

May 20. Russians capture Van in Armenia. 

June 3. Townshend in advance up Tigris 
captures Amara. 

July 9. German army in German Southwest 
Africa surrenders. [Mesopotamia.! 

Sept. 29. British capture Kut-el-Amara, inl 

October. Allies attack Kamenm from all sides. 

November. Invasion of western Egypt by the 
Senussi, under German direction. Beaten back 
after five months of fight mg. 

Nov. 22-24. Battle of Ctesiphon, below 
Bagdad. Turks force Townshend to retreat, 
imtil Kut is reached December 7, where the Brit- 
ish are besieged. 

NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, 1915. 

For orders and sinkings involving neutrals, see 
Diplomacy, above. 

Jan. 1. British battlesliip Formidafcic torpedoed 
in Enghsh Channel. 

Jan. 19. First Zeppelin raid over England; 
— at Norfolk. 

Jan. 24. Naval battle of the Dogger Bank, 
5 British battle cruisers under Beatty defeat 3 
German l^attle cruisers and 1 armored cruiser 
(Bliicher), which last is sacrificed as others escape. 

Feb. IS. German war-zone policy, announced 
on February 4 (see Diplomacy, above), goes into 
operation, with large increase in sinkings by 
submarines, including liners. 

Feb. 19. Beinnning of naval operations in 
Dardanelles (see Balkan Fhont, above). 

March 10. German raider Prinz Eitcl Friedrich 
puts in at Newport News, Va., where interned. 

March 14. Dresden, last of the German Asiatic 
fleet, sunk off Juan Fernandez Island. 

March 20. Zeppelin raid over Paris. 

April 11. Converted cruiser Kronprim Wil- 
helm puts in at Newport News, Va., and is in- 
terned. Konigsbcrg, last surface war vessel of 
Central Powers outside home ports, is blockaded 
in Ruflji River, East Africa, and destroyed July 11. 



34 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1915 A. D.- 1916 A. D. 



1915 (continued). 

A pril £7. French armored cruiser Leon Gam- 
betia torpedoed in Strait of Otranto. 

Miiij SI. Zeppelin raid over London. Dtu-- 
ing remainder of year 16 otlier raids over England 
take place; but defense against them successfully 
develops and Germans suljstitute airplanes for 
airships in subseciuent raids. 

June 13. Austrian squadron raids Fano, Italy, 
and on July 23. Ortona. 

July 2. German cruiser Pommern torpedoed 
by British submarines in the Baltic. 

Jnli/ s. Italian cruiser sunk by Austrian sul)- 
mariue in Adriatic. On July IS, another. 

.Auii. 19-20. German fleet defeated in Gulf of 
Riga by Russian fleet, losing 3 cruisers and 8 de- 
stroyers. 

Aug. IJ,. British transport sunk by suijmarme 
in .-Egean Sea; four otlier transports simk in the 
Mediterranean during the year. 
Up to the end of 1915. S83 AUied and neutral 
merchant vessels (1,645,000 tons) have been de- 
stroyed, and 71 (175,000 tons) of Central Powers' 
ships. Very large German tonnage seized in ene- 
mies' ports or detained in neutral ports. During 
the year 20 Zeppelin and 4 airplane raids over 
Great Britain; 209 killed, 538 injured; 2 Zeppe- 
Uns destroyed. 

DIPLOMACY AND DECLARATIONS, 1916. 

For events that affect especially the United States, 

see also Chronology under United States. 

Jan. 4. American protest on mail seizures by 
the AUies. 

Jan. 7. German note that submarines in the 
Mediterranean are forbidden to sink merchant- 
men without warning or regard for security of 
crew and passengers. 

^(111. IS. American suggestion of modification 
of sulimarine warfare and armed merchantmen. 
British reply, March 23, declining to accede. 

Feb. S. Germany and Austria aimoimce that 
all armed merchantmen will be considered belliger- 
ent vessels to be destroyed without warning (after 
February 29). 

March 9. Germany declares war on Portu- 
gal because of seizure by Portugal (February 23 
and later) of interned German vessels, at Britisli | 
beliest. Previous to this. Great Britain has made ; 
no demand on her ally, though in Africa the Portu- | 
guese neutrality has been very benevolent toward 
the Allies. [packet Sussex. I 

March Si. Sinking of the French Channel! 

March 30. Great Britain applies doctrine of 
continuous voyage to conditional as well as abso- 
lute contraband. Itest on mail seiziu-es. I 

A pril 3. Anglo-French reply to American pro- 1 

April IS. Amerlcaa ultimatum to Ger- 
many on submarine warfare. 

.ipril 24. Anglo-French reply to American 
protest of October 21, 1915. 

May 4. German reply, yielding conditionally 
to American ultimatum. [reply. I 

May S. American acloiowledgment of German I 

May 9. 16. Anglo-French secret agreement on 
Asia Minor (see Syri.\). [seizures.] 

May 24. Second American protest on mail I 

June a. Husein, Grand Shereef of Mecca, de- 
clares ills independence ot Tin'key. 

June e. Pacific blockade of Greece by AlUes 
for allowing BiUgarians to cross frontier. 

June 21. Allies demand of king of Greece that 
he demobilize army and dismiss anti-.\lly ministry. 
Ministry ousted, but demobiUzation delayed. 

July 18. British order blacklisting certain 
firms in the United States and elsewhere which 
are supposed to he controlled by Germans. 

July 26. American protest on blacklisting. 

Aug. n. Secret treaty of Roumania with 
Allies, in wliich she is promised practically all of 
Hungary east of tiie Tisza River. Russian ad- 
vance favorable t-o participation of movement int<) 
Transylvania. Allies promise aid from Saloniki. 

Aug. 27. Koumania declares war on Aus- 
tria, [mania. I 

Aug. 20. Austria's allies declare war on Rou- 1 

Sept. 29. Vcnizelos establishes provisional gov- 
ernment in Crete. AUies recognize it. 

Oct. 10. Reply to American protest on tjlack- 
listing. 

Oct. 11. Greek navy placed under control of 
Allies on their ultimatum. [seizures. I 

Oct. 12. Second Anglo-French reply on mail I 

Oct. IS. Norway prohibits belligerent sub- 
marines from using her territorial waters. Ger- 
many protests. October 20, but Norway reiterates 
her position, Novemljer 4. 

Oct. 17. Allies send troops to Athens. 

Oct. 28. Venizelos's provisional government 
installed at Saloniki. 

Oct. 29. Husein proclaimed Idng of the Arabs. 

Nov. 7. Sinking of the Columbian. 

Nov. 25. Greece, provisional government, de- 
clares war on Germany and Bulgaria. Cf. June 
30, 1917. 

Nov. 28. Sinking of the Chemung. 



Nov. 29. American protest to Germany on 
deportation of Belgians. 

Dec. 1, 2. Attacks m Athens on detaclmients 
of Allied troops. AlUed ships drop a few shells in 
the city and demonstration ceases. Later, Greece 
salutes Allied flags in reparation. [Germany). I 
Dec. 12. Peace note ot Central Powers (seel 
Husein recognized by Allies as idng of the Hejaz. 
Dec. IS. American peace note. (note. I 

Dec. 26. Reply of Germany to American peace] 
Dec. 29. Reply of Allies to peace note of Cen- 
tral Powers (see Germany). 

■WESTERN FRONT, 1916. 

Feb. 21. Verdun campaign begins with a stu- 
pendous German bombardment on a 6-mile sector 
north and east of the Meuse. Reduction of Ver- 
dmi salient l)y Germans would end its menace 
against the iron fields of Briey basin and extend 
the German front. Infantry attack begins the 
next day. February 25, Fort de Douaumont, 
one of main outer defenses, falls. Retain succeeds 
as French commander. His policy of coimterat^ 
tacks checks German advance. 

March 6. Germans transfer field of attack to 
west of the river, carrying Hill 265 (Le Mort 
Homme) next day. Attack and counterattack 
contiiUK- through April and May. Germans mak- 
ing .simn; a<lvance at crippUng cost, but without 
definite results. French retain city and preserve 
an imbroken front. 

A pril 24. Revolt in Ireland (see Great Britain) . 

June 7. Germans finally capture Fort de 
Vaux, another main defense east of the river be- 
fore Verdtm. Fort de Souville, the third of the 
main points east of the river, resists attack 
throughout July and August. With opening of 
the battle of the Somme, Verdtm operations be- 
come secondary. Defense notable for the utiUza- 
tion of motor transport over the only road of 
supply. 

June 24. Allied artillery preparation logins 
battle of the Somme. Bombardment lasts a 
week over the German Noyon salient between 
Arras and La Fere. 

July 1. Allied attack begins on twth sides of 
the Somme, with Bapaume and Pf ronne as ob- 
jectives. By July 5 British have taken German 
lirst line on a front of 6 miles north from Fricourt 
on the river. French advance a depth of sbt miles 
on a front of 10 miles and by July 9 are across 
the river from Pcrorme. German coimterattacks 
after July 14 stay French advance. 

July 14. Haig begins his attack on the Ger- 
man second line and takes Pozieres on July 25, 
l3ut losses are great and German coimterattacks 
check the British advance and also prevent con- 
quest of the ridge from Thiepval southeast, which 
commands the Bapaume-Peroime road. 

.\ug. 4. Haig attacks the Tliiepval salient, but 
Germans retain po.ssession tlu"oughout the month. 

Aug. 29. Von Falkenbayn, German chief of 
stair, primarily responsible for Verdun attack. 
succeeded by Hindenburg. 

Sept. 3. Allies resiune the drive north of the 
Somme with Combles as immediate objective. 
Tanks used for the first time in this drive. 
■September 4. attack begins also south of the river 
with Chaulnes as objective. September 26. Ger- 
many evacuates Combles. September 26. Brit- 
ish finally capture Thiepval. October 7, British 
capture Le Sars. wliich puts them within 4 miles of 
Bapaimie, but the advance is stayed liere. No- 
vember 18, the Ijattle ends witli the reduction by 
the British of the salient formed on the Ancre by 
the advance south of it. French fail to capture 
Chaulnes. Results of prolonged battle leave 
German fine intact but badly dented and lead to 
the completion in the rear by the Germans of a 
continuoiLS fortified system of defenses called tlie 
Hindenburg line. 

Oct. 24. Nivelle at Verdtm recovers Fort de 
Douaumont. November 2, Fort de Vaux reoc- 
cupied. December 15-16, French attack north 
of Douaumont recovers much grotmd, and later 
the original French lines are almost completely 
restored. 

EASTERN FRONT, 1916. 

March IS. General Kuropatkin, commandmg 
Russian northern armies, begins an offensive south 
of Dvinsk (Lake Naroch). Artillery preparation 
insulBcient and operation fails, dying do\vn by 
April 14. 

Jutie S. Brusilov, commanding Russian 
southern armies, now newly equipped, begins an 
attack to relieve the Itahans. Advance is rapid 
in Ukraine. Jime 6, Lutsk recaptured; Jime 10, 
Dubno. Jime 16. the Russians, iia\Tng advanced 
50 miles, pass the GaUcian frontlet;. Jime 17, 
farther south, Czernowitz taken. Bukowina 
being cleared of Austrians. Russian troops tliere 
turn north into Galicia also. Kolomea occupied 
June 28 and southern passes of Carpathians se- 
cured. This and advance on north compels re- 
tirement of intervening Austrian army and Stanis- 



lau occupied August 10. Connection made 
with Roumanians, but Russian ammunition 
again spent, and expected efhcient aid to Rou- 
manians does not mat'Criaiize. 

ITALIAN AND BALKAN FRONTS, 19 16. 

Jan. 22. Austrians take Antivari, and com- 
plete occupation of Montenegro, January 23, 
by capture ot Scutari. Montenegi-in government 
joins that of Serbia in exile. Defeated Serbian 
troops in Albania taken by AlUes in January and 
February from Duraz'zo to Corfu for reconstruc- 
tion, thence to Saloniki. 

May 14. Austrians imder von Hotzendorf 
launch Trentino offensive against Italy, to cut 
Une of commimication between Milan and Isonzo 
front. Asiago and Arsiero plateau cleared by 
end of month; but Austrian right from Rovereto 
is held up in passes. Russian advances in Jime 
compel Austrians to cease offensive; final attack 
below Asiago, June 18, fails. Italian counterat- 
tacks, June 25, 27, recover Arsiero and Asiago, 
but Austrians continue to hold position in ad- 
vance of that of 1915. 

Aug. 6. Final Italian attack on Gorz bridge- 
head. Gorz captured August 9. Attack con- 
tinues on Karst plateau behind Gorz, which 
covers the way both to Trieste and Laibach on 
road to Vienna. Austrians retata control tlirough 
attacks in ,Septemt)er and Novemljer. 

Aug. 2S. Roumanians begin invasion of Tran- 
sylvania from east and south. Advance 50 miles. 
Plan calls for cooperative movements by Russians 
and also by AUies from Saloniki, but both fail. 
Bulgarians push AUies back from Lerin (Fiorina) 
on Greek border, August 18-25, while tlieir rear 
is threatened by Constantino's Greek army. 

Sept. 2. Mackensen with German, Bulgarian, 
and Tiu-kish troops, invades Dobruja south of the 
Danube at three pomts. Septemljer 8, frontier 
fortress of Bazarjik taken; also Tutrakan (Tur- 
tukai) on the Danuhie, which, with occupation ol 
SUistra, September 9, exposes Bucharest. 

Sept. IB. On left of the AUied Saloniki force, 
the reconstructed Serbian forces advance. Lerin 
(Fiorina) recovered from BiUgarians, Septemtjer 
IS, and movement against Monastir begim. 

Sept. 19. Falkenhayn attacks the Roumanians 
in Transylvania, driving them over the torder 
(October 8) on the south and eonipcUing retire- 
ment of advance from the east by October 16. 

Oct. 19-22. Mackensen drives the Roumanians 
and Russians from the defense of the Bucharest- 
Constanta railroad east of the Danube and com- 
mands tlie great bridge at Cema-Voda. 

Oct. 2.5. Falkenhayn captures ViUcan Pass, 
on nortliwestem frontier of WaUachia, defeats 
Roumanians at Tm-gu-Jiu (November 15-17) 
and enters Craiova November 21, cutting off the 
army to the west, whicii later surrenders. 
ItaUans, havmg occupied southern Albania, ex- 
tend their line across northern Greece to union 
with forces from Salonild. 

Nov. 19. Serbians witi Allied help occupy 
Monastir. 

Dec. 6. To prevent encirclement. Avarescu, 
Roimianian commander in chief, abandons Bu- 
charest. Rest of WaUachia and aU of Dobruja 
also evacuated, and Roimianians with Russians 
retire to a line across southern end of Moldavia, 
which they hold generaUy tmtU the treaty of peace. 
Occupation of WaUachia gives Central Powers 
control of grain and oU fields and shortens their 
eastern line. 

OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1916. 

Jan. 1. Allies capture Yaunde, capital of 
German Kamerun. Last post of colony surren- 
ders February IS. 

Jan. 4. Lake's Anglo-Indian column starts to 
relieve Kut; but faUs by end ot month to break 
the Tiu'kisli Ime on left bank of the Tigris. 

Jan. 11. Russians begin a winter campaign in 
Armenia. 

Jan. 16-lS. Battle of Kuprikeni, east of Er- 
zerimi. Turks, defeated, letreat on the city. 

Feb. 16. Erzerum occupied; Turks retreat 
without defending it. Mush (February 19) and 
Bitiis (March 2) also occupied. Retreat compels 
retirement farther north and uncovers Trebizond, 
main port of Tiu-ldsh Armenia. 

Feb. 27. Kermanshah. Persia, taken from 
Turlts by Russians. 

March 7-9. Late faUs in attempt to break 
Turldsh lines Ixifore Kut on right bank of the 
Tigris (DujaUah redoubt). 

.ipril. 4. Lake takes the Umm-el-Hanna posi- 
tion on left bank of the Tigris, but further attacks 
on April 8, 20-21, faU. 

April IS. Russians occupy Trebizond. 

.^pril 22. British forces, mainly from South 
Africa, in control of northern half of German East 
Africa. [starved out. I 

April S9. Townshend surrenders at Kut; I 

June 20. Husem occupies Mecca. By end of 
year he lias complete control over the Hejaz, ex- 



1916 A. D.- 1917 A. D. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 



35 



1916 (continued). 

cept Medina and territory along the railroad to 
' Damascus. 

July 2. Turks recapture Kermanshah. Persia, 

Jid]j 25. Russians occupy Erzingan as ex- 
treme point of advance in the center in Armenia : 
Mush being on the left and Platana on the Black 
Sea on the right. This gives control of most 
of Armenia, but Russians unable to use position 
for further advance into Asia Minor against Con- 
stantinople or to join British in Me^sopotamia. 

Aug. 4-5. Turks attack British at Romani. 
head of the railway being constructed across Sinai 
Peninsula; defeated and retreat. 

iitpl. 4. Daressalam, port, and capital of 
German East Africa, surrenders, .\llied forces, 
chiefly Belgians from Congo and troops from 
South Africa, continue operations in the interior, 
gradually pushing the Germans southward. 

Dfc. 13. New offensive against Kut begun by 
Anglo-Indian troops imder Maude. 

NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, ipib. 

For naval events involving neutrals, sec imder 
DiPLO.MArv, above. 

Jan. 6. British battleship King Edward VII. 
sunk by a mine off north coast of Scotland. 

Jan. II. German auxiliary cruiser M(;>u'f, having 
slipped through tlie blockade, is foimd operating 
in the Atlantic. She retiuTis to port, safely Miirch 
4, after sinking 54,000 tons of shippmg and send- 
ing the Appam, a captured British liner, to the 
United States where, however, that vessel is ul- 
timately returned to owners. 

Feb. ee. French transport simk m Mediter- 
ranean; heavy loss of life. [its opponent. I 

Feb. 29. Another raider, the Greif, sunk; also I 

March SO. Russian hospital ship smik in Black 
Sea by a submarine. (England. I 

March 31 -April 5. Five Zeppelin raids in I 

Mag 31. Battle of Jutland, only big squad- 
ron naval battle of the war. German high-seas 
fleet puts out behind a screen of battle cruisers. 
Beatty's British battle-cruiser fleet, soon assisted 
by 4 battleships, begins the fight. Jelllcoe's 
Grand Fleet arrives about two hours after battle 
begins. Battle upon, imder, and over the sea. 
German fleet, being headed, draws off and escapes 
back to port through the imfavorable weather con- 
ditions. British lose 3 battle cruisers. 3 cruisers, 
7 destroyers, and 1 other vessel. Germans ac- 
knowledge loss of 1 battle cruiser, 1 battleship, 
4 cruisers, and 5 destroyers. 

June 5. Lord Kitchener lost when cruiser 
Hampshire, on wliich he is en route to Russia, is 
sunk by a mine west of the Orkney Islands. 

June 9. Italian transport sunk by a submarine 
in Adriatic, with great loss of life. 

July 9. German merchant-submarine Deutsche 
land arrives at Baltimore, Md., with cargo. Re- 
turns safely to Germany, August 23. 

Aug. 19. German battleship Westfalen simk 
by a British submarine. 

Oct. 7. German war submarhie in American 
-waters (see United States). 

Nov. 1. Italian torpedo boats raid Pola. 
Deutschland arrives at New London. Conn., on 
second and last trip, reaching Germany on return, 
December 10. [Mediterranean. | 

Nan. £4. British hospital sliip torpedoed in I 

Noc. 25 French battleship Suffren sunk by a 
submarine in the Adriatic. 

Dec. 3. German submarine (cruiser type) 
bombards Fmichal. Madeira. 

Dec. 11. Italian battleship Regina Margherita 
sunk by a mine in the Adriatic. 

Dec. 27. French battleship Gaulois simk by a 
suljmarine in the Mediterranean. 
During 1916, 1065 Allied and neutral merchant 
vessels, of 2,000.0(X1 tons, lost. Central Powers 
lose 17 ships of 37,000 tons. 22 Zeppelin and 16 
airplane raids over Great Britaui re^sult in death 
of 311 and injury of 752. 9 Zeppelins destroyed. 

DIPLOMACY AND DECLARATIONS, 1917. 

For events that affect especially the United States, 
^ see also Chrono'ogy imder IInited States. 

Jan. 10. Reply of the Allies to Wilson's 
peace note, emlxxlying purposes of war; (1) 
Restoration of Belgiimi, Serbia, and Montenegro, 
with indemnities; (2) Evacuation of France, Rus- 
sia, and Roumania, with reparation; (3) Reor- 
ganization of Europe, with full security and lilx'rty 
of economic development for all nations great or 
small; (4) Liberation of Italian. Slav, Roumanian, 
and Czecho-Slovak subject people; (.5) Enfran- 
chisement of populations subject to the Turks; 

(6) Expulsion of Ottoman Empire from Europe; 

(7) Poland an autonomous government. In gen- 
eral, no mtention to encompa.ss extermination 
of German people or their political disappear- 
ance; but overtlirow of Prussian militarism. 

Jan. 22. President Wilson's " peace without 
victory " address. 

Jan. 31. German note on renewal of unlim- 
ited snb marine warfare. 



.4pn7 6. 
Germany. 

April 7. 
April 8. 



Feb. 3. Diplomatic relations between United 
States and Germany severed. 
Sinking of the Hou^atomc. 

Feb. 4. American note to other neutrals. 

Feb. 26. Requisition of Dutch ships in British 
ports. 

Feb. 2S. Zimmermann note to German minister 
in Mexico urging war on the United States. 

March 12. Sinking of the Alganquin. 
Russian reTolution (see Russia). 

March 14. China severs diplomatic relations 
with Germany. [sliips. 1 

March 16-18. Sinking of 3 other American 

March 22. Sinking of the llenldton. 

United States declares war on 
[on Germany.! 
Cuba and Panama declare wari 
Austria severs diplomatic relations 
with United States. [with Germany, I 

April 11. Brazil severs dii>loinatic relations! | 

April 14. Bohvia severs diplomatic relations 
with Germany. [with United States.! 

April 20. Turkey severs diplomatic relations I 

April 2.S. Guatemala severs diplomatic rela- 
tions with Germany. [with Germany. I 

May 8. Liberia severs diplomatic relationsi 

May 17. Honduras severs diplomatic relations 
with Geitnany. [tions with Germany. I 

May 19. Nicaragua severs diplomatic rela-1 

June 2. Brazil seizes interned German ships. 

June 12. At demand of Allies Constantine of 
Greece abdicates in favor of second son, Alexan- 
der. Venizelos becomes regular premier, June 25. 

Jxme IS. Gen. Persbing and staff arrive in 
Paris. 

June IS. Haiti severs diplomatic relations 
with Germany. [France.! 

June 26. First American troops arrive in I 

June 30. Greece, regular government, breaks 
off relations with Germany and Austria; tanta- 
mount to declaration of war. [Slavia),! 

July 20. Declaration of Corfu (see JiGo-| 

July 22. Slam declares war on Germany. 

Aug. 1. Pope's peace note (see Italy, also, for 
rephes). 

Aug. 4. Liberia declares war on Germany. 

Aug. 14. Cbina declares war on Germany 
and Austria. 

Aug. 27. American reply to pope's note. 
Allies approve of reply. 

Sept. 8. Luxburg disclosures on " spurlos 
versenkt " (" sunk without trace "). 

Sept. 21 . Costa Rica severs diplomatic relations 
with Germany. 

Oct. 5. Peru severs diplomatic relations with 
Germany, [with Germany,! 

Oct. 7. Uruguay severs diplomatic relationsi 

Oct. 19. American embargo on trade with 
neutral Holland and Scandinavian countries. 

Oct. 26. Brazil declares war on Germany. 

Dec. 1. First meeting at Versailles of Inter- 
allied Council. [Austria-Hungary. I 

Dec. 7. United States declares war on I 
Independence of Finland (see Finland). 
Ecuador severs diplomatic relations with Germany. 

Dec. 10. Panama declares war on Austria- 
Hungary. Igary.l 

Dec. 12. Cuba declares war on .\ustria-Hun-l 
Armistice l^etween Roumania and Central 
Powers. 

Dec. 17. Russian Soviet government and 
Central Powers agree to armistice. 

Dec. 23. Peace conference between Central 
Powers and Russian Soviet government meets at 
Brest-Litovsii. 

WESTERN FRONT, 1917. 

Jan. 11. Haig renews the offensive north of 
the Somme against the Ancre salient left by the 
battles of 1916 and against Bapaimie. Progress 
made, Grandcourt occupied, February 7, Febru- 
ary 24, Germans begin a general retirement along 
the Ancre, and by March 13 the British are before 
Bapaume. 

March 15. Germans begin a retirement all 
along the 100-niile line of the Noyon sahent from 
north of Arras to near Reims, to the prepare*! 
Hindenl^urg line, fighting only rear-guard ac- 
tions. New line, attained without appreciable 
hindrance, leaves Cambrai, Saint-Quentin, and La 
Fere within German lines. Germans systemati- 
cally lay waste region over wliich they retreat. 

April 9. First battle of Arras begins. Brit- 
ish attack from south of Arras to south of Lens. 
Canadians take Vimy Ridge April 9. Fighting 
continues to May 16. Lens reached, but city not 
taken. Canadians take Fresnoy-le-Grand south- 
east of Lens, May 3, and Bindenburg line 
pierced . Battle extends southward toward Cam- 
brai. May 12-17 Bullecourt, 'on the Hinden- 
burg line, midway between Arras and. Cambrai, 
tai<en. German coimterattacks recover some 
ground including Fresnoy-le-Grand, May 8, but 
fail before Vimy Ridge. 

April 16. French under Nivelle open the sec- 
ond battle of the Aisne, between Soissons and 



Reims; storm Craonne May 4, and get up to the 
Cliemin des Dames May 5; but advance there 
halts because of too heavy losses, and battle ends 
May 20. Petain succeeds Nivelle, May 15, and 
Foch takes Petain's place as ciiief of staff. 

.4 pril 17. At same tune French attack Moron- 
viliiers Heights, east of Reims, with partial suc- 
cess by April 22. Renewed on April 30 and on 
May 20, with further advantage, though without 
complete possession of the heights. 

June 7. British begin the first stage of third 
battle of Ypres by a vast min e explosion under 
Messlnes Ridge south of Ypres. Fighting lasts 
imtil June 14. Ridge taken. Attack is first 
movement toward capture of Menin and Roulers 
in order to force Germans to evacuate submarme 
bases of Zeebrugge and Ostend. 

July 31. Second stage of attack, on Passchen- 
daele Ridge, east of Ypres, oix-ns. Continues 
with intervals imtii November 6, when Passchen- 
daele is taken. Advances made, at great cost, in- 
sufficient for ultimate purpose. AU the gains are 
lost in German offensive of next spring. 

Aug. 20-23. Petam completes restoration of 
original hues Ijefore Verdim. 

Oct. 23. Renewal of French attack on the 
Aisne results by November 2 in complete posses- 
sion of Chemin des Dames; Germans retire to 
north side of Ailette. 

Nor. 20-23. Battle Of Cambrai opens. 
British surprise attack southwest of the city, with 
great dependence on tanks. B>Tig's troops get 
within two miles of Cambrai, when coimterattacks 
stay the advance. Proper support not given to 
hold ground gained. Von LudendorfT, who has 
virtuaUy succeedetl Hindenburg as head of the 
German armies, by a coimteroffensive, Novem- 
ber 30, compels British right to retreat in disorder; 
but British able to hold part of gains and remain 
within striking distance of the city. 

EASTERN FRONT, 1917. 

July 1. General Komilov, Russian com- 
mander in chief under the revolutionary govern- 
ment, laimches offensive in Gahcia against Leni- 
berg. HaUcz (July 10) and Kalusz (July 11) 
north of Stanislau taken; but by July 21 Bolshe- 
vist propaganda has undermined morale of the 
troops and retreat begins which clears both Ga- 
licia and Bukowina, and continues till line of 
1915 retirement is reached. 

Aug. 22. Germans advance against Riga, cross 
the Dvina September 2, and occupy city Septem- 
ber 3. Advance continues along the Dvina to 
Yakobshtat, September 22. After defeating Rus- 
sians in Gulf of Riga (October 14-17) Germans 
land forces at Verder, Esthonia, October 21, 
threatening Revel, the gateway to Petrograd ; but 
when Bolsheviki get control of Russian govern- 
ment Germans retire to east of Riga. 

Dec. 17. Armistice begins. 

ITALIAN AND BALKAN FRONTS, 1917. 

There were no important operations on the Balkan 
front in 1917. Russo-Roumanian line across south- 
em Moldavia forced back shghtly, Briiila being 
captured January 5. 

May 14-June 1. Main army under Cadorna 
renews the assault on Bainsizza and Karst pla- 
teaus, east of the Isonzo. Austrian coimterof- 
fensive brings attack to an unsuccessful close. 

Aug. 19. Another effort made against the 
plateaus. By September 14 most of the Bainsizza 
taken and way to Laibach almost opened. Far- 
ther south, battle on the Karst is less successful. 

Oct. 24. Troops from east concentrate against 
Italy. Germans under von Below break through 
at Caporetto, a quiet section on the Isonzo north 
of Bainsizza plateau, getting on flank and rear of 
ItaUans on Gorz front. October 30, Udme, grand 
headquarters of Itahan army, occupied. Center 
and right of Italian army ttoough to the coast 
retreats in disorder and with heavy loss, but is 
not cut off. Itahans in Camic Alps also forced to 
retreat by exposure of right flank. Italians at- 
tempt stands at the Tagliamento (October 31) 
and the Livenza (November S), but retreat does 
not end imtil line of Plave is reached alxjut No- 
vember 15. Diaz displaces Cadorna as com- 
mander in cliief, November 9. Some British and 
French troops are sent to assist Italians. 

Nov. 9. Attack sliifts to the northern (Alpine) 
front to turn the Piave position. Asiago cap- 
tured, but Italian hnes successfully resist here as 
well as on the Piave. By end of year winter stops 
the moimtain operations. Offensive yields about 
300,000 prisoners and 4,000 square miles of Italian 
territory. 

Dec. 12. Armistice between Roumanians and 
Central Powers. Retirement of Russian line and 
of Russian troops in Moldavia leaves Roumania 
helpless. 

OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1917. 
January. Maude's Anglo-British forces begin 
attack on Turkish lines south of Kut. 



36 



WORLD HISTltRY. 



1917 A. D.-19I8 A. D. 



1917 (continued). 

Jan. 9. Turks driven from Rafa, and British 
control whole of Slnal Peninsula, proparatory 
to an invasion of S.\Tia. [toward Bagdad. I 

Feb. 24. Kut captured. Turks retreat I 

March 7. Turks make a stand below Bagdad ; 
but, being defeated, abandon tlie city, which is 
occupied March 11. 

March 20. Turkisii forces retreating from 
Ilamadan, Persia, smce fall of Kut, and pursued 
by Russians, make a stand at Pai-Tak Pass. 
British advancing from Bagdad in rear of this posi- 
tion, Turks again retreat March 30, and evade the 
encircling British force, ultimately joinmg Turks 
from Bagdad. Russian-British forces meet April 
2, but no continuous line maintained. 

March 27, April 7. British forces under Mur- 
ray defeat tlie Turks near Gaza on border of 
Syria; but no further action imtil autumn. Turks 
heavily fortify Gaza-Beersheba line. 

April 23. British captiu-e Samarra, northern 
terminus of Tigris River raiboad from Bagdad. 

Sept. 28-29. Maude defeats Tiu-ks at Ramadie 
on the Euphrates, west of Bagdad. 

Oct. SI. Allenby, Miuray's successor, breaks 
Tui'ldsh line and captures Beershcba in Pales- 
tine. Gaza, at other end of hue, falls, November 
6. British advance cuts Jerusalem-Jatfa (Joppa) 
railway. Jaffa occupied November 7, giving 
invaders a new base. 

Dec. 1. Last German force in German East 
Africa driven into Portuguese territory, where it 
maintains itself imtil its surrender Nov. 14, 1918. 

Dec. 9. Turks evacuate Jerusalem. Al- 
lenby formally enters on foot December 11. 
Arabs under Prince Feisal assist in campaign 
by operating along Damascus railroad to the east. 

NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, 1917. 

Jan. II. British battleship Corn u'a Ws sunk by 
a submarine in Mediterranean. Diu-ing the year 
transports are frequently simk in this sea. 

Jan. SI. Central Powers announce resumption 
of unrestricted submarine warfare, although 
the sinkings increased rapidly before the annomice- 
ment. Total sinkings reach peak April, 1917, 
with 875,000 tons. Naval forces of United States 
aid effectively after this in combatmg the sub- 
marines, and failure of German plans evident by 
July. Total of sinkings decreases rapidly : also size 
of boats simk. Convoys almost immune from at^ 
tack, and flow of American troops and suppUes to 
Europe not affected. [in Mediterranean.! 

March 19. French battlesliip Danton torpedoed I 

March 21. British hospital ship sunk with- 
out warning by a submarine. Another, March 
30. Two more, April 17. 

March 23. Mdwe returns to port after a second 
raid on Allied shipping, sinking 27 vessels. 

April 20. Five German destroyers raid Dover 
Two are sunk. [waters. I 

May 17. American destroyers reach British! 

June IS. Dayhght attack on London by 15 
German airplanes. [mine off Bombay. I 

June 23. British liner Mongolia sunk by a| 

Aug. 11. British liner City of Athens sunk by a 
mine near Capetown. 

Sept. 16. Allied air raid on German cities; 
repeated September 22. September 24-October 
1, Germans make five night air raids on London. 

Oct. 14. Action between German and Russian 
fleets in Gulf of Riga. October 17, Russians 
abandon battlesliip Slaca. 

Oct. 17. Scandinavian merchantmen convoyed 
in North Sea by 2 British destroyers attacked by 
Germans. Destroyei-s and most of convoy sunk. 

Oct. 19. Zeppelin raid over London. At 
least 11 airships participate; 5 of them brought 
down in France on retm-n Journey. 

Dec. 6. American destroyer Jacob Jones tor- 
pedoed by a submarine. 

Dec. 9. Itahans torpedo two Austrian battle- 
ships in port of Trieste, sulking one. 
During the year the shipping sunk by the Cen- 
tral Powers amounted to about 6,000.000 tons. 
27 airplane and 6 Zeppehn raids over Great 
Britain recorded; killed 097, injiu'cd 1,644. 

DIPLOMACY, DECLARATIONS, AND 
NEGOTIATIONS, 1918. 

For events that affect especially the United States, 

see also Chronology under United St.^tes. 

Jan. 5. Statement of peace policy by Lloyd 
George. [Czecho-Slovaki.O.I 

Jan. 6. Independence of Czeclio-Slovakia (seel 

Jan. S. Wilson's " fourteen points " peace 
speech (see United States). 

Jan. 24. German and Austrian pronounce- 
ments on Wilson's speech (see Austria and Ger- 
many, Chro'^o'oi/y). 

Feb. D. Treaty between Ukraine and Central 
Powers at Brest-Litovsk. Independence recog- 
nized. Efforts of Central Powers to exploit re- 
gion fails. 

Feb. 10. Russian Soviet delegates with- 
draw from Brest-Litovsk in protest at German 



demands contrary to the " no annexations, no 
indemnities " slogan, as well as to Soviet expecta- 
tion of favors returned. German army begins to 
move on Petrograd. February IS, and Bolsheviki 
return to the peace conference. 

Feb. 11. Wilson's second formulation of peace 
policy (see United States). 

Feb. 24. Esthonian republic (see Estho-nta). 

March 3. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between 
Bolsheviki and t^entral Powers. Russia surren- 
ders Ukraine, Poland, Kurland, Lithuania, Fin- 
land, and western half of Livonia and Esthonia. 
Eastern half of these left to self-determination 
under German protection. Also cedes Erivan, 
Batmn, and Kars m Transcaucasia to Turkey. 
Germany seizes Black Sea fleet and her troops 
overnm the littoral. Bessarabia turned over by 
Russia to Roumania in compensation for Dobruja. 

April 10. Congress of the Oppressed Austrian 
Nationahties (see Jugo-Sl.^via). 

April 21. Guatemala declares war on Ger- 
many, [many. I 

May G. Nicaragua declares war on Ger-I 
Treaty of Bucharest between Roumania and 
Central Powers. Dobruja ceded, also strategic 
territory on border of Hungary. Central Powers 
given important economic rights. 

May 23. Costa Kica declares war on Ger- 
many, [terras of ijcace.l 

July 4. Wilson's Mount Venioii speech on| 

July 1,'). Haiti declares war on Germany. 

July 19. Honduras declares war on Ger- 
many. 

.iugust. Supplementary agreements be- 
tween Russian Soviet government and Ger- 
many: indemnity of a billion and a half dollars; 
free trade with Germany; renunciation of all 
rights to eastern half of Esthonia and Livonia; in- 
dependence of Georgia. 

Aug. 5. Annoimcement of agreement by 
United States and Japan for intervention in 
Siberia where the Czecho-Slovaks (see Czecho- 
slovakia) are operating. 

Sept. 27. Wilson's speech laying down the five 
principles for foimdatiou of League of Nations. 

Sept. 30. Bulgarian armistice signed. 

Oct. 5, S, 12, 14, 20, 23. German peaee notes to 
United States and replies. 

Oct. 7, 19. .Austrian peace note to United 
States and reply. [armistice. I 

Oct. 27. Germany requests proposals for an I 

Oct. SO. Turkish armistice signed. 

Nov. 3. Austrian armistice signed. 

Nov. .{. WiLson sends .Allied reply to German 
proposal for armistice. German representatives 
can get the terms by applying to Foch. He also 
states final views of Allies on terms of peacp. 

Nov. 11. German armistice. 

Nov. 30. Lithuanian repui:)lic (see Lithuania). 

WESTERN FRONT, 1918. 

March 21 . Von Ludendorff begms first great 
German offensive of the year. Ultimate pur- 
pose to crush French and British before American 
force turns scale. Peace on eastern front has 
enabled Germany to concentrate forces on western 
front. Attack made along the Somme (Picardy) 
to drive wedge between British and French armies 
and roll former back on Channel. Breaks tlirough 
British Fifth Army (March 22) west of Saint- 
Quentin. March 26, Allies finally unify their 
forces; Foch made generalissimo. Germans 
continue advance threatening Amiens; but gap 
in Allied forces closed. March 27, Germans take 
Montdidier and Albert, south and north of 
Amiens. Attack shifts to Arras, but fails entirely 
to take Vimy Ridge. Minor German advances 
continue until April 5. When line is stabilized 
Germans are farther west than in 1916, and within 
easy range of Amiens, most important of -Mhed 
positions. [long-distance cannon, I 

March 23. First bombardmient Of Paris by I 

April 9. Second great attack begins; this 
time in Flanders up Lys VaUey south of Ypres, to 
envelop that city and advance to the coast west of 
it. Attack penetrates ncai" La Bassoe, takes Ar- 
mentieres. April 10, and reaches Merville. April 
15, attack made north of Ypres, recovering 
groimd gained by British in 1917. French reen- 
forcements (Foch's Army of Maneuver) arrive, 
April 16, and advance checked. April 18, Ger- 
man efl'orts southeast toward Bethime fail, but 
April 25, Kemniel captured and Ypres gravely 
threatened from south. However, assault on 
southwest line fails. April 29, and offensive 
ends without opening way to the coast. 

May 27. Ludendorff, abandoning Channel 
ports for Paris as objective, launches third at- 
tack in Champagne on hghtly-held line north 
of the Aisne «'hemin des Dames). May 28, 
Soissons taken and Marne reached May 31. 
June 1, Chateau-Thierry reached and becomes 
apex of saUent. June 1-3, German attack on 
western line of salient between Chateau-Tlilerry 
and Soissons. Jime 6, French and Amoricans 
combine attack on southern end of west line 



around Bouresches (Marines in Belleau Wood), 

throw Germans on defensive and end the advance, 
which has given Germans 050 square miles of terri- 
tory, but left them in a dangerous pocket. 

May 28. First important engagement of 
American troops, at Cantigny, near Montdi- 
dier. Strong Cierman position seized and held 
against counterattacks. 

June 9-11. German fourth offensive, in- 
tended to flatten out French salient around Com- 
piegne between Picardy and the Marne, advances 
by attack between Noyon and ISlontdidier. 
Stopped by counterattacks with only slight gains, 
a.s are also attacks farther south between Soissons 
and Chateau-Thierry (June 11-13). 

July IS. Ludendorff's fifth and final offen- 
sive on east side of Marne salient and east of Reims 
to pinch out the French salient between this and 
Saint-Mihiel lines, causing evacuation of Verdim, 
and getting elbow room for advance on Paris. At- 
tack cast of Reims breaks down at once. July 
15-18, Germans cross the Marne toward Conde- 
en-Brie but fail to drive Americans from river 
near Chateau-Thierry. 

July IS. Allied grand counteroffensive in- 
augurated and does not stop imtil armistice. 
First phase to wipe out Aisne-Mame salient 
begins l^y Franco-American surprise attack on 
west side of saUent. Chateau-Thierry retaken 
July 21, Fere-en-Tardenois taken, and the Oiu'cq 
reached July 29. Meanwhile Germans retire 
from east side of sahent, and whole force pushed 
back to the Vesle. August 2, Soissons retaken, 
and Germans retire on the Aisne lines. Ends first 
phase, with practical elimination of tlie salient* 

Aug. S. Second phase, battle of Amiens, 
begins; attack on the Picardy sahent on Ixith sides 
of the Sonmie. August 10, Montdidier evacu- 
ated by Germans. August 13, Alhes before 
Chaulnes and Roye, where German defense stif- 
fens. Foch accordingly sliifts point of attack, 
August 18-21, and flanks the ( liaulnes-Roye 
line by an advance which wipes out gain of Ger- 
man fourth offensive and envelops Noyon. 

Aug. 21. Haig attacks opposite Bapaume and 
farther south. Albert captured August 22. 
August 23, drive along the w hole line from Noyon 
to Arras begins, resulting in the capture of Roye 
August 20, Chauhies August 28, Noyon. Combles, 
and Bapaume August 29, Pcronne September 1. 

A ug. 2(1. British attack east of Arras below the 
Scarpe, and by September 3 have erased the 
Queant-Drocoiu-t line of the Hindenburg sys- 
tem and forced a general retreat down to the 
Somme. Lens evacuated September 3. 

Sept. 12-17. Battle shifts to a line southwest of 
Cambrai, and, September 18-19, still farther south 
to before Saint-Quentin, which French develop 
from the south. Except around Cliemin des 
Dames, German salient in Picardy has now 
been wiped out. By September 6, Germans 
have also volimtarily retired from the Lys River 
salient south of Ypres. 

Sept.l2-lS. Third phase. American army, 
imder Pershing, now acting for the first time as 
a unit, with French troops, drives the Germans 
out of the Saint-Mihiel salient, bringing Metz 
within range of the long-distance gims. 

Sept. 26. Fourth phase of simultaneous at- 
tacks begins. (1) -Americans and French launch 
the Meuse-Argonne offensive from Verdim to 
east of Remis. -Attack aims at the vital supply 
and evacuation line tlirough Sedan and Mezieres, 
30 miles north, and flanks the enemy's ."Msne lines 
(Chemin des Dames). Americans advance rap- 
idly in Argonne Forest for tlorce days. Attack 
resumed October 4, but then as Germans resist 
obstinately in order to hold this pivotal position, 
it advances slowly imtil the end of October, when 
the forest has been cleared and the German main 
lin e from Grandpre eastward penetrated. French 
on west meanwhile pushing down the Aisne to 
union with Americans at Cirandpre, key of the 
Krlemhilde (east) and Bunding sections of Ger- 
man second withdrawal line. October 8, attack 
begins on the east of the Meuse against the point 
on which the German general retreat must pivot. 
The third phase of the American attack begins 
on November 1, and advance is again rapid and 
troops are across the river from Sedan November 
7. After that date the operation is mamly pm-- 
suit of the retiring enemy east of the river. 

Sept. i7. (2) Haig and the French make the 
final assault on the Hindenburg line at Saint- 
Quentm and the Canal du Nord. Line pierced 
September 29, Saint-Quentm taken October 1. 
and October 5 British again before Cambrai. 
City taken October 9, and Le Cateau, October 10. 

Sept. 2S. (3) AUied troops imder King Albert 
advance in Flanders between Ypres and Di.Ymude. 
Dbmiude occupied September 29. Farther south 
Messines Ridge taJien same day. Advance forces 
evacuation of Armentiercs October 3. 

Sept. SO. (4) West of the Argonne opera- 
tions. The French advance north and cast of 
Reims and force the enemy to retire to the Aisne. 



1918 a. D 1919 a. D. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 



37 



1918 (conli'iucd). 

October 9, Germans compelled to evacuate Moron- 
villiers Heights, from which they liave shelled 
Reims and the cathedral; also. Bazancourt on 
October 7. B'arther west Germans evacuate 
Chemin des Dames October 12, the position here 
not only attacked in front, l)ut Hanked by the 
French advance beyoncl Suint-yuentin, up theOise. 
La Fere and Laon takni c ictohor 1.3, and Germans 
fall back on the Bunding line, already menaced on 
both flanks by American and French advance. 

Ocl. I-i. (3a) Flanders offensive renewed. 
Menin and Roulers taken that day, Ostend Octo- 
ber 17, and Dutch boundary reached October 
20, Germans having evacuated Zeebrugge and 
Bruges, and retired to Ghent. 

Oil. IT. ;5) Douai occupied by forces oper- 
ating between the Flanders and Picardy offensives, 
and Germans abandon Lille next day. 

Oct. IT. (2a) Haig attacks the German line 
of the Selle south of Valenciennes. This crossed 
(October 20), attack renewed (October 23) towards 
Forest of Mormal and against Valenciennes, 
which city falls November 2. 

The French east of Saint-Quentin drive the Ger- 
mans between the Oise and Serre, while farther east 
the Hunding line north of the Aisne is assaulted. 

Xov. 4. A general assault precipitates the 
German retreat along the whole line from the 
Meuse to the Scheldt. (4b) Guise, on the Oise, 
and Vervins farther east taken, November 5, from 
the west, and Bethel on the Aisne from the south 
by the French, who reach outskirts of Mezierea 
on November 8, while (la) Americans have ap- 
proached .Sedan. November 8. (2b) British take 
Totu-nai on the Scheldt and, November 9. Jlau- 
beuge on the Sambre; while Mens, the place from 
whicli the British retreat began m 1914, is occu- 
pied November 11, and farther north Gram- 
mont, within 20 miles of Brussels. 

.Vui'. II. Armistice signed and in operation. 
At this time German line rims tlu-ough Ghent 
southeast to east of Sedan and by the bor- 
der of Alsace-Lorraine to the Swiss boimdary. 
By terms of armistice Germans to evacuate 
France, Belgium, Luxembm-g, and Alsace-Lorraine 
within two weelvs, surrender a vast amoimt of 
ordnance and equipment, repatriate (without 
reciiirocity) prisoners, and make reparations. 
Allies to occupy territory west of the Rhine with 
extensive bridgeheads east of the river at Mainz 
(Frenclii. Koblonz (American), and Cologne (Brit- 
ish) : Germany to pay for upkeep of army of occu- 
pation. All submarines and G battle cruisers and 
10 battleships, 8 light cruisers, and .50 destroyers 
to be siu'rendered, and all other warsliips disarmed 
and placed imder Allied stipervision. Blockade 
to continue. Germans to withdraw from Rus- 
sia, Koiunania, and Turkey. Treaties of Bucharest 
and Brest-Litovsk to be abandoned and paj-ments 
imder them restored. These terms make impossi- 
ble any renewal of the war by Germany. 

A' on. 17. AUied imopposed advance toward 
Germany begins; boundary crossed December 1. 
Troops reach Cologne Dec. 6, Koblenz Dec. 9, and 
Mainz Dec. 9, though formal entries come later. 

EASTERN, ITALIAN, AND BALKAN FRONTS, 1918. 

See also Esthoni.\, Livoni.^, Lithu.^nia, Latvia, 

Finland, Poland, Russia. 

June IS. Austrians attempt a desperate offen- 
sive over nearly the whole front ; too extensive to 
succeed. Minor gains especially at vital elbow of 
line, Montello plateau, annulled by Itahau coim- 
t«roffensive Jtme IS-July 6. 

July 7. Italians controlling Adriatic with 
French assistance attempt advance in Albania, 
but do not reach objective, Elbasan. Austrians 
counterattack in August and drive Allies back to 
old lines. 

Sept. IS. French, Serbians, and Jugo-Slavs 
(deserters from Austrian army) attack in triangle 
between Cema and Vardar rivers, severing con- 
nection between two Bulgarian armies. Septem- 
ber 21, raih'oad cut and, September 25, Koprili 
(Veles) captured. Bulgarian line collapses. 
Italians from Monastir occupy Prilep, Septemter 
23. and drive one Bidgariau army toward Albanian 
border. Lskilp occupied September 30. 

,Se;)(. IS. Farther east, Greeks, French, and 
British attack on both sides of Lake Dou'an. Bul- 
garians break September 21, after communication 
severed by other advance, and are pursued over 
border. Strumnitza occupied September 26. 

Sept. 30. Armistice, asked by Bulgarians 
September 26, goes into effect (see Bulgaria). 
jiustrian troops remaining in Albania, Monte- 
negro, and Serbia soon driven out. 

Ocl. 14. Italians capture Durazzo. 
. Ocl. 24. Italian flnal offensive opens, feint- 
ing in moimtain section. October 27, real drive 
begins across the Piave. Austrian lines broken 
October 29 and Vittoria entered. Next day 
Austrians begin to retreat all along the line from 
Rovereto to the sea, closely pm'sued. November 
3 Udine, Trieste, and Trent occupied. 



Nov.l. Belgrade occupied. ' 

Nov. 4. Austrian armistice in effect (signed 
Nov. 3); terras include: Evacuation of all in- 
vaded territory by Austrians, and withdrawal be- 
hind specified line in Austria-Hungary, leaving 
Trentino. Gorz, Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia to 
' occupation by Allied forces: demobilization of 
army : evacuation of all German troops in Austria- 
Himgary; repatriation of prisoners without reci- 
procity : surrender or disarmament of navy ; AUied 
right to movement across Austrian territory; 
blockade to continue. 
Italians occupy Scutari. 

OUTLYING OPERATIONS, 1918. 

Feb, 11. Jericho taken by Allenby. Further 
operations toward Damascus difficult imtil Turks 
driven from upper Jordan. 

Feb. 24. Turks reoccupyTrebizond. Russians, 
before and after treaty of Brest-Litovsk. retire 
from Armenia: also from Persia. Turks reoccupy 
positions and advance into Transcaucasia (see 
Armenia and Russia). 

March 9. Marshall (Maude's successor) takes 
Hit and (March 26) Klian Bagdadi on Euphrates. 

August. AUied troops in Siberia (see Czecho- 
slovakia and Russia). 

Sept. 19. Surprise attack on Turkish coast 
lin e north of Jaffa. Through the break cavah'y 
rushes, turning line farther east, and closing line 
of retreat west of the Jordan, as well as blocking 
northern cro.sstngs. Allenby then advances from 
Jerusalem, closes southern crossings and pushes 
Ttu-ks west of river into hostile arms of cavalry. 
B,\' Sei)tomlier 23 this Turkish army loses all 
organization. 

Sept. g.3. Turks east of Jordan retreat. 
Pursuit by AUies and Arabs continues into SjTia. 
Cavalry and Arabs make jimction and togetLer 
enter Damascus October 1. 

Oct. S. Beirut occupied, giving, with railroad 
to Damascus, a new base of operations. Cavahr 
and Arabs occupy Aleppo October 25. 

Ocl. 23. MarshaU begins advance east of the 
Tigris : defeats Turks October 29 before Mosul and 
receives their surrender next day. Mosul occu- 
pied November 3. 

Oct. SO. Turks ha\Tng l)een driven 300 miles 
from Jerusalem granted an armistice, which 
begins ne.xt day. Terms uiclude: AUied occupa- 
tion of DardaneUes and Bosporus; demobUization; 
surrender of aU war vessels in Turkish waters; 
evacuation of Persia and Transcaucasia; aU Ger- 
mans and Austrians to be evacuated : garrisons in 
Asia Minor surrendered: but AUies to occupy 
Armenia only in case of disorder. 

Nov. 14. German troops belonging to East 
Africa surrender. Last vest ige of German colonies. 

NAVAL AND AIR OPERATIONS, J918. 
Jan. 4. British hospital ship torpedoed in 

Channel; first of six such attacks during the year. 

Jan. 20. Goeben and Bresiau engage British 
fleet at mouth of DardaneUes. Breslau sunk; 
Goeben mined, but escapes. 

Feb. 5. Transport Tuscania, with American 
troops, simk by a submarine. Only eastboimd 
transport simk. 

Feb. It. French air raid on Metz. Allies late 
in adopting retaliation for enemy air raids, but 
from 1917 on such raids are made from time to 
time; 9 recorded for 1918. 

Feb 24. German aiLxiliary cruiser IFo// rettmas 
to port after raiding commerce for 15 months. 

Feb. 2S. Austrian airmen bombard Venice. 

March 21. Eighteen German destroyers raid 
Dunkirk. No landing. 

.4 pril 9. German submarine sinks the Liberian 
patrol boat and bombards Monrovia. 

April 23. British raid on Zeebrugge and 
Ostend to block entrance of harbors. Ostend at- 
tack fails. At Zeebrugge mole is stormed, whUe 
three old cruisers are sunk at entrance of canal. 

May 10. Ostend partly blocked by sinking an- 
other old cruiser. (battleship in Pola harbor. I 

May 14. ItaUan motor boat sinks an Austrian! 

June 10. Austrian battleship Szent Istvdn de- 
stroyed by ItaUan torpedo boats. 

June-October. Americans and British estabUsh 
a mine barrage across northern end of North 
Sea, laying 70,000 mines. LTp to the armistice 
Central Powers in 1918 sink 3,200,000 tonnage of 
merchant siiipping. Replacements during the 
war are so great, however, that, in spiteof the sink- 
mg of some 15,000,000 tons of Alhed and neutral 
shipping during the war by enemy and marine 
risk, the net loss is only about three miUion tons. 
Germans lose some 200 submarines during the 
war. Germans made 6 airplane and 4 Zeppelin [ 
raids on Great Britain during the year. Various 
raids on Paris also. [Island. I 

July 19. U.S.S. Dicffi) simk by a mine off Long! 

July 21. German submarine attacks a tug ami 
barges off coast of Massachusetts. 

Oct. 3. British and Italians destroy Austrian 
naval base at .Durazzo. 1 



I Nov. 1. Austrian dreadnought Viribus Unitis 
sunk at Pola by an Italian motor boat. 

Not. 9. British battlesliip Britannic sunk by a 
submarine off Cape Trafalgar. 

iVoi>. 21. Main instaUment of German high- 
seas fleet surrendered, according to armistice. 
Later interned at Scapa Flow. 

NEGOTIATIONS AND TREATIES, 1919. 

For mtemational events involving new or other minor 
states, see also these states by name: especially, 
Latvia: Esthonia; Lithuania: Czecho-Slovakia; 
Finland: Hungary; Jugo-Sl.^via; Mesopotamia; 
Poland; Syria. 

Jan. IS. Peace Conference (of those on AUied 
side of the war only) opens at Paris. Twenty- 
seven states represented, including Poland, Jugo- 
slavia (instead of Serbia and Montenegro) and 
Czecho-Slovakia. China, Japan, and Slam rep- 
resent the Far East: Hejaz, the Near East: Li- 
beria, Africa. 1 1 Latin-American states send del- 
egates. ITnited States, British Empire, France, 
Ital,v, and Japan assigned especial position as 
" principal powers." Four British dominions 
and India represented in British delegation. 

Feb. 16. Revised armistice with Germany 
signed: chiefly concerns Poland (see Poland). 

Feb. 26. Reparation question develops in 
tliree plans: (1) British theory; Central Powers to 
pay whole cost of war, includmg expenses of Al- 
lies. (2) French theory, same, except that bills 
for destruction are to be settled first. (3) Ameri- 
can theory; only reparation for wanton damage 
contrary to rules of war, 

March S. Committee on Reparation estimates 
reparation to amoimt to 120 biUion doUars, but 
question not one of what should be paid, but what 
Germany and her aUies are able to pay. 

March 7. United States decides to ask for no 
reparation beyond that realized from German 
property- and ships sequestered in U. S. territory. 

March 20. LTnofficial meetmg of various neu- 
tral delegates with committee on League of Na- 
tions to consider its provisions. 

March 2S. Coiuicil of Ten, or Supreme Council, 
gives way to Council of Four, composed of WU- 
son, Lloyd George, CMcmenccau, and Orlando, as 
having active control of negotiations. 

March 26. Austrian fleet finally surrendered 
at Venice according to armistice, being meanwhUe 
in Jugo-Slav possession. 

April 10. German National Assembly de- 
mands peace based on AVilson's " fourteen points." 

April 11. International Labor Committee 
makes final report to conference: later embodied 
in treaty: provisions for an mtemational labor 
conference to meet amiuaUy; international labor 
oificer at seat of League: labor principles enunci- 
ated, including denial of labor as property, coUec- 
tive bargaining, eight-hour day, one day's rest in 
seven, wages adequate to reasonable standard of 
Ufe, no chUd labor, equal labor rights of women. 

April 2S. Adoption of revised and clarified 
League of Nations at a plenary session of con- 
ference. ProWsion for withdrawal after two 
years' notice; unanimity of CoimcU; disarmament 
to be approved by governments before put m 
force: removal of domestic cjucstious (inmiigra- 
tion, etc.,) from jurisdiction of League: safeguard 
for national pohcies such as Monroe Doctrme; no 
nation made a mandatory without its consent: 
any country dissenting from an amendment to 
League ceases thereby to be a member. AU na- 
tions not represented at conference asked to join 
League, except Central Powers, Russia, Mexico, 
Costa Rica, and Santo Domingo. 

May s. Provisional organization of League. 

May 6, Mandates for German colonies given 
(see Germany', former African colonies). Great 
Britain to have mandate over Nauru Island, New 
Zealand over Samoa, Austraha over Pacific Is- 
lands south of equator, Japan north of equator. 

May 7. Peace treaty delivered to German 
delegates, with warning of complete economic 
isolation if not signed. Germans protest terms 
and statement of responsibility for the war. Pro- 
posals of modification made and considered. 

June 2. Austrian treaty handed to delegates. 

June 21. German naval officers sink their 
fleet interned at Scapa Flow. Germans at Ber- 
lin bum French battle flags captiu-ed in war of 
1870, return of which treaty demands. 
New German cabinet formed, which agrees to 
sign treaty, without recognizing responsibility for 
war and without agreeing to deUver up persons ac- 
cused of violating laws of war. Supreme ComicU 
(CouncU of Four) peremptorily refuses to accept 
any qualification, and warns of complete blockade 
and invasion. 

June -28. , Treaty of Versailles, German peace 
treaty, signed. Cessions: Alsace-Lorraine to 
France, certain smaU sections to Belgium (see 
Belgium) and to G^echo-SIovakia, Poscn and 
West Prussia to Poland, and Memel detached. 
Plebiscites to determine future of Upper Silesia 
(see Poland), Schleswig-Holstein (see Dexmajrk), 



38 



WORLD HISTORY. 



1919 a. D.- 1920 A. D. 



N 



W 



1919 (continued.) 

and southern half of East Prussia (see Poland) 
Danzig with small territory south and east be- 
comes a free city and iK)rt. for Poland (sw Poland) . 
Saar Basin coal mines handed over to France: 
League to govern, and after 15 years pleliiscite to 
decide. Luxemburg detached from Zollverein 
and to choose commercial imion between Belgium 
and France. Fortifleation forbidden on Helgo- 
land, entrance to the Baltic, west of Khlne, or 
within thirty miles of river on ea-stern side 
German colonies renoimce<i. Rights and privi- 
leges held against any of Allied nations (includ- ' 
ing China, Slam, Lilx'ria, Morocco, Egypt) re- 
nounced; rights in Sliantung turned over to 
Japan. Army reduced to lOO.CKH); compulsory 
military service forbidden: limitation on ordnance 
and military etiuipment specified. Navy not to 
have more than 36 surface vessels of limited dis- 
placement; no submarines; fiu-ther surrenders pre- 
scribed. No air forec; all existing material to be 
surrendered. Ex-eniperor arraigned for crimes 
against civilization; Netherlands to be asked to 
sun-ender him for trial by Allies. Germany agrees 
to deliver for military trial persons accused of 
violating laws of war and furnish information 
respecting their acts. Aggression of Germany 
and her Allies acknowledged; such reparation to 
be made for loss and damages as Ueparation Com- 
mission shall determine. Restitution in kind, 
including certain historical and artistic articles. 
Cost of armies of occupation to be charged to 
Germany. Occupation to continue with gradual 
withdrawal for 1.5 years, or longer if treaty is not 
carried out. Various rivers internationalized; 
Kiel Canal open to merchant and war vessels of all 
nations at peace with Germany. Various other 
economic provisions. Treaty also embodies the 
League and lalx)r provisions (see above). 
Franco-British-American alliance treaty 
signed. Subject to ratification by the U. S. Sen- 
ate. United States and Great Britain agree, sub- 
ject to approval of League, to go immediately to aid 
of France in case of unprovoked aggression by Ger- 
many. Not ratified by United States up to 1920. 
Poland signs treaty with principal powers guaran- 
teeing rights of racial minorities. Similar 
treaties required of other new Eastern nations. 

Jul;/ 9. Germany ratifies treaty. 

Jul!/ 10. Wilson presents treaty to U. S. 
Senate (see Unitf.d States for further history). 

July 11. Blockade e.\cept as to Himgary and 
Soviet Russia formally raised. 

August. Roimianians in Hungary (see Hun- 
gary). 

AuQ. 8. Belgium ratifies treaty. [sia).! 

Aug. 9. Anglo-Persian agreement (see Per-| 

Sept. 10. Treaty of Saint-Gerraaln-en- 
Laye, Austrian peace treaty, signed (see Austeia, 
Czecho-Slovakla, Jugo-.Slavia). 

Sept. 16. Anglo-French agreement on Syria 
(see SvRn). [delegates. | 

Sept. 10. Bulgarian peace treaty handed to herl 

Sept. 2J,. China, whose delegates have refused 
to sign Gorman treaty, adheres to the treaty with 
the exception of Shantung provision. 

Oct. 10. Britishratificationsent to Paris. Was 
passed July 31 but held up to await approval of 
dominions. 

French ratification completed. 
Austria ratifies treaty of Saint-Ger- 



delegates refuse to forward list and resign. Cou- 
rier takes list to Germany ; intimation by premiers 
that acceptance of it will be considered concrete 
evidence of offense. 

Feb. 10. Plebiscite in first (northern) zone in 
Schleswig results in favor of Denmark. 



Feb. 16. Premiers of Allies accept trial a t Leip- 
zig of accused German officers as alternative for 
extratiition, reserving right to decide as to Ger- 
many's good faith in matter. 

March IS. Venezuela joins tht League, com- 
pleting adhesion of all invited neutral nations. 



STATISTICS. 



Oct. 


IS. 


Oct. 


see 


mam. 




Oct. 


30. 


Nov 


6. 



ESTIMATED MONEY COST OF THE WAR. 

These figiu"es are necessarily sul>ject to various 
modifications: in the mam the cost is that of the in- 
crease during the period of the war over the normal 
peace expenditiu-es ; but the cost of the war does not 
end with the cessation of hostilities, wliile it includes 
advances to Allies in the case of United States ($9.- 1 
598,8.57,645), Great Britain ($8,695. OOO.CKK)). France 
($1,,547,200,(X)0), and Germany (82,375,000,000). A 
portion of these will be recovered, and reparations 
by Central Powei's will increase their ultimate cost 
and diminish that of tlie Allies. 

ALLIES. 

Great Britain $44,029,011,868 

Canada 1,665,576,0:32 

AustraUa 1.423,208,040 

India 601,279,000 

New Zealand 378,750,000 

South Africa 300,000,000 

United States 32,080,266,968 

France 25,812,7.s2,800 

Russia 22,59:i,950,(Xi0 

Italy 12,4i:i,'.i'.i.s,0(K) 

Roumania 1,600,000,000 

Belgium _.. . 1,154,467,914 ' 

Serbia 399,400,000 

Greece 27(i.oiH).iX)0 

Japan 4(i.i)(io,(i(«] 

Other Allies 500.000,000 

Provisional Total 



8145,262,690,622 

CENTRAL POWERS. 

Germany $40,150,000,000 

Austria-Hungary 20,622,960,600 

Turkey 1,430,000,000 

Bulgaria 815,200.000 



Provisional Total $63,018,160,600 ' 

PRIVATE LOANS TO BELLIGERENT 
COUNTRIES 

raised in the United States since the outbreak of 
the war and down to July 1, 1920. Short-time notes 
which were taken up during the war, mainly by sub- 
stitution of longer term notes, not included. 



Great Britain: 



Amouyit 



Japan ratifies. 

Supreme Coimcil calls Germany's at- 
tention to various matters in which armistice has 
not been carried out ; failure to deliver equipment 
or to withdraw troops; destruction of vessels at 
Scapa Flow. Protocol for compensation framed 
400,0iX) tons of tugs, floating docks, and other 
maritime equipment to oifset sinkings at Scapa 
Flow. Germany does not sign imtil January 10, 
1920, when amoimt reduced to 275,000 tons. 

Noc. «7. Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seinc, Bul- 
garian peace treaty, signed (see Bulgaria). 

Dec. 9. American delegates leave Peace Con- 
ference. 
1930. Jan. 10. German peace treaty becomes 
operative by signing of proces-verbal by Germany, 
Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. 

Jan. IS. Supreme Council recognizes Georgia 
and .Azerbaijan in Transcaucasia as de facto gov- 
ernments (see Georgia and Azerbaijan). 

Jan. IS. Peace treaty handed to Hungarian 
delegates. 

Jan. 16. First meeting of League of Nations. 
AUies demand ex-kaiser from Holland. Are 
refused January 22, and again. March 5, after a 
second demand. 

Jan. 21. Peace Conference dissolves. Place 
taken by Council of Ambassadors and Council of 
Premiers. 

Feb. s. Demand made on Germany for extra- 
dition of 890 war criminals, including Crown 
Prince, one of his brothers, Hindenburg, Luden- 
dorfl, Tirpitz, Capelle, and Mackensen. German 



Anglo-French ( J ) $250,000,000 

United Kingdom 150,000,000 

United Kingdom 143,587,000 

United Kingdom 250,000,000 

France: 

Anglo-French (j) 250,000,000 

City of Paris 50,000,000 

City of Bordeaux 15.000,000 

City of Lyon 15,000.000 

City of Marseilles 15,000,000 

Belgium 75,000,000 

Germany 10,000,000 

Russia 75,000,000 

Italy 25,000,000 

Canada 150,000.000 

Provincial and municipal 119,424,366 

Newfoimdland 2,500,000 



$1,595,511,366 
On .luly 1, 1920, $1,564,254,930 of tills total was still 
outstanding in United States. 

AMERICAN LOANS TO THE ALLIES 
UP TO MAY II, 1920. 

Great Britain $4,277,000,000 

France 2,977,477,.S00 

Italy 1,631,338,000 

Belgium 338.745,000 

Russia 187,729,750 

Czecho-Slovakia 56,524,000 

Greece 48,236,629 

Serbia 26,780,466 

Roumania 25,000.000 

Cuba ■ 10,000.000 

Liberia 26.000 

$9,578,857,645 
In addition the United States government holds 
French bonds for $400,000,000 for purchase of 
.\merican surplus war supplies in France. 



1 Does not include fines and levies by Germany: with 
these, about $3,000,000,000. 

- These totals are all subject to correction for the fig- 
ures of individual countries. They do not include seizure 
and destruction of private and pubhc property, which 
ha.s been estimated at 30 billion dollars on land and 7 
billions at sea. 



AMERICAN WAR DEBT AS OF 
JUNE 30, 1919. 

First Liberty Loan $1,984,79(;,500 

Second Liberty Loan 3,566,456,600 

Third Liberty Loan 3.958,552,700 

Fourth Liberty Loan 6,794,504,587 

Fifth Liberty Loan 3.467,844,972 

War Savings and Tlu-ift Stamps 953,997,435 

Certificates of Indebtedness 3,624,983,490 

$24,351,136,284 



NAMES OF BELLIGERENTS AND DATES 
OF ENTRY INTO THE WAR. 

CENTRAL POWERS. 

1. Austria-Himgary, July 28, 1914 

2. Germany, August 1, 1914 

3. Tiu-key, Novembers, 1914 

4. Bulgaria, October 14, 1915 

ALLIES. 

1. Serbia, July 28, 1914 

2. Russia- August 1, 1914 

3. f^rance, .\ugust 3, 1914 

4. Belgium, August 4, 1914 

5. Great Britain, August 4, 1914 
Montenegro, August 8, 1914 

7. Japan, August 23, 1914 

8. Italy, May 23, 1915 

9. Portugal, March 9. 1916 

10. Roumania, August 27, 1916 

11. Greece (provisional government) , 

November 23, 1916 

12. United States, .April 0. 1917 

13. Cuba, .\pril 7, 1917 

14. Panama, April 7, 1917 

15. Siam, July 22, 1917 

16. Liberia, August 4, 1917 

17. China, August 14, 1917 

18. Brazil, October 26, 1917 

19. Guatemala, AprU 21, 1918 

20. Nicaragua, May 6, 1918 

21. Costa Rica, May 23, 1918 

22. Haiti, JiUy 15, 1918 

23. Honduras, July 19, 1918 



COUNTRIES THAT SEVERED DIPLOMAT- 
IC INTERCOURSE WITH GERMANY 
WITHOUT DECLARING WAR. 

1. Bolivia, April 14, 1917 

2. Peru, Octoter 5, 1917 

3; Uruguay, Octolxjr 7. 1917 
4. Ecuador, December 7, 1917 



TOTAL 


COUNTRIES INVOLVED. 




Central Group 4 






AUied Group 


23 






Partially engaged 4 








31 




COST 


OF WAR 


IN MEN.i 








Prisoners 








and 


Allies. 


Dead. 


Wounded. 


Missing. 


Russia 


2,762,064 


4,950,000 


2,500.000 


French Empire 


1,427,800 


3,044,000 


453,500 


British Empire 


807,451 


2,059,134 


64,907 


Serbia 


707,343 


350,000 


100,000 


Italy 


507,160 


962,196 


1,359,000 


Roumania 


339,117 


200,000 


116,000 


Belgium 


207,000 


140,000 


10,000 


LInited States 


107,284' 


191,000 2 


4,912 2 


Greece 


15,000 


40,000 


45,000 


Portugal 


4,000 


17,000 


200 


Japan 


300 


907 


3 



Central Powers. 

Germany 1,611,104 3,783,143 772,522 

Au-stria-Himgary 911,000 3,000,000 443,000 

Turkey 436,924 407,772 103,731 

Bulgaria 101,224 152,399 10,825 



1 These estimates founded on Direct and Indirect Costs 
of the Great World War by E. L. Bogart. It is estimated 
that probably 50% of those listed as " prisoners and miss- 
ing" are dead. 

' Later official statement tor the American Expedi- 
tionary Force givesonly 77,1 18 deaths, 221,050 wounded, 
4,432 prisoners. 



PART TWO : NATIONAL HISTORIES. 



ABYSSINIA. 

Historical Outline. 

Abyssinia corresponds in part with ancient 
Ethiopia. Its boundaries, formerly vague, were de- 
fined by treaties in 1906-07 so that it is shut off from 
the Red Sea and tiie Gulf of Aden by the Italian de- 
pendency of Eritrea and by French Somali Coast 
and British Soraaliland. By these treaties Great 
Britain, France, and Italy undertake to preserve 
the integrity of Abyssinia, to maintain the " open 
door " as far as concessions are concerned, and to 
abstain from intervening in internal affairs. 

The Abyssinians were converted to Cliristianity in 
the fourth centurj' and have remaine<i members of 
the Alexandrian Church. The goveninieiit is mo- 
narcliical. and from 1SS9 to 1913 tlir eiiiptrur was 
RIenelik. who in his attempt to chock Italian aggres- 
sion, became involved in war. The ItaMan forces 
were decisively defeated at the battle of Adowa 
{March 1, 1S96), and as a result Menelik was recog- 
nized as an independent monarch. 

The chief industries are pastoral and agricultural. 
Cattle, sheep, and goats are numerous, and mules 
are bred everywhere. Cotton, sugar cane, the date 
palm, coffee, and the vine might thrive, but are not 
extensively cultivated. The roads are mere tracks, 
and transport is effected by means of pack horses, 
mules, and donkeys. The chief exports are liides, 
coffee, and beeswax. 

The area is estimated at 350,000 square miles. 
The population, of Semitic origin, is estimated 
to be over S. 000. 000, of which the Shoans, num- 
bering 1,500.000, form the ruling class. Ever>' one 
of them is a soldier, and the present ruler depends 
upon them to maintain her supremacy. 

Chronology. 

330. Frumentius. instrumental in converting tlie 
region, is made first bishop of Etliiopia. 

675. Moslem advance cuts Christian Ethiopia off 
from contact with outside world. 

1490. Arrival of Corilhara. in search of Prcster 
Jolin. Portuguese missions into the country begin 
about this time, and Jesuits remain for a century 
and a half. 

1633. Jesuits expelled; country relapses into iso- 
lation. 

1769. Bruce, in his exploration of the Blue Nile, 
visits Abyssinia, 

1805. First mission (British). Missionaries and 
explorers follow. 

1855. Theodore, by conquest of other chiefs, be- 
comes negus, or emperor. 

1868. War with Great Britain results in Theo- 
dore's death (April 13); succeeded by a rival, Jolm. 

1869. Nov. 15. Beginning of the Italian colony of 
Eritrea; tliis and French, British, and Italian 
Somaliland lie between Abyssinia and the coast. ' 

1889. March 9. Death of John; a rival, Mchelik, 

gains the cliief power. 

May 2. Ucclalli treaty, under which Italy 

claims a protectorate. 
1893. Menelik denounces the treaty with Italy. 

1895. War with Italy; crushing defeat of Italians 
at Adowa, March 1. 1896. 

1896. Oct. 26. Treaty of peace of Adis Abeba; 
Italy acknowledges absolute independence of 
Abyssinia. 

190'i. Dec. SI. Completion of railway from 
Jibuti. French Somaliland ix)rt. to Dire Dawa. 
about 30 miles northwest of Harar. 

1906. Dec. IS. Anglo-Franco-Italian agree- 
ment provides for territorial integrity and domes- 
tic independence of Abyssinia, and etiual conces- 
sionary advantages. 

1913. December. Afenclik dies; succeeded by his 
grandson Lij Yasu. 

1916. Sept. 27. Lij Yasu is deposed; his aimt, 
Waizeru Zauditu, succeeds. 

1919. July lit- President Wilson receives Abys- 
sinian delegates sent to extend congratulations on 
success of the World War. 



ADEN. 

See imder British Empibe. page 62. 



AFGHANISTAN. 

Historical Outline. 



Afghanistan is geographically a lofty quadrilateral 
plateau lying between northwestern India, eastern 
Persia, and Russia. The Afghans, who are the pre- 



dominant population of the coimtry, are of unknown 
origin, though doubtless a residue of the old Indo- 
European stock. Afghanistan was conquered by 
the emperor Tamerlane, who died in 1405. Sultan 
Baber added a part of Afghanistan includmg Ivabul 
to his domains and for two centuries it belonged to 
India and was ruled by the Mogul emperors. 

The Persian Nadir Shah seized it in 173S. In 
1749 a separate empire was formed by Ahmad Shah, 
who defeated the Marathas in 1701 and gave the 
country a national character. After Alimad came 
Timur Ivhan. who transferreri his capital from 
Kandahar to Kabul. Among his twenty-three sons 
a strife arose for the succession. Finally, in ISIS, 
Kamran Khan obtained the tlirone, which he held 
for thirty years. In 1842 Dost Mohaumaed cap- 
tured Kabid and made himself supreme. 

The attention of Great Britain, now firmly cstal)- 
lished in India, was tiuned to Afghanistan : and ag- 
gressions on English officials aroused the spirit of the 
British. In 1S41 two British officials wore injured 
in a revolt in Kabul. Soon afterwards Sir William 
Macnaght-en was murdered by Akbar Ivlian. son of 
Dost Mohammed. An agreement was made for the 
withdrawal of the British garrison from the countr>^ 
but the march of the 690 Europeans from Kabul to 
Jalalabad was a massacre. Only 23 of the number 
reached Jalalabad, though 95 prisoners were ulti- 
mately liberated. 

To avenge tliis outrage an expedition in 1S42 un- 
der General Pollock forcetl the Kliyber Pass and re- 
lieved Jalalabad. Dost Mohammed was restored 
to the throne as a friend of the British government. 
After his death Shere Ali Ivlian came to the throne 
with the aid of Great Britain and succe<xled in ex- 
tending his authority over Afghan-Turbistan on the 
borders of the Russian conquests. The boimdary of 
the Amu Darya (ancient Oxus) River was obtained 
by the influence of Great Britam, wliich had now 
adopted the policy of maintainmg Afghanistan as 
the frontier barricade of her Indian possessions. 

Shere Ali Khan was at length obliged to fly from 
Kabul by his son. Yaknib IChan, who proved hostile 
to England. A British army was sent into the coim- 
try and Kabul was captured (1878). Again the 
British envoy and his followers were massacred, and 
a second invasion was necessary in order to avenge 
the crime and restore order. 

Yakub Khan was succeeded in 1880 by Abd-er- 
Rahman Khan, grandson of Dost Mohammed, sup- 
ported by British mfluence. A more regular and 
orderly government was established. In 1896 the 
army was reorganized, regular conscription estab- 
lished, and the troops armed with European weap- 
ons, Abd-er-Rahman was succeeded by iiis son. 
Habib Ullah Khan, who (1905) promised to obser\-e 
the agreement of his father and to be guidod by the 
ad\ice of the British government hi external affairs. 
Russia declared Afghanistan outside her sphere of 
influence, and Great Britain agreed not to interfere 
in internal affairs, provided the amet'r fulfilled his 
obligations to the British government. Habib Ullah 
Khan was assassinated F'-hruary 20, 1919. and was 
succeeded by his third son, Amaniillah Ivhan, and 
attacks upon the British have followed on the 
northwestern frontier of India. 

Organization. 

Government and Finance. The government of 
Afghanistan is monarchical and nearly al>solute. The 
ameer receives a subsidy of 1.850.000 rupees from the 
Indian government, and his total revenue amounts 
to al30ut 13,000.000 rupees. 

Industry and Production. The principal in- 
dustry of Afghanistan is agriculture. The chief 
products are fruits, mcluding the apple, pear, al- 
mond, peach, quince, and apricot. Vegetables and 
cereals are also raised in paj'ing quantities in the 
fertile plains and valleys, often with the aid of irriga- 
tion from small rivers or wells. There are two har- 
vests in the year in most parts of the coimtrj'. one 
reaped in the summer, the other in autumn. The 
principal minerals are copper and lead, although iron 
is produced and gold is found in small quantities. 
The leading manufactures are silk and carpets, felts 
and articles made of camel's and goat*s hair. In 1916- 
17 the imports from India amounted to $6,750,(K)0 
and the exports to India amounted to $5,7(X).0O0. 

Defense. The Afghan army is said to number 
98. (XK) men. The real military strength lies in the 
mountainous character of the countrj', the lack of 
roads, and the capacity of the inhabitants for guerriUa 
warfare. 

The greater part of the territory of Afghanistan is 
taken up with lofty motmtains and high-lying val- 
leys. In the north, on the banks of the Amu Darya, 



and in the southwest are wide-extending plains. 
Temperature varies from 12 below zero to as high 
as 120 alx)ve in the shade along the Amu Darya. 
The area is about 245.000 square miles, and the 
population about 6,380.000. 

Chronology. 

1747. Following various Indian, Turkish, and 
Mongol dynasties, the rule of the present Durani 
dynasty is establishe<I by .Vlimad Shah. 

1793. Death of Timur. Ahmad"s son, le-aves the 
country a prey to anarchy for many years. 

1838-184?. First Afghan War marks the begin- 
ning of strife and intrigue o\cr Afghanistan as a 
buffer stat-e between British and Russian interests 
in Asia. British attempt to impose an impopular 
ruler. Shah Shuja. fails. 

1878-1881. Second Afghan War with Great 
Britain follows an unsuccessful attempt to check 
diplomatically Russian ascendancy over the 
ameer. Abd-er-Rahinan becomes ameer under 
British protection and subsidy, centralizes author- 
ity, and restores order. 

1901. Off. I. Abd-er-Rahman dies and is suc- 
ceeded by Ills son Habib V'llah. Pohcy of fol- 
lowing British advice on external relations contin- 
ues, with independence in internal affairs. 

1907. January. Ameer visits India. 

Aug. SI. Anglo-Russian agreement on 
Afghanistan places the coimtry outside the Rus- 
sian sphere of influence, but Great Britain agrees 
to refrain from interference in the internal affairs. 
Part of the Entente Cordiale. 

1914-1918. During the World War the Ameer con- 
tinues his British friendship, resisting Islamic and 
German intrigue. 

1919. Feb. 20. Ameer is assassinated and is 
succeeded by a son, Amanullah, l^elieved to be 
imphcated in the assassination, under Bolshevist 
Influences. Afghans attack the Indian frontier, 
and a mission is sent to Moscow. 

Aug. S. Peace is made between Great Brit- 
ain and Afghanistan; Afghans put on proba- 
tion. Tribes, however, continue irregular war- 
fare, with increasing intensity early in 1920. 



AFRICA. 



See British Africa, under British Empire, p. 65; 
French Africa, under France, p. 96; Portuguese 
Africa, under Portugal, p. 135; South Africa, 
under British Empire, p. 66. 



AIDIN. 

See under Greece, page 111. 



ALASKA. 

See under United States, page 209. 



ALBANIA. 

Historical Outline. 

Albania is situated on the western shore of the 
Balkan Peninsula, extending from the southern 
boimdary of Montenegro (now part of Jugo-Slavia) 
to the northern Ixiimdarj' of Greece. It is perhaps 
the least-known coimtrj' m Europe, and thewikluess 
of the land and the fierce and lawless disposition of 
the people have combined to discourage travelers 
and explorers, so that many of the geographical prob- 
lems are stiU imsolved. 

The native Albanians are probably descendants 
from the oldest people in Europe — the old Mediter- 
ranean race wliich occupied the Balkan Penmsula 
before the coming of the Greeks. While elsewhere 
the Mediterranean race was conquered by the Greco- 
Roman invasions of antiquity and later the Slavonic 
invasion of the Balkans absorbed or displaced the 
classic Greeks, the people of Albania have remained 
to a great extent unaffected by foreign intluence. 

After the di\ision of the Roman Empire the terri- 
tory inhabited by the Albanians I>ecame provinces 
of the Byzantine Empire. In 640. northern Albania 
was conqueretl by the SerIx>-Croats and remained 
under Serbian rule until 1360, although in the ninth 
and tenth centuries the Bulgarians imder the Czar 
Simeon controlled the country (see Bulgaria). In 
the eleventh centurj' the Normans made themselves 
masters of Durazzo, while in the fourteenth century 
Stephen Dushan added Albania to his short-lived 
Serbian empire (see Serbia). In the fifteenth cen- 
tury came the Turkish conquest, and in 1502 the 
Turks captured Durazzo and established a nominal 
t39) 



40 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ALBANIA — ARGENTINA. 



N 



O 



P 



Q 



R 



U 



Turkish sii|)remacy throughout Allmnia which con- 
tinued luUil 1912. 

The An)anians furnished leaders and troops for the 
Turldsh Revolution of 1908, but gained little during 
the rule of the Yoimg Turks. In the Balkan wars of 
1912-1913 the disposition of Albania was an impor- 
tant question . Serbia and Montenegro hoped to par- 
tition ."Mbania, but in this they were thwarted by the 
powers (see Au3TRi.\, Serbi.\): an "independent" 
kingdom of Albania was erected imder the protec- 
tion of tlie powers, and a German prince, William of 
Wied, placed upon the tlirone. At tlie outbreak of 
the World War William fled, and Albania fell into a 
state of anarchy. In 1916 the Austrians occupied 
the country, but June 3, 1917, the general in charge 
of the Italian forces set up a provisional government 
at Diirazzo, and .southern iVIbania, though nommally 
independent, is actually an Italian protectorate. 

Industry and Labor. Tlie chief occupation is 
agriculture, but this is carried on in an extremely 
primitive way and great tracts of the country are 
barren mountains incapable of cultivation. There 
are few carriage roads and no railways in the coim- 
try. Albania is said to possess considerable mineral 
resources but these have not been investigated. 

Religion and Education. Two thirds of the Al- 
banians are Moslems, and the remaining one tliird 
are divided between the Roman Catholic and Greek 
Chuj-ches. Under Tiu-kish rule little was done for 
education. There are schools maintained by the 
Jesuits and the Orthodo.x Greek Church and by 
American missionaries. 

The estimated area is between 10,500 and 11,500 
square miles, and the population is between 800,000 
and 850,000. 

Chronology. 

1B4S. For Balkan Peninsula in 164S, see Bulgaria. 

1760. An almost independent sovereignty is estab- 
lished around Scutari, which exists imtil 1831. 
Contemporaneously there is a similar state in the 
south, centered at Janina. 

1840-1911. Albania nominally part of Turkey; 
actually no comprehensive government. 

1878. Following the Treaty of Berlin, Albanian 
League forms, protesting against territorial ad- 
justment; but, though there are occasional revolts, 
Albanian interests continue to be mostly tribal 
and but little nationahstic sentiment is shown. 

1908. Albanian soldiers in the Tiu-kish army sup- 
port the Young Turk revolution. 

191^. Albanians revolt against military and finan- 
cial exactions of the Yoimg Tiu-ks. Independ- 
ence is declared on November 28 during the 
Balkan War (see Bulgaria, 1912). Allies occupy 
tlie cotmtry but are not permitted by the iMwers to 
retain it, their presence on the Adriatic httoral 
checking the plans of both Austria and Italy. 

191.'!. MaijSO. Conference of London declares Alba- 
nia independent* status being left to the powers. 
Sipl. gs. International Commission of Control 
representing the powers is established at Avlona. 
Nod. HJ. William of Wied is selected as sov- 
ereign and powers promise adequate financial 
support. He arrives at Durazzo March 7. 1914. 
Drcemher. Southern frontier is determined: it 
includes Epirus, largely Greek in population. 

1911. May. Essad Pasha heads an uprising, 
but is arrested by international marines and ban- 
ished. General anarchy ensues, and Prince 
William seeks refuge on an Italian warship. 

.Stp(. 3. William abdicates and the Commis- 
sion resumes control. 

1915. March. Disorders culminate in an attack 
by 50,000 on Essad at Durazzo. Italians later 
occupy Avlona and Durazzo; Greeks occupy 
Epirus, and Montenegrins Scutari. 

1910. Jtiniiary-March. Central Powers overrun 
most of the country, though Italian control con- 
tinues in the south, where Greeks are displaced. 

1917. Junes. Italy proclaims the independence 
and unity of Albania under her protection. 

1918. Ocl. 3. Austrian troops evacuate Albania. 
Dec. 2S. At Durazzo Albanian delegates form 

a government and later appeal to the Paris Peace 
Conference for recognition and restoration of terri- 
tory taken in 1S7S and 1913. 

1919. Italy is given by the Peace Conference a 
mandate over Albania, but final decision as to 
boundaries (Italy's occupation of Avlona, Greek 
claim in Northei-n Epirus) is reserved. 

Dec. a. Epirus is given to Greece by an 
Anglo-Franco-Araerican memorandiun. Presi 
dent Wilson objects to the cession of northern 
part of Albania to Montenegro. 
19'!0. June-July. Fighting with ItaUans, who give 
up Avlona and ivithdraw most of troops from 
Albania. 



ANDORRA. 

The Republic of Andorra is situated on the 
south side of the Pyrenees, between France and 
Spain, and claims an existence of more tlian 1100 
years, going back to the time of Charlemagne. The 
territory consists chiefly of a valley 17 by 18 miles, 
and the popiUation of about 5,000 is scattered in 
small villages. It is under the joint guardiansliip of 
the president of France and the Spanish Bishop of 
Urgel. It is governed by a council of 24 members 
elected for four years by the heads of famiUes. 

Chronology. 

1?78. Condominium tietween Bishop of Urgel and 
Count of Foix over feudal claims to Andorra. 

1589. Henry of Navarre, Count of Foix, becomes 
king of France and his rights pass to French crown. 

1793. French Republic refuses to assert authorit^- 

1806. March 21 . Decree by which the French wUI 
participate. The valley continues to be a seign- 
iory of France and the Spanish bishop jointly. 
Quasi independence results from its unimportance 
and the diverse nationality of the seigniors. 



ARABIA. 

See under Hejaz, page 112. 



ALGERIA. 

See under France; page 96. 



z 



ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 

See under British Empire, page 65. 



ARGENTINA. 
Historical Outline. 

The coast of Argentina was traced by white men 
as early as 1512. Buenos Aires was first foimded by 
Mendoza in 1535 — tliirty years before the foimding 
of Saint Augustine in Florida — but the settlement 
was not permanent. An expedition sent out by liim 
explored the valley of the Rio de la Plata as far as 
Paraguay and founded Asimcion (1536). Atflrsttliis 
region was regarded as a province of the Spanish vice- 
royalty of Peru. This relation was held mitil 1620, 
w^ien Buenos Aires {Colonms de In Plata) received a 
separate provincial government from Philip III. 

The Spanish colonial system attempted to monop- 
oUze for Spain all the trade with the colonists and to 
prohibit intercolonial trade. But forbidden traffic 
was bound to flourisli in the face of such restrictions. 
From 1715 to 1739 England held the contract (a.ii- 
ento) for supplying tlie Spanish American colonists 
with negro slaves, and in so doing contrived Ijoth to 
smuggle in and carry away a large quantity of goods. 
In 1776 a viceroyalty was formed of the provinces 
of Rio de la Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia, 
with Buenos Aires as its capital. 

In the wars of the French Revolution Spain sided 
with France against Great Britain; and in reprisal 
General WiUiam Beresford in 1806 landed a body 
of troops and held Buenos Aires for about two 
months. In 1807 another British force of 8,000 im- 
der General Whitelocke attempted to regain po.sses- 
sion of Buenos Aires, but was compelled to capitu- 
late. The successful defense of Buenos Aires with- 
out aid from the mother coimtry strengthened tlie 
growing feeling of dissatisfaction and led to a revolt, 
which was aided by popular resentment at efforts to 
secure the province for France. 

May 25, 1810, a provisional junta was formed and 
the war of independence began. The most fa- 
mous leader was General Jose de San Martin, 
who defeated the adlierents of Spain. March 25, 
1816, a repubUc was proclaimed; and Buenos Aires 
was declared the regular seat of the goverrmient. 
Although the independence of Argentina was thus 
assured in 1816, the war witli Spain dragged on tmtii 
San Martin crossed the Andes, set free Chile and 
Peru, and finally captui-ed Lima, in 1821. 

The Spanish government, however, did not ac- 
knowledge this actual independence imtil 1842. In 
1825 a national constitution of the federal states 
wliich formed the Argentine RepubUc was decreed, 
and the English government acloiowledged its inde- 
pendence. Peace, however, was long delayed, for 
Argentina was involved both in civil wars and in war 
with Brazil. 

In 1829 Juan Manuel de Rosas made himself mas- 
ter of Buenos Aires, and in 1835 established a dicta- 
torship which lasted imtil 1852. His poUcy was to 
reincorporate Uruguay and Paraguay into the re- 
piibhc, and lie was so indifferent to the rights of for- 
eign residents that, in 1835, a French fleet was sent 
to blockade Buenos Aires. His rule gradually de- 
generated into one of tjTanny and bloodshed. In his 
attempt to control LTruguay he laid siege to Monte- 
video. This brought about the jomt intervention 
ot the French and English fleets in 1S45. In 1853 a 
new constitution, modeled upon that of the United 
States, was adopted: Buenos Aires, at first resisting, 
gave lior adherence, in 1855. In 1856 war broke out 
with Paraguay, which might have resulted in tlie ex- 
tinction of that country had not insurrections in 
Argentina itself broken out. 

Argentina, in common with ail Spanish American 
repulilics, suffered from revolts and political dis- 
turbances. Until 1893 scarcely a presidential elec- 
tion was held without an appeal to arms. Since 



that t inie affairs have been more settled and the gov- 
ernment has been more secure. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution of the Argen- 
tine RepubUc was adopted in May, 1863, modified 
in 1860-66 and 1898. The e.vecutive power is vested 
m tlie president, elected for sLx years by electors 
chosen by the fourteen provoiiccs, equal to double 
the number of senators and deputies combined . The 
legislative authority is in a national Congress con- 
sisting of two l)odies. The Senate of 30, two from 
the capital and two from each province, is elected 
every three years by a special body of electors from 
the capital and by the legislatures in the provinces. 
The House of Deputies, fixed at one for every 33,000 
inhabitants in 1919, lias 120 members in all. The 
deputies are elected for four years, but one half re- 
tire every two years. The president is commander 
in chief of the army and navy and appoints aU civil, 
military, naval, and judicial oflicers. In local af- 
fairs the fourteen provinces control independently of 
the central government. For the territories, of wliich 
tliere are ten, the president appoints the governors. 

Beliglon and Education. There is no state 
religion, although the Roman Catholic Church is 
supported by the state and the president must be a 
Roman CathoUc. Primary education is free, secu- 
lar, and compulsory for children from 6 to 14 years 
of age. In 1917 there were more than 8,000 public 
primary schools, with more than a million pii]>ils. 
There are 37 national coUeges, with over 11,000 stu- 
dents, and 33 private institutions of the same grade. 

Industry and Production. Argentina possesses 
more than 250,000,000 acres wliich may be used for 
agricultural purposes or cattle industries. Of this 
area about 10,000,000 acres require irrigation and 
58,000,000 acres were under cultivation in 1917. It 
is one of the great wheat-growing countries of the 
world and m 1917-18 produced about 6,000,000 tons 
of wheat, 4 ,000,000 tons of maize, and 1 ,000,000 tons 
of oats. Cotton, tobacco, and wine are also [iro- 
duced and the sugar mdustry is growing rapidly. 
Argentmais famous for its live-stock industry, ami in 
1915 it was estimated that there were 30,000,000 cat- 
tle, 9,000,000 horses, 81 ,000,000 sheep, and 4,000,000 
goats. The total wool clip amounted to more than 
180,000 tons. Mining is of no great importance, al- 
though gold, silver, and copper are worked on a sniaU 
scale. IJefore the World War Argentina exported 
more to Great Britain than to any other country, 
and imported more from it. From 1915 to 1919, 
however, the United States ranked first, both in 
imports to and exports from Argentina. 

Defense. MiUtary service is compiflsory on all 
men from the 20th to the 45th year. For ttie fir .t ten 
years they belong to the active army and then pass 
into the national guard, where they serve for ten 
years and finish their service with five years in the 
territorial guard. The greater proportion of the an- ' 
nual contingents are trained for only tliree months, 
but a part sen'e for one year. There are five mili- 
tary districts, each of wliich is supposed to provide on 
mobiUzation a complete division of the first line and 
also a reserve division, irrespective of the national 
guard and territorial troops. The total peace estab- 
lishment of the army is 25,000 ofHcers and men, and 
the reserve numbers 250,000. The navy is in the 
process of transformation and consists cliiefiy of two 
modem dreadnoughts and a few destroyers. The 
other vessels are of Uttle military value. 

Finance. Owmg to the frequent revolutions and 
extravagant and ill-advised financial policies of the 
dictators, the financial condition of Arfieiitina is not 
good. Thereis a bonded debt of nearly .^r.OO.OOO, 000, 
gold, and 3223,000,000, paper, and also a floating 
debt of 5572,000,000, paper. The annual charges on 
the pubUc debt amount to 8126,000,000, pnper, 
about a third of the totnl revenue, which ordinarily 
amounts to $362,000,000, paper. 

The estimated area is 1,153,119 square miles 
and tlie population in 1918, 8,279,159. 

Chronology. 
1516. Eio de la Plata discovered by Juan Diaz 

de Soils for Spain. 
1527. Sebastian Cabot explores the Rio de la Plata. 

1535. First settlement of Buenos Aires by Men- 
doza. Results in complete failure. 

1536. Aug. IS. Asuncion settled; first perma- 
nent settlement on the river. [Peru and Chile. I 

1553- 1573. Various interior settlements made from I 

1580. Third and final settlement of Buenos Aires. 

1630. Buenos Aires becomes capital of a subordi- 
nate government uicluding the interior' settle- 
ments; attached to viceroyalty of Peru. Legiti- 
mate trade practically prohibited; development 
tlirough smuggUng. 

1776. Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires is established; 
jurisdiction includes modern Argentina, Uruguay, 
Paraguay, and Bolivia. Spanish trade freely per- 
mitted. 

1806, 1807. Two British attempts on Bueno? Aires 
are disastrous to tlie invaders. 

1810. May 2o. Independence Day; viceroy 
superseded by a j imta at B uenos Aires ; but interior 



NATIONAL HISTORIES : ARGENTINA — ARMENIA. 



41 



1810 (continued). 

provinces not accepting it, civil war results as well 
as conflict with Spanish troops. 

1816. July 0. Separation from Spain is for- 
mally declared, but conflicts continue, resulting 
ultimately in separate republics for Uruguay, 
Paraguay, and Bolivia. Various attempts to fonn 
a constitutional government are imsucce-ssful. 

1S?3. Jan. 27. Recognition by the tfnited 
States, through the appointment of a minister. 

1825. Feb. 2. Treaty of recognition and commerce 
with Great Britain. [(see Uruguay).! 

18*27. Brazilian war and independence of Uruguay I 

1835. Out of the warfare between the Federalists 
and Unitarians rises the dictatorship of Rosas, 
a Federalist; the interminable contest continues. 

1845. Great Britain and France blockade Buenos 
Aires and open passage to Paraguay. 

1853. Feb. 5. Defeat of Rosas by Urquiza, in alh- 
ancc with Brazil and Urnguay. Rosas flees. 

1853. May. Federal constitution adopted and 
Urcpiiza elected president; but Buenos Aires 
province is recognized as independent. 

1859. Nov. It. Buenos Aires reenters the confed- 
eration after its army is defeated. 

1800. Sept. S5. Amended constitution is adopted. 

1861. Sept. It. Buenos Aires regains its ascend- 
ancy over the interior provinces. It becomes the 
capital, with Mitre as president. 

1865-1870. Alliance with Brazil and Uruguay in 
war with Paraguay. 

1867. Insurrection, which Mitre puts down. 

1868. Sarmlcnto become-s president. 

1870-1873. Insurrections in Entre Rios provmce. 

1874. Oct. t2. Avellaneda, candidate of the in- 
terior provinces, inaugurated as president. Mitre, 
Buenos Aires candidate, alleging corrupt practices, 
heads a revolt that is soon crushed. 

1880. July. Renewal of war between army of the 
national government, under Roca, and Buenos 
Aires; latter entirely defeated. 

Oct. 12. Roca inaugurated as president. He 
malics city of Buenos Aires a federal district and 
transfers capital of province to La Plata. 

18S6. Oct. 12. Celman begins his term as presi- 
dent. Administration is corrupt; bankruptcy of 
national credit and honor threatens, 

1889. National Civic Union with Alem at its 
head organized to combat public corruption. 

Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress opens 
at Waslwngton (see United St.\te9). 

1890. July 31 . Armed revolt of the National Civic 
Union forces Celman to resign: Vice President 
Pellegrini succeeds. Period of financial crisis; 
liquidation of Baring Bros., of London, the govern- 
ment's financial agents. 

1892. Oct. 12. Luis Saenz-Peiia becomes presi- 
dent: candidacy promoted by Mitre and Roca, 
but opposed by Alem. Paper money stabilized 
by provisions for conversion at 44*^ gold per peso. 

1893. Alem promotes an unsuccessful revolt and 
is banished. 

1895. Jan. 21. Saenz-Pena forced by Congress to 
resign: Vice President Urlburu succeeds. Res- 
toration of financial credit progresses. 

Feb. 5. President Cleveland of United States 
arbitrates the boundary dispute with Brazil. 

1898. Oct. 12. Roca again president. 

1899. Boundary controversy with Chile, which 
threatens war, is partly arbitrated, but delay in 
rest of the award keeps alive the tension. 

1902. Nov. 27. lying Edward of Great Britain 
finally makes his award on the Fatagonian 
boundary; Chilean controversy ends. 

1904. Oct. 12. Quintana becomes president. 

1908. March 11. Quintana dies; Vice President 
Alcorta completes the term. 

1908. August. Naval appropriation of $75,000,000 
authorized; portion of it spent on two great dread- 
noughts built in the United States — the Riva- 
d-ivia and the Moreno. 

1909. Because of Bolivia's nonacceptance and 
threats following Argentina's arbitration of the 
Peru-Bolivia boundary, diplomatic intercourse 
is severed. Restored in 1911. 

1910. C-ompletion of the all-rail connection be- 
tween Buenos Aires and Valparaiso. 

May,.2d. Centenary of independence cele- 
bratecT 

July- August. Fourth Pan-American Con- 
gress held at Buenos Aires. 

Oct. 12. Roque Saenz-Pena is inaugurated as 
president. 

1911. Resenting Argentina's quarantine laws, 
Italy forbids emigration. Affair is settled the 
next year. 

1913. January. Difficulty with Paraguay; inter- 
course severed but restored in Februa^J^ 

1914. February. Saenz-Pena turns over his func- 
tions to Vice President de la Plaza, and dies on 

August S. fST.f.TES).| . 

April-June. ABC mediation (see United] 

1915. May So. Tripartite treaty with Brazil 
and Chile; no war before investigation and re- 
port by an impartial commission. 

1916. Oct. 12. Irigoyen inaugurated as president; 



first Radical to hold the office and first election 
by secret ballot. 

1917. April 16. Mobs at Buenos Aires attack 
German legation, consulate, and newspaper 
offices because of sinking of Argentine ships. 

Sept. 12. Von Luxburg, German charge d'af 
faires, is dismissed after American revelation of 
his official messages recommending that Argen- 
tine vessels be " sunk without a trace " (" spurlo^. 
Tcrsenht "). Anti-German riots renewed; pub- 
lic demands severance of intercourse with Ger- 
many. 

Sept. 25. House of Deputies by vote of 53 to 
18 advises, as Senate has also done on September 
19, severance of diplomatic relations with Ger- 
many. President Irigoyen does not act on the 
recommendations, but preserves neutrality. 
Railway strikes, which follow, are believed due to 
German intrigue. 

1919. January. General strike, believed due to 
foreign radical propaganda, ties up shipping and 
railways and amoimts almost to a revolution, es- 
pecially at Buenos Aires. Troops finally restore 
quasi-normal conditions; increase in wages given. 
July 7. Argentina joins League of Nations 

19?0. March 7. Congressional election, after bit- 
ter campaign marked by strikes and anarchistic 
disturbances, results in a Radical triumph. 



ARMENIA. 

Historical Outline. 

The northern and central portions of ..\sia Minor 
have for ages been occupied by the Armenian race, 
which has maintained its language, religion, culture, 
and national characteristics hi the face of conquests 
and oppression by Roman, Persian, Byzantine, and 
Tm-kish masters. Xenophon passed through the 
land on his famous Retreat of the Ten Thoiisand 
(401—400 B.C.). It was a Roman province. Chris- 
tianity was adopted imder Sapor, about 300 a. d,; 
and the Armenians are, therefore, tlie earliest people 
to make Christianity the national faith. 

Armenia was a province in the Empire of the Otto- 
man Turks from 1514 a. d. The Turks foil owed their 
usual policy of permitting Cliristian subjects to exer- 
cise the faith, while depriving them of all national 
and political power. Nevertheless, the business 
and statesmanlike abilities of the Armenians caiLsed 
their spread into other parts of the empire, including 
Constantinople. 

When Russia began to press upon Turkey, the 
Armenians were again brought into the war frontier. 
By the Peace of Berlin (1S7S) Armenia was di\ided. 
and Russia took over the northern area, Ix^tween the 
Black and Caspian Seas. Part of the Armenians 
were in Persia. Rleanwliile the Armenians in all 
parts of the Turkish Empire were selected by the 
fanatical Turks imder Sultan Abdul Hamid as ene- 
mies of the Turkish dispensation, subject to plunder 
and murder. Brutal massacres of Armenians in the 
capital and elsewhere occurred m 1896; and again 
under the regime of the Young Turks in 1909. 

When the World War broke out the Armenian 
yoimg men were called up into the army, except those 
who took flight. Then followed one of the most 
frightful massacres of llistor^^ The Armenians left 
at home were called upon to give up their arms. 
When disarmed, they were set upon by Kurds and 
other enemy tribes and by the regular Turkish au- 
thorities, acting imder pressure from the Germans. 
Men, women, and cliildren were swept up and 
started on horrible journeys to distant parts of the 
empire, most of them perisliing on the way. No 
fewer than 1.500,000 lives were tjius sacrificed. 

Russian forces came to the rescue of the imihappy 
countrj'. and the Armenians made such organiza- 
tion as was possible for self-defense. In 1918 they 
formed the Republic of Armenia on the Russian side, 
with a provisional ministry. The Turks, however, 
held the southern area and after Irostilities in West- 
ern Europe ended went on killing Armenians. The 
question of national existence has been complicated 
by the founding of a Georgian repubfic in the nortli 
and the Republic of Azerbaijan in the east. The 
purpose of the Turks was to destroy the nation by 
killing so many that they might then set up the plea 
that an Armenian republic would contain only a 
minority of Armenians, and would thus violate the 
principle of self-determination. 

The Armenians sent delegates to the Congress of 
Paris, but were coolly received by the Congress. 
They were finally declared independent by the treaty 
of peace of June, 1919, and the Tiu-kish treaty of 
May 20. 1920: but the Tiirkish raids still continued. 
They urged the United States to accept a mandate 
for them: and President Wilson agreed to be arbiter 
of their boimdary difficulties, but the Senate declined 
that responsibility. In the spring of 1920 the Arme- 
nians were still imperfectly organized: and what was 
left of the Turkish nationalistic forces were trying to 
destroy them. 

Almost all the country occupied or claimed as a 
part of Armenia is mountainous and rugged. Much 
of it is a high plateau, out of which rises Mt. Ararat. 



The climate of this high coimtrj' is severe, but with 
irrigation large areas of land are cultivated and 
hemp, grapes, fruit, and grain are raised. In the 
lower districts cotton is raised. The people are in- 
dustrious and tlirifty. Rug making has been a tra- 
ditional pursuit for ages. The people are intelligent 
and intensely devoted to their o\vn national church. 
The people of the Armenian race are widely scattered 
tlirough Asia Minor and they claim Cilicia on the 
Mediterranean. Many thousand Armenians have 
emigrated to America. The total population of Ar- 
menian race and language in Europe and Asia when 
the World War broke out was estimated at 2,400,000, 
of whom a million were in Russian Armenia and per- 
haps 800,000 in various parts of Turkey. 

Chronology. 

B. C. 69. Defeatof Tigranes, king of Armenia, by Lu- 
cullus. makes the country a vassal state of Rome. 

A. D. 301. King baptized by Gregory tlie Illumma- 
tor; Christianity becomes the state religion; 

and the Armenian Church is the earliest national 
Christian Church. (See Armenian Church, in 
the Dictionary). 
491. Church separates from the Greek rite, and 
becomes known as the Gregorian or Armenian 
Church, with a Catholicos at its head. 
633. Country comes under the Caliphates, this 
event lieing followed tlu*ough several centuries by 
strife between Arabs, Seljuks, and Byzantines, 
and by the mvasions of Timour (Tamerlane) and 
other Mongols. 
1514. Ottoman Turks, under Selim I., begin to 
rule Armenia. Coimtry continues to be a land 
of strife between Turks and Persians. 
1639. Part of eastern Armenia ceded to Persia. 
1803. Georgia definitely declared a province of 
Russia, bringing that nation to the Armenian 
frontier. Earlier. Catherine the Great, during her 
wars with the Turks, has encouraged the Arme- 
nians with projects of independence under her 
protection, but fails to support them. 
1838. Feb. 22. Treaty of Turkmanchai; two 
Armenian provinces, mcluding Eclmiiadzin, seat 
of the Catholicos, are ceded by Persia to Russia. 
1829. Sept. 14. In the Treaty of Adrianople, 
Turkey cedes to Russia a small portion of her 
Armenian territory. Like the Jews, the Arme- 
nians have become widely scattered, but retain 
their nationalism, and the Russian wars with Per- 
sia and Turkey have promoted emigration, espe- 
cially to Russia. Expatriates promote plans for 
independence. 
1831. American Protestant missionaries begin 
their labors among the Armenians. Opposed by- 
Russians (Greek rite) and leaders of the Armenian 
Church, but the work progresses and is partic- 
ularly successful along educational lines. 
EQ'ort is also made to promote Roman Catholicism 
among the Armenians. Turkish rule is attended 
by more or less forced conversions to Moham- 
medanism. 
1878, March 3. Treaty of San Stefano between 
Russia and Turkey. Russia annexes a further 
portion of Armenia, including Kars, Ardahan. and 
the port of Batimi on the Black Sea. Turkey en- 
gages to carry into effect in Armenia " the im- 
provements and reforms demanded by local re- 
quirements . . . and to guarantee their security 
from Kurds and Circassians." 

June 4. Anglo-Turkish convention; Tur- 
key promises to introduce reforms for protec- 
tion of Christian subjects in Asia, but fails to do so. 
July 13. Treaty of Berlin signed by the 
powers. Cessions to Russia in Asia and the prom- 
ise of reforms are confirmed. Powers to superin- 
tend the application of the reforms. Begmning 
of the Armenian question. Reforms are not 
made and powers do not compel them, being di- 
vided in interests. CJreat Britain left alone to 
protest on behalf of Protestants and Gregorians. 
Armenian plots against Turkish rule promote 
reprisals. 
1893-1894. Massacres of Armenians by Turkish 
troops fhially cause an investigation by the powers 
and renewed demands for reforms. 

1895. May. Impracticable project of reform 
presented to the Porte by representatives of 
Great Britain. France, and Russia, aq^d an irade is 
issued, October 17. 

Oci. 1 . Riot in Constantinople due to an Arme- 
nian demonstration is followed by renewed mas« 
sacres in provinces Covered by the reform irade. 

1896. Aug. 26. Armenians attack the Ottoman 
Bank in Constantinople. In the riots that follow, 
the Armenians of the city are systematically 
slaughtered by organized bands of Mohamme- 
dans, some 7,000 being killed. Planned massa- 
cres in the provinces continue, the victims being 
generally either Protestants or Gregorians. Cath- 
olics and Greek Orthodox Armenians are spared by 
Turkish plan to divide the powers, and now 
and later support for this policy is found in the 
purpose of Germany to pain a controlling interest 
over the affairs of the Near East, her " Drang 
nach Oslen " (Ger., pressure or impulse toward the 



42 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ARMENIA — AUSTRIA. 



1896-1920. 



1896 (continued). 

East). Turkish attitude an aflfront to Great 
Britain and a deflance of the sentiment of the 
United States. Result, nuJUflcation of reform and 
the prevention of interference by the powers. 

1909. April 13. Beginning of the massacres in 
Adana province, contemporarj' with the Young 
Turk revohition at Constantinople. 

1914. Feb. 8. Reforms promulgated, based up- 
on a Russian draft and revised by tlie ambassa- 
dors at Constantinople; but, even if sincere, opera- 
tion is frustrated by the World War, and the 
scheme is officially nullified in October. 

1915-1918. When Turkey Joins Germany and 
Austria against tlie .lilies and the Holy War is 
proclaimed by the spiritual head of Islam, mas- 
sacres of Armenians by Kurds and Turkish sol- 
diers are renewed with greater systematic vio- 
lence than ever before, and with the evident inten- 
tion of e.\termination. These continue during the 
war, and the Cliristians are deported and placed 
in concentration camps. Relief is attempted 
through the American Red Cross and other fimds. 
Armenia is a field of the Russian advance and re- 
treat, and .\rmenians increase Turkish resentment 
by aiding the foe. Turkish advance in Russia and 
Persia is accompanied by atrocities on the Arme- 
nians and other CIu*istians in these detached por- 
tions of the coimtry. 

1916. Feb. 16. Russians capture Erzerum. 
This and the later occupation of Trebizond (April 
18), the main port of Turkish Armenia on tlie 
Black Sea, Bitlis (March 2). Mush (February 19), 
and Erzingan (July 25) give control of most of Ar- 
menia, and this territory is mostly retained, though 
Russians are not able to use the position for a 
further advance through Asia Minor against Con- 
stantinople. 

1917. Revolution in Russia and the Bolshevist 
regime there destroy the morale of the Russian 
forces. Turiiey regains control of Armenia, 
and also of Russian and Persian Armenia. 

1915. March S. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 
between the Bolsheviki and the Central Powers. 
Russia agrees to evacuate Turkish Armenia; 
also the Russian districts of Krivan, Kars, and Ba- 
tum. Constitutional and intcniational conditions 
of these districts to be reorganized in agreement 
with the neighboring states, particularly Turkey. 

April £J. Russian Armenia unites with 
Georgia and Azerbaijan to form the Federal Re- 
public of Transcaucasia, which lasts only a few 
weeks. Russian Armenia sets up a separate gov- 
ernment, with Erivan as capital. 

St'pUmber-October. From the condition in 
which Russian treaty left Armenia the country is 
rescued by the advance of the Allies in Meso- 
potamia and SjTia, threatening to cut off the Turk- 
ish forces in Armenia (see Mesopot.\mi,\, Persi.\). 

Ort. SO. Turkey signs an armistice; to with- 
draw from Persia and Transcaucasia and to sur- 
render all garrisons in Asia Minor; but Allied occu- 
pation of Armenia in case of disorder only. 

1919. Armenian question is an important one 
before the Peace Conference at Paris. Famine 
and continued raids and outrages by Kurds make 
up much of the history of the country during the 
year. They prevent the development of a strong 
national government. Relief work continues. 

1920. January-February. Massacres at Marash 
(see Syria). 

Jan. :e6. Republic of (Russian) Armenia 
recognized by L'mted States. Its natural future is 
imion with Turkish Armenia. 

April 11. ijoague of Nations decides it cannot 
accept mandate for Armenia. 

May 11. Treaty of peace is handed Turkish 
delegates. It makes Armenia an independent 
state with such boundaries as President Wilson 
assigns to it, including access to the sea. Council 
of premiers has asked United States to accept 
a mandate for Armenia. 

June 1. United States Senate adopts resolution 
refusing consent of Congress to acceptance of 
mandate. 



AUSTRALIA. 

See under British Empire, page 74. 



AUSTRIA. 
Historical Outline. 

The title Emperor of Austria, is a modem term 
and was assumed in 1804 by Francis II, who, in 1806, 
divested liimself of the ancient title derived from the 
Holy Roman Empire, The state of Austria, how- 
ever, is of ancient origin. The territory now called 
Austria was inhabited by Celtic tribes who were 
conquered by the Romans about 14 b. r. Vindobona, 
modem Vierma, became an important Roman settle- 
ment. North of the Danube dwelt the Marcomanni 
and the Quadi, who threatened the peace of the 
Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aiu^lius 
Tliis region was frequently invaded by trities from 



Russia, among whom were the Hiuis; and in 590 a. d. 
the district was settled by the Slovenes, who subse- 
quently became members of the kingdom of the 
Avars. After Charlemagne had estabhshed his au- 
thority over the Bavarians he began a campaign 
against the Avars, and finally incorporated them in 
his empire and erected a border state called the East 
Mark l" Oc.^ireich"). 

The real founder of Austria, however, was Otto 
the Great, who in 955 overtlirew the Magyars, freed 
Bavaria, and refoimded the East Mark for the de- 
fen.se of his kingdom. The control of this region 
was entrusted to Leopold, a member of the family 
ofBabenberg, which admmistered it imtil the middle 
of the thirteenth century. In 1156 Austria was 
raised to the rank of a duchy and given special priv- 
ileges; its territory increased imtU it occupied sub- 
stantiaUy the botmdaries it had in 1914. TheDanube 
trade was large and profitable, and Vienna became 
one of the most important Oennan-speaking cities. 

In 12S2 Austria came into the possession of the 
family of the Hapsburgs, who continued to rule it 
luitil the forced abdication of the last Austrian em- 
peror, Charles I. (191S). The first great period in 
Austrian history was that of Maximilian I. He suc- 
ceeded in recovering Vienna from the Himgarians, 
and greatly added to the Austrian territory, until it 
mcluded nearly 50,000 square miles. In 1518 repre- 
sentatives of the various Austrian provinces met at 
Innsbruck, a proceeding wliich marks the beginning 
of the unified orgamc government of -Austria. 

Maximilian was succeeded by his grandson. King 
Charles of Spain, who became emperor imder the title 
of Charles V, The Austrian lands were given to 
Ferdinand, the brother of Charles, and thus Spain 
and .Austria remamed divided. Ever since the Turks 
appeared north of the Danube, Austria had been the 
bulwark of Europe, In 1526 Solj-man the Magnifi- 
cent defeated and killed the king of Bohemia and 
Himgary, thereby obtaining the greater part of Hun- 
gary, In 15.'!0 the Turks besieged Vienna, and Fer- 
dinand agreed to pay them tribute for the small por- 
tion of Himgary wliich he still held. 

During the early years of the Thirty Years' War 
.Austria gained ground against the northern Protes- 
tant states of Germany. With the entry of France 
in 1635 the war became a struggle between France 
and the House of Hapsburg. After the Peace of 
Westphalia, in 1648, Austria was forced to allow 
Alsace to pass to France and to permit the states 
of the empire to make Independent alliances. The 
Holy Roman Empire, as a political force, practi- 
cally ceased, although it was not formally abolished 
until 1806. 

In the latter half of the seventeenth century 
.Austria, imder Leopold I,, was involved in wars with 
Turkey and was only saved from the loss of Vienna 
and the destruction of the state by the intervention 
of the Polish kmg, John Sobieski. In 1699 peace 
was finally made at Karlowitz by which Slavoma, 
Transylvania, and practically all of Himgary were 
ceded to the Austrian crown. By the acts of the 
Diet of Pressburg the Himgarian crown was made 
hereditary in the Hapsburg family, and in 1697 
Transylvania was united to the Hungarian monarchy. 
The personal union between Austria and Hungary 
contmued, though Himgary was not a part of the 
empire. 

During the eighteenth century Austria, in com- 
mon with the rest of Europe, was involved in the 
War of the Spanish Succession, as the result of wliich 
Austria received the Spanish Netherlands. Sardinia, 
and Naples, 

In 1740 Emperor Charles VI, died and was suc- 
ceeded in the Austrian and Himgarian kingdoms by 
his daughter, Maria Theresa. This was the signal 
for an attack upon the Austrian dominions, begin- 
ning the War of the Austrian Succession Frederick 
the Great of Prussia, with the support of France, 
seized Silesia; England supported Austria. The 
war ended in 1748 with the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
by which Austria ceded Silesia to Prussia, 

In 1756 an alliance was made between France and 
Austria to withstand the aggressions of Frederick 
the Great, and the Seven Years' War began. Great 
Britain now supported Prussia. By the Peace of 
Hulwrtsburg, in 1763, Germany was practicafiy di- 
vided between Austria and Prussia. In 1772 came 
the first partition of Poland, by which Austria re- 
ceived the great province of Galicia, 

The French Revolution brought Austria and 
France again into conflict, although Queen Marie 
Antoinette was an Austrian princess. In 1792 
France declared war, and Austria, in alliance with 
Prussia, began a twenty years' struggle. The first 
phase of the war came to an end with the Treaty of 
Campoformido (or Campoformio) October 17, 1797, 
by wWch Austria lost the Belgian provinces, but 
gained Venice. In 1793 had come the second parti- 
tion of Poland, which marked the end of that buffer 
state, and brought Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 
touch with one another. The rise of Napoleon 
caused a renewal of the war, and after the decisive 
battle of Austerlitz the Treaty of Pressburg (1805) 
deprived Austria of Venice and Tirol, while the Con- 
federation of the Rhine was formed to break the unity 



of Germany. Six months later Francis I. , who since 
1804 had borne the title of Emperor of Austria, ab- 
dicated the title and functions of " German Em- 
peror in the Realm," Austria, always hostile in 
spirit to Napoleon, in 1813 joined the Grand Alli- 
ance and shared in the battle of Leipzig which 
opened the way for a victorious advance into France. 

The congress which was to resettle the affairs of 
Europe was held at Vienna in 1814 and 1815. Un- 
der the guidance of Count Metteraich, its prime min- 
ister, Austria received all the territories lost since 
1792, except Belgium and Breslau, and was restored 
in Lombardy, Tu-ol, and Venetia. Until 1848 Met- 
temich dominated the Austrian policy and established 
a system of repression and reaction, wliich extended 
to Prussia, France, and the German state. So suc- 
cessful was he that the Revolutions of 1830 hardly 
affected Austria. 

Durmg this period Himgary was kept in semi- 
dependence. In 1848 Hungary, imder the lead of 
Kossuth, broke into open revolt and woidd have 
secured independence but for the armies of Russia 
wliich came to the rescue of Francis Joseph. 

Durmg the next fifteen years Austria dominated 
Hungary and was the leading power in Germany. 
Slowly the rival, Prussia, forged ahead and, after 
1860, foimded its system of universal military serv- 
ice. In 1864 Austria was aroused by the Prussian 
victory over Denmark, but could not rise to the 
danger of war and was overwhelmed by Prussia in 
the Seven Weeks' War of 1866. By the Peace of 
Prague .Austria agreed to withdraw altogether from 
German affairs, and was allowed to retain all her 
territory , 

In 1867 a workmg arrangement was reached with 
Himgary, resulting in the formation of the Dual 
Monarchy. The German victory of 1S71 over 
France and the establishment of a German Empire 
still further diminished the power of Austria in Eu- 
rope. Meanwhile the Austrian Empire was strug- 
gling with its racial problems. 

The -Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was composed 
of two equal, distinct, and independent composite 
states with two capitals, Vienna for Austria and 
Budapest for Hungary. Each had its own parlia- 
ment and its own ministry and administration. The 
two kingdoms were united in the person of the mon- 
arch, who was emperor of Austria and king of Hun- 
gary. Certain affairs were also regarded as common 
for both and they were administered by a joint min- 
istry with three departments, foreign affairs, war, 
and finance. The only common deliberative body 
was a Delegation of 60 members from each part of 
the monarchy, which met alternately at Vienna and 
Budapest, 

In both kingdoms there was racial heterogeneity; 
in eacii there was a dominant race. In Austria the 
Germans were the largest single race element 
(9,000,000), but were outnumbered in the total by 
large groups of Czecho-Slovaks (6,000,000). Poles 
(5,000,000), Ruthenians (3,000,000), and Slovenes 
(1,000,000). In Hungary the Magyars numbered 
10,000,000, but they were outnumbered in the total 
by Roumanians (3,000,000). Gemians (2,000,000), 
Slovaks (1,900,000), Croatians (1,800,000), Serbians 
(1,100,000), Ruthenians, and others. Many of these 
mmority races were separated from their kinsmen in 
other states and there was constant striving for auton- 
omy witlun the monarchy and aspirations for union 
witli their kinsmen outside. In Galicia the Poles, 
though in a minority, gained control of the Diet and 
enjoyed greater autonomy than did their kinsmen who 
suffered under Prussian or Russian rule. In Bohemia 
the struggle was more severe and the Czechs were 
kept m cultural subjection as well as political Ixind- 
age to the Germans Bosnia and Herzegovina, with 
a population of 2,00O,(X)O. were practically .Austrian 
dependencies, making 17,000,000 people ruled by 
9,000,000 Germans. 

In foreign policy, the Dual Monarchy has had a. 
varied history. By the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. 
Austria-Hungary received the provinces of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, nommally under Turkish suze- 
rainty. Although forced to consent to the continu- 
ance of the Balkan states of Bulgaria, Roumania, 
and Serbia, Austria looked askance at the establish- 
ment of Slav states, lest the Slavic peoples witliin her 
borders should desire to unite with them. Thus she 
regarded with no friendly eyes the growing senti- 
ments of nationality in Serbia. In 1908, after the 
Turldsh Revolution, she formally annexed the prov- 
inces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, thereby arousing 
the hostile feeling of the Slavs. At the close of the 
first Balkan War of 1913, Austria persuaded the 
great powers to establish the kingdom of .Albania, 
thereby preventing Serbia from otitaining an access- 
to the sea. As a result, Serbia was inspired with hit- 
ter hatred and a passionate desire to unite all Serbs, 
whether in Austria or elsewhere, in one state. This 
was one of the direct causes of the World War. 

The German-Hungarian ruling statesmen had long 
sought an occasion of war with Russia. The imme- 
diate break came from the assassination of Archduke 
Ferdinand at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, by an 
Austrian subject of Serb race. For this act .Austria 
held the Serbian government responsible, and in a 



1648 - 1747. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA. 



43 



brutal ultimatum demanded abject reparation from 
Serbia. Acting upon the advice of Russia, Serliia 
consented to tliese demands, but Austria, whicli had 
already secured tlie bacliing of Germany, alleged 
that the submission was not sufRcicntl>' complete, 
and declared war upon Serbia. This caused Russia 
to mobilize in defense of her Slavic kinsmen. Ger- 
many was seeking a cause of open war and mobilized 
against both Russia and her ally, France 

During the World War. Austria fighting for herself 
was unsuccessful. The first invasion was repulsed 
by Serbia. The Russians were able to penetrate 
Galicia. to capture Przemysi. and to threaten an in- 
vasion of the great Hungarian plains. The Austrian 
Slavs realized that they were fighting against their 
own cause, and in some cases went over to the enemy. 
During these campaigns Italy in 1916 was able to 
capture Gorz and to win a foothold on the Carso 
(Karst) plateau and threaten the road to Laibach 
(1917). 

The Germans had to come to the aid of the Aus- 
trians. With combined (.;erman and Austrian forces 
they completely vanquished Serbia and Montenegro 
in 1915-16. threw back the tlu-eatened invasion of 
Russia, and, in 1917. regained from Italy the lost 
ground and drove the Italians behind the Pia\e 
River. Until 1918 the Allies had not considered the 
dismeml'crment of Austria-Hungary: but the de- 
mands of the Czecho-Slovaks were finally answered 
by the recognition of their independence (France. 
Jime 30. 191S). and Italy approved of the aspirations 
of the Jugo-Slavs for an independent state. 

The collapse came suddenly in September, 1918. 
The Austrian armies, no longer reenforced by the 
Germans, were driven from their positions in Mace- 
donia and Bulgaria, and made imconditional sur- 
render September 30, 191S. In the last week of 
October the Italians broke up the Austrian armies 
on their territory. November 3, Austria accepted 
an armistice, dictated by the Italians. Tliree days 
before, revolutions broke out in Budapest and Vi- 
eima. and on November 11 the Emperor Charles 
abdicated, next day the German-Atistrian republic 
was proclaimed. 

In February. 1919. a national constitutional 
assembly was elected on the basis of imiversal suf- 
frage, in this chamber the Social Democrats ob- 
tained 70 seats; the Clu-istian Socialists, 64: the 
Liberals, 23. In spite of rumors that the monarchy 
was to be reestablished, no head was chosen for the 
state, the executive power being placed in the hands 
of a cabinet, headed by Dr. Karl Renner. Tlirough- 
out the summer of 1919 there were serious outbreaks 
and communistic demonstrations, but these were 
Anally quelled and the government accepted the 
treaty drawn by the Alhes. 



Organization. 

Government. Until the overtitfow of the Dual 
Monarchy. Austria was governed by a Reichsrath. 
or legislature, consisting of two houses. The upper 
house was composed of princes of the imperial family 
(14); nobles in whose family by nominations of the 
emperor the dignity was hereditary (81); archbish- 
ops (10); btshops (7); other life members nominated 
by the emperor (1.59); a total of 271. The lower 
house, of 516 members, was chosen on the basis of 
tmiversal. equal, direct suffrage by Austrian male 
citizens over 24 years of age. 

The powers of the Reichsrath were those which 
ordinarily belong to a parliamentary body. All 
laws, including the budget, must have been passed 
by both houses; and all treaties, which placed a fiscal 
burden upon the monarcliy or the citizens or in- 
volved any change in the territorial status, must 
have been ratified by it. Either house might inter- 
pellate the ministers and investigate the administra- 
tive acts of the government. Each of the 17 prov- 
inces of the Austrian half of the monarchy had its 
parliament and local administration. 

The sovereign power of the monarchy was vested 
in the emperor, and all ix>wers. not expressly con- 
ferred elsewhere, remained in his hand. The powers 
of government were exercised largely through minis- 
ters who were supposedly responsible to the Reichs- 
rath. Certain important powers were expressly con- 
ferred upon the emperor and mdirectly exercised by 
him; these included the appomtment and dismissal 
of ministers, the management of all public ofl[icials, 
the command of the armed forces, together with the 
power of declaring war and concluding peace, the 
power of granting titles and appointing hfe peers, 
the power of pardon, the right to summon, adjourn, 
and dissolve various legislative lx>dies. and to issue 
ordinances and to conclude treaties with consent of 
the Reichsrath, where such consent was necessary. 

The ministers were nominally responsible and the 
parliamentary system was nominally in operation; 
actuully, the ministers were more dependent upon 
the emperor than upon the Reichsrath. The politi- 
cal parties in the Reichsrath were so numereus, and, 
because of racial divisions, so hostile to one another, 
that the government foimd little difflculty in playing 
one group against another. The Czechs were al- 
ways an irreconcilable body of members. 

In 1920 Austria was a repubUc, but foimd diffl- 1 



culty in keeping up a government and plainly ex- 
pects to imite with Germany. 

Industry and Labor. Within the diversified 
territory of Austria the natural productions vary ac- 
cording to the latitude and still more according to 
the altitude. Some parts of the country reach up 
the Alpine slopes beyond the snow line, other jjarts 
descend to the level of the Adriatic and to semi- 
tropical conditions. The chief industries are agri- 
cultiu-e and mining, and the cultivation of the soil 
fiuTiishes employment to nearly half of the popu- 
lation. The leading agricultural crops are rye. oats, 
barley, wheat, potatoes, sugar beets, wme, and 
pulse. There were in Austria m 1910 over 1,800,000 
horses, for which Austria was deservedly famous, and 
\ ast herds of cattle, sheep, and pigs. The produc- 
tion of silk cocoons was also important. 

In the south, Austria possessed rich and varied 
mineral wealth, although with the loss of Bohemia 
and Moravia this has been diminished. Neverthe- 
less, there are deposits of coal and iron, copper, lead, 
zinc, sulphiu-, manganese, and petroleum, and rich 
salt mines in Upper Austria. The value of the min- 
ing products in 1913 amounted to over $75,000,000 
and the steel production in 1917 amoimted to over 
2.(X)0.000 metric tons. There were numerous fac- 
tories of pottery, textiles, food and table deUcacies. 
woodwork and metal, and large and important brew- 
eries and distilleries and tobacco factories. 

The old government gave much attention to roads 
and thoroughfares, to canals and telegraphs and all 
means of communication and commercial inter- 
coiu"se. The navigation of the rivers had been im- 
proved, especially of the Danube, wliich is the main 
artery of the country; the rapids of the Iron Gate 
were corrected and the Danube was made free in 
1856. Trieste, the main port of the Adriatic, is an 
outlet and inlet for commerce. The general condi- 
tion of labor, however, was poor and improgressive. 
the miners were still almost serfs of the operators. 
Ignorance and semislavery prevailed among the in- 
dustrial classes. For these reasons labor agitations 
were common. 

Religion. While the monarchy was Cliristian in 
profession <ind while the emperor was always a mem- 
ber of the Roman Catholic Church, reUgious liberty 
was established by the law of the state, and political 
lights were independent of religious professions. 
78*^ of the population, however, are adlierents of 
the Roman Catholic Church, 12':^ are Greek Catho- 
lics, about five per cent Jews, and two per cent Prot- 
estants. 

Education. Within recent years much atten- 
tion has been given to education in Austria. New 
laws were passed regarding instruction, the opening 
of schools, and the decrease of illiteracy. The 
school system of Austria comprised elementary 
schools, Gymnasia, tmiversities. and technical and 
special schools. Attendance at elementary schools 
is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. In 
1912 there were o\'er 23.000 elementary schools, 
with more than 4.000.0(X) pupils; and in 1905 it was 
reported that 91.3% of the children of school age 
were actually attending school. Before the World 
War there were 518 Gymnasia and Realschulen, 
with over 160,000 pupils. Eight tmiversities were 
maintained by the state, of which the Polish imiver- 
sity at Lemberg was the largest in 1913-14 and that 
of Vieima was second largest. 

Defense. Before the war the position of Aus- 
tria-Hungary was that of a fortified city in central 
Eiu-ope. The perimeter of the empire was 5,396 
miles in extent; of this line 1,050 miles was on the 
Adriatic seaboard. The natural barrier of the 
moimtains protected a considerable part of the bor- 
der and made invasion difficult. At all the strategic 
points on the exposed frontiers, fortifications were 
erected. The protection thus afforded was thought 
to be so effective that the capital was left imde- 
fended. On the Adriatic side the naval port of Pola 
could accommodate the entire naval force of the 
monarchy and was strongly fortified. 

The peculiar constitution of the Dual Monarchy 
modified the whole military system. In general it 
was based on the German model, but the desire 
of Austria to increase to the utmost the fighting 
strength of the monarchy was not approved by Him- 
gary . The first-line troops of the Austro-Hun^arian 
army were imder the joint government and were 
known as the " common " army. Both Austria and 
Himgary, however, possessed national armies with 
separate organizations, whicli. however, were tmder 
the command of the emperor in Austria, wiio was the 
king in Himgary. Service was compidsory through- 
out the monarchy, and all men were liable between 
the ages of 19 and 42. Actual service, however, 
usually commenced at the 21st year and continued 
for two years, followed by ten years in the reserve. 
About 160.000 recruits were raised annually and the 
total strength of the field army was about 600,000, 
to wiiich should be added the divisions of the Aus- 
trian and Himgarian reserves, which would give a 
total of about 820.(K)0. The casualties during the 
World War were estimated at 4.500,(X)0, including 
1,000.000 killed. 
The Austro-Hungarian navy was maintained in a 



high state of efflciency and at the outbreak of the 
war included 4 dreadnoughts, 12 predreadnoughts. 
18 destroyers, 63 torpedo boats, 11 submarines, and 
a flotilla of monitors for policing the Danube. 

Before the World War the area of Austria was 
115,832 square mUes and the population (1910) 
28,571 ,934. The new republicof Austria, however, has 
an area of about 32,000 square miles and a populatioa 
estimated at 6,412,430 (see Hungary) . 

Chronology. 

For special Hmigarian affairs, see also HuNOAnr. 

For earlier events m history of Austria, see Medievai,. 
Period and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 

1648. Austria, by the Peace of Westphalia, recog- 
nizes the division of the Holy Roman Empire into- 
Protestant and Catholic states. 

1657. Leopold I. of Germany is crowned king of 
Hungary; the Turlis, by their ascendancy in 
Transylvania, contend with the German emperor 
for the control of that coimtry. 

1664. Aug.l. Germans imder Montecticcoli de- 
feat the Turlis imder Kuprili in the great battle 
of St. Gothard. The victory is followed by the 
Treaty of Vasvar and a twenty years' truce. 

1665. By the extinction of the direct line, Tirol 
reverts to the Austrian crown. 

1683. Turlis and Hungarians under command 
of Kara Mustafa invade Austria and besiege 
Vienna, greatly endangering both Austria and all 
Christendom; the Poles under Jolin Sobieslii 
interpose, and by a great victory hurl back the 
Turks and preserve the political status of Europe. 

1686. Buda is retaken from the Turks. 

169J. Victory of the Germans and their allies tm- 
der Prince Eugene at Zenta leads to the Peace of 
Kariowitz (1699), by which the control of Tran- 
sylvania is wrested from the Turks. 

1701. Austria becomes involved in the War of the 
Spanisli Succession (see France and Spain). 

1704. The Austrians imder Prince Eugene and the 
English imder Marlborough each win a great vio 
tory over the French at Blenlieim. 

1713-1714. By the treaties of rtreclit and Ba- 
statt, Aastria renounces her claims to .Spain and 
receives in retiuTi the Spanish Netherlands and 
Spanish possessions in Italy. 

1717. Belgrade retaken from the Turks. By the 
Treaty of Pozarevac (Passarowitz) in 1718, Aus- 
tria acquires part of Serbia and Wallachia. 

1735. By the Treaty of Vienna, closing the War 
of the Polish Succession, Austria loses Lor- 
raine, Lombardy, and the Two Sicilies, receiving 
in exchange Parma and Piacenza. 

1739. By the Treaty of Belgrade, Austria loses to 
Turkey most of what she had gamed by previous 
treaties with that nation. 

1740. Charles VI., the last of the male line direct 
of Hapsbiu-g, dies and is succeeded by his daugh- 
ter, Maria Theresa, wiio Ijecomes queen of Hun- 
gary, October 20. The succession is disputed by 
Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, and Augustus 
III. of Poland and Sa.xony. Frederiel« II. (the 
Great) demands that Silesia be ceded to Mm. He 
makes an mvasion of Silesia in December, and the 
War of the Austrian Succession begins. 

1741. April 10. Frederick the Great defeats the 
Austrians at Mollwitz. France favors Charles 
Albert, and makes war in his behalf. An alliance 
between the Elector and the French is arranged, 
in May. England, however, supports Maria 
Theresa. Austria is invaded and the queen 
makes a successful appeal to the Himgarian Diet. 
The Bavarian. French, and Saxon allies overrun 
Bohemia and capture Prague. 
Persistent attempts to Germanize the Hungarian 
nobles by bringing them into the court at Vienna 
prove in the end unsuccessful. 

174?. Charles Albert is chosen emperor, as Charles 
VII. Frederick the Great defeats the Austrians 
at Chotusitz. May 17; Treaty of Breslau follows, 
Austria ceding greater part of Silesia to Prussia. 

1743. Saxony and Sardinia become the allies of 
Austria. In the following year the French invade 
the Austrian Netherlands; Charles III. of Naples 
makes war against Austria. , 

1744. Frederick II. invades Bohemia. The French 
and the Spaniards win a victory near Cimeo 
(Coni), Italy (see France). 

1745. Charles VII. of Germany dies, January 20, 
and his successor in Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, 
makes a treaty with Maria Theresa. The French 
defeat the Austrians and their allies at Fontenoy, 
May 11. Frederick the Great, on June 4, is vic- 
torious at Hohenfriedeberg. Francis Stephen, 
Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria 
Theresa, is elected emperor as Francis I., Sep- 
tember 13. Italian territories of Austria are occu- 
pied by her opponents. 

1746. Austrians make a campaign in Italy. Mar- 
shal Maurice Saxe leads the French troops to a, 
triumph over the allied forces of Charles of Lor- 
raine, at battle of Rocourt (Raucoux), Oct. 11. 

1747. Saxe defeats the English supporters of Aus- 
tria at LaufTeld (Lawfeld). July 2 (see France). 
Bergen op Zoom is taken by the French. Mean- 



44 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA. 



1747 — 1878. 



w 



1747 {continued). 

time an army is sent by Russia to support Aus- 
trians, but arrives too late to participate in the war. 

1748. Oct. IS. Treaty of peace is signed at Aix-la- 
Cbapelle, and the War of the Austrian Succes- 
sion ends. Austria yields Silesia to Frederick 
the Great, and cedes Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- 
talla to Spain. 

1753. Prince Wenzel Kaunitz is made chancellor 
by Maria Theresa. (America. I 

1754. War between France and England begins in| 
175B. Seven Vcars' War breaks out in Europe. 

.auStria and France oppose Prussia and Great 
BrJtaJXL Frederick defeats the Austrians under 
iBr©wne at Lobositz, October 1. 

1757. Austrians under Charl&s of Lorraine and 
Browne are again defeated at Prague, May 6, by 
Frederick. Austrians administer a severe defeat 
to Frederick at Kolin, June 18: they occupy Si- 
lesia, but are defeated, December 5, at Leuthen. 

1768. The Russians enter the war on the side of 
Austria. Frederick severely defeats them at 
Zorndorf (August). Daun siu-prises and de- 
feats Frederick at Hochkirch, October 14 

1759. The Austrians and Russians under Laudon 
and Soltikov overwhelm the army of Frederick on 
August 12, at Kuncrsdorf. 

1760. In October Berlin is occupied for a short 
time by the Russians and Austrians, but Freder- 
ick defeats Daun at Torgau on November 3. 

1763. Empress Elizabeth of Russia dies. Russia 
and Sweden retire from the war, thus savmg Fred- 
erick the Great. 

1763. Feb. 15. Peace of Hubertsburg is con- 
cluded by Saxony, Austria, and Prussia. Seven 
years' vVar ends and Silesia is finally ceded to 
Frederick the Great. Anglo-French peace is 
made at Paris, February 10. 

1770. iMarrlage of Louis, dauphin of France. 
with Marie Antoinette of Austria. 

1772. Large territory adjacent to Hungary is ac- 
quired in the first partition of Poland and 
erected into kingdom of Lodomeria and Galicia. 
Turkey cedes Bukowina to Austria. 

1778. Contest known as the War of the Bavarian 
Succession Is begun. Austria makes an effort 
to seize a portion of the Bavarian domain, and 
supports the claims to the tlirone made by Charles 
Theodore, the elector palatine. Prussia opposes 
Austria. 

1779. War of the Bavarian Succession ended 
by the Treaty of Teschen, and Charles Theodore 
is recognized in the sovereignty. 

1780. Nor. £9. Maria Theresa dies, and is suc- 
ceeded by her son, the Emperor Joseph II., who 
undertakes a general reform of the government 
not successful. 

178t. Joseph II. issues an edict of toleration. 
1787. The emperor makes an unsuccessful attempt 

to seize Belgrade, and thus becomes engaged in a 

■war with Turkey. 

1789. Turks at Focsani are defeated by the Aus- 
trians and Russians under the Prince of Coburg, 
and Marshal Suvarofl. 

French Revolution greatly affects Austrian pos- 
sessions in the west. 

1790. Feb. 20. Joseph II. dies, and is succeeded 
by Leopold as sovereign of Austria and Hungary. 
SeptemlDer 30, Leopold is elected emperor of Ger- 
many as Leopold II. In December an insurrec- 
tion in Belgium is quelled. 

1791. Constitutional liberties of Hungary are re- 
affirmed by Leopold II., and freedom is given to 
the Protestants. In August a peace with Tur- 
key is concluded at Sistova. 

1792. March 12. Leopold .dies; succeeded by his 
son Francis, who, July 5, becomes emperor as 
Francis II. 

A-pril SO. France declares war on Austria 
•(see Fbance). First coalition of Prussia and 
Austria against France follows. Austrians are 
tieieated at Jemappes, November 6, and most of 
the Austrian Netherlands fall to France. 

1793. March 18. Austrians win a brilliant victory 
over the French at Neerwlnden. 

Sep!, li. Second partition of Poland; Aus- 
tria receives little. 

1794. June 26. Jourdan defeats the Austrians at 
Flenrus. 

1795. By the third partition of Poland Austria 
gets West Galicia. War continues on the Rhine. 

1796. Napoleon begins his conquest of northern 
Italy, and early in the following year wins a great 
victory at Blvoli Veronese. 

1797. Oct. 17. By tile preliminary Peace of Cam- 
poformido. Austria cedes Lombardy and 
Flanders but obtains Venice (see Fr.wce). 

1799. War of the Second Coalition against 
France. The Russian General Suvaroff wins 
great victories in Switzerland and Italy. 

1800. Austrians lose the bloody battle of Ma- 
rengo, June 14, and are again defeated at Hohen- 
linden, December 3. French advance on Vienna. 

1801. Feb. 9. Treaty of Luneville between 
France and Austria confirms the stipulations of 
Campoformido (see France). 



1804. Aug. It. Francis II. assumes the title of 
Francis I., Emperor of Austria, relinquishing the 
title of German Emperor in the Realm in 1806. 

1805. War of tlie Third Coalition against 
France breaks out. Napoleon occupies Vienna, 
November 13, and defeats the Austrians in the 
great battle of Austerlitz, Deceraljer 2 De- 
cember 26, the Peace of Pressburg is concluded 
between France and Austria, by wliicli Austria 
loses a part of her possessions. 

1809. War breaks out for the fourth time be- 
tween Austria and France. Vienna again surren- 
ders. May 13. May 21, Napoleon loses a great 
battle at Aspern, but wins a decisive victory at 
Wagram, July 6. By the Peace of Vienna 
Austria cedes more territory. Domination of Na- 
poleon is accepted by practically all the Continent. 

1813. Austria joins Pritisia, Russia, and England 
in a further coalition against Napoleon. After 
winnmg the battle of Dresden, Napoleon is 
forced to withdraw and is defeated in the great 
battle of Leipzig, October 16-18. The allies 
drive him out of Germany and on December 13 
they cross the Rhine. 

1814. Feb. S-. March 19. Congress Of Chatillon of- 
fers terms to Napoleon. Allied troops defeat 
Napoleon and compel his abdication (April 6). 
General congress of the European powers as- 
sembles at Vienna in order to decide the politi- 
cal status of the Continental powers. The con- 
gress opens, November 3, with Austria represented 
by Prince Metternich. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1815. June S. Act of Confederation, creating Ger- 
manic Confederation, in which Austria is the 
leading member. 

June 9. Final act of Congress of Vienna. Aus- 
tria is reinstated in the possession of all the ter- 
ritories in her domain at the beginning of tlie 
French Revolution, save Belgium and Breslau and 
other portions which are added to the states of 
South Germany. The authority of Austria is 
restored in Tirol. Lombardy, Salzburg, Venetia, 
and the IlijTian provinces. 

Sept. 26. Austria tmites with Russia and Prus- 
sia in the formation of the Holy Alliance, to 
govern Eiu-ope according to the principles of the 
Gospel as interpreted l)y themselves (see Nine- 
teenth-Century HisTOHV). Prince Metternich 
for thirty years is practically ruler of Austria and 
head of the Mid-European combination. 
1821. Austria interferes to suppress the popular 
uprisings in Italy (see It.\ly ) . ( (see Italy ) . | 

1831. Au-stria again engages in the strife in Italy! 

1832. Bologna occupied by Austrians (see Fkance). 
1835. Francis II. dies and is succeeded by his son 

Ferdinand I. as emperor of Austria. 
1846. As the result of a rising in Galicia, Austria 

acquires Cracow. 
1848. A revolution breaks out in Vienna, on 
March 13. Metternich falls from power. Ven- 
ice rebels against Austria, March 22, and estab- 
lishes a republic witli Manin at its head. In 
March, Charles Albert of Sardinia undertakes a 
war against Austria in order to free Italy from 
foreign domination (see Italy). The movement 
agamst the government is renewed in V'ierma, 
May 15, and the Emperor Ferdinand flees from 
the city. A Panslavic congress opens in Prague, 
June 2. Papal forces surrender to Austria at Vi- 
cenza, June 11 (see Italy). Insurrection occurs 
in Prague, but it is put down by Windischgriitz 
in Jmie. The German Confederation dissolves 
itself. (opens. I 

July 6. Hungarian National Assemblyl 
July 22. Austrian Parliament assembles. 
July 25. Austrians imder Radetzky decisively 
defeat the Italians at Custozza. 
Jeliactiich, ban of Croatia, begins a war with the 
Himgarians, in September. A committee of pro- 
tection is formed in Hungary, with Louis Kos- 
suth as its chief, in September. Jellachich tlu-eat- 
ens Budapest, but the Himgarians advance against 
tiim. and he is routed, December 29. 

Oct. 6. Vienna breaks forth in general insiurec- 
tion against the government, and the emperor 
flies for the second time. Windischgriitz storms 
Vienna on October 31, and on November 21 the 
Schwarzenberg ministry is formed in Austria. 
Ferdinand abdicates the Austrian throne on 
December 2. His nephew, Francis Joseph, suc- 
ceeds. Hungarians imder Gorgei are forced to 
retreat before the advance of Windischgratz, and 
lose ground elsewhere. 
1849. Hungarians evacuate Budapest. Francis 
Joseph, on March 4, issues a proclamation in which 
he declares the national autonomy of Hungary 
abrogated, and a constitution for the empire as 
a whole is promulgated at tlie same time. Rus- 
sia comes to the aid of Austria, hut the first 
armies are routed by the Himgarians under Bern 
in March. 

April IJ,. The Independence of Hungary is 
proclaimed at Debreczen by the Diet, and the 
country is declared a republic, with Louis Kos- 



suth as governor-president. Hungarians are 
beaten at Temesvar, August 9, by tlie Austrians 
under Haynau; Kossuth resigns the powers In- 
trusted to liim, and surrenders August 13: Hun- 
gary is again made sui:)ject to the emperor of 
Austria. Tliis restoration is followed by great 
severities to the Hungarian patriots. Hun- 
gary does not recover its national rights till 1866. 
Charles Albert of Sardinia is vanquished by the 
Austrians imder Radetzky, at Novara, March 
23, and the king abdicates in favor of his son (see 
Italy I . who arranges an armistice with the victors. 
Treaty of Milan signed by Sardinia and Austria, 
August 6. 

1850. Austria and the states allied with her reestab- 
lish the federal Diet of Germany, and the assembly 
opens its sessions at Frankfurt, September 2 (see 
Germany). At a conference in Olmijtz (Novem- 
ber), Austria compels Prussia to witlidraw her 
support from the Liberals in Hesse and dissolve the 
Union under Prussia. A severe Ijlow to Prussian 
prestige, 

1851. May 15. Germanic Confederation revived. 

1852. The Austrian prime minister. Prince Schwar- 
zenberg, dies and is succeeded by Count Buol- 
Schauenstein. 

1854. Austria compels the Russians to evacuate 
tlie Danubian Principalities, which, by an 
agreement with the Porte, she herself occupied 
until 1857. (cordat.l 

1855. The Emperor and Pope Pius IX. make a con-1 

1859. .4pri7. Austria becomes involved in a war 
with Sardinia and France (see Italy). A treaty 
is signed at Zurich by Austria, France, and Sar- 
dinia, November 10, by which Lombardy, except 
Mantua and Peschiera, is conceded to Sardinia. 

1860. Oct. 20. Emperor issues a proclamation an- 
noimcing the organization of the empire on a basis 
of federation. 

1861. Feb. 26. Francis Joseph issues a decree by 
which tlie reorganization of Austria is provided 
on a constitutional basis. 

1864. Austria t .kes part in the Schleswig-Hol- 
stein war (seeGERMANY and Den-jiark.) In April, 
the Arcliduke Maximilian, brother of the em- 
peror, acting at the instance of Naiioieon III., 
accepts the crown of Mexico as Maximilian I. 
(see AIexico). 

1865. The emperor and the king of Prussia meet at 
Gastein in August and arrange a plan for adjusting 
temporarily the Schleswig-Holstein difflculty. 

1866. Alliance is formed against Austria by 
Prussia and Italy. VVar breaks out in June. 

June 1/,. Break-up of the Germanic Confeder- 
ation (see 1851, above). 

July 3. The Austrians are defeated decisively at 
Sadowa, but win a victory over tlie Italians at 
Custozz^ and also win in a sea fight off Lissa. 
Austria is crushed and obliged to accept exclu- 
sion from German affau^. Venice (assigned to 
Austria by the coalition of 1814) Is ceded to 
Italy. Peace of Prague with Prussia is signed 
August 23, and a treaty is concluded with Italy at 
Vienna (see Germany and Italy). Coimt von 
Beust is made minister of foreign affairs in Austria. 
October 30, 

1867. Von Beust is made prime minister, Feb- 
ruary 7 The Austrian Empire is recon- 
structed according to a dualist ic scheme sub- 
mitted by Francis Deak, and the Himgarian 
constitution is restored, witli a national ministry 
of which Count Andrassy is tlie premier. Under 
this constitition Francis Joseph, the emperor of 
Austria, is crowned king of Hungary on June 8. 

1868. The Czecliic members of the Moravian and 
Bohemian Diets resign and make formal state- 
ments setting forth demands for national auton- 
omy (see Czecho-Slovakia). 

1869. Autonomy Is requested by the Poles of Ga- 
licia, and insurrections break out in Dalmatia. 

1870. Concordat between Austria and Rome is 
abrogated. 

1871. Mmistry of Hohenwart in Cisleithan Austria 
seeks to quiet tlie agitation of the Czechs by pro- 
posing a federalist sclierae, but the attempt is un- 
successful and Hohenwart and von Beust resign. 
Andrassy becomes nimister of foreign affairs. 

1872. Austria, Germany, and Russia form the 
Dreikaiaerbunrl (League of the Three Emperors). 

1873. A new electoral law provides for direct elec- 
tion of members to tlie B«lchsrath. 
Franz Josef Land is discovered by an Austrian 
polar expedition under Payer and Weyprecht. 
sailing in 1S72; the new polar coast is not reached 
until 1874. 

International exposition is held in Vienna; 
a financial panic afflicts the countrj-. 

1878. Austria and Great Britain join in protesting 
tlie Treaty of San Stefano, between Russia and 
Turkey. 

July 13. By the Treaty of Berlin, Austria is 
rewarded by tlie occupation and administration of 
Bosnia and Herzegovina. July 20, the Austrians 
enter these countries, and after a desperate contest 
with the Mohammedan partisans the province 
are subdued in Octol>er. 



1879—1917. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA. 



45 



1879. October. Andrdssy resigns from the premier- 
ship, and is succeeded l>y Baron Haymerle. 

Oct. 7. Austria and Germany conclude a 
secret alliance of mutual defense against Kussia. 

1881. Austria maizes a close alliance with Serbia. 
October. Baron Haymerle dies, and in the fol- 
lowing month KiUnoky is made minister of foreign 
affairs. Insurrection occurs In Dalmatla, in 
November, and the government issues a decree 
that the citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall 
be subject to military service. In the following 
year there is a rising in Herzegoiina. 

1883. May SB. Triple Alliance with Germany 
and Italy formed. It continues with renewals 
until the World War. 

1883. Austro-German alliance is renewed. Austria 
makes an alliance with Roumanla. 

1884. Sept. 16-17. Emperor meets the rulers of 
Russia and Germany at Skierniewice. 
Dreikaiserbund vThree Emperors' League) is re- 
constituted. 

1885. August. Emperor has a conference with the 
czar at Ivremsier. 

1887. Austria, Italy, and Great Britain make 
two Mediterranean agreements. 

1889. Jan. 30. Crown Prince Rudolph commits 
suicide. Emperor sternly refuses to entertain pro- 
posals looking to tlie establishment of home rule 
in Bohemia. Latx^ring classes in Austria, par- 
ticularly m the cities, share the discontent wliich 
is prevalent throughout Europe. A period of 
jealousy against Russia ensues on account of Slavic 
influence in Serbia and on the Galician frontier. 

1890. AndrAssy, the leading statesman and diplo- 
matist of the empire, dies on February IS. The 
empire is disturbed by agitations in the Balkan 
states and by riots and labor strikes in many 
cities. The Home Rule party in Bohemia is ac- 
tive: Tisza. the Hungarian prime minister, resigns 
and is succeeded liy Szapdry, 

1891. Bitter strife occui-s in the Diet between 
the Radicals and the Conservatives. Austria 
and Germany conclude a commercial treaty. 

1893. Taaffe ministry (in office since ISSl) is driven 
from power on the question of electoral reform; 
the emperor closes the Diet; anarchistic upris- 
ings and radical outbreaks in Prague and other 
cities follow, 

1891. Anarchistic and lalx)r riots occur in many 
parts of the empire. The Hungarian patriot 
Louis Kossuth dies in exile in Italy, March 20. 
Civil Marriage Bill, which makes the civil cere- 
mony compulsory. I)ut permits a subsequent reli- 
gious rite, is passed. 

1895. Wlndischgriitz ministry falls and is suc- 
ceeded by one headed by Badeni. 

1898. Millenary of the national existence of Hun- 
gary is celebrated witii imposing ceremonies, A 
new electoral law increases the number of voters 
in Austria proper from two to five miliions. 

1897. Austria and Russia reach an agreement on 
the Balkan question. Prolonged struggles in the 
i^ustrian Parliament over the renewal of the 
Ausgleich, or the apportionment of general ex- 
pense between Austria and Hungary, Minority 
in the lower house opposes Prime Minister Badeni, 
who favors the official use of the Bohemian lan- 
guage in Bohemia, This the Germans m Bo- 
hemia consider a violation of the constitution. 
The commercial union is maintained on the 
basis of reciprocity. 

1898. Sept- 10. Empress Elizabeth is assassi- 
nated by an anarchist, 

Dec. 2. 50th anniversary of the Emperor 
Francis Joseph's accession is celebrated. 

190?. June 3S. Austro-German alliance re- 
newed (see Germany). 

1903. January. A new tariff goes into operation, 
with duties greatly increasecl to meet the German 
tariff, Austria and Russia draw up the so-called 
Murzsteg program on Macedonian affairs. 

190i. November. Serious disturbances occur in 
the lower house of the Hungarian Reichsrath, re- 
sulting in the suspension of its sessions. 

December. Student riots at Innsbruck, because 
of the purposed addition of Italians to the uni- 
versity faculty, cause strained relations with Italy, 

1905. Grave crisis in the affairs of the Dual 
Monarchy, endangering its continued existence. 
The party of independence in Hungary gains great 
strength. January 4 the Hungarian Parliament is 
dissolved, but the ministry is defeated in a general 
election. June IS Count Tiszas resignation is 
accepted and Fej^rviry is appointed premier 
The adoption of the Hungarian language in the 
Hungarian regiments is demanded by the oppo- 
nents of the government, and is met by offers of 
universal franchise. 

1906. Feb. 10. The emperor as king of Hungary 
dissolves the Hungarian Parliament, the leaders 
having refused to form a cabinet unless the words 
of command in the Hungarian portion of the army 
are given in Magj-ar. 

May 32. Alexander Wekerle is made premier. 
December. Austrian Reichsrath passes bill 
granting universal sufiTrage. 



1907. May 14. Elections for the new Austrian 
Reichsrath. imder the new suffrage act. show the 
remarkable strength of the various socialistic 
parties. Of the 225 seats allotted the Germans, 
the Clericals win 117 and tlie Radicals 53. The 
Ausgleieh is renewed. In Hungary the Croats 
show themselves violently opposed to the Ian 
guage program. 

1908. Revolution in Turkey complicates Austrian 
relations in the Balkans. 

Sixtieth anniversary of thecoronation of Francis 
Joseph (celebration June 12; Aug. 18. emperor's 
7Sth birthday; and Dec. 2, anniversary of his 
accession). 

Oct. 7. Government announces its intention 
formally to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
Excitement follows in Serbia. Montenegro, and 
• Turkey. Powers consult concerning the assem- 
bling of a European conference. 

1909. Jan. 13. Turkey accepts the Austro-Hun- 
garian offer of $10,500,000 in retiuTi for the ex- 
tinction of nominal Turkish rights of suzerainty, 
claimed since 1S7S in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
Protocol signed February 26. 

March 31. Serbian note, agreeing to the an- 
nexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina; severe 
humiliation to Serbia, wliich had hoped to become 
a great Slav power. 

1910. Jan. IS. Hedervary forms a Hungarian 
cabinet. He advocates a National Labor party, 
but. lacking support, dissolves the Parliament 
March 22, A riot follows in which the premier is 
injured. Reaction in favor of Hfedervdry gives 
the government 246 out of 413 seats. 

Aug. IS. Eightieth birthday of Francis Joseph 
celebrated with great festivities throughout empire. 

1911. Jan. SO. At Cracow University, students 
strike in protest against the appointment of a 
Cierman professor; authorities close the university. 

June 38. Von Blernerth, the Austrian premier, 
resigns, the general elections held Jime 13-20 re- 
sulting in the defeat of his ministry by the Chris- 
tian Socialists. Baron Paul Gautsch von Fran- 
kenthumi succeeds him. 

Sept. IS. Vienna is placed under martial law 
on account of food riots. 

Oct. 31 . Cabinet resigns and Count Karl 
Stlirgkh is in\ited to fonn a ministry. 

1912. March 31. Francis Joseph threatens to ab- 
dicate as king of Hungary unless the difficulties 
regarding the army law are overcome. 

April 16. Hungarian ministry resigns; Ladislas 
Lukdcs forms a new cabinet. April 21. 

May 23. Socialist proclamation of a general 
strike, as a demonstration in favor of universal 
suifrage and against the election of Count Tisza as 
speaker of the lower house, results in riots and 
bloodshed at Budapest. [lies defeat Turkey. I 

October. War ijreaks out in the Balkans. Al-I 

Oct. 31. Grave apprehensions are raised in 
Eiu-ope by the attitude of Austria-Hungary toward 
Serbian claims for seaports on the Albanian coast. 

1913. March 1 1 . Austria objects to Serbian troops 
assisting Montenegro in the capture of Scutari (see 
Turkey). Tension between Austria and Russia 
is reheved by an understanding between the em- 
peror and the czar, March 20, ultimatum is 
delivered to Montenegro in regard to Scutari. 
Russia advises King Nicholas to yield. April 10. 
the powers join Austria in blockading the Mon- 
tenegrin and .Albanian coasts. April 23, Austria- 
Hungary asks the powers to intervene in regard 
to the continued siege of Scutari by Montene- 
gro. Troops are moved to the southern border. 
May 14, a landing party from the allied squad- 
ron occupies Scutari. 

June 3. Lukdcs ministry falls in Hungary, 
after corrupt practices of the premier are exposed 
incoiut. New cabinet formed by Tiszaon JuneS. 

J uly 36. Provincial constitution of Bohemia 
is temporarily suspended by the emperor I^ecause 
tlie \vranglings of the Czechs and Germans inter- 
fere with the normal administration of tlie kingdom. 

Oct. IS. Austria sends an ultimatum to 
Serbia demanding the evacuation of Albanian 
territory by Serbian troops within eiglit days. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. April 25. Emigration of males under 
thirty-four is prohibited unless full military serv- 
ice has been performed. 

June 5. Understanding of Berchtold with Ger- 
man emperor that Austria is to chastise Serbia. 

June 28. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir 
to the throne, and his wife are killed at Sara- 
jevo by a Bosnian. The government of Serbia 
is held responsible by Austria, though no proof of 
participation is ever produced. 

July 33. .Austrian ultimatum to Serbia. 
Two days later diplomatic relations are broken off. 

July 3S. Austria-Hungary declares war on 
Serbia. (For the World War, see that title.) 

Aug. 6. Austria declares war on Russia. 

Aug. 7. Montenegro declares war on Aus- 
tria. [England does likewise. I 

Aug. IS. France declares war on Austria.! 



Aug. 23. State of war between Japan and 
Austria declared. 

Aug. 27. Austria declares war on Belgium. 

Sept. 23. Cholera breaks out in Austrian army. 

Oct. 30. Gavrio PriuEip and 23 accomplices in 
the assassination of the archduke and his wife are 
pronounced guilty at Sarajevo. Five are sen- 
tenced to death, and others to penal servitude. 
None executed. 

1915. Jan. 13. Berchtold resigns, and is succeeded 
by Buriiin von Rajescz as foreign minister. 

Jan. 3S. Mobilization provokes violent upris- 
ings among the South Slavs, especially in Bosnia 
and the Herzegovina. [is called out. I 

Feb. 13. Entire Austro-Hungarian LandsturmI 

Feb. 24- Government takes over all grain and 
flour, and in March a system of per capita distri- 
bution is inaugurated. 

Strong Gennan pressure brought to Ijear on 
Austria to induce her to cede to Italy Trentino 
and a portion of the Istrian peninsula, for the pur- 
pose of keeping Italy neutral. 

March 20. Austria declares herself ready to 
make large concessions to Italy. The Italian 
reply proves disappointing. 

March 34. Half a million troops are massed on 
the Italian frontier. Many villages evacuated and 
houses destroyed to afford better range for the guns. 

April IS. Bread riots occur in Vienna and at 
points in Bohemia. 

April 26. Field Marshal von Auffenberg, ex- 
minister of war and former chief of staff, is arrested 
and convicted of plotting to sell military secrets to 
the Russian government for $1,500,000. 
Secret treaty of Italy with Allies (see Italy). 

May 3. Italy formally abandons the Aus- 
tro-Italian alliance. 

May 19. First meatless day in Vienna; twodays 
in the week are set apart by the government on 
which no beef, pork, or veal may be sold. 

May 24. War is declared by Italy on Austria^ 
Hungary. 

June 24- Food crisis becomes acute, many 
articles quadrupling in price. Panic in Budapest. 

J uly 34. Government takes over the 1915 vege- 
table crop. 

November. Ministers of the interior, of com- 
merce, and of finance resign, being unable to solve 
the economic situation. Hungary is practically 
in a state of famine. 

1916. July. New taxation system devised by Him- 
gary to meet the interest (about S72,000,000) on 
her four war loans. Kdrolji forms a new party in 
Hungary, with immediate peace as its platform. 

August. Boumania declares war on Austria. 

October. 10,000 munition workers strike in 
Bohemia and demand flour. 

Oct. 21. Count StUrgkli, premier of Austria, is 
assassinated at Vienna; succeeded by von Korber 
on October 27. 

Nov. 21. Francis Joseph dies after a reign 
(beginning Dec. 2, 1848) exceeding in length that 
of any previous Hapsbm'g: his grandnephew Arch- 
duke Charles Francis Joseph succeeds as Emperor 
Charles I. 

December. Owing to the shortage of coal and 
difficulties of transportation all shops are ordered 
closed at 7 p.m., restaiu-ants and cafes at 11 p.m.; 
all electric or gaslight signs are proliibited, and the 
hghting of shop windows is to l^e reduced one third. 

Dec. 13. Austrian mhiistry under von Korber 
resigns; Clam-Martiniz forms new cabinet. 

Dec. 22. Czemin succeeds Buridn von Rajescz 
as foreign minister. 

Dec. 26. For reply to President Wilson's 
" peace note," see World W.\r. 

1917. January. Acute food crisis; demonstrar- 
tions and riots in Graz and elsewhere. 

March S. Clam-Martiniz aimounces that the 
government will provide food for the poor at 
reduced prices. 

March 27. Restricted potato rations go into 
effect. Food Bureau orders introduction of meat 
cards and forbids the restaurants to ser^'e sugar. 

May 33. Tisza. who has favored intimate co- 
operatior) with Germany, tenders his resignation. 
He is succeeded by Count Moritz Esterhdzy, a 
Magyar Liberal. 

May 31. At the opening of the Austrian Par- 
liament, the Emperor indicates his readiness to 
make a separate peace with Russia. 

June 10. Clam-Martiniz. unable to make head- 
way against the Slav opposition, resigns. Von 
Seydler succeeds as premier. 

June 25. Karolyi, leader of the Independent 
party in the Hungarian Parliament, declares that 
responsibility for the war rests with the Teutonic 
leaders. He demands independence for Hun- 
gary and a democratic constitution. 

July 14- Speaking amid great uproar in the 
Austrian Reichsrath. a Czech member, Praschek, 
demands separation from Germany. 

Aug. 20. Wekerle becomes premier of Hungary 
upon the resignation of Esterh^zy. 

Sept. 21. For the reply to the pope's peace 
message, see World War. 



46 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: AUSTRIA — BELGIUM. 



1917 — 1919. 



N 



U 



1917 (continued). 

November. Severe food crisis in Vienna. 

Hungary is reported to have refused supplies. 

Dec. IS. Czemin leaves for Brest-Lltovsk to 
negotiate with Russia. 

Dec. 2it. A reform bili introduced in the Hun- 
garian Parliament wouid not only extend fran- 
chise to women, but make them ehgible to office. 
1918. J an. S. Subscriptions to Hungary's seventh 
war loan fall off heavily. 

Jan. 18. Serious Strikes and riots in Vienna 
and other Austrian cities, due to shortage of food- 
stuffs and desire for peace. 

Jan. 19. General strike begins in Austria, 
100,000 workers joining in Vienna alone. 

Jan. 20. In the face of widespread lieace agita- 
tion, von Seydler cabinet resigns in Austria. Res- 
ignation refused by Emperor Charles. 

Jan. 24- Czemin, the foreign minister, ex- 
presses general agreement with the peace sugges- 
tions of President Wilson, but qualifies his ap- 
proval of some points by declaring that Austria- 
Hungary must support Germany. 

Ja7t. 26. Emperor Charles, as king of Hungar>', 
accepts the resignation of the cabinet and directs 
the premier, Wekerle, to effect a reorganization, 

March. Strike movement reported spread- 
ing to Hungary. Communication between Buda- 
pest and Vienna cut off. 

A-pTil 2. Czemin discusses the four points laid 
down by President Wilson in his address of Febru- 
ary 11 (see United States), but doubts if the 
Allies will accept them. 

A pril 1 1 . Report spreads that Emperor 
Charles, in a letter to his cousin. Prince Sixlus de 
Bourbon, acknowledges the justice of French 
claims to Alsace-Lorraine. 

April 15. Czemin, minister of foreign affairs, 
resigns: Baron Burian von Rajescz succeeds him. 
May 20. Martial law proclaimed in Prague. 
Rioting crowds denounce the government. 

June 1. British government recognizes the 
Czech National Council (see Czecho-Slovakia). 

June 17. Hungarian government seizes all 
grain crops and fiour mills. 

June SO. 100.000 numition workers strike as a 
result of reduction of bread rations. Tisza. former 
premier, in a speech before the Hungarian Parlia- 
ment, declares that there is only a third or a fourth 
of the food necessary to keep population in health. 

June 29. Emperor Charles summons the 
Reichsrath. 

July 16. BuriAn von Rajescz. Austro-Hun- 
garian foreign mmister, approves " heartily to a 
great e.vtent " President Wilson's principles an- 
nounced July 4, and declares " we are prepared 
to discuss everything except our own territory." 

July 25. Von Hussarek succeeds von Seydler 
as Austrian premier, and declares his country pre- 
pared to make peace on favorable terms. 

Sept. 14- The government invites all belliger- 
ents to participate in a confidential and unbinding 
discussion, in a neutral country, on the basic prin- 
ciples of a just peace. 

Sept. 25. Italy approves of the aspirations of the 
JTugo-Slavs for independence (see Jugo-Slavia). 

Sept. 27. Panic on the Budapest bourse. 

Oct. 4' Von Hussarek resigns as premier. 

Oct. 17. Kdrolyi, opposition leader, demands 
absolute autonomy for the Magyars, and the 
immediate institution of peace newtiations, 

Oct. 18. Emperor Charles issues to his sub- 
jects a manifesto which declares for a confeder- 
ate state in which each nationality shall have its 
own k)cal autonomy. 

Oct. 19. President Wilson informs Austria- 
Hungary, in reply to its note, that he cannot now 
entertain that government's acceptance of his 
earlier peace proposals. 

Oct. 23. Karolyi mores a resolution for the 
independence of Hungary and a separate 
peace. He demands the resignation of the Wekerle 
cabinet (see Huxg.\ry) 

Oct. 25. Andrassy succeeds BuriAn von Ra- 
jescz as foreign minister. Apponyi succeeds 
Wekerle as Himgarian premier. 

Oct. 26. Prof. Heinrich Lammasch accepts of- 
fice of Austrian premier on condition that he may 
proceed to make a separate peace with the Allies, 

Oct. 27. Andriissy, replying to President Wil- 
son, recognizes rights of the Czecbo-Slovaks and 
the Jugo-Slavs. 

Oct. 29. Andrassy asks the United States to 
conclude an immediate armistice. 

Nov. 1. Revolution breaks out (see Czecho- 
Slov,\kia, Hungary, Juqo-Slavia). In Vienna 
mobs demand the abdication of the emperor, 
who escapes to Godollo. The red flag of Bol- 
shevist Socialism is hoisted in Vienna; a national 
assembly meets there and adopts a new constitu- 
tion without the monarchy. Republican cab- 
inet is formed, including a number of Socialists. 

Nov. 3. Armistice is signed; Austria agrees 
to retire her troops behind a certain line, to de- 
mobilize, surrender a portion of the navy, and 
permit occupation and passage of Allied troops. 



Nov. 10. From all part? of the empire come re- 
ports of serious disorders; rioting, destruction 
of mihtary stores, and sinking of war vessels. 

Nov. 11. Emperor Charles announces his 
abdication. State Council declares German 
Austria part of the German Republic. 

A' or. 13. Anarchy is spreading rapidly in all 
regions of the country. Disintegration of the 
old Dual Monarchy is still m process. 

Nov. 25. First woman to be appointed as 
minister to a foreign country named by the 
new Hungarian government; Miss Schwimmer 
accredited to Switzerland. 
1919. For international negotiations, see World 
War; for Czecho-Slovakia, Hungary, and 
Jugo-Slavia, see those titles. 

Feb. 16. Elections to the Constituent Assem- 
bly, women voting, result in a plurality for the 
Socialists. March 4, Assembly meets and 
approves of a union with Germany. 

March 14- Food Conditions are reported as 
desperate by the interallied commission. 

March 15. Temporary ministr>' is appointed 
by the Assembly; Karl Renner premier. 

March 23. Ex-emperor Charles is compelled 
to leave Austria; he goes to Switzerland. 

Aprxl 17. Bolshevist attempts at outbreak 
in Vienna are entirely unsuccessful; necessity of 
stability for food relief is fatal to the agitation. 

June 2. Peace treaty is handed to the Aus- 
trian delegates. 

June 15. Communist demonstration in 
Vienna, with fatal rioting. 

Sept. 10. Treaty of Saint-Germain is signed 
after Austrian attempts at modification have 
failed. Dual Monarchy is abolished; Austria 
must not unite with Germany without per- 
mission of the League of Nations; Atistria loses 
the territory claimed by Italy and Jugo-Sla\ia 
(see Jugo-Slavia) receives a small slice from 
Hungary on the eastern border, and is deprived of 
Bohemia, Moravia (see Czecho-Slovakia), Ga- 
licia (see Poland), and Bukowina (see Roumania); 
army reduced to 30,000 effectives; navy to be 
surrendered; various artistic and historic ob- 
jects to be given (restored) to other countries; ra- 
cial minorities protected; amount of reparation 
to be fixed by the commission. The treaty also 
contains the provisions on labor found in the 
German treaty and in the covenant of the League 
of Nations, which league Austria may join. 
Renner heads a reorganized ministry. Condi- 
tions in the restricted nation are still reported as 
desperate, and continue so during the winter and 
spring, especially in Vienna; with relief measures 
conducted under American auspices. 

Oct. 25. National Assembly ratifies the peace 
treaty. 

Dec. 17. Supreme Council at Paris places a 
ban on separatist movements in the Austrian 
provinces, Tirol wishing to join Germany and 
Vorarlberg to unite with Switzerland. 



BASUTOLAND. 

See under British Empire, page 66. 



BECHUANALAND. 

See imder British Empire, page 66. 



AZERBAIJAN. 

Tbis northwest province of Persia on the Russian 
border was included in the operations of the "World 
War. and heavy flghting occurred r<"ix>atedly in the 
neighborhood of Lake Urmia (Unmiiah), although 
Persia as a nation attempted to maintain neutrality. 
In May, 1918, the Republic of Azerbaijan was set 
up. apparently to prevent the Armenians from claim- 
ing that territory, which has some Armenian popu- 
lation. The Republic comprises a portion of the 
former Persian province of Azerbaijan and the two 
former Russian provinces of Baku and Elizavetpol. 
with the capital at Baku. It was recognized by the 
Conference at Paris and by Great Britain in 1920 

The area of Azerbaijan is about 40.000 square 
miles, and an estimate, based on defective Russian 
statistics, gives it a population of about 4.615.000 
people. 



1918. Afay SS. Independent republic established. 

1919. April S7. Joint meeting with Georgians and 
Armenians at Tiflis. 

September. Bolsheviki e.xpelled. 
1930. January. De facto administration recog- 
nized by Great Britain. 



BAHAMAS. 

See under British Empire, page 74. 



BALTIC PROVINCES. 

See under Russi.a., page 143. 



BALUCHISTAN. 

See under British Empire, page 65. 



BARBADOS. 

See under British Empire, pa^e 74. 



BELGIUM. 

Historical Outline. 

The geographical position of Belgium has from 
earliest times given the country an imiwrtant stand- 
mg among the nations of western and central Eu- 
rope. From the days of Ciesar, the Belgic territory 
has been the line of racial division between the Teu- 
tonic and the Latin and Celtic races. During the 
Middle Ages the provinces which now form the mod- 
em kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium were 
brought under the control of the dukes of Burgundy, 
and m 1516 on the accession of the Emperor Charles 
V. (Charles I. of Spain) they were attaci.ed to the 
Spanish croyn. Charles V. was succeeded by his 
sou. Philip II., whose tyranny led to the War of 
Liberation, finally brought to a close in 164S by the 
Treaty of Westphalia by which Netherlands gained 
its indci^endence, but Belgium remained under the 
control of Spain. 

The attempt of Louis XIV. of France to place his 
grandson upon the throne of Spain produced the 
War of the Spanish Succession, at the close of which, 
by the Treaty of Utrecht (17l3j. the Belgian ^prov- 
inces were assigned to Austria and became known as 
the Austrian Netherlands. In 1792 the armies of 
revolutionary France invaded the countrj- and by 
the treaty of ISOl (Lun6viJle) it was hicorporated in 
France. At the fall of Napoleon, Belgium was 
against its will united with the kingdom of the Neth- 
erlands. 

Although the population outnumbered that of 
Holland by nearly a million, the two parts of the 
kingdom had equal representation in the legislative 
assembly. The seat of the government was in Hol- 
land and the king was a Protestant m religion and 
a Dutchman by birth. In the ministry and in the 
civil service the Belgians did not receive what they 
considered their share of the offices. The attempt 
to make Dutch the official language aroused great 
opposition. Nevertheless the Belgians were pros- 
perous, and measures for improving and extending 
the educational system were undertaken. 

In 1S30 the Belgians revolted. In the civil war 
that followed, the Dutch were unable to pievail; and 
on the intervention of the great powers, an inde- 
pendent kingdom of Belgium was set up, under Leo- 
pold of Saxe-Coburg as Leopold I., king of the Bel- 
gians. 

The Treaty of London (1831) signed by Great 
Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia recog- 
nized Belgium as an independent state and guaran- 
teed its mdependence and permanent neutrality. 
Leopold I. turned the attention of the government to 
private industry' and mtemal communication. Com- 
mercial treaties were negotiated with different coun- 
tries to provide outlets for the industrial products. 
The king attempts to remove irritating questions 
from politics, and was so successful that the revolu- 
tions ot 1S4S hai'dly affected Belgium. 

In 1S65 Leopold I. was succeeded by his son. Leo- 
pold II., WHO was a figure in Europe throughout his 
reign, and was chiefly responsible for tlie atrocities 
in the Belgian Congo. During the first years of his 
reign there were almost annual outbreaks, riots and 
strikes against the Catholic clergy and demands for 
equal sulTrage. The guarantee of neutrality was 
carried out in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. 

In 1909 Albert succeeded as king. At the out- 
break of the World War on August 2, 1914. Ger- 
many presented an ultimatum to Belgium demand- 
ing passage for Gennan troops. The king at once 
appealed to Great Britain, who demanded that Ger- 
many observe the neutrality of Belgium, which she 
and Great Britain had guaranteed, and, on refusal, 
entered the war. In the meantime the German 
troops entered Belgian territorj-. The small Bel- 
gian army held the Germans in check at Li^ge and 
thus gave the Allies time to concentrate their forces. 
The overwhelming numbers of the German army, 
however, broke down all resistance and sw^pt 
tlu'ough and occupied all but a small strip of the Bel- 
gian territory. 

From 1914 to November. 1918, Belgium suffered 
imder military occupation, including wholesale mili- 
tary arrests and executions of n on combatants, the 
most noted instance being that of Edith Cavell. 
Tlie Germans levied heavy taxes, fhies, and indemni- 
ties u(K)n the coimtr>', and (1916) decreed the whole- 
sale deportation of Belgians to Germany for forced 
labor. The suffering of the population was some- 
what mitigated by the Belgian Commission for Re- 
lief, tlirough which practically all the rest, of the Al- 
lied world distributtN^ food and supplies under the 
direction of Herbert Hoover. In 1918 the Belgian 
government declared that it was no longer willing to 
accept a status of guaranteed neutrality. 



924—1915. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BELGIUM. 



47 



Organization. 

GoTernment. Belgium is a constitutional mon- 
archy, the legislative power being vested in the 
king. Senate, and Chamber of Representatives. No 
act of the king, however, can have effect unless 
signed by one of his ministers, who is responsible to 
the le.gislature. The Senate consists of 120 mem- 
bers, chosen for eight years, partly by direct and 
partly by indirect election. The Chamber of Rep- 
resentatives, consisting of 186 members, apportioned 
according to population, is chosen by direct election 
for four years, one half retiring every two years. By 
the system of proportional representation, minority 
parties are represented. The Electoral Reform 'Bill 
of 1919 provides for imiversal one-man, one-vote 
suffrage for males of 2 1 , for widows, and for mothers 
of soldiers killed in battle or of civilians shot by Ger- 
mans, thus doing away with plural voting. 

Religion and Education. Most of the inhabit- 
ants are Roman Catholic, but the salaries of minis- 
ters of all denominations are paid by the state. 

Four universities exist, of which those at Ghent 
and Liege are state institutions, while^those at Brus- 
sels and Louvain (ruthlessly destroyed by the Ger- 
mans) are church institutions. Connected with the 
universities are special scliools of engineering, art 
and mining. The secondary sch(X)ls of Belgium are 
well organized and administered; but tlic primary 
schools, because of the low salaries of the teachers 
and the inadequate inspection, do not rank high 
Education is free for those who cannot afford to pay 
but is not compulsory. 

Industry. The principal mineral production of 
Belgium is coal, the mining of which gave employ- 
ment to over 150,000 people before the war. The 
product has exceeded 32,000,000 tons a year. The 
iron mines do not produce as much as formerly and 
large imports of iron are made from France and Lux- 
emburg. Liege is the center of the metal industry. 
The soil of Belgium originally was unfavorable to 
production, but like Holland, the coimtry has been 
reclaimed, until at present the agricultiu-e and horti- 
culture of Belgium are hardly exceeded by any na- 
tion. The lands are divided into small holdings and 
brought to a high state of cultivation. In 1913 the 
<;hief crops were oats and rye. wheat and potatoes, 
aad sugar beets. Xext after agriculture and mining is 
the production of live stock. Belgian horses are chosen 
by purchasing agents of many countries for cavalry 
service, and sheep and cattle industries flourish. 

The Belgian manufactures enjoy a high reputa- 
tion. Many fhie fabrics are produced, particularly 
■woolen, linen, and cotton goods, laces and hosiery. 
Belgium has two ports of entry, Ostend and Ant- 
werp, and has a large export trade in raw materials 
and manufactured products. 

Defense. The exposed position of Belgium has 
made the country from earliest times a battlefield. 
Although its neutrality was guaranteed by the great 
I)Owers it was thought necessary to fortify several 
chief cities. Until recently the army was recruited 
by voluntary enlistment, but on May 30, 1913, a 
military bill passed the Ch^.mber of Deputies, impos- 
ing compulsory military service, and providing an 
effective field army of 170,000. The total length of 
service is eight years in the active army and five 
years in the reserve, which latter can be called out 
only in the event of war or threatened invasion. 

The area* including the cessions from Germany. 
is 11,7.59 .square miles and the population, as es- 
timated in 1918, was 7.620,576. 

Chronology. 

924. What later becomes Bolgiumis divided; Flan- 
ders remains a French fief, the rest is in the duchy 
of I^orraine under the Holy Roman Empire. Feudal 
states and. later, great city communes develop. 

1468. Incorporation with the rest of the Nether- 
lands, under Burgundian rule* is completed. 

1477. Netherlands passes to the House of Haps- 
burg by Burgundian marriage (see Austria). 

1555. It becomes a province of Spain. 

1579. Jan. 5. League of Arras is signed; southern 
Catholic Netherlands severs connection with 
northern Protestant Netherlands and remains 
loyal to Spain. Iconfirms separation-l 

1648. Jan. 30. Peace of Westphalia (Mimstertl 

1713. April 11. By the Treaty of Utrecht Span- 
ish Netherlands becomes Austrian Netherlands, 

179*2. Belgium overrun by France, becomes a de- 
pendency of France. 

1801. Belgium incorporated into France. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1815. June 9. By the Congress of Vienna Hol- 
land and Belgium are reunited as the King- 
dom of the Netherlands. 

Ju'i€ IS. Napoleon defeated at Waterloo, on 
Belgian territory. 
1830. Differences, especially of religion and lan- 
guage, promote dissatisfaction; under the influ- 
ence of the July Revolution in France, a revolt 
against the union. 

Dec. 20. A congress of the powers at London 
recognizes the independence of Belcrium. 



1831. Feb. 7. Constitution of Belgiimi is adopted. 
June Jt. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg elected king 

of the Belgians; on July 21. he ascends the throne 
as Leopold I. French army stops the threatened 
advance of the Dutch troops. 

Nov. 16. The powers sign a treaty with Bel- 
gium at London, giving it part of Luxemburg 
and Holland, a territorial indemnity in Limbiu-g, 
and declaring independent Belgium a ** perpet- 
ually neutral state,*' guaranteed by Great 
Britain. Austria. France, Prussia, and Russia. 

1832. The French besiege the Dutch m Antwerp, 
who capitulate December 23. By this conquest 
the Belgic revolution is completed. 

1839. April 19. The powers reaffirm the treaty of 
1S31. On the same day Netherlands and Bel- 
gium sign a treaty of separation in same terms 

1848. Two parties. Liberal and Catholic, de- 
velop; the Liberals gain control (1S47) and, in 
sympathy with the popular revolts elsewhere in 
Europe, the responsible ministry causes the Par- 
liament to enact an Electoral Reform Bill. 

1852. The Liberals are overthrown, but the Catho- 
lics do not gam control until 1854. 

1857. The Liberals regain the majority, following 
an attemjjt to give the clergy control of charities. 

1865. Dec. 10. Leopold I. dies, and is succeeded 
by his son, Leopold II. 

1870. Flemish is recognized, with French, as an 
official language. On the outbreak of the Franco- 
German War Belgium takes measures to guard 
her frontier, but Great Britain annoimces an m- 
tention to uphold the guarantee of neutrality and 
induces France and Prussia not to Tiolate it, 

1876. Leopold II. calls a conference of geographi- 
cal experts at Brussels to consider Africa. The 
International Association for the Exploration 
and Civilization of Africa is started. 

1878. Nov. 25. A special committee of the associ- 
ation, called finally the International Association 
of the Congo, is formed. It is mainly supported 
by Leopold, and gradually becomes strictly a Bel- 
gian affair- 1 1 develops the territory of the 
Congo and its tributaries. 

1879. A bill for improving the primary educa- 
tional system is passed by the Liberals. By it 
religious instruction is abolished. The Bel- 
gian bishops protest, and refuse absolution to 
teachers and parents. Catholic private schools 
are established, attended by a majority of the 
children. Diplomatic intercourse with the 
Vatican is temporarily suspended. 

1880. The fiftieth anniversary of Belgian inde- 
pendence is celebrated, 

1884. The clerical reaction leads to the overtlirow 
of the Liberal ministry, and the Catholic party 
regains control, retaining it until the outbreak 
of the World War. A law is passed permitting 
the communes to choose between CathoUc or uii- 
sectarian schools, both being publicly supported. 
Socialists become important as separate party. 

April 22. The United States recognizes the 
Congo Association, with Leopold at its head, as 
a properly constituted state. Other powers fol- 
low suit and the limits of the new state are fixed. 

1885. Feb. 26- The General Act of the (Congo) 
Conference at Berlin is signed by the participat- 
ing nations. It provides for freedom of trade in 
the Congo Basin, the neutraUty of the territories of 
the basin, and the navigation of the river, and also 
settles other matters pertaining generally to Africa 

Aug. 1. Being authorized to do so by Parlia- 
ment, Leopold amiouuces to the powers who 
signed the Congo Act that he has assumed the 
title of Sovereign of the Independent State of 
Congo, which will have with Belgium an exclu- 
sively personal union. The government is an ab- 
solute monarchy, and becomes practically a mo- 
nopolistic trading concern. 

1886. The spread of sociahsm among the laborers 
and the deplorable condition of tlie miners lead to 
disastrous strikes and riots, with demands for 
better conditions and freer suffrage. The agita- 
tion continues for years and is the vital question 
in Belgian politics. 

1890. July 3. A convention is made with the 
Congo Free State, by which Belgium advances 
a loan and is authorized to annex- the Free State 
after ten jears 

1891. The first international Socialist Labor 
Congress meets at Brussels in August. Great 
strikes prevail during the year, and recur during 
the next two years, the purpose being to force mii- 
versal suffrage. Meanwhile, the Parliament is 
unable to reach an agreement on tlic subject. 

1893. April 27. Constituent Assembly adopts 
as a compromise manhood suffrage with plural 
voting for the clergy and property holders. 

1895. A new school law requires compulsory and 
religious primary education. 

1896. Sept. 19. Charges by missionaries and oth- 
ers of gross cruelties in the Congo causes the king 
to appoint a supervisoo' Committee of Protec- 
tion, wliich is ineffectual. 

1899. December. Proportional representation 
is adopted. 



1903-1905. Criticism of the treatment of natives 
in the Congo and the commercial methods em- 
ployed there excite discussion in Great Britain 
and elsewhere as contrary- to the acts of the Congo 
Conference. Leopold denies the charges and re- 
fuses to permit an international investigation. 
He appoints (July, 1904) a conmiission of inquiry, 
but reforms later inaugurated by its effort prove 
illusory. Belgium's option of annexation not ex- 
ercised. Inter\'ention by Great Britain feared. 

1908. Nov. 15. Congo Free State is annexed. 
The original treaty (November 28, 1907) reserved 
the crown domain to the king, but this imsatis- 
factory feature was later elimmated. 

1909. Dec. 17. Leopold II. dies and is succeeded 
by his nephew Albert I., who, in his speech from 
the tiirone, promises radical reforms in the Congo. 

1911-1913. The severe political strife of these 
years turns again upon the ministry's educational 
bill, which favors the Catholics and clerical con- 
trol, and on the demands against plural voting 
("one man, one vote"). The Cathohcs retain 
the ascendancy in the elections of June. 1912. but 
anticlerical riots break out in Brussels, and the 
protests of the Socialists are voiced by strikes. 
In April. 1913. half of the male workingmen are 
supi)osed to be idle. A compromise is reached. 

1913. May 30. Military bill passes Chamber of 
Representatives, imposing compulsory univer- 
sal military service and providing for an effec 
tive field army of 170,000 and a reserve of 200,000. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. ,4 ug. 2. Germany, in violation of her 
guarantee of Belgian neutrality, demands pas- 
sage for her troops through Belgium and on re- 
fusal invades and subjugates the country. In 
conformity with the German policy of terror, the 
conquest is accompanied by many acts of atrocity. 
(See World W.\h for military events.) 

Aug. 17. The seat of government of Bel- 
gium is transferred from Brussels (1) to Ant- 
werp. (2) to Ostend on October 5, (3) to Havre, 
France, on October 13. 

Sept. 5. Baron von der Goltz becomes the 
first German governor-general of Belgium. 
He is succeeded by Baron von Blsslng in De- 
cember. The jjretense of civil government and 
observance of Belgian law is observed over all of 
the country not in the army zones, but the arbi- 
trary military courts supplemented by ** mili- 
tary necessity " practically nullify this. The 
Hague Convention is violated by the imposition 
of collective penalties, local and national, levies in 
excess of legitimate requirements, the substitu- 
tion of German for Belgian authority, and per- 
sistent efforts at Germanizatlon and the sap- 
ping of Belgian national spirit. The attempt is 
made to split Belgium on a linguistic basis. 

Oct. 9. Antwerp falls. This completes the 
occupation of Belgium, except for a small section 
in the west, including Ypres, wliich remains in 
Belgian control tliroughout the war. 

October. Commission for Relief In Bel- 
gium, composed of .-Vinericans and other neutrals, 
is organized, with Herbert C- Hoover at its head. 
In connection with a Belgian organization within 
Belgium it collects, transports, and distributes 
food and other necessities to prevent starvation in 
Belgium, where industrj' has ceased because of 
German occupation and the Allied blockade. 
Belgium's raw material and much of her food sup- 
pUcs normally come from outside. The Allies 
permit the passage of supplies through the block- 
ade, and the Germans refrain from seizure of the 
imports as well as from requisition of the supple- 
menting Belgian produce, which the commission 
also handles. The commission has a quasi inter- 
national status and a separate fiag. It sells sup- 
plies to those able to pay. and distributes the rest. 
The necessary funds are raised mainly by 
loans to the Belgian government, from Great 
Britain. France, and, later, the United States, and 
the difficulties due to the irredeemable paper 
money in circulation within Belgium are over- 
come by the commission's taking complete con- 
trol of Belgian finances, becoming the sole agent 
of exchange Ix-tween the people and the exiled 
government. The loans are supplemented by 
contributions, m which the British Empire and, 
the I'nited States bear the largest share, but to 
which many Belgians also contribute. 
The commission " mobilizes the benevolence " of 
the whole world — money, supiJlies, and personal 
service — tlirough a complete and higJily efficient 
organization. Separate organizations care for Bel- 
gian refugees, esp. in Great Britain and Holland. 

December. Cardinal Mercier issues a pas- 
toral letter, in which he outspokenly condemns 
German methods of invasion and occupation. 
Efforts to silence him fail. Throughout the war 
he is a mainstay in preserving the Belgian spirit of 
resistance. 
1915. Feb. 15. Report of the Rockefeller 
Foundation Fund Commission on Belgium is 
issued. This and other reports show that under 



48 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BELGIUM — BOLIVIA. 



u 



w 



1915 (continued). ^ , . 

the German rule there has been great depopula- 
tion destruction of buUdings and mdustry, and 
vast requisition ol money, supplies, animals, ma- 
chinery, raw materials, and finished products. 

May 15. German decree for forced labor 
within Belgium. 

Oct 12 Miss Edith Cavell, an English- 
woman, lately the head of a training school for 
nui-ses in Brussels, is executed with others by the 
German authorities, on the charge of harbormg 
British French, and Belgian soldiers and helpmg 
them to escape from the country. The Umtod 
States minister, Brand Whitlock, does all he can 
to save her. It becomes an outstanding example 
of German methods. 

1916. Oct S. Decree issued for the deportation 
of Belgians to Germany and the front. Idle- 
ness is the excuse, but persons are taken without 
respect to this. The expatriates are kept m con- 
centration camps as a reserve supply of labor, and 
sent to factories, mines, the front, etc 
General denunciation by the civilized world fol- 
lows and the Germans declare that deportations 
have ceased and expatriates are to be returned; 
but tins is largely fictitious. . . 

1917. Januiry. A new form of forced laboris m- 
augurated in the demand for auxiliary service by 
Belgian civiUans in the army zone. 

1918. Ociober-Notember. .\llies recover large parts 
of Belgium. , , 

Nov n The Belgian government declares 
that the country wiU no longer submit to a status 
of guaranteed neutrality. It aspires to com- 
plete independence and the rights common to 
all free peoples. 

jVo» 22. King Albert enters Brussels es- 
corted by Allied troops amid scenes of great en- 
thusiasm. Speaking from his throne m Parlia- 
ment, he promises equal suffrage to aU men of 
mature age. A coalition ministry of Catholics. 
Liberals, and Socialists starts the process of re- 
construction. , ^ , }}°Z'^-\ 

Nov 2S The country is cleared of German! 
1919 AprU 11. Chamber of Representatives 
adopts Electoral Reform Bill, universal ' one- 
man. one-vot« ■• suflrage for males of 21, for wid- 
ows, and for mothers of soldiers kiUed in battle or 
of civilians shot by Germans. 

Jiinel 8-1 President Wilson visits Belgium. 
June H Supreme Council of Peace Confer- 
ence grants Belgium priority in reparation up 
to $500,000,000 and substitution of German bonds 
for Belgian war obUgations. 

June 2S. In the treaty of peace Germany 
renoimces to Belgium the small territory of Mo- 
resnet. and the inhabitants of the circles of Eupen 
and Malmedy are to vote on their futiu-e status, 
the League of Nations to make the final decision. 
Germany also promises to reimburse all smns Bel- 
gium has borrowed during the war, make restitu- 
tion of all things of which she despoiled Belgium 
and to make such other reparation as is assigned 
by the Reparation Commission. The damage 
done to Belgium by the tiermans is officially esti- 
mated (May 17) at S7.600.000.000, 
Belgium desires additional territory at the mouth 
of the Scheldt and in Limbiu-g, and negotiations 
with HoUand for this purpose are started, but with 
no success. „ . . , ^ 

July By agreement with Great Bntam, later 
ratified by Supreme CouncU, northwest portion of 
German East Africa (Ruanda, Urundi) attached 
to Belgian Congo. 

iug S Belgium ratifies peace treaty. 
Sept. 9. Cardinal Mercier begins his visit to 
the United States. 

Oct 2-31 King Albert, with the queen and 
crown prmce. visits the United States to convey 
his country's thanks for services during the war. 

Oct 9 Report of experts of Dutch-Belgian 
Commission on territorial disputes. Bel- 
gium as Treatv of Versailles states that treaty of 
1839 no longer conforms to existing conditions, 
makes claim to Limburg, also to economic control 
of the Scheldt, use of it in time of war, and 
Dutch territory south of it. Experts declare claim 
contrary to Dutch neutraUty. „ ,. ,. 

Nov 19 New Chamber to have 71 Cathobcs. 
70 Socialists, 34 Liberals, besides small groups. 
CathoUcs lose 24 seats, due to abolition of plural 
voting Senate, CathoUcs 59, Liberals 36, Social- 
ists 25. Delacroix continues as premier of coali- 
tion cabinet. , , , , ^ ,,„ 
i^^0. Sovereignty over Eupen and Malmedy De- 

^"/aii 31. Text of Dutch treaty imofflcially 
published. .Toint control over navigation of 
Scheldt; militarv use to be decided by League of 
Nations; better canal connection for Belgium. 

BELGIAN CONGO. 

The basin of the mighty Congo River was first 
made known to ci\1lized nations by the explorations 
of Stanlev in 1876-77. King Leopold II. of Belgium 



saw the possibUities of the tropical area and aided in 
founding the Congo International Association. In 
1SS4-S5 a congress of European nations by a general 
act declared (he navigation of the Congo and its 
tributaries free, and suppressed the slave trade. 

The area is estunated at 909.654 square mUes and 
the population is variously estimated from 7,000,000 
to 15,500,000. In the World War the neighbormg 
districts of Ruanda and Urundi were taken from the 
Germans and added to the Belgian area. 



1483 or 148S. Mouth of the river discovered by 
Portuguese. ■ [course. I 

1816. Tuckey's (English) exploration of lower | 

1873. Livingstone on upper maters. 

1876-1877. Stanley's expedition fromeast to west. 

1878. International Association of the Congo 
formed. . 

1884. Boimdary controversies. [State. 
April 2i. United States recognizes Congo I 
November Congo Conference begins at Berlin; 

lasts until Feb. 26, 1885. [Congo. | 

1885. -4prti. Personal union of Belgium and I 
1891. War with Arabs. 

1907. Nov. 28. Annexation by Belgium. 
1919. Enlarged by Treaty of Paris. 

BERMUDAS. 

See under British Empire, page 73. 



BHUTAN. 



Bhutan (area 20.000 square miles, population 
about 250.000) is an -independent" state m the 
eastern Himalayas, east of Sikkim and south of Ti- 
bet. Practically it is a dependency of Great Brit- 
ain from which, since 1865, the " penlops " or chiefs 
receive an annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees in return 
for good behavior. 

1774. April 23. Treaty between Bhutan and 

East India Company. 
1836. Treatv, following a pimitive expedition; 

Bhutan loses Assam passes (dwars), but receives 

annuity during good behavior. 

1864. Nov. 12. Bengal passes incorporated m 
British India. 

1865. A'oi> IS. Treaty of peace. 
1910. January. Treaty With Great Britain; 

nomnterference with Bhutan domestic affairs, but 
British advice to be followed in foreign rela- 
tions. 



BOLIVIA. 



years. Seventy deputies are elected for four years, 
one half changing every two years. The repubUc is 
divided into eight departments, m each of wluch a 
prefect appointed by the president heads tlie pohti- 
cal, administrative, and mUitary authority. 

Keligion and Education. The recognized reli- 
gion of the state is the Roman CathoUc, although 
the exercise of other forms is permitted. Primary 
mstruction, which is normally free and compulsory, 
is under the care of the municipality. Two univer- 
sities exist and there are schools of commerce in some 
departmental capitals. 

Production and Industry. About 5,000.000 
acres are under cultivation, but agriculture is back- 
ward Some irrigation by means of artesian wells is 
attempted. Wheat, corn, barley, beans, and pota- 
toes are produced for home consmnption; and coffee, 
cocoa, and cmchona are exported. Bolivia ranks 
second of South American countries in exports of 
rubber, BrazU bemg first. Bolivia is rich m mmer- 
als and produces one quarter of the total tin output 
of the world. After tin come copper and antimony. 
About two fifths of the total area of Bolivia lies 
in the tropical zone withm the Andean cordiUeras. 
These mountains, divided into two great parallel 
'chams with flanking ranges running to the east, 
reach their greatest breadth in Bolivia. Below the 
moimtainous area the ranges open out and mclose 
extensive loftv plateaus which attam an average ele- 
vation of about 12.000 feet, but descend alxjut a 
thousand feet toward the south. Between the east- 
em moimtain range and the " CordUlera Oriental " 
is a confused mass of rough intersectmg ranges. 
The soil is fertile and bears every variety of product, 
from the subtropical fruits at the base of the moim- 
tams to the products of the temperate zone higher 
up. Three fifths of the territory of Bolivia, how- 
ever, is composed of great aUuvial plains, flooded 
bottom lands and forests, much of it lacking dram- 
age, so as to be of little value for crops and grazing, 
but there are considerable areas which lie above this 
flooded region and furnish excellent pasture. The 
tributaries of the Amazon and La Plata dram the 
greater part of Bolivia, wliile Lake Titicaca receive* 
the waters of several small streams flowing through 
the great central plateau. Since the war with Chile, 
Bolivia has no seacoast. 

Defense. A permanent force of 3.577 men is pro- 
vided by the law of 1915; and mUitary service is com- 
pulsory for aU males between the ages of 19 and 50. 
The army is a militia with a service in the first line of 
six years. 

The area is 514,155 square miles and the popula- 
tion in 1915 was estimated at about 2.890.000. 



Historical Outline. 

BoLivi \, named in honor of Simon Bolivar, " the 
Uberator." possessed a ci\ilization as far back as the 
first centuries of the Christian Era. In the Titicaca 
Basin rums are found which antedate any others of 
like character m America. Before the age of Charle- 
magne, an empire, under a djiiasty culled Pirua. had 
been created hi this moimtamous region. This was 
succeeded by the kingdom of the Ajmiaras, which m 
turn was conquered in the 14th century by the Incas 
of Peru, and the history of the ooimtry was merged 
in that of Peru. „ . „■ , i 

When the Spaniards imder Francisco Pizarro had 
destroyed the empire of the Incas, they timied theu- 
attention to the Aymaras. In 1538 Pizarro sent his 
brother Ileraando to reduce tliis region, wluch was 
thereafter organized as the dependency of Charcas, 
or Upper Peru The native population rapidly de- 
cUned as the resiUt of forced labor in the mmes. Euro- 
pean diseases, and alcohol In 1776 Charcas was 
detached from Peru and joined to the viceroyalty of 
Buenos Aires. 

In 1780 an uprising occurred m Charcas, wluch 
was suppressed by the authorities of Peru and 
Buenos Aires Other rebellions broke out in 1S09, 
which lasted until 1S15. The final struggle for inde- 
pendence extended from 1S21 to 1S25, when Bolivar 
sent a part of his forces mto this region and, by a 
wonderful march across the tropical mountams of 
the Andes, drove out the Spanish authorities. A 
new republic was proclaimed, and General Sucre was 
elected president, but stiU the coimtry was mvolved 
n almost continuous war with its neighbors and was 
torn by insmrection. UntU 1873 almost all the pres- 
idents" came to power by revolution supported by 
armed factions. In 1879 Bolivia and Peru engaged 
in a disastrous warfare with Chile. The seacoast of 
Boli^^a was forcibly annexed, and finally ceded to 
Chile in 1905 In 1920 the controversy was revived. 



Organization. 



Government. The constitution of Bolma 
(1880) vests the executive powers in a president 
elected for foiu- years by direct popular vote and not 
eligible for re<?lection. There is a Congress oi two 
chambers chosen directly by the people. The suf- 
frage is extended to aU who can read and write. 
Sixteen senators, two for each department, are 
chosen for six vears, one third changing every two 



Chronology. 

1538. Region is conciuered by Hernando Pizarro. 
Until 1776 it is, as Charcas, under viceroyalty of 
Peru, then under Buenos Aires. 
1825. March. Following interminable warfare 
from 1809 on. the royalists of Upper Peru are 
finally crushed by Sucre. 

Aug. e. An assembly of deputies decides on 
separation from Argentina; formal declaration 
of mdependence issued: coimtry named Bolivia. 

1836. Constitution, framed by Bolivar, is 
adopted. Unsettled conditions and repeated 
revolts ensue. 

1835-1839. Santa Cruz, head of Bolivian govern- 
ment, takes part successfully in factional contest 
m Peru and plans a confederation; but Chile 
makes war agamst the combination and after the 
battle of Jungay (June, 1839) Santa Cruz is 
driven into exile. A round of revolts, temporary 
presidencies, and dictatorships follows. 

1860. .4!/!7 10. Boundary treaty with Chile, 
following controversy over control of guano fields 

1873. Feb. 6. Secret Peruvian alliance agamst 
Chilean aggression. 

1879-1884. Chilean War (see Chile). 

1899. Oct. ee. Pando, leader of successful revolt, 
becomes president. Stable conditions follow. 

1903. Brazilian boundary treaty ends contest 
over Acre rubber field. , » ^ 

1904. Aug. 14. Monies is constitutionally elected 
to succeed Pando as president. 

1905. Oct. SO. Trcatyof peace with Chile; •\rica- 
La Paz railway (see Chile). 

1909. Severance of diplomatic intercourse 
with Argentina (see Argentina). 

Aug 12. Villazon becomes president. 

1913^ Aug. 16. Montes becomes president for 
second time. 

1917. April IS. Diplomatic intercourse with 
Germany severed. 

A.ug IS Gutierrez Guerra becomes president. 

1919! Jan. 18. Ex-President Montes is Bolivian 
delegate at Paris Peace Conference. 

1930. March. Bolivia asks League of Nations to 
adjust contest with Peru and Chile over re- 
sults of Chilean War and grant her a port, par- 
ticularly Arica, in the disputed region. Peru re- 
sents tlie suggestion and accuses Chile of foments 
ing trouble. United States secretary of state 
sends a note to Chile, which Spanish America 
resents. Brazil offers her mediation. 



1500-1904. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES : BORNEO — BRAZIL. 



49 



BORNEO. 

See under British Empire, page 62; and under 
Netherlands, page 129. 



BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA. 

See under Ji-».;o-8lavia, page 123. 



BRAZIL. 



Historical Outline. 

On the return of Columbus from his first voyage 
Pope Alexander VI.. on May 3. 1493. divided the 
world by a line running north and south. 100 leagues 
west of the Cape Verde Islands. Spain might dis- 
cover and claim all west of the dividing line, and 
Portugal might discover and take all east of it. The 
following year this line, by treaty Ijetween the two 
powers, was moved to a meridian 370 leagues west 
of the Cape Verde Islands. In February. 1500. the 
Spanish adventurer Vicente Yaiiez Pinz<5n discov- 
ered the northern coast of Brazil. This discovery 
woidd have given the coimtry to Spain had not the 
maritime parts of Brazil Iain east of the papal line of 
demarcation. Thus, though Spain made the discov- 
ery. Portugal had the exclusive right of possession 
and settlement. 

In April. 15(X). the Portuguese captain. Cabral, on 
a voj'age to India, reached the Brazilian coast south 
of Baliia. No colony, however, was established un- 
til 1531. Portugal divided the coast into sections, 
and assigned eacti section to some Portuguese noble- 
man who was expected to become the proprietary of 
a colony. These grants became the basis for the 
later Portuguese pro\inces. 

Bahia was toimded in 1549, and became the capi- 
tal of tlie Portuguese possessions in South America. 
Notwithstanding the papal grant, other Eiu-opean 
nations attempted to make settlements. Thus, a 
French colony was established at Rio de Janeiro in 
155S, but was abandoned in 15G0. Another French 
settlement was made at Maranliao in 1G12. In 1624 
the Dutch seized Bahia, but were obliged to siuren- 
der it the following year. In 1630 Pemambuco was 
taken by the Dutch and held until 16.')4. 

In 1640 Portugal establislied a viceroyalty for Bra- 
zil with Bahia as the capital. Rio de Janeiro became 
the capital m 1762. Diu-ing the 17th centiu^- colo- 
nial settlements did not thrive, but in the 18th there 
w;is a remarkable development. Negro slaves, early 
introduced, furnished profitable labor. Sugar and 
coffee industries were established and rich mines of 
gold and diamonds discovered. The interior was ex- 
plored and its enormous resoiu-ces appreciated. 

On the French invasion of Portugal in 1807. Dom 
John, prince regent of Portugal, and tlie Portuguese 
royal family, fied to Brazil for refuge and made Rio 
de Janeiro the seat of government. The new govern- 
ment was extravagant, yet the Increased activity 
brought a new stimulus to the industry of the whole 
nation. Many EngUsh shipbuilders. Frencli manu- 
facturers. Swedish iron foimders. and German en- 
gineers settled in the country. The government 
sought to improve tlie agricultural and natural re- 
sotu'ces by introducing plants and trees from India 
and Africa which would thrive in Brazil. The im- 
portance of Brazil decided the regent to make it a 
kingdom; and by the decree of 1815 the Portuguese 
sovereignty took the title of the United Kingdom 
of Portugal. Brazil, and Algarie. In 1S16 the 
Queen Dona Maria I. died, and the prince regent 
took the title of Dom Jolui VI. and ret tuned to Por- 
tugal (1821). His son. Dom Pedro, became regent. 

In 1822 Brazil declared its independence of Portu- 
gal and Dom Pedro was proclaimed emperor of Bra- 
zil. For fifteen years the old Portuguese party kept 
up a petty warfare, and in 1831 Pedro abdicated in 
favor of his son. Dom Pedro II., a minor, who in 1S40 
was proclaimed sovereign in his own right. From 
1849 to 1852 Brazil was involved in war with the Ar- 
gentine Confederation tmder the dictator Rosas. 
From 1865 to 1870 there was war with Paraguay, in- 
stigated by Francisco Solano Lopez of Paraguay. 

Diuing the reign of Dom Pedro 11.. Brazil made 
steady advance in material prosperity. Steamers 
were placed on the Amazon and its tributaries and 
some railways were built. The emperor was highly 
educated and sincerely desired to improve the edu- 
cational system. He was more deeply interested in 
the economic and social life of his people than in the 
political life of the country. His liberalism pre- 
vented his opposing the socialistic doctrines wliich 
had taken deep root in the educated classes. The 
heir to the throne, his daughter, Isabella. Countess 
d'Eu. however, was deeply attached to the Church 
and so greatly tmder its influence that the Liberals 
opposed her possible accession to the throne. Dis- 
content was increased by the sudden abolition of 
slavery without compensation to the owners in 1888. 
Hence, in 1889 the empire was overthrown and a 
federal repubhc with a constitution modeled upon 
that of the L'nite<l States was proclaimed. 

During the earl.v years of the republic the adminis- 
tration fell into the hands of mihtary adventurers 



and unscrupulous poUticians. who attempted to ex- 
ploit the national resoizrces for tlieir own benefit. 
Outbreaks and insiurections occurred, and in 1893 
there was a naval revolt and civil war. In 1894 
Doctor Prudente de Moraes Barros succeeded to tlie 
presidency and l^egan to rtduce militarism to a mini- 
mtun and to reform the disordered finances. In 1898 
he was succeeded by President Salles. who not only 
established financial order, but by means of arbitra- 
tion, settled the boimdary dispute with French Gui- 
ana. In 190ti the Pan-American Congress met in 
Brazil and was addressed by Secretary of State Koot, 
of the I'nited States, who expressed the friendly sen- 
timent of that country toward the South American 
repubUcs. In 1912 a new coinage system was estab- 
lished, based upon a gold standard, corresponding 
in weight and form with the British poimd sterling. 
In 1914 Brazil, together with Argentina and Chile 
(ABC powers) , attempted to serve as mediator in 
the dispute between the L'nited States and Mexico. 
When the I'nited States entered the World War in 
1917. Brazil came out against the Germans, declared 
war, but was not drawn into the European campaign. 

Organization. 

Government. By the constitution of 1891 the 
Brazilian nation is constituted as the United States 
of Brazil, with twenty states, one national territory, 
and one federal district. The legislative authority 
is exercised by a national congress with the approval 
of the president of the republic. Congress con- 
sists of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. The 
Chamter of Deputies of 212. (1919). elected for 
three years by direct vote (with minority representa- 
tion) in a proportion not greater than one for every 
70.000 of population. No state, however, may have 
less than foiu- representatives The Senate consists 
of 63 members chosen by direct vote, tlu-ee from each 
state and from the federal district, for nine years, 
one third retiring each year. The president is 
electeti for a term of foiu" years and is not eligible for 
the succeeding term. Both the president and \1ce 
president are elected directly J)y an absolute major- 
ity of the votes. The president appoints and dis- 
misses ministers, is commander in chief of the army 
and navy, and within certain hmits has the power to 
declare war and make peace. With the consent of 
the Congress he appouats the members of the su- 
preme federal tribunal and all diplomatic envoys. 
The ministers are not responsible to the Congress or 
to the coiu*ts for the advice gi\'en to tlie president. 

Local government is intrusted to the states, which 
must adopt a repubhcan form of govenmient with 
distmct administrative, legislative, and judicial au- 
thorities. The governors and members of the legis- 
latiu'e must be elected. The federal executive can- 
not intervene directly in the government of the 
states. Each state adopts its own constitution and 
laws, which must not be contrary to the federal con- 
stitution. In case of uifringement on the federal 
constitution, the government has power to interfere 
by force of arms if necessary. 

Production and Industry. Brazil is an agri- 
cultural country, although only a small fraction of 
its soil has been brought imder cultivation. The 
chief product is coffee, of wiiich Brazil furnishes fotir 
fifths of the world's supply. The average crop is 
estmiated at 12,000.000 sacks of 132 pounds each. 
About one eighth the world's supply of rubber 
comes from Brazil, the product of 1919 being 38.000 
tons. Other important crops are sugar, tobacco, cot- 
ton, cacao, and nuts. The forests and mines of 
Brazil are of enormous value, but little has been done 
in their development. The most important manu- 
facturmg industry is cotton weaving, which is so rap- 
idly increasing that the importations from Eiu'ope 
are declining. The manufactiu"e of silk is also en- 
couraged. There are more than two thousand to- 
bacco factories and over a hundred sugar factories. 

The population is made up of a comparatively 
small group of Portugtiese descendants, with numer- 
ous Negroes and a still greater number of Indians. 
In the southern states of Brazil there are prosperous 
Russian, Italian, and German .settlements, the last 
named numbering about 500, (XX). Before the war 
Great Britain had the greatest sliare of the foreign 
trade, but since 1915 the United States has both ex- 
ported more to Brazil and imported more from Brazil 
than any other country-. 

Religion and Education. Until the downfall 
of the empire, the established religion was Roman 
CathoUc. By the constitution of 1891 absolute 
equality and toleration were given to all religious be- 
liefs ; the government, however, left to the Church all 
rehgious buildings and their properties and income. 
The vast majority of the people are Roman Catholic. 

Education is free, but except in a few municipali- 
ties is not compulsory. The federal government 
expects to provide for higher or imiversity education, 
but there is no general university in Brazil, though 
several are in the process of formation. There are, 
however, about 25 factilties which confer degrees. 

Defense. By the law of 1908, military service is 
obligatory between the ages of 21 and 45 for a term 
of two years in the ranks, seven in reserve and seven 
in the territorial army, and eight in the national 



guard. The reservists receive fom- weeks' traming 
each year, the territorial army from two to four 
weeks. The peace strength of the standing army is 
at present 54.000. Complete mobilization would 
bring out 120.000. The navy consists of two 
dreadnoughts built in 1907. two coast-defense ships, 
and three cruisers, besides river monitors, small 
cruisers, and torpedo boats. 

The area of Brazil is 3,275,510 square miles; the 
population (1900) was 17,318,556, wliile the esti- 
mated population (1917) was more than 30,000,000. 

Chronology. 

1500. February. Brazilian coast discovered by 

Pinz6n for Spain. 

April 24. Cabral touches south of Bahia and 

claims country for Portugal, to which it falls 

under the demarcation hue of the Treaty of Torde- 

sillas (1494). 
1*31. First settlement, at Sao Vicente, imder 

the system of hereditary captaincies for those 

who imdertake colonizing. 

1549. April. Sousa arrives at Bahia as governor- 
general to establish a general government, ad- 
ministrative powers of the captaincies having been 
revoked. 

1558. French settlement at Rio de Janeiro; aban- 
doned after a few years, and Portuguese settle there 
in 1567. 

1550. Spain conquers Portugal; Brazil neglected 
16S0. Dutch West India Company takes Pemam- 
buco and establishes a powerful colony. 

1640. Restoration of Portuguese independence. 

1645. Portuguese colonists begin war against 
tile Dutch. [tiu'ed I 

1654. Pemambuco. last Dutch settlement, cap-! 

166%. Dutch surrender all claims to Brazil. 

1808. Jan. 21 . Jolin VI., prince regent, witli his 
court, who has lied from Portugal before Napo- 
leon's advance, anives at Bahia. 

March 7. Royal government established at Rio 
deJaneiro. Brazilopened to foreign commerce. 

1815. Jan. 16. United Kingdom of Portugal. 
Brazil, and Algarve decreed. 

18'Jl. John VI. (now kmg) jields to an armed de- 
mand, with whicii Crown Prince Pedro synupa- 
thizes. and grants constitutional government 
in Brazil. John VI. returns to Portugal. 

1822. Sept. 7. Pedro proclaims the independ- 
ence of Brazil. October 12. he is proclaimed con- 
stitutional emperor. 

1825. Aug. 25. Treaty with Portugal; Independ- 
ence recognized. 

1826. May 2. Pedro I., on death of John VI.. 
abdicates Portuguese crown. [LTrugu.\y).| 

1827. War with Argentina over Uruguay (seel 
1831. April 7. Pedro I., forced by the Liberals, 

abdicates in favor of his five-year-old son Pedro 

II. and leaves for Portugal. An elected regency 

governs. 
1840. July 23. Majority of Pedro II. proclaimed. 
1852. Brazil assists Argentineans to overthrow 

the dictatorship of Rosas (see Abgestin.\). 
1865-1870. ^Vlliance with Argentina and L'ruguay 

in war against Paraguay. 
1871. Septeml/er. Gradual-emancipation Law. 
1876. Dom Pedro visits United States. [Law.i 

1888. May 13. Immediate-aboiition-of-siaveryl 

1889. Oct. 2. Fu^t Pan-American Conference 
meets at Washington (see United States). 

Nar. 14. Emperor is seized by republican con- 
spirators and sent to Portugal. I'nited States 
of Brazil proclaimed; Deodoro da Fonseca 
provisional president. 
1891. Feb. 21,. Federal constitution adopted: 
Fonseca first president. Seditious outbreaks 
ensue, and Fonseca declares a dictatorship, but 
resigns on November 23. Vice President Pcixoto 
succeeding. 

1893. Sept. 6. Discontent against Peixoto's cor- 
rupt administration culminates in a naval revolt 
at Rio de Janeiro, the city bemg bombarded in an 
imsuccessful attempt to force his resignation. In- 
stu^ent govenimcnt established at Desterro. 

1894. March. Rebellion is finally crushed. 
Severe reprisals. 

Not!. 15. Moraes Barros succeeds as president. 

1895. Occupation by British of island of Trinidad 
(off Brazilian coast) is protested. Matter is arbi- 
trated by Portugal, and island is surrendered to 
Brazil in 1896. 

Feb. o. President Cleveland decides in favor 
of Brazil the boundary controversy with Ar- 
gentina. 

1898. Non. IS. Campos Salles is inaugurated as 
president. His administration begins much 
needed financial reforms and -settlements, es- 
pecially of foreign claims and debts. 

1900. President of Switzerland decides in favor of 
Brazil the boundary dispute with French 
Guiana. [dent.l 

1902. Xot. 16. Rodriguez Alves becomes presi-l 

1903. .Voc. li. Boundary dispute (Acre) with 
Bolivia is settled by treaty and purchase. 

1904. May.. Boundary dispute mth Peru: 
conflict is avoided by mutual withdrawal of troops. 



50 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRAZIL — BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1904—1919. 



N 



U 



W 



1904 (continued) 

June 6". King of Italy arbitrates boundary 
dispute with British Guiana, largely in favor 
of Guiana. 

1906. July2S. Third Pan-American Congress 
meets at Rio de Janeiro; notable for speech by 
Root, United States secretary of state, on equal 
rights of American states and an all-American 
public opinion. 

Nov. 15. Penna succeeds as president. 

1909. June 14- President Penna dies; Vice Presi- 
dent Pecanha succeeds. [Peru.l 

Sept. 8. Boundary demarcation treaty with] 

1910. Nov. Id. Fonseca becomes president. 
November-DeccmbcT. Naval mutiny at Rio 

de Janeiro: first demands are acceded to, but later 
mutiny is forcibly suppressed. [States),! 

1914. April-June. ABC" mediation {see United! 
Nov. 15. Braz i.s inaugurated as president. 

1915, May 26. Tripartite treaty with Argen- 
tina and Chile; no war until dispute has been 
passed upon by an impartial commission. 

1917. April. Anti-German riots breakout after 
sinking of the Brazilian ship Parana (April 4); on 
April 10 Brazil severs diplomatic relations 
with Germany. 

June '2. Government takes over 45 interned 
German ships (235,000 tons). 

June 2S. Proclamation of neutrality revoked. 

Oct. £6._ Brazil declares war on Germany. 
Except with her navy, Brazil does not participate 
actively in the war. 

1918. Nov. 15. Rodriguez Alves again president. 

1919. Jaji. 16. Rodriguez Alves dies; Vice Presi- 
dent Moreira server, pending an election. 

Jan. 18. Brazil has three delegates at the 
Paris Peace Conference. 

June. President-elect Epitacio Pessoa visits 
the United States. 

July 28. Pessoa is inaugurated as president. 

Nov. 11. Treaty of Versailles* with the 
League of Nations, is ratlfled; promulgated, 
January 13, 1920. 



THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

Historical Outline. 

In 1648 England was in the midst of civil war 
The struggle between Charles 1. and Parliament was 
twofold in character. On the constitutional side 
it was an attempt to limit the power of the crown 
and to extend parliamentary government and its 
powers at the expense of royal prerogative. On the 
religious side, the attempt of the king to impose 
conformity to the doctrines and practices of the 
Church of England, as he and his advisers inter- 
preted them, was opposed by the Presbyterians, who 
wished to establish their form of church policy, and 
by the Independents, who feared that the " new 
presbyter is but old priest writ large " and wished to 
make each congregation a self-governing body. 

The Civil War resulted in the triumph of Parlia- 
ment and the Independents under Oliver Cromwell, 
who with his Ironsides captured the king. The 
English Presbyterians luiited with the Scots against 
Cromwell and the " new-modeled " army, but were 
defeated, and all England was at the mercy of the 
Independents. Their first step was to break up the 
Long Parliament, December 6. 164S. Colonel Pride 
■ drove the Presbyterian members out of the House 
of Commons — "Pride's Purge" — ; thenceforth 
Independents controlled the legislature as well as the 
army. Charles I. was tried and beheaded (1649) 
and the Commonwealth was established. That, too. 
proved weak and gave place to the Protectorate 
under the personal rule of Oliver Cromwell, backed 
by his invincible Ironsides. On Cromwell's death, 
England, tiretl of military rule, returned to the con- 
stitutional form of government, and Charles II. and 
the Stuart line were restored (1660). 

Charles II. maintained an ignoble and corrupt 
court, but learned from his father's fate not to defy 
the power of Parliament openly. The Restoration, 
however, brought a reaction; many of the liberties for 
wliich the Long Parliament of Charles I. had struggled 
were ignored not only by the king, but by Parliament 
itself. James II.. who succeeded Charles (16S5). was 
of a different type. Stubborn, where his brother had 
been yielding, he personally tlireatened civil liberty, 
and even sought to restore the Roman Catholic 
Church. 

The result was the Revolution of 1688, by which 
James II. was deposed and the Protestant William 
of Orange, and his wife Mary, the daughter of 
James, were placed upon the throne. This revolu- 
tion (1688) meant more than a change of sovereigns; 
James II. had claimed to rule by divine right, Wil- 
liam III. ruled by act of Parliament. Thus, parlia- 
mentary sovereignty was definitely established. 
With the establishment of the power of Parliament 
the royal prerogative came more and more into the 
hands of the ministers, who were not responsible to 
the king. This power was based on control of Par- 



liament, through the personal influence of the min- 
isters as representatives of the landholding Wliig 
nobles in the House of Lords, and their control of 
the House of Commons, which was practically 
chosen by the same great Whig famihes. 

In 1707. tlirough the imion of England, Scotland, 
and Wales, Great Britain was formed. Scotland 
sent forty-five members to the House of Commons 
and the Scottish peers chose sixteen to represent 
them in the House of Lords. 

On the Continent I^ouis XIV. was attempting to 
expand his dominion. William III. found it easy to 
bring England to the support of a rivalry which 
lasted for two centuries. Whichever side France 
espoused, England was obliged to oppose her. In 
the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the 
Austrian Succession, and the Seven Years' War, 
England headed a grand alliance to prevent the 
establishment of an overwhelming empire in Europe 
and to protect her own institutions. The struggle 
encircled the world. The vast French empire of 
India fell to England as part of the prize of \ictory. 
The English and French colonists in America fought 
the battles of their parent states, and by England's 
victory France was eliminated from North America 
in 1763. 

From 1689 on. the supremacy of Parliament was 
miquestioned. In 1715 the royal veto became a 
formality. ■ With the exception of the ill-starred 
attempt of George III. to establish personal ride, no 
sovereign has since Questioned the sovereign power 
of Parliament. The changes in the English consti- 
tution have been not so much hi the nature of amend- 
ments, though great remedial acts and statutes have 
registered the growtli of new forces. The growth of 
the English constitution is tlux)ugh customs wliich 
detennine how the iK)wer of the state shall be exer- 
cised. The whole tendency of these customs has 
been to subject the power of the crown to the control 
of the ministers, who in tiu-n are responsible to the 
House of Commons, wliich represents the political 
sovereignty of the people, that is. of the voting classes. 
The reign of William III. vindicated the sover- 
eignty of Parliament; that of Anne (1702-1714) saw 
the beginnings of the establishment of the cabinet 
system. During the reigns of George I. and George 
II , both of whom were foreigners who understood 
little and cared less for English institutions, the 
cabinet became supreme. The ministrj- of Wal- 
pole (1721-1742) was an uninterrupted rule of the 
Whigs, who had departed from their original princi- 
ples of opposition to the absolutism of Charles II. 
and James II. and themselves had become aristo- 
cratic and corrupt. Durhig the reign of George III., 
who at first imitated Walpole in control of the House 
of Commons, the constitutional principle was at last 
established, imder William Pitt, that a minister 
might appeal to the electors from an adverse vote in 
the House of Commons. Thus the parties became 
the instruments of popular sovereignty. 

After the transference of the French colonial em- 
pire to England. Great Britain attempted to enforce 
a mercantile system on her vast colonial empire. 
The colonies, although fostered and encouraged to 
produce what Great Britain lacked, were prevented 
from competing with each other and the mother 
country. The English colonists in America resisted 
this English control of their economic development 
and resented the attempt of Great Britain to control 
their political life. Thus the American Revolution 
began, which resulted in the independence of the 
United States and the realization on the part of 
England of the value of strong and attached colonies, 
even though competing. 

In tlie war for the independence of the United 
States. England's old enemy, France, intervened. 
Hardly had peace been made before France was con- 
vulsed by the Frencli Revolution: and again England 
and France contended for supremacy. From 1793 to 
1815 England was the soul of an alliance against 
Napoleon; and in the Congress of Vienna, wliich ren 
made the map of Europe, her voice was influential. 

The eighteenth century saw also a bloodless revo- 
lution in England. The invention of Hargreaves' 
spinning jenny, Cronipton's mule, and Oartwright's 
power loom, and the invention of the steam engine 
by James Watt revolutionized the textile industry 
and brought new sources of power to the manu- 
facturer. The discovery (17G2) of Roebuck that 
iron ore might be smelted by pit coal as welt as char- 
coal, developed the iron trade and vastly increased 
the output of the collieries. Industry no longer was 
carried on in isolated cottages, but in towns. These 
inventions quickened the growth of a powerful bank- 
ing system. The fartorj- system was established. 
One effect was the rise of new centers of population. 
New demands were made for means of communica- 
tion. A canal system was developed. Ports and 
docks were built after 18(X). The old highways were 
transformed into tiuTipikes which in turn were sup- 
plemented by raih'oads. Agricultural England 
stood still wliile industrial England, under the sys- 
tem of laissez faire. grew ricli. The state made no 
attempt to protect the workman against the rapacity 
of the employers, and unspeakable misery and degra- 
daticHi developed. 



Along with the industrial revolution an agrarian 
revolution took place. The increased population 
demanded an increased supply of food. England 
ceased to export com (see corn, ti., 3, in the Did ). 
The old wasteful system of simple rotation of crops 
gave way to scientific farming. The rights of com- 
mon pasture were limited and common arable lands 
almost disappeared. Small holdings gave place to 
large farms. cultivate<l by gangs of agricultural labor- 
ers, who in theii- degradation were the counterpart of 
the factor^' hands. The price of com increased with 
the demand and was artificially protected by the com 
laws, wliich limited importation from abroad. Wages 
were inadequate to meet the rising costs of living, 
and pauperism increased to such an extent that a 
seventh of the ijopulation regularly received poor 
relief. England in 1850 was a land of contrasts: — 
vast wealth and desperate poverty, professed liberty 
and an luirepresented proletariat. 

A change also took place in religion. The passion- 
ate devotion of the High Church party in the reign 
of Amie gave place to indifference. Religion seemed 
dead. In 1729 John Wesley, his brother Charles, 
and George Whilefield formed a society nicknamed 
the Methodists, from which developed a great reli- 
gious revival. Thencefoi*ward the nonconformists 
were a recognized social and political factor. In the 
latter part of the eighteenth century the evangelicals 
added fervor and zeal to the religious life of England 
tlirough the foimdation of Bible societies and Sunday 
schools. 

From 1784 to 1830 was the period of Tory suprem- 
acy. Fear of the PYench RevoUitionary ideas pro- 
duced reaction and suppression in England. Never- 
theless, the Catholic Relief Bill was passed (1829) and 
shortly after the accession of William IV. the Wliigs 
came to power. The first step in the development 
of modem political England was the passage of the 
Reform Bill in 1832. In theory Parliament repre- 
sented the people, but the franchise was so restricted 
that only a small minority of the people had the right 
to vote. Moreover, the shifting of the population 
from agricultural to industrial England produced 
startling inequalities in representation. Towns 
which had disappeared still elected members to Par- 
liament, while the new manufacturing centers were 
totally unrepresented. The first Reform Bill of 1832 
enfranchised the middle classes. The working 
classes were drawn into public life in 1867, the agri- 
cultural laborers in 1885. the women m 1918; until 
to-day England has universal suffrage for both men 
and women, with no property qualifications; and 
representation is apportioned according to popula- 
tion. Parliament really represents the people. 

During the nineteenth century England was prac- 
tically always at war on the borders of her depend- 
encies. Formal wars went on with the United 
States in 1812, as a resiUt of the enforcement of the 
claim to control the seas; against China in 1842; as 
an ally with France against Turkey (the Crimean 
War, 1854-1856); but England escaped from the 
numerous European wars from 1859 to 1913. The 
most serious colonial war was the South African 
(1899-1902). The striking feature of the nineteenth 
century was colonial expansion in Canada, Austral- 
asia, and Africa, with the development of great self- 
governing dominions. The British rule of India is 
a direct parallel with the greatest triumphs of Roman 
civilization. 

From the last quarter of the nineteenth century 
the Liberal and Conservative parties both at- 
tempted to ameliorate the condition of the poor, 
differing in the rate of progress. Of late years the 
great outstanding difference of opinion has been the 
status of Ireland. Ireland retained her Parliament 
as a separate kingdom imtil the Act of Union of 1800, 
following the Revolution of 1798. In the last half 
centiu'y an ever increasing demand has been made 
for home rule for Ireland. In 1886 Gladstone ac- 
cepted the principle and introduced liis first Home 
Rule Bill which was defeated in the House of Com- 
mons. Again in 1893 Gladstone carried a Home 
Rule Bill triumphantly through the House of Com- 
mons, only to have it rejected by the House of Lords. 
In 1913. a Home Rule Bill again failed in the Houso 
of Lords; but under the change of the Parliament 
Act of 1911, the Commons passed the bill three 
times, and in 1914 it became a law. The World War 
and civil disturbances in Ireland caused the govern- 
ment to delay putting the bill into operation and the 
question was postponed. 

In the meantime the Sinn Feiners developed in 
Ireland and scouted Home Rule, demanded inde- 
pendence, and set up the form of an Irish RepubUc. 
England could And no course for the time being but 
to govern Ireland by military rule, and that left the 
problem hanging. 

The first years of the twentieth century saw the 
growth of a new force in British ix)litics, the Labor 
party. The industrial situation of England was 
critical. Frequent strikes on a large scale threat- 
ened not only prosperity but industrial life itself. 
The government was forced to intervene again and 
again, and by act of Parliament to establish mini- 
mmn wages in certain indastries. When Germany 
struck at France in 1914, the Germans expected that 



1649 — 1650. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



51 



England would be paralyzed by her Irish and do- 
mestic troubles. During the war, although strikes 
occurred, labor supported the government. With 
the coming of peace, however, the Labor party de- 
manded changes affecting the very foundations of 
the capitalistic system. At the election of 1918, 
labor gained gromid, though short of a majority. In 
1920, the Labor party appears as a strongly organized 
opposition to the coalition under Lloyd Ci«irge. 

The two Teutonic powers and Italy were forming 
and consolidating the Triple Alliance, while from 
1879 to 1900 .England occupied a position of " splen- 
did isolation " in European affairs. France and Rus- 
sia were in close alliance. England was without an 
ally and at times seemed to be without a friend. In 
1898, France and England nearly came to blows over 
the partition of the Sudan, while between Russia and 
England there was mutual jealousy and suspicion. 
The Boer War (1899-1902) showed Germany ready 
to take advantage of England's difficulties. Great 
Britain under the personal influence of King Edward 
began to reach out to other powers. In 1902 a treaty 
with Japan was signed by which either power agreed 
to come to the aid of the other if attacked by more 
than one nation. In 1904 a treaty was signed with 
France, nominally settling the status of the mutual 
possessions in Africa, but in fact laying the fomida- 
tion of the later " Entente Cordiale." It made an 
end to the suspicion between England and France. 
As a restdt better relations between England and 
Russia developed. Thus at the outbreak of the 
World War, Europe was divided into two groups, 
the Triple Alliance and the Entente powers, who, 
although boimd by no common formal treaty to aid 
each other in case of war, were in sul)stantial agree- 
ment and harmony : and as Great Britain was secretly 
pledged to protect the French Channel coast, Ger- 
many's attack upon France was certain to draw Eng- 
land in. As a guarantor of the neutrality of Belgium 
and as the power directly threatened by the German 
occupation of Belgium, England was certain to come 
to Belgium's aid. Moreover, throughout her his- 
tory, her interests demanded that Belgium should 
be both neutral and mdependent. Morally, and for 
the protection of her coasts, she was bound to come 
to the aid of France. Thus, on August 4, 1914, 
when Germany refused to respect Belgian neutral- 
ity, England declared war. 

During the war the British Empire raised 
8,000,000 men. In November, 1918, the strength 
of the British army furnished by the United King- 
dom {exclusive of the army in India) was over 
3,.500,000 men. Up to November 10, the casualties 
on all the various fronts were over 3,000,000. In 
addition. Great Britain, through her navy, main- 
tained a blockade against Germany, kept the seas 
open for trade and was essential in transporting the 
American army to France. In addition to financing 
her own military establishment Great Britain loaned 
to her dominions $831,060,000 and $7,620,480,000 
to her allies. 

Organization. 

Government. The government of Great Britain 
is in form a constitutional monarchy. The king 
reigns, but does not govern; in fact he has no politi- 
cal power and very little authority of any kmd. The 
royal powers are exercised by the ministers, nom- 
inally appointed by the Crown, but actually chosen 
by tile House of Commons as an executive commit- 
tee of Commons and Lords, responsible to the people 
The executive power of the ministers is far greater 
than that of the president of the United States; and 
there are few limitations in the British constitution 
upon the exercise of this power. 

The constitution is not foimd in any one docu- 
ment, but in the acts of Parliament, the rules and 
customs of Parliament, the ndes of common law 
and imderstandings and extralegal agreements. 
From one point of view. Great Britain may be said 
to have no constitution, since Parhament may at any 
time alter any constitutional principle by statute. 
To put it another way. Parliament is both a legisla- 
tive and a constituent assembly. It makes the laws 
and it makes the constitution Parliament is thus 
legally completely sovereign or, rather, represents 
the ultimate sovereignty of a constitution. 

Parliament is composed of two chambers, the 
House of Lords and the House of Commons. The 
House of Lords consists of peers who hold their seats 
(1) by hereditary right; (2) by creation of the sov- 
ereign; (3) by virtue of their office (the Law Lords, 
two archbishops, and 24 bishops) ; <4) by election for 
life (28 Irish peers) ; (.5) by election for duration of 
the parliament (16 Scottish peers). The number 
is thus not fixed, but a full house, in 1920. would 
be about 700. The House of Commons consists of 
707 members, chosen (smce 1918) by almost uni- 
versal suffrage, male and female. In Great Britain 
the constituencies are supposed to contain about 
70,000 inliabitants. and in Ireland 43.000. each. In 
addition, the holders of degrees from certain imi- 
versities elect representatives for the universities. 

The two chambers are nominally coordinate, al- 
though money bills, which the Lords cannot amend. 
must originate in the House of Commons. In 1909, 



the David Lloyd George budget contained new 
taxes on land; it aroused the landholding interest, 
which was very strong in the House of Lords, and the 
Lords- refused to conciu-. Hence, the Parliament 
Act of 191 1 provided that any bill which passed three 
times through the House of Commons, provided at 
least two years had intervened between its first in- 
troduction and its passage for the third time, be- 
comes a law even if the House of Lords refuses its as- 
serit. The threat of swampmg the House of Lords 
by creating new peers brought the Lords to accept 
this measure, which reduced them to a subordinate 
position in legislation leaving the Commons the re- 
sponsible authority. 

The nominal term for a parliament is five years, 
but the king, on the advice of his ministers, may dis- 
solve the House of Commons at any time and call for 
a new election. Moreover, since Parliament is su- 
preme, it may prolong its own life, as was done dur- 
ing the World War; the parliament chosen in 1911 
thus continued imtil 1918. 

Although possessing the legal power in legislation, 
the right to sui>er\ise all executive acts, the authority 
by vote of want of confidence to force the withdrawal 
of any ministers or the fall of the whole cabinet. Par- 
liament is much under the control of the cabinet. 
This is due in part to the development of the two- 
party system. Since the cabinet ministers are the 
chiefs of their party, members of Parliament are 
chosen by their parties to support the cabinet in 
whatever it imdertakes. Hence, since 1886 only one 
cabinet has faUen because of an adverse vote in the 
House of Commons. The cabinet and the minis- 
ters are more and more looking not to the legal sover- 
eign — Parliament — but to the political sovereign, 
the electorate; and more and more public opinion is 
able to control the action of the ministers. 

In local government, Parliament is also stipreme. 
Municipalities, counties, and smaller subdivisions, 
exercise a considerable measure of self-government 
by virtue of acts of Parliament; but most of their ac- 
tivities may be supervised by ministers chosen by 
the Commons and nominally responsible to it. 

Industry and Labor. The establishment of 
free trade and the repeal of the corn laws in the mid- 
dle of the nineteenth centiu'y hastened the decline of 
English agriculture. Much of the land had a value 
beyond its income-producing power, because of the 
social importance connected with its ownership. 
Great estates were kept up for pleasure and display, 
rather than on an economic basis. It was cheaper 
to import than to raise agriciJtural protiucts. I3e- 
ginning in 1908, provision was made by act of Parlia- 
ment to increase the small holdings, and the David 
Lloyd George budget of 1909 attempted to tax idle 
land so as to increase the acreage under cultivation. 
Nevertheless, on the outbreak of the World War the 
agricultural condition of England was serious. 
Since a considerable part of the food had to Ije im- 
ported, every effort was made to increase the area 
under cidtivation. The price of wheat was guaran- 
teed and a minimum wage was fixed for agricidtiu-al 
laborers and thus the acreage imder wheat increased 
by nearly one half over 1914. 

In manufactures England has for a century ex- 
celled, particularly in textiles. Of late years, how- 
ever, German competition came in and Germans 
were able to undersell some products in England and 
there was an agitation for " fair trade," that is, some 
form of protective duties. 

The condition of British labor is better than in any 
Continental country. The pressm-e to ameliorate 
its condition has come from trade-imions rather than 
from theoretical socialists; and up to the outbreak of 
j the war, they won many substantial privileges. In 
the twentieth century the trade-unions were en- 
; forcing their demands by strik&s on a scale so large 
as to tend to paralyze some of the national indus- 
tries. This brought about government intervention 
and the establishment in certain industries of mhii- 
mimi wages fixed Ijy law. As a result of the experi- 
ences in the war, the English laborers formed a politi- 
cal party which presents formidable opposition to 
the coalition government of David Lloyd George. 
It also urges radical changes in the capitalistic or- 
ganization of society and looks toward the estab- 
lishment of some form of state socialism. 

In commerce Great Britain is still far superior to 
any other nation. Her merchant fleet is the great- 
est and her trade more widespread and profitable. 
Before the war London was the clearing house of the 
world's commerce, and Great Britain still remains 
the chief carrying nation of the world. 

Religion. Complete religious toleration in Great 
Britain has been the rule since 1866, and there are no 
political disabilities on accoimt of religion. The 
Church of England is established by law in England 
and is supported by the government. Nominally, 
the king appoints the bishops and other ecclesiastical 
dignitaries, but in reahty the ministry in power at 
the time selects them . In Wales the English C hurch 
was disestablished in 1914, but the enforcement of 
the act was postponed until the close of the war. In 
Scotland the Presbyterian Church is established by 
law; alongside exists the Free Church of Scotland. 
In Ireland there is now no church establishment. 



Nonconformist denominations, especially the Wes- 
leyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists, the 
Congregationalists, and the Baptists, arc strong. In 
all, the dissentmg churches coimt 2,000.000 mem- 
ters; and there are about 1,900.000 Roman Catho- 
lics in England and Wales. The total official mem- 
bership of the Anghcan Church is 2.359,599 (1919). 

Education. L'ntU very recently England was 
backward in pubhc education. For the well-to-do 
there was ample provision in the historic endow- 
ments for schools, coUeges, and imiversities: and both 
the estabUshed chtirch and the dissenting churches 
gave some gratuitous education to the poor. In 
1906, a broad provision was made for the establish- 
ment of free schools, the government in some cases 
contributing to the support of church and other pri- 
vate schools on condition of certain tests and exami- 
nations, and in others estabhshing " toard schools " 
that were purely pubhc. The system is comphcated 
and has involved frequent disputes, especially on 
the difficult question of religious teacliing. 

Elementarj" education is now free, and attendance 
at school is compulsory between the ages of five and 
fourteen. Provisions are also made for courses in 
advanced instruction. On July 31, 1917, there were 
in England and Wales over 21,000 schools for ele- 
mentary education, with over 5,979,000 pupils on 
the iMoks. By the Fisher Act of 1918, county and 
coimty borough cotmcUs are required to provide at 
once free continuation schools for pupils imder six- 
teen years of age and subsequently for those imder 
eighteen. Vocational schools are also provided for, 
and the emploj-ment of pupils in industry must be 
suspended if required by the Education Authority. 
Provision is made for medical mspection, physical 
trainmg, and amusements. 

Higher education is provided for by the imiversi- 
ties, of which Oxford and Cambridge were foimded 
in the Middle Ages. Others, as Manchester. Bir- 
mingham, and London, are of modem origin. 

Defense. Before the World War. the land forces 
of the United Kmgdom consisted of a regular army 
recruited by voluntary enlistment for twelve years, 
from three to nine of wliich were spent in active ser\-- 
ice and the rest in the army reserve. The greater 
part of the regular army was stationed in the domin- 
ions. On mobilization for war the regular army at 
home was absorbed into the " expeditionary force," 
with a total strength of about 165,000. The terri- 
torial army was intended for home defense and was 
recruited by voluntary enlistment for terms of four 
years. The total forces of the regular army and ter- 
ritorial army in 1914 were alxjut 727.000; but only 
about 100.000 were in the United Kmgdom and 
available for immediate service. 

During the war conscription was adopted by the 
Military Service Act of 1916. wliich was amended 
and extended except to Ireland. The United King- 
dom furnished about 3.500.000 troops. 

Great Britain's strongest defense, however, has 
been her navy, maintained on the "two-power" 
principle; that is, that the British navy must at all 
times be equal to the two strongest foreign navies 
combmed. Not satisfied with this, the attempt was 
to double the combined strength of any two foreign 
navies. In 1914, the navy consisted of 16 super- 
dreadnoughts, 15 dreadnoughts, 40 battleships, 50 
cruisers, 248 destroyers, and 85 submarines, besides 
other boats; in 1919, there were 46 dreadnoughts, 21 
battleships, 34 cruisers, 340 destroyers, 147 torpedo 
toats, and numerous submarines. 

Area and Population. The area of the United 
Kingdom m square miles is; England, 50,874; Wales, 
7,466; Scotland, 30,405; Ireland, 32,586; Isle of Man, 
227 ; Channel Islands. 75 — a total of 121 ,633. The 
population is; (1911) England, 34.045.290; Wales. 
2.025.202; Scotland, 4,760,904; Ireland. 4.390,219; 
Isle of Man, 52,016: Channel Islands, 96,899 — a 
total of 45,516,259, mcluding enlisted men abroad. 
These figures have been much disturbed by the 
losses of the w-ar. 

Chronology — Great Britain and Ireland. 

For earlier events in the liistory of Great Britain 
and Ireland, see ]\1edieval Period and Early 
Modern Period, Chronology. 

1649. Jan. SO. Charles I. put to death, and 
England is declared to be a commontvcaltli. 
Army of Independents under Oliver Cromwell 
becomes the controlling power, the Long Parlia- 
ment is the formal legislative authority and a 
council of state, of forty-one memljers, is the 
formal executive. The office of kmg and the 
House of Lords are abolished. Charles II. pro- 
claimed king in Edmburgh, February 5, and a ris- 
ing in Ireland supports his claims; Cromwell leads 
a force into Ireland in Augast and captures Dro- 
gheda and massacres the garrison, September 11. 

1650. Settlement of Gold Coast begins about this 
time. 

Cromwell returns to England in May. while Ireton 
and later Ludlow remain in command of Ireland ; 
insurrection there continues for nearly three years. 
Montrose lands with a royalist force in Scotland, 
but is defeated, captured, and put to death. May 
21. Charles lilmself reaches Scotland. Jime 24; 



52 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1650 — 1689. 



1650 (continued). 
^ he subscribes to the Covenant, and is hailed as 

king. Cromwell on September 3 marches into 
Scotland with 16,000 men, and ovenvhelras the 
forces of Leslie at Dunbar; Edinburgh and Glas- 
gow surrender. 

1651. Charles is crowned at Scone, January 1, en- 
ters England in August, but is routed by Cromwell 
at Worcester, September 3, and flees to France. 

O First Navigation Act is passed, October 9. for- 

bidding importations into England except by Eng- 
lish or colonial vessels or those of the country pro- 
ducing the goods. 
St. Helena Island is settled. 

1652. Navigation Ordinance leads to a Waf,with 
the Dutch, the chief carriers of Europe; a, series 
of naval engagements in the Channel in wluch 
the English, under Blake, are victorious over 

p Tromp. Treaty of peace is made at Westminster 

on April 5. 1654. 

1653. Cromwell dismisses the so-called Rump Par- 
Uanient and the Council of State, April 20. and as- 
sembles the *' Barebone's " Parliament of 140 
members, appointed by himself, July 4. Decem- 
ber 1 1 , this parliament resigns its powers to Crom- 
well, and on December 16 he becomes Lord Pro- 

Qtector of the CommoD wealth of England, 
Scotland, and Ireland imder the Instrument of 
Government, wliich provides for an executive in 
the Protector and an independent coimcil of 
twenty-one, named for life in the Instrument: a 
parliament of one house and restricted powers; 
and a standing army of 30,000 men. 

1654. New parliament meets on September 3: 
-^ Cromwell excludes those unfavorable to a new 
R constitution giving the power to the Protector and 

Parliament, but breaks with the remainder over 
control of the army. 

1655. On January 22 Cromwell dissolves Parlia- 
ment, and resorts to military and arbitrary rule. 
Blake, in April, leads the English fleet to an at- 
tack on Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. Jamaica 
is captured in the same month by a force sent to 

O make reprisals in the West Indies. During 

^ March, April, and May there is an uprising in 

Salisbm^' under Penruddoek, but it is sup- 
pressed and the leader put to death. On October 
24 an alliance is made with France, by wliich it 
is agreed that Charles shall be banished from 
French soil. November 27, severer measures are 
proclaimed by Cromwell against Catholicism 
,._ and Episcopacy. Censorship of press also de- 

I dared. These measures but feebly enforced. 

1656. War breaks out with Spain and, September 
9, the English fleet captures treasure ships near 
Cadiz. September 17, a second parliament 
meets, from wliich Cromwell excludes opponents. 

1657. Plot against the Protector discovered. 
First constitution is now amended, tlirough 
the Bumble Petition and Advice; a second 
house instituted and the Protector denied author- 
ity to exclude members of the Parliament; tolera- 
tion in religion granted, except to popery and 
prelacy; title of king offered to Cromwell; he re- 
fuses to accept it, but is installed on June 26 as 
Lord Protector, with right to name his successor. 
Blake is victorious against the Spaniards off 
Santa Cruz. April 20; he dies August 7, at sea. 

V1658. Feb. 4- CromwcUdissolvesthesecond parlia- 
ment, in which he has no longer a majority. 

June 17. Dunkirk is surrendered to Enghsh 
and French forces after defeat of Spanish at 
battle of the Dunes (June 4). 

Sept. 3. Cromwell. dies, and his son Richard 
Cromwell becomes Lord Protector. 
1659. Jan. 27. New parliament meets, but its 
disagreements with the army cause the Protector 
^^ to dissolve it, April 22: when 42 members of the 

Rump Parliament meet at the invitation of the 
soldiers. Protector, finding his position among 
opposing factions too difQcult. abdicates. May 
25. Army officers expel the parliament, October 
13. and a military committee is placed at the head 
of affairs. It fails and the Rtunp is again restored. 
December 26. 

X1660. Monk marches from Scotland and enters 
London on February 3. and on February 13 takes 
sides against the Rump, which, under pressure, 
dissolves itself on March 16. End of Long Par- 
liament. By the Declaration of Breda, April 
4. Charles grants a pardon to all not under special 
condemnation and promises religious toleration; 
the Convention Parliament (so called because 
though otherwise regular it was not summoned by 
Y the king) meets on April 2.5; approves the procla- 

mation. May 1 ; May S, Charles II. announced as 
king; he enters London May 29, but is not 
crowned imtil April 23, 1661. Monk becomes 
captain general and the Earl of Clarendon chancel- 
lor. Feudal dues and purveyances done away 
with, and in their place a yearly income of 
$5,800,000 is granted to the king. Bishops re- 
-jf stored to their sees, and an act of indemnity 

^ passed, the regicides and others being excluded 

from its provisions. Army is disbanded. Par- 
liament dissolved, December 29. 



U 



1661. Insurrection of the Fifth-Monarchy Men 
in London in January. January 30. ixxjie.s of 
Cromwell and others are exhumed and shameftilly 
dishonored. In Scotland a Royalist parliament 
assembles and the Covenant is abolished; all 
legislative acts of the last twenty years repealed. 
Argyie executed. May 27. New parliament 
meets, May 8; November 20, the Corporation 
Act passed, compelling all magistrates and munici- 
pal officers to take the sacrament according to tlie 
Church of England, 

1662. May 20. Charles II. weds Catherine, 
daughter of John IV. of Portugal. Bombay is 
part of her dowry. 

.4 119. ^.{. Act of Uniformity comes into force, 
requiring that all the clergy, fellows of universities, 
and teachers must assent to all the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer; by this act 2.000 nonconformists are 
deprived of their living. 

November. Dunliirl£. the property of Eng- 
land, is sold to France. 

Dec. 20. Charles declares in favor of tolera- 
tion wliich is meant to include Catholics. 

1664. Maij. Conventicle Act passed; decrees 
that more than five persons shall not meet for wor- 
ship miless in household or according to the rites 
of the established church. 

Aug. 29. New Amsterdam in America cap- 
tiu-ed by the English. Other acts of hostility take 
place against the Dutch. 

1665. Feb. 22. War with Holland declared; de- 
sired by Charles to help elevate Prince of Orange, 
and by all England through envy of commercial 
prosperity of the Dutch. War exhausts both com- 
batants; France joins against England in 1666. 
Plague rages in London. Parliament meets at 
Oxford in October and by the Five-mile Act tor- 
bids dissenting clergymen to approach towns. 

1666. British settlement of the Bahamas begins; 
also, the Virgin Islands are acquired. 

Sept. 2-6. Great Fire of London desolates a 
thickly populated area of five himdred acres. 

Nov. 2S. Covenanters in Scotland revolting 
are overcome at the battle of Pentland Hills bv 
Dalyell. 

1667. July SI. Dutch War ended by Treaty of 
Breda; France receives Acadia and cedes to Eng- 
land Montserrat, Antigua, and part of St. Cliris- 
topher; England retains New Amsterdam, but 
cedes Surmam to the Dutch and modifles the 
Navigation Act in their favor. 

Aug. SO. Earl of Clarendon dismissed; im- 
peached, October 10, and flees to France, No- 
vember 29, New ministry formed by Clifford, 
Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley Cooper, and 
Lauderdale, known as the Cabal, from the ini- 
tials of its members. 

1668. Jan. IS. England, Holland, and Sweden, 
alarmed by the victories of France in her war for 
the possession of Spanish Flanders, form a triple 
alliance against Louis XIV. War is ended by 
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, on May 2. 

1669. Charles, however, negotiates secretly with 
France for personal aid. Duke of York avows 
liimself a Catholic and Charles does so secretly. 

1670. June I. Secret Treaty of Dover is signed 
with Louis XIV.; Charles to declare liimself a 
Catholic when he sees fit. receiving a subsidy and 
support against his subjects if necessary, and to 
aid France against Holland and Spain. 

July 18. Treaty of Madrid with Spain. Eng- 
lish colonies in America for tlie first time recog- 
nized by Spain. 
1673. Charles closes the Exchequer in order not to 
pay his debt.s of $6,800,000; his action creates a 
panic. March 15, he issues the Declaration of 
Indulgence, a measiu'e favorable to Catholics, 
but rescinds it, March 8, 1673, owing to opposition 
of Parliament. 

March 17. War with Holland begins 
Drawn naval battle of Sole, or Southwold. Bay 
is fought on June 7. 

Nov. 1 7. Earl of Shaftesbury (Ashley Cooper) 
becomes Lord Chancellor. 

1673. March 29. Test Act; officeholders ordered 
to take oaths of allegiance and supremacy, to ab- 
jure transubstantiation, and to take the sacra- 
ment according to the Church of England. Par- 
liament forces this anti-Catholic act before grant- 
ing King Charles any money. By it York and 
Clifford are forced to resign their positions. 
Shaftesbury dismissed for supporting the act. 
York, who is Charles's heir and whose two daugh- 
ters are Protestants, marries again on November 
21, with a Catholic princess. 

1674. Feb. 9. Treaty of peace with Holland 
signed at Westminster. 

1675. March. Organization of Lords of Trade, 
committee of the Coimcil for Colonies. 

1677. York's daughter Mary weds William of 
Orange on November 15. 

1678. August. Alleged Popish Plot to assassi- 
nate the king and set up Catholicism declared in a 
perjured confession of Titus Oates. Five Catho- 
lic peers imprisoned and Coleman, secretary of the 
Duchess of York, executed. Soman Catholics 



excluded from Parliament by the Disabling Act 

of November 30, a measure destined to remaui in 
force for 150 years. 

1679. Jan. 24. Charles dissolves Parliament, which 
has sat since 1661, to save ills minister Danby from 
impeachment. New parliament meets, March 6; 
impeachment proceedings are renewed, butdropped 
on his dismissal and imprisonment. 

April. Charles suddenly institutes a new privy 
council of 30 members for the old one, with 
Shaftesbury as president; a small committee does 
the important work. 

May 26. Habeas Corpus Act stops royal 
evasion of the writ. Charles dissolves Parliament 
on May 27, to prevent passage of a bill to exclude 
York from the succession. Lauderdale causes the 
persecution of Covenanters in Scotland, but 
Archbishop Sharpe is assassinated. May 3. Cov- 
enanters imder Balfour defeat Claverhouse, 
Jime 1, at Drumclog; but are overcome by Mon- 
mouth at Bothwell Bridge, Jime 22. 

1680. Shaftesbury, again dismissed In October, 
1679. heads the opposition which favors the suc- 
cession of Monmouth, the king's illegitimate son, 
and petitions for a meetmg of Parliament; wliile 
the supporters of York and divine right express 
their abhorrence of it. " Petitioners " and " ab- 
horrers " received the nicknames of ** Whigs" 
and " Tories." New parhament meets on Oc- 
tober 21; Commons passes the E.\clusion Bill, 
but Lords reject it, as it cuts off York's Protestant 
daughters. Parliament is dissolved, Jan. 6. 1681. 

1681. March 21. Another parliament meets, but 
is dissolved within a week; Louis's pension makes 
the English khig Independent of parliamentary 
grants. People, fearing civil war more than a 
Catholic king, rally to support of Tories. Shaftes- 
bury accused of treason in November, but grand 
jury of Whig London refuses to indict him. 
December, Argyie condemned, but flees; Scottish 
Covenanters and Cameronians are persecuted. 

1682. October. London getting Tory magistrates, 
Shaftesbury flees to Holland to escape indict- 
ment, and dies there. 

1683. London deprived by judicial procedure of 
its charter of self-government; other corporate 
towns sufler similarly, the purpose being to secure 
a Tory parliament. Rye House Plot to kill the 
king "discovered, also a Whig conspiracy in- 
volving Essex, Monmouth, Russell, Sidney, and 
others. Essex kills himself, Sidney and Russell 
executed, but Monmouth pardoned. 

1685. Feb. 6. Charles dies; succeeded by York 
as James II. Tory parliament meets. May 19. 
Argyie returns to Scotland, but is apprehended 
and e.xecuted, Jime 30. Monmouth lands in 
Dorsetshire, Jime 11, and declares himself king; 
he is defeated at Sedgemoor, July 6, and exe- 
cuted on July 15, His supporters are ruthlessly 
condemned by Chief Justice Jeffreys in the Bloody 
Assizes, and James makes Jeffreys chancellor as 
his reward. 

1686. By exercising the royal dispensation, James 
appoints Catholics contrary to the Test Act, and is 
supported by the courts. Catholic worship Is 
permitted; Protestant divines are prohibited 
from preaching against Catholic doctrines. New 
court of ecclesiastical commission suspends Comp- 
ton. Bishop of London, for failure to enforce the 
decree. 

1687. James orders the fellows of Magdalen Col- 
lege, Oxford, to choose a Catholic as president; 
they refuse and are expelled, April 4. James 
issues a Declaration of Indulgence proclaim- 
ing liberty of conscience to all denominations, but 
Dissenters do not rally to him, and Parliament, 
becoming hostile, is dissolved. 

1688. Second Declaration of Indulgence issued 
and ordered read in all the churches. June 10. a 
son is bom to James, making probable a Catholic 
succession. Seven bishops, headed by Sancroft, 
Archbishop of Canterbury, are arrested for remon- 
strating against the declaration, but on June 30 
are acquitted. Verdict causes widespread rejoic- 
ing and William of Orange-Nassau invited to 
deliver England. He lands at Torbay on Novem- 
ber 5, with 14,000 men, December IS, he enters 
London and James is permitted to escape to France 
five days later. 

1689. Jan. 22. Convention Parliament meets 
and on February 12 declares that the king has at> 
dicated and the throne is vacant, and offers joint 
sovereignty to William and Mary, with regula- 
tion for Protestant succession. Offer is accom- 
panied by a declaration of rights and liberties of 
the subjects and oaths of allegiance and suprem- 
acy. Certain bishops and clergy, refusing to take 
the oaths, lose their positions and are known as 
nonjurors. 

April S. Mutiny Act passed, which has to bo 
renewed yearly; this gives Parliament control over 
the army. Toleration .4ct, May 24, gives free- 
dom of worship to all Protestants except Unitari- 
ans. Declaration of rights and succession enacted 
as a Bill of Bights on December 16, which also 
debars the crown to papists. 



1689—1780. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1689 iconlinued). 
James, backed by France, reaches Ireland, March 
12. He lays unsuccessful siege to Londunderry, 
April-July, and the Irisli are also defeated on July 
30 at Newton Butler. In .Scotland. Parliament 
declares for William and Mary and establishes 
Presbyterianisni ; Dundee (Claverhouse) raises a 
force for James and is victorious at KiUlcrankle 
on July 17. but is liimself slain. 

1690. March £0. Second Parliament of William 
and Mary first meets. 

June SO. English and Dutch fleet is defeated 
at Beachy Head by the French under Tourville 
With 36.000 men, William personally marches 
against James in Ireland, defeating liim at the 
Boyne, Jidy 1; James flees to France. 

1691. For thewaron the Continent in this and suc- 
ceeding years, see France. 

Jiili/ 12. Irish are defeated at Aughrim, and 
Limerick stirronders, October 3. bringing the war 
to an end. Scotch Highlanders are pacified, 
chiefly by money: but William's chief representa- 
tive there, the Master of Stair, taking advantage 
of the delayed submission of Maclan, chief of a 
MacDonald clan, causes the clan to be massacred 
at Glencoe, February 13, 1692. Lowlanders 
join in the protest and the minister is dismissed. 

1692. May ig-2S. English and Dutch under Rus- 
sell defeat Tourville in battle of La Hogue, which 
ends Louis XIV. 's attempts to invade England. 

1693. January $.5,000,000 borrowed, heslnning 
of the national debt. On July 27, 1604, Bank 
of England Ls chartered, wliich loans S6.000.000 
to the government. 

1694. To stop disorders in Parliament, a Whig 
ministry led by the Junto of Somers, Russell (Or- 
fordi, Montagu (Halifa.x), and Wliarton succeeds 
a bipartisan one, and becomes the beginning of the 
modern cabinet. Triennial Act, passed De- 
cember 22, hmits life of a parliament to three 
years. Mary dies on December 28, and William 
reigns alone as William III. There is much cor- 
ruption during this period. 

1695. Parliament by refusing to renew the licensing 
act establishes liberty of the press. [meets I 

Not. Si. Third Parliament of William III. I 

1696. Feb. 14. Plot to assassinate William, of 
which James II. is cognizant, betrayed. 

1697. Sept. go. Treaty of Byswick (Rijswick) 
ends Franco-English war: Louis recognizes Wil- 
liam as king, (meets I 

1698. Dec. 6. Fourth Parliament of William III. I 

1700. Aprilll. Act against the Catholics; non- 
jurors to forfeit estates for life. Catholic priests 
and schoolmasters liable to life imprisonment. 

1701. Feb. e. Fifth Parliament of William meets, 
with a Tory majority: ministry is also Tory. By 
the Act of Settlement. June 12. the cro\vn is to 
pass after Mary's sister Anne and her issue to So- 
phia of Hanover, granddaughter of James I., and 
her issue, being Protestant. Act shows jealousy 
of a foreign sovereign and also of growing power of 
cabinet: contains a provision against ministers 
and placemen sitting in Parliament. James II. 
dies, September G, and as the Grand Alliance to 
which England is a party is just then formed 
against France, Louis recognizes James's son 
(James III., or the Pretender) as king of England. 
Sixth Parliament of William III. meets, Dec. 30. 

170?. March S. William dies and Anne, a Tory, 
ascends the throne. War is declared against 
France by the Grand .\lliance. May 4. Marlbor- 
ough being captain general, and having, tlirough 
his wife, great uifluence over Anne. (See France 
for events of War of the Spanish Succession: and 
United St.\tes for Queen Anne's War.) October 
20. First Parliament of Aime meets. 

1704. July 24. Gibraltar is captured 

1705. Oct. S,5. The new parliament (second of 
Anne) is Whig; Marlborough and Godolphin. 
Lord Treasiu'er, make advances to it, and the 
Place Bill of the Act of Settlement is so modified 
as to permit members of Parliament who accept 
places created before 1705 to retain their seats if 
reelected. 

1707. May 1. England and Scotland are 
united under the name of Great Britain; union 
provides for one Parliament, with 16 Scottish peers 
in the Lords and 45 members in the Commons: 
Union jack becomes the national flag. First Par- 
liament of Great Britain meets. October 23. 

In Ireland the Protestant parliament continues 
to subject the Catholics to severe penal laws, while 
England suppresses Irish commerce to the advan- 
tage of her own merchants. 

1708. The Pretender lands in Scotland, but with- 
draws. November 16, Second Parliament of 
Great Britain meets. 

During the year the royal veto ii. exercised for the 
last time. 
1710. Marlborough and Godolphin have become 
Whigs and a ministry of this party has been forced 
on Anne. Sacheverell, having preached a ser- 
mon (November 5. 1709) denouncing the princi- 
ple of resistance and toleration established by the 
. Revolution of 1688, is impeached by the minis- 



try, but public opinion supports the Tories, and 
.-Vnne seizes the opporttmity to form a Tory min- 
istry under Harley (Oxford) and Saint-Jolm (Bol- 
ingbroke). supported by a Tory parliament, wliich 
meets on November 25 (third of Great Britain). 
Overtures of peace are made to France. 
1711. Feb. 2S. Parliament passes the Property 
Qualification Act, by wliich only landliolders 
can have seats in Commons. It also passes the 
Occasional Conformity Act, December 22. directed 
against dissenters in office; but the Lords con- 
demn the foreign policy of the Tory ministry. 
Anne creates Vi peers, giving the Tories a major- 
ity in Lords as well as in Commons. December 
31, Marlborough deprived of all his offices. 

1713. March SI {Apnl 11, N.S.). Peace of 
Utrecht concluded. Pretender renouncec' by 
France, and Hudson Bay country. Nova Scotia, 
Newfoundland, St Christopher, Gibraltar, and 
Minorca ceded to Great Britain by France and 
Spain. By the assiento Great Britain secures a 
monopoly of slave trade to Spanish America. In 
general, the treaty favors the English commercial 
class, which is wiiig. 

1714. Fourth Parliament of Great Britain meets 
on February 16. Last measure of tlie Tories to 
strengthen their hold is the Scliism Act (June 25). 
wliich re<:iuires a bishops licease of conformity to 
teach. Anne dies, August 1 : the crown passes to 
George I., son of Sophia 

1715. March IT Fifth Parliament of Great Brit- 
ain meets and impeaches Boiingbroke. Ormonde, 
and Oxford; Ormonde imprisoned; others escape 
Jacobite riots occur. Earl of Mar heads a rising 
of Scottish Jacobites in September and on Decem- 
ber 2 the Pretender reaches Scotland, but accom- 
plishes nothing, returning to France in February. 

1716. Maij 7 Septennial Act increases the life 
of a parliament, including the existing one, to 
seven years. 

1717. Feb. 18. Occasional Conformity and Schism 
Acts repealed British Parliament on April 7 
passes an act asserting its right and power to make 
laws to" bind the kingdom and people of Ireland. ' 

17'iO. Failure of the South Sea Company, 
started by Harley in 1711 and the subject of wild 
speculation. Fall rmns many, and government 
officials are implicated in it and other " blue-sky " 
operations. 

17?1. April 3. Walpole (Whig) becomes virtu- 
ally prime minister; his administration contm- 
ues for 21 years, upheld by systematic corruption 
and intent upon keeping both foreign and domes- 
tic peace at any price. Imeets i 

1122. Oct. 9. Sixth Parliament of Great Britain! 

1727, June 11. George I. dies; son succeeds as 
George II. lain meets i 

1728. Jan. 2.3. Seventh Parliament o( Great Br(t-I 
1735. Jan. 14. Eighth Parliament of Great Brit- 
ain meets. 

1739. War with Spain over smuggling and search 
in Spanish America (War of Jenkins's Ear), and 
Georgia's encroachment on Florida. Vernon cap- 
tures Porto Bello in Darien. 

1740. Vernon fails in attack on Cartagena, Sep- 
tember, Anson begins a cruise, during which he de- 
stroys a city in Peru, captures a $1,500,000 plate 
ship, and circumnavigates the globe, returning 
June. 1744, [assembles | 

1741. Dec. 1. Ninth Parliament of Great Britain I 

1742. Feb. 17. Walpole falls; succeeded nomi- 
nally by Earl of Wilmington, but Carteret (for- 
eign minister) and Newcastle are the chief men of 
the new administration. 

1744. March Id. France declares war on Great 
Britain, bringing her into the War of the Austrian 
.Succession (see Germany and United States). 
Carteret retires November 23; Henr.\- Pelham 
(Newcastle's brother) becomes prime minister. 

1745. France sends the Young Pretender (grand- 
son of James II.) to Scotland; he lands on July 25 
and wins several battles. 

1746. Feb. 22. William Pitt joins the ministry. 
April 16. Duke of Cumberland defeats Mur- 
ray and the Pretender at Culloden. Leading 
Jacobites are executed; Pretender flees to France. 
This ends the Stuart attempts to regain the tlirone 

1747. Sot. 10. Tenth Parliament of Great Britain 
meets. 

174S. Oct. IS. Peace of Alx-la-Chapelle; Eng- 
land neither gains nor loses. It includes peace 
witli Spain. 

1752. Gregorian calendar (see calendar, in the 
Did.) is adopted in Great Britain and the colonies. 

1753. British Museum founded 

1754. Newcastle succeeds his brotlier as prime 
minister, and Henry Fox becomes Secretary of 
State, also leader of Commons in 1755. Eleventh 
Parliament of Great Britain meets. May 31. 
French and Indian War begins in America (see 
Ignited States). Formal war is not yet declared, 
however. Newcastle, indisposed to a vigorous 
policy, dismisses Pitt on Nov. 20, 17.55. 

1756. May 17. War is declared, being known in 
Europe as the Seven Years' War (see Germ.int). 
France captures Minorca in July. Newcastle re- 



signs, October 26, and Devonshire and Pitt suc- 
ceed, December 4. Latter, an ardent imperial- 
ist, has the support of the commercial interests 
and those weary of rule through corruption. 
17SJ. .\pril 6. George H. dismisses Pitt, wiio. 
however, regains power on June 29 in a coalition 
ministry with Newcastle, who controls the 
Commons and gives Pitt the means of carrying 
out his policy, while himself manipulating the pat^ 
ronage. Pitt subsidizes Frederick tlie Great on 
the Continent and devotes himself to building up 
the Empire in America and elsewhere, sea power 
being his chief instrument. Clive, June 23. wins 
the victory of Plassey in Bengal. India (see India) . 

1759. August. English fleets under Boscawen and 
Hawke defeat the French off Lagos in August and 
at Quiberon Bay. on November 20, frustrating 
preparations to invade England. 

Sep . IS. French defeated at Quebec; fall of 
Canada in 1760. (grandson as George III. I 

1760. Oct. 26. George II. dies; succeeded by hisi 

1761. Pondicherry, French post in JNIadras, surren- 
ders to Great Britain, which secures British pre- 
dominance in that country (see India). Pitt in- 
sists on war with Spain and, disregarded, resigns 
October 5. Newcastle Is premier, Egremont. 
Bute, and George Grenville in the ministry, the 
last becoming leader of the Commons. Twelfth 
Parliament of Great Britain convenes on Nov. 3. 

1762. January. War declared on Spain. New- 
castle resigns. May 26. and is succeeded by Bute, 
a personal appointment by the king, who is bent 
upon destroying Whig control and being him- 
self a party leader. Bute holds office only until 
April 8. 1763. when Grenville succeeds. 

1763-1783. For American relations, see United 
States. 

1763. Fib. 10. Peace of Paris by Great Britain. 
France, and Spain. Great Britain gains from 
France Minorca. Canada, Louisiana east of the 
Mississippi, Dominica. Grenada. St. Vincent, and 
Tobago in the West Indies, and Senegal in Africa; 
and from Spain. Florida. Great Britain restores 
Cuba and Manila (captured in 1762) to Spain; 
she cedes St. Lucia to France and restores to her 
Goree in .\frica. Guadeloupe. Martinique. Saint- 
Pierre, and Miquelon in America and the cap- 
tured towns in India, but retains ascendancy there. 
John Wilkes is arrested for publisliing articles in 
the North Briton insulting to the king; expelled 
from Commons. January 19. 1764, and outlawed. 
General warrants issued for others, but they are 
declared illegal. Wilkes receives popiUar support. 

1765. July 10. The Marquis of Rockingham 
(\VTiig) becomes prime minister, with Conway 
and Grafton as secretaries of state. Earl of 
Chatham (Pitt) succeeds on July 3t). 1766. as 
liead of a heterogeneous ministry, but becoming 
incapacitated (May. 1767) the Duke of Grafton is 
nominal head with Charles Townshend leader of 
the Commons and moving spirit. Chatham re- 
signs on October 1,5, 1768 

1768. May 10. Thirteenth Parliament of Great 
Britain meets. 

1769. Feb. 4. Wilkes, who has been returned to 
Parliament for Middlesex (London), expelled 
again; he is thereupon tlirice reelected, with much 
mob violence (" WUkes and liberty "). and as 
many times rejected, his opponent being finally 
seated by the House. Publication of the Letters 
of Junius in the Pubhc Adrerltser begins; they 
continue for tlu-ee years, .supporting Wilkes and 
attacking the ministry and the king himself. Au- 
thorship is now generally assigned to Sir Philip 
Francis. (See Junius, in the Dictionary.) 

1770. January. Lord North becomes premier. 
This is a selection by the king; North is a supporter 
of the iiersonal rule and the king is practically his 
own premier. 

1771. The Commons endeavor to prevent the re- 
port of debates m the newspapers, but fail. 

1774. Oct. 4. Wilkes elected Lord Mayor of lin- 
den, and on October 29 again retm-ned for Middle- 
sex and seated without opposition on December 
2. the Fourteenth Parliament of Great Britain 
meeting on November 29. 

1778. June S. Under the leadership of Sir George 
Savile, the Catholic Penal Act of 1700 is repealed. 

July 10. France, having entered into an alli- 
ance with the revolting American colonies 
(United States), declares war on Great Britain. 

1779. June 16. Spain withdraws her ambassador 
from London, issues a manifesto, and soon begins 
an imsiiccessful siege of Gibraltar, wliich lasts until 
peace is made. 

1780. Feb. 1^1. Edmund Burke introduces his bfll 
for the economic reform of government, abol- 
ishing sinecures in the civil list, reducing pensions 
and other extravagances which have made possible 
the ministerial (royal) corrupt control over Com- 
mons. Bill defeated, but it voices a growing 
public discontent (shown also in the Wilkes 
affair. Letters of Jiuiius, and mob violence) with 
the king's efforts to rule as well as reign, and de- 
mands for manhood suffrage and electoral reform 
in Parliament; and some of its reforms are finally 



54 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1780 — 1819. 



1780 (continued). 
M enacted on June 19. 17S2, under the Rockingham 

ministry, of wliich Burke is a member. 

June a. Lord George Gordon, a fanatic, 
heads a mob demandmg that Parliament rescind 
the repeal of the CatlioMc Penal Act. The " no- 
popery" cry is made the excuse for riots which 
devastate London for six days. [assembles. I 

Oct. 31 . Fifteenth Parliament of Great Britain | 

OAn Armed Neutralitf is formed by Denmark and 
Sweden with Russia to resist British infringe- 
ments on neutral rights, raising the new slogan of 
•■ free ships, free goods." Holland adheres to the 
same principle and Great Britain declares war on 
her, December 20. 
1J83. March W. North, in spite of the king's in- 
sistence, resigns because of disasters in America 
and the West Indies. Rockingham again be- 
P comes premier, with Shelbm-ne, Charles James 

Fo.x, and Edmimd Biu-ke in the ministry- June 
21, an act repeals that of 1717 wliich asserted the 
power to make laws for Ireland, and also repeals 
the control of the privj- coimcil, under Poj-nings's 
law, over the making of laws there. In July Sliel- 
burne succeeds Rockingham, and Fox and Burke 
resign, while William Pitt, the younger, at the 

Qage of twenty-tliree, becomes Chancellor of the 
Exchequer and leader of the Commons. 

April IS. Rodney's great naval victory over 
De Grasse in the West Indies restores British pres- 
tige sufficiently for an acceptable peace, especially 
after the failure of the final attack on Gibraltar on 
Septemljer 13. 
1183. Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris 
_^ signed with the United States, France, and Spain; 

R independence of the first is recognized, with terri- 

tory to the Mississippi; Tobago and Senegal ceded 
to France, and Minorca and Florida to Spain. 
Meanwhile the Shclbimie ministry, having started 
the peace, is forced out, February 23. by a coali- 
tion of North and Foi, who, April 2. become 
secretaries of state, with the Duke of Portland as 
nominal premier. Pitt introduces. May 7, a bill 

Sfor parliamentary reform, directed especially 
against the rotten boroughs and bribery; Fox 
supports it, but North opposes, and it is defeated. 
November 20, Burke's India Bill (see India) is 
introduced by Fox; though opposed by Pitt, it 
passes the Commons, but is defeated in the House 
of Lords on December 17 by the king's personal 
influence. King George dismisses the ministry on 
._ December 19 and names Pitt as premier, though 

I the latter is not backed by the Commons, and is 

repeatedly defeated by the coalition majority. 
1781. March 25. Parliament is dissolved and 
public opinion rallying to Pitt, he has a majority 
in the new Commons, which meets on May 15 
(Sixteenth Parliament of Great Britain), and being 
strong enough to disregard the king's wishes, be- 
comes premier in fact as well as in name. Pitt's 
own bill for reform in India (see India) passed on 
.\ugust 13. 

May to. Peace is signed with Holland, that 
coimtry yielding to England the right of commerce 
in the East Indies and also Negapatam in Madras, 
India. 
1785. Penang is ceded to the East India Company; 
beginning of the Straits Settlements. Singapore 
• . is added in 1S19 and Malacca in 1824, the union 

V taking place in 1826. 

April 18. Pitt introduces another parliamen- 
tary reform bill aiming at the erection of a fimd to 
buy off the owners of virtually private seats; it 
fails and he abandons his advocacy of the reform. 
His attempt to introduce free trade with Ireland 
passes. July 29. in a resolution of such restricted 
form that the Irish Parhament rejects it. 
^y 1786. May gS. Sinking Fund Act, Pitt's meas- 

ure for paying the national debt. 

Sept. 26. Commercial treaty with France; 
an important step, tlirough the reciprocal reduc- 
tion of custom duties, toward the overthrow of 
the mercantile system. 
1787. Settlement of Sierra Leone begins; hinter- 
land is developed, but proclamation of prot«ctor- 
Xate over it is not made imtil August 21, 1896. 
1788. For trial of Warren Hastmgs, see India. 

Oct. l£. The king becomes insane and the ques- 
tion of the regency becomes important. As the 
Prince of Wales is Fox's friend, Pitt insists upon, 
and carries through the Commons on February 12, 
a restrictive regency bill. Recovery of the king 
makes consideration by the Lords unnecessarj'. 
1799. Nov. 25. Seventeenth Parliament of Great 

Y Britain opens. 

1791. Irish question becomes important. The 
Irish Parliament is elected by and composed of 
Protestants, mainly from "rotten boroughs" 
ministry is responsible to the lord lieutenant only 
and he In turn can be independent of Parliament or 
make it subservient to him through patronage, and 
is responsible only to English ministry and crown. 
^ In October the Society of United Irishmen is 

^ started by Wolfe Tone, a Protestant, to open the 

franchise to Catholics and agitate for reform in 
Parliament and elsewhere. 



u 



1793. June IS. Libel Act, proposed by Fox, de- 
crees that the jury shall judge as to the whole 
matter at issue. 

1793. Feb. 1. War Is declared by the French 
republic. (For British participation in the Con- 
tinental wars 1793-1815, see France; and for the 
controversy and war with United States, 1794- 
1815, growing out of neutral trade question, see 
United States.) Reaction in England caused by 
the Terror in France and later by Napoleon's rule 
postpones the domestic reforms toward which 
Pitt is moving. Extent of the early reaction is 
seen in the harsh enforcement of the Treasonable 
Correspondence Act (passed May 7). 

1795. With the retimi of orderly government in 
France (Directory) English pubUc opinion veers 
toward peace and relief from the burden of war; 
October 29, the king is mobbed on his way to 
open parhament. Pitt insists on continuing war 
and the passage of bills to restrain what he consid- 
ers revolutionary violence. Holland having be- 
come a dependency of France. English capture 
Cape of Good Hope colony, l)ut it Is restored ui 
1802 by the Peace of Amiens. 

Disturbances become frequent in Ireland by Cath- 
olics on one side and Protestant factions of Orange- 
men on the other. 

1796. England captm-es Ceylon from the Dutch; 
also Guiana, but the latter is restored in 1802. 

Sept. 27. Eighteenth Parliament of Great 
Britain first meets. 

Oct. 8. Spain declares war on Great Britain 

Dec. n. A French fleet with 20.000 soldiers 

leaves Brest to invade Ireland, at the appeal of the 

LTnited Irislmien, but isscattered by astorm atsea. 

1797. Trinidad 'is captured from Spam. February 
16, off Cape St. Vhicent, Sir John Jcrvis defeats 
a Spanish fleet and prevents its junction with the 
French and Dutch fleets to control the Channel 
during an invasion of Ireland. February 27, the 
Bank of England suspends specie payments. 
iSIutiny on April 15 in the fleet at Spithead and the 
demands of the sailors are allowed. May 22, an- 
other revolt, with more far-reaching demands, 
takes place at The Nore ; the mutmeers are sup- 
pressed forcibly. October 11. Duncan's fleet 
defeats the French and Dutch off Camperdowu; 
the victory restores public confidence and reUeves 
the people from fear of invasion. 

1798. May. Rebellion breaks out In Ireland, 
which is attended by many atrocities on both sides. 
The Irish are at first successful, but are defeated at 
Ballinahinch on June 13 and at Vinegar HiU (over- 
looking Enniscorthy) on June 21 ; a small body of 
aiding Frenchmen surrenders at BaUinamuck on 
September S, and the rebellion is completely 
crushed. Many are executed; Tone, captured, 
commits suicide. 

Aug. 1. Horatio Nelson defeats the French 
fleet at the battle of the Nile and destroys the 
hope of success of Bonaparte's invasion of EgTr-pt 

1800. July 2. Royal assent is given to the union 
of Great Britain and Ireland, the consent of 
the Irish Parliament having been venaUy procured 
by Pitt. Irish Parliament thus ceases; 4 spiritual 
and 28 temporal Irish lords are to be sent to the 
imion House of Lords and 100 members to the 
Commons. Established churches are united. 
Present union Jack is adopted as British flag, 
the royal arms and titles changed, and the claim 
to be " king of France " is dropped. November 
5. a royal proclamation declares that the members 
of the existing British parliament shall also be 
members of the first imion parliament. 

1801. Jan. 1. Union goes into operation. Janu- 
ary 22. First Parhament of the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland meets. March 
14. Pitt resigns because of the king's antipathy 
to Catholic emancipation, and the Addington 
ministry succeeds. 

March 10. First British census; population 
of Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland), 
10.500,956. 

April 2. Nelson bombards Copenhagen, the 
Armed Neutrality of Russia, Sweden, and Den- 
mark having been revived. Jime 17, the Armed 
Neutrality ends through an agreement between 
Great Britain and Russia. 
1803. March 25. Peace of Amlens is signed with 
France, Spain, and Holland Great Britain re- 
stores all over-sea conquests except Trinidad and 
Ceylon. Malta, which Bonaparte took from the 
Knights of St. John and England took from him, 
is to be restored to the Knights. This, however, 
is not done; England is suspicious of Napoleon's 
intentions, especially as to Egj-pt (" the road to 
India "), and other comphcations help to make 
the peace a short one. [dom opens. 

Nov. 16. Second Parliament of United ICing-| 
1803. May. Rupture of the Peace of Amiens. 
Napoleon begins to gather a great army at Bou- 
logne to invade Great Britain. To accomplish 
this he must have at least temporary command of 
the Channel and neighboring seas. In Jime the 
British conquer St. Lucia in the West Indies. 
Guiana is also reoccupied. 



July £3. Robert Emmet, a United Irishman, 
plans another revolt, but his rismg with a handfid 
of men is suppressed and he is executed Sept. 20. 

1804. May 10. On the resignation of Addington 
the king has Pitt organize a second ministry, 
excluding Fox. 

1805. The third coalition against France is 
formed by Great Britain, Austria, Sweden, Rus- 
sia, and Prussia; the British fimction is chiefly to 
control the .seas and subsidize the Continental 
nations. Oct. 21. Nelson destro.vs the combined 
French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar and pre- 
vents invasion of England, but is Iiimself killed. 

1806. Jan. 23. Pitt dies. Lord Grenville heads 
the Ministry of all the Talents with Fox as for- 
eign secretary (Fox dies on September 13). Cape 
of Good Hope is again captured from the Dutch, 
and Curasao off the coast of South America; the 
latter is restored in 1814. (opens. I 

Dec. to. Third Parliamcntof United Kmgdoml 
1806-1807. British orders in council in contra- 
vention of Napoleon's Continental system (see 
United States). 

1807. March 2/f. King George dismisses the min- 
istry because of the refusal to promise not to pro- 
pose measures of Catholic relief, and the Duke of 
Portland, March 31, forms a new one with Cleorge 
Canning as foreign secretary, and Castlereagh as 
secretary of war. 

March 25. Slave trade is abolished. 

June 22. Fourth Parhament of the United 
Kingdom meets. 

Sept. 5. Siu-render of Copenhagen to British 
and seiziu"e of Danish fleet. 

1808. Peninsular War begins when Canning 
sends an army under Sir .\rthiir Wellesiey to de- 
liver Portugal and support the Spanish revolt 
against Napoleon (see Spain). 

1809. October. Portland resigns as prime minister 
and George Perceval succeeds ; Canning and Cas- 
tlereagh also resign. Government conservative. 

1810. George III. goes insane again, and the 
Prince of Wales (George IV.) becomes regent 
under an act passed February 5, 1811. 

ile de France (Mauritius) is captured; also Moluc- 
cas from the Dutch, but the latter are restored in 
1814; Seychelles Islands are occupied. 

1811. May 17. Popiflation of England, Wales, 
and Scotland, 11,970,120. 

September. Java is taken from the Dutch, but 
is restored in 1S14. 

1812. Perceval is assassinated by a lunatic. Jime 
S, Lord Liverpool becomes premier with Castle- 
reagh as foreign secretary and Lord Sidmouth 
(Addington) as home secretary. 

June 18. The United States declares war (see 

United States). [gathers. | 

Nov. Si. Fifth Parliament of United Kingdom! 

1813. Successful British campaigns against the 
French in Spain. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1814-1815. For the Congress of Vienna, see Nine- 
teenth-Century Period. For the treaties of 
peace and commerce with United States, see 
United States. 

1814. May SO. Peace of Paris is signed. Great 
Britain restores to France all over-sea conquests 
except Tobago and St. Lucia in the West Indies, 
Seychelles, and Mauritius (lie de France). Great 
Britain retains Malta. August 13. convention is 
signed with Holland on colonial possessions. 
Great Britain restores all colonies conquered since 
1802 except Cape of Good Hope and part of Gui- 
ana; Holland is given back Banka in exchange for 
Cochin in India. 

1815. For the Hundred Days and battle of Water- 
loo, see France. 

Asceasion and Tristan da Cimlia islands occupied. 
March 23. Amendment of the com law forbids 
the importation of wheat (see 1st Corn, n. 3, in 
the Diet.) imless the price is 80 shillings ($19.50) per 
quarter (8 bushels), thus protecting landowners. 

1816. Occupation of Gambia begins. 

Period foUowing the war is one of much distress; 
imemployment. bad harvests, falling off of foreign 
demand for manufactiu-es, heavy war debt, and 
disregard of the rights of lalrar. Conditions lead 
to radical demands, led by William Cobbett, for 
■ reform of political system, and to violence. 

1817. March 4. Remedy of the conservative min- 
istry for this distress, discontent, and natural de- 
velopment of new ideas is to suspend habeas corpus 
tmtil March 1, 1818, and also. March 31, to pass 
an act against seditious meetings. Revival of busi- 
ness does not become general and Arm imtil 1S21. 

1818. Oct. 20. Commercial and fishery treaty 
with United States (see United States). 

1819. Jan.li. SLxth Parliament of United King- 
dom assembles. 

Aug. 16. PoUtical and social agitation cul- 
minates at Manchester in great mass meeting, 
which troops disperse with some bloodshed 
("Manchester Massacre"). Ministry replies, 
December 11-30, by the passage of the SU Acts, 
which forbid training in the use of arms, authorize- 



1819-1853. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1819 {continued). 

search, deprive defendants of certain rights in 
trials for misdemeanors, provide against seditious 
meetings and hbel. and put a stamp duty on 
pamphlets. 

1820. Jan. SO. George III. dies, still insane; the 
regent becomes George IV, 

April 21. Seventh Parliament of United Iving- 
dom first meets. 

May 1. Thistlewood and four others are exe- 
cuted for plotting to kill the ministers. 

August. Queen Caroline, consort of George 
r\'., is tried for divorce, but the Lords abandon 
the bill after a liearing of tlireo months She re- 
ceives popular support, but is forbidden to partici- 
pate m the coronation, and dies on August 7. 1S21. 

1821. Bank of England resumes specie pay- 
ments, [of his career! 
Robert Peel becomes home secretarj': beginning | 

May 2S. Population of United Kingdom. 20,- 
893,584. 

1822. Aug. IS. Castlerea^ih commits suicide- 
George Canning succeeds as foreign secretary . 
most brilliant English diplomat of his time. (For 
Great Britain and the Holy Alliance, see Nine- 
teenth-Century Period ) 

182:$. Several acts emlxxiy Peel's criminal law re- 
forms; deatb penalty abolished for some 100 
crimes. [teenth-Century Period. )j 

Canning's South American policy. (See Nine-| 

1824. June 21. Law against combinations of 
laborers is repealed; but on July 6, 1825, because 
of disturbances, the repeal is revoked, though 
combinations to fL\ wages and hours of work are 
pemiitt^. 

1824-1826. First Burmese "War; no annexations. 

1825. Stpt. S7. Opening of the Stockton and Dar- 
lington railway; cars drawn by Stephenson's loco- 
motive. (Kingdom opens, i 

1826. .\ov. 14. Eighth Parliament of the United | 

1827. Feb. 17. Liverpool is disabled and Can- 
ning becomes prime minister. He dies on 
August 8 and Goderich succeeds. 

July 6. Great Britain, Russia, and France 
unite to mediate or interpose in the War of Greek 
Independence. October 20. the Turkish fleet 
is destroyed at Navarino (see Greece). 

1828. Jan. 26. Wellington becomes prime 
minister; Peel continues us home secretary. 

May 9. Under the leadership of Lord John 
Russell, act is passed repealing the Corporation 
Act of 1661 and the Test Act of 1673. so far as 
they affect Protestants; reciuirement of disbelief 
in transubstantiation continues to exclude Catho- 
lics from Parliament and office. 

1829. April 13. Catholic Emancipation Act 
does away with the tests wliich exclude Cathohcs 
from Parliament and from office, but retains the 
tests for certam offices and established church and 
university positions. This AVhig measure agi- 
tated for years, but now receives the support of 
AVclUngton and Peel. 

1830. June 20. George IV. dies; his brother suc- 
ceeds as William IV. 

Stpt. 15. Manchester and Liverpool railway, 
first important thoroughfare of the kind in the 
world, is opened. [dom assembles | 

Oct. 26. Ninth Parliament of the United King-1 
Nov. 16. Wellmgton, defeated in Commons, 
resigns, and the flrst distinct M'hig ministrj' since 
1806 begins November 24; Lord Grey, prime 
minister; Althorp, Brougham, Melbourne, and 
Palmerston in the cabinet, and Lord John Russell 
a subordinate member. 

1831. Marck 1 . Lord John Russell for the cabinet 
introduces a parliamentary reform bill. Op- 
position in Commons leads to a dissolution and on 
the appeal to the country the new parliament 
(tenth of United Kingdom), which me^tson June 
14, has a large ministerial tWhig) majority, and 
passes the bill on September 22. Lords reject it 
on October 8; the action, so contrary to public 
wishes, causes riots in many places. 

May S9. Population of United Kingdom. 24,- 
028.584. 

1832. Settlement of Falkland Islands begins 
MaTch S4- Reform Bill passes Commons 

again, and the Lords, imder tlireat of creation of 
new peers, give in; bill becomes law on June 7. 
It disfranchises 56 boroughs entirely, and in all 
145 seats are taken from the old boroughs, while 42 
to\vns receive one or two members and county 
membership increased from 94 to 159. Suffrage 
is largely extended. Other act« of July 17 and 
August 7 reform the representation of Scotland 
and Ireland, increasing their membership, and 
much enlarging the suffrage. Effect of the re- 
form is to enfranchise the middle class. 

1833. Jan. 25. First Parliament under the Re- 
form Act (eleventh of the United Kingdom) 
meets. Those supporting reform measiwes 
(Whigs and Radicals) begin to be called Liberals; 
their opponents. Conservatives. 

Aug. 24. Act on the temporalities of the estab- 
lished church in Ireland reduces the number of 
bishops from 22 to 12. 



Aug. SS. Act passed abolishing slavery in 

British colonies; goes into effect August 1. 1834; 
o^vners to l^e paid SIOO.000.000. Act causes com- 
mercial disturbance, especially in West Indies; 
former owners abuse the apprentice system, pro- 
duction of coffee and sugar falls off. Planters 
show much disaffection. 

Aug. 29. Notes of the Bank of England are 
made legal tender in England and Wales. On the 
same date Lord Ashley's Factory Act is passed 
It forbids night labor of children under 9: those 
under 11 (after a period, under 13) not to work 
more than 9 hours a day (48 a week), except in 
silk mills, and those between 11 (later 13) and 17, 
not more than 12 hours, or 69 a week. Also pro- 
vides for inspection to enforce it. 
1834. July 16. Lord Melbourne becomes prime 
minister. > 

Aug. 14. Poor Law reforms bad condition of 
pauperism; provides for the abolition of local 
boards, enlarging central authority; also for the 
union of parishes to support workhouses, the gen- 
eral administration of the rehef being in the hands 
of guardians elected by ratepayers. Outdoor re- 
hef reduced to a minimum. 

Nov. 14- Tlic king dismisses the ministry, the 
last instance of such action by a sovereign, and 
makes Peel prime minister. 

1836. Melbourne ministry retimis as Peel does 
not command a majority in the new parliament 
(twelfth of United Kingdom) which meets on 
February 19. Palmerston is foreign secretary' and 
Lord Jolm RusseU home secretary. 

Sept. f). Municipal Corporation Act makes 
rate pacing the basis for burgess-ship. 

1837. June 20. William IV. dies; his niece Vic- 
toria succeeds. As a woman cannot rule in 
Hanover, the kingship of that country goes to her 
uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, and ceases to be 
luiited with the crown of Great Britain. 
Rebellion in Canada (see Canada). 

July 1 7. Number of crimes for which death is 
penalty reduced to six. 

Nov. 15. Thirteenth Pariiament of United 
Kingdom assembles. 

1838. May S. The People's Charter, by Wilham 
Lovett, is first published. It becomes the pro- 
gram of the Chartists, led by Feargus O'Connor. 
— a phase of the continuing social agitation. The 
" sLx points " are: amiual parliaments, imiversal 
male suffrage, ballot, e<iual electoral districts, 
abolition of property qualifications for Parliament, 
and salar> for its members. Parliament on Jmie 
14, 1839, refuses to consider a monster petition by 
the Chartists, and there is rioting at Birmingham 
and elsewhere. 

July 31 . Poor law is enacted for Ireland. 

Aug. 15. Irish tithes are transferred from the 
tenants to the landowners. 

September. Antl-Corn-Law League is formed 
at Manchester imdcr tlie leadership of Richard 
Cobden and John Bright. 
1838-1842. First Afghan W'ar (see India). 

1839. Jan. 16. Aden is captmed. [system. 1 
.4 ug. 1 7. Preparatory act for reform of postal ! 

1840. War with China (see China). 

Feb. 10. Queen Victoria weds her cousin. 
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who 
later (1857) receives the title of Prince Consort. 

May 22. Sovereignty over New Zealand is pro- 
claimed. 

July 15. Treaty with Russia, Austria. Prussia, 
and Turkey to suppress Meheraet All tsee Turkey) 
Acre is captured on November 4 and Mehemet Ali 
retires into Egypt. France being left out of the 
alliance, there is friction between her and England, 
but it disappears. 

Aug 10. Under the leadership of Sir Rowland 
Hill, act is passed for penny postage tliroughout 
the United Kingdom, prepaid by stamps. 

1841. January. Hongkong is ceded by China; 
confirmed by treaty of August 29, 1S42- 

June 7. PopiUation of United Kingdom, 
27,057.923. 

Aug. 19. Lord Melbourne, biu-dened by defi- 
ciency of revenue, having been defeated in Com- 
mons, a new parliament meets (fourteenth of 
United Kingdom) with a Conservative majority. 
Peel forms his second ministry, including Wel- 
lington as a figurehead and Aberdeen as foreign 
secretary. 

1842. First concessions to Sir James Brooke in 
Sarawak. Borneo; formal British protectorate not 
established until ISSS. 

June 22. Opposition to the protection for food 
and other products leads to a revision of the 
tariff; duties on some 750 out of 1200 articles are 
reduced or abolished; an income tax is imposed 
to make up the deficit. This policy of reducing 
tariff duty and extending the free list Peel contin- 
ues in subsequent budgets; later, Gladstone's budg- 
ets make even more rapid steps toward free trade. 

Aug. 9. Ashburton Treaty on Maine boimd- 
ary (see United States). 

.4 ug. 10. An act fathered by Lord Ashley forbids 
labor in mines by women, girls, or boys under 10. 



1813. May IS. Natal is proclaimed a British col- 
ony; increased by later annexations and treaties 
(see South Africa). 

May IS. Disruption of the established Presby- 
terian Church of Scotland; withdrawal of a large 
portion of the ministers, who form the Free Church 
of Scotland and abandon their benefices. 

May 19. Gladstone becomes a member of 
the Conservative ministry'. 

1844. Factory Act (AslUey's) forbids the employ- 
ment of any female more than 12 hours a day (69 
a week). It permits children of 8 to labor, but 
establishes for children half-day or alternate-day 
labor, with compulsory education. 

July 19. A separate issue department is estab- 
lished for the Bank of England and it is made the 
sole source of futiu-e circulating bank notes. 

1845. July SI. Jews made eligible to municipal 
offices. 

1845-1846. Failure of potato crops in Ireland 
with resulting famine. Tliis adds force to move- 
ment to repeal the com laws. 

1846. Ji-abuan Islatnd is ceded to Great Britain. 
June 15. Oregon Treaty with United States 

(see U.nited St.a.tes). 

Jufie 26. Peel's biU for repeal of the corn 
laws lowers food duties by a sliding scale on 
wheat, with duty on other grains and fiom* and 
meal m proportion. After February 1, 1849, the 
duty on all grain at whatever price is to be very 
low. Peel, though a Conservative, carries the act 
by Liberal aid. On June 24, 1S69, this reduced 
duty is abolished. 

June 27. Peel IS defeated on a bill for Irish 

. relief, by a combination of protectionists and 

others headed by Benjamin Disraeli. Lord 

John Russell forms a Liberal ministry on July 

6. Palmerston is foreign secretary. 

1847. June s. Aslileys work for labor betterment 
is crowned by an act establisliing a maximum ten- 
hour day (5S a week) for women and cliildren. 

Nor. IS. Fifteenth ParUament of United 
Kingdom meets. 

Dec. 20. Act for public works for Ireland is 
first fruit of Russell's efforts to solve the Irish 
problems. It is disappointing in results and he 
is forced to a coercion act by disorders. 

1848. April 10. A revival of Chartism leads to 
the plan for a great meeting at Kensington Com- 
mon. London, to carry a much-padded petition to 
Parliament. The petition is presented, but gov- 
ernment preparations cause the failure of the affair 
as a demonstration. 

July 29. A rising, connected with the vari- 
ous revolts of this year on the Continent, takes 
place prematurely in Ireland; the conspiracy is led 
by Smith O'Brien (.a Protestant) and oneMitchel, 
and the movement is quickly suppressed by the 
poUce. O'Brien and Mitchel are exiled. 

Aug. 14. Encumbered Estates Act is Rus- 
sell's next Irish measure. It pro\ides for the sale 
of such estates to solvent purchasers who presum- 
ably will not press so heavily on the tenant-s. It is 
not a success, and the ministrj- not t>eing able to 
pass further acts of rehef. the incomplete program 
is a failure. 

1849. June 26. Last remnants of the old Navi- 
gation Acts are repealed: but the coasting trade 
of the United Kingdom and of each possession 
(under certain excepting regifiations) is still re- 
served for British ships. [United States).! 

1850. April 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (seel 
Sept. SO. A papal bull restores the Roman 

Catholic hierarchy in England, where since 
the tolerance of Cathohc worship the Catholic 
bishops have been nominally missionaries " in 
partibus mfidelium " (L., in lands of the infidels). 
"This meets with much popular opposition, and on 
August 1, lS51,the Ecclesiastical Titles Act lays a 
fine on anyone attempting to give effect to the bull, 
but the act is never enforced and is finally repealed. 

1851. Electric telegraph connection between Eng- 
land and France is established 

First International E.vhlbition takes place in 
the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London. 

March SI. Popifiation of United Kingdom. 
27.745.949. 

Dec. 10. Russell forces Palmerston to resign be- 
causeoflatter's independent coursein foreign affairs. 

185^. Second Burmese War; December 20, a por- 
tion of the coimtry is annexed. 

Feb. 21. Russell ministry resigns. Palmerston 
having ret-ahated by procuring its defeat in the 
Commons February 27. the Earl of Derby or- 
ganizes his first (protectionist) ministry, with 
Disraeli as chancellor of the exchequer: but the 
ministry lacks a majority in the new parliament 
(sixteenth of United Kingdom) of NoTcmlwr 4; 
and on December 28 the Aberdeen ministry 
succeeds, with Gladstone as chancellor of the 
exchequer. Palmerston as home secretarj% and 
Russell in charge of foreign affairs. 

1853. Aug. 20. Penal servitude is substituted for 
long-term sentences of transportation, and on June 
26. 1857, transportation overseas, which is very 
objectionable to the colonists, is abolished. 



56 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPP;). 



1854 — 1886. 



1SS4. Kuria Muria Islands ceded to Great Britain. 
M March iS. Great Britain and France begin war 

(Crimean War) on Kussia over Turkish affairs 
(see Russia). Sardinia joins tlie Allies (1855). 

1855. Jan. SO. Aberdeen resigns because of criti- 
cism of the inefficient management of the war. 
Palmerston becomes prime minister on Febru- 
ary 6. with a combination cabinet from which, how- 
ever, Gladstone and other Peelites soon retire. 

OMny 21. Order in council establishes a com- 
mission to pass on the qualifications of candidates 
for the civil service, thus reforming the method of 
selecting officials. [ished-l 

June IS. stamp duties on newspapers abol-l 

1856. Cocos (Keeling) Islands are taken under 
British protection, 

March SO. Peace of Paris ends Crimean War. 
Great Britain acquires great influence o\er Turkey. 
P 1857. Arrow War in China (see Chin.^). 

April SO. Seventeenth Parliament of United 
Kingdom assembles. 

Aug. 28. Divorce Act substitutes for the com- 
plicated system of the ecclesiastical courts a Court 
for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, with a limited 
appeal to the House of Lxjrds. The act goes into 
operation January 1. 1858. 

Q1857-185S. Indian mutiny (see India). 
1858. Final occupation of Andaman Islands. 

Frh. 22. Second Derby ministry (Conserva- 
tive! begins; Disraeli chancellor of the exchequer. 
June 28. Property quahflcation for Parliament 
is abolished. [opened to Jews. I 

July 2S. Membership in Parliament and offices! 
Aug. 2. East India Company abolished, as 
_^ a result of the mutiny : the rights are transferred 

R to the crown (see India). 

Aug. 16. Communication is established over 

the Atlantic cable to the United States, but it 

soon ceases to work. land commerce I 

Aug. 26. First treaty with Japan; friendship! 

1859. May SI. Eighteenth Parliament of United 
Kingdom opens. Ministry resigns. 

June IS. Second Palmerston ministry (Lib- 
O eral) with Gladstone as chancellor of the e.^;- 

^ chequer and Russell foreign secretarj'. 

1860. Prince of Wales visits Canada and the 
United States. 

Jan. 23. Cobden's treaty of reciprocity with 
France is signed. England cordial to Napoleon 
III.'s empire. 

1861. Great Britain imites with Spain and France 
a_ in sending an expedition to Mexico to enforce 

1 claims; satisfaction being received, England and 

Spam withdraw. 129.321, 2,SS. I 

April 8. Population of United Kingdom,! 
May 12. Declaration of neutrality In Amer- 
ican Civil War. 

Aug. 6. Purchase of Lagos begins the present 
colony and protectorate of Nigeria; growth is 
tlorough the Royal Niger Company and the vari- 
ous divisions are amalgamated on January 1 , 1914. 
November-December. Trent affair (see United 
States). Danger of war. 

Dec. 14. Prince Consort dies. 
186S. May 1. Second International Industrial 
E.xposition opens in London. 

July 29. Confederate States steamer Ala- 
bama sails from Liverpool (for Alabama Claims 
V controversy, see United States). 

Strong pressure on the government to recognize 
the Southern Confederacy fails. 
1803. Oct. 8. Construction of Laird rams for 
Confederate States isstopped (see United States ). 

1864. March 29. British protectorate over Ionian 
Islands terminates; islands are ceded to Greece. 

1865. Oct. 11. Insurrection of blacks begins in 
Jamaica; rigorously and cruelly suppressed. 

^W Oct. 18. Palmerston dies; Russell becomes 

prime minister on November 6. 

1866. Feb. 1. Nineteenth Parliament of Great 
Britain meets. 

Feb. 17. Because of Fenian agitations. Par- 
liament suspends habeas corpus in Ireland. 

July 6. Russell ministry ha\'ing resigned be- 
cause of opposition to their Reform BUI, Derby 
X becomes (Conservative) prime minister for the 

third time, with Disraeli again chancellor of the 
exchequer and Robert Cecil (Salisbury) secretary' 
for India; the last named, with others, resigns on 
March 10, 1867. because opposed to Disraeli's Re- 
form Bill. 

1867. Abyssinian expedition punishes Iving Theo- 
dore for his treatment of British officials; Mag- 
dala is captured and Theodore kills himself. Brit^ 

Y ish retire from country. (suppressed.! 

March. Rising of Fenians in Ireland is quickly I 

Aug. IS. Second Reform Act; Disraeli puts 

the meastire through, seeing that it is a popular 

demand. Several attempts at fm-ther reform 

since 1832 have failed, though only one sixth of the 

adult males are voters and representation is still 

unevenly distributed. This act greatly enlarges 

^ the suffrage, but continues it on a property or 

^ rental basis; some readjustment of seats in Parha- 

ment is also made. Practically enfranchises 

the settled working class. 



u 



1868. Feb. 27. Derby resigns; Disraeli becomes 
prime minister, but resigns when the new parlia- 
ment elected under the Reform Act has a Liberal 
majority. Gladstone's flrst (Liberal) ministry 
begins on December 9 ; John Bright is a member. 

March li. Basutsland is annexed. 

July 13. Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland 
are enacted; suffrage extended and se ts redis- 
tributed. [Kingdom assembles. I 

Dec. 10. Twentieth Parliament of United! 

1869. British claim to Nicobar Islands is acknowl- 
edged by other coimtries. 

July 26. Irish Disestablishment Act ends 
the established church there; it also discontinues 
the annual grants to nonconfomung ministers 
(regium donum: L., royal gift) and to the Cath- 
olic Maynooth College, certain compensatory 
sums being appropriated, l^operty of Church of 
England in Ireland is divided; a portion goes to 
charity. [ished.l 

Aug. 9. Imprisonment for debt is abol-| 

1870. June 4. Order in council extends civil 
service reform; appointments in most depart- 
ments are restricted to those quaUfled imder open 
competitive examinations. 

Aug. 1. Irish Land Law is Gladstone's at- 
tempted solution of Irish troubles; it provides that 
compensation shall be made to outgoing tenants 
for improvements made by them; and appropri- 
ates funds for loans to landlords making such 
compensations on improvements, or to tenants de- 
sirous of purchasing holdings. Unsatisfactory; 
does not establish fair rents or fixity of tenure. 

Aug. 9. Elementary Education Act, Fors- 
ter's bill, makes free primary instruction generally 
possible. Since 1833 Parliament has made small 
grants to voluntary (denominational) schools; 
such grants are continued, but toard schools sus- 
tained by grants and local rates are to be added 
where needed, with a compromise on compulsion 
and religious instruction. Progress of education 
still slow and restricted. 

1871. April S. Population of United Kingdom, 
31,845,379. [States).! 

May S. Treaty of Washington (see United! 

June 16. University Test Act abolishes re- 
ligious tests for degrees or lay offices at Oxford, 
Cambridge, and Durham. 

July 20. System of purchase of commis- 
sions in the army, which restricts the officers to 
wealthy families, is abolished by royal warrant, 
in spite of obstruction by the Lords. 
1873. Geneva Arbitration Commission assesses 
$15,500,000 as the indemnity due the United 
States for Alabama damages. 

July IS. Voting by ballot is made obligatory 
for all British elections 

1873. Ashanti War in Africa 

Aug. 5. Supreme Court of Judiciary Act 
unites the existing courts into one supreme coiut, 
to the appellate division of which is transferred 
the appellate jurisdiction of the judicial committee 
of the privy cotmcil, and of the House of Lords; 
but on August 11, 1876, the act is repealed so far 
as it concerns the Ixirds. 

1874. Jan. 20. Protectorate over the Federated 
Malay States begins with a treaty with Perak. 

Feb. 21. Disraeli's second (Conservative) 
ministry begins, Gladstone having been defeated 
in a general election. "Sir Stafford Northcote is 
chancellor of the exchequer, and Salisbury is secre- 
tary for India. For the first time since 1841 the 
Conservatives have a clear majority in Commons. 
On March 5 the Twenty-first Parliament of the 
United Kingdom assembles; two of the members 
are Labor! tes. [Great Britain. I 

Oct. 10. Fiji Islands are ceded by the natives to ! 

1875. November. Disraeli purchases for Great 
Britain the khedive's shares in the Suez Canal; 
beginning of the foothold in Egypt (see Eotpt). 

1875-1876. Prince of Wales (later Edward VII.) 
visits India. 

1876. Protectorate over Baluchistan (see India). 
April 28. Under the Royal Titles Act of April 

27 Victoria takes the title of Empress of India. 

1877. Laccadive Islands are sequestered. 

Home Rule Federation of Great Britain is organ- 
ized with C. S. Parnell as president. Move- 
ment, organized in 1871 by Isaac Butt, sets off a 
separate legislature for Ireland, against the Fenian 
policy of independence. [(see South Africa).! 
April 12. Transvaal declared Briti-sh territory ! 

1878. May 27. Factory Act codifies and extends 
the legislation on the subject. 

June 4. Convention with Turkey by which 
Cyprus is placed imder British administration. 
The island is annexed on November 5, 1914. 
1878-1881. Second Afghan War (see Afghanistan 
and India). 

1879. Zulu War (see South Africa). 

Antirent agitations in Ireland are followed by the 
organization of tlie Irish Land League, with 
Parnell and T. P. Dillon as leaders. 

1880. April 18. Disraeli (now Lord Beaconsfleld) 
being defeated at a general election, resigns ; Glad - 
stone forms liis second (Liberal) ministry in- 



cluding in it the Marquis of Hartington, John 
Bright, W. E. Forster, and Joseph Chamberlain. 
On April 29 the Twenty-second Parhameut of the 
United Kingdom first meets. 

Sept. 7. Employers' Liability Act extends 
and regulates the liability of eraplojers to make 
compensation for personal injuries suffered by 
workmen in their service. 

December. Revolt of the Transvaal; ended by 
treaty of peace on March 21, 1881. August 3, 
1881, self-government is guaranteed to Transvaal 
under British suzerainty (see South Africa). 

1881. April 4. Population of United Ivingdom, 
35,241,482. 

Aug. 22. Irish Land Act provides for a court 
to adjust differences and grants a modified form of 
free sale, fixed tenure, and fair rents (" three F's ") ; 
but the Liberals also enact a new set of coercive 
acts against the clironic disturbances in Ireland, 
and the Irish leaders dcnoimce the new land law 
and " boycott " it. Parnell and others, though 
denying connection with violence, are imprisoned 
in October; the League issues a proclamation 
against the payment of rents and is suppressed. 

Nov. 1. British North Borneo Company is 
chartered; on May 12, 1,888, a formal protectorate 
over the region is established. 

1882. May. Parnell and others, on an agreement 
with the Liberals, are released ; but on May 6 Lord 
Frederick Cavendish, chief secretary for Ireland, 
and his undersecretary are assassinated in Phoe- 
nix Park, Dublin. Parliament passes the Preven- 
tion of Crimes Act on July 12, and the Arrears for 
Rent Act on August 18. In October an Irish Na- 
tional League takes the place of the suppressed 
Land League. 

July 11-12. British bombard Alexandria; 
following the defeat of the Egyptians, the dual con- 
trol of France and England is ended and British 
sole protection (financial agency, Sir Evelj-n Bar- 
ing) results (see Egypt). 

1883. Aug. 25. Corrupt Practices Prevention 
Act eniunerates the corrupt practices in parUa- 
mentary elections and limits expendittires. 

1883-1884. DjTiamite outrages by Irish revolu- 
tionists (Clan-na-Gael) are frequent in London 
and elsewhere. 

1884. Nov. 6. British New Guinea (Papua) pro- 
tectorate is proclaimed ; annexation comes on Sep- 
tember 4, 1SS8. 

Dec. e. Third Reform Act adds about 2,000,- 
000 voters, mostly agricultural laborers, and ap- 
proximates to manliood stiffrage. It passes the 
Lords only after a bill to redistribute seats is 
framed (enacted Jime 25, 1885) wliich does away 
with all small-borough representation. - 

1884-1885. For Gordon and Sudan affairs, see 
Egypt. 

1884-1886. By ten treaties with native tribes Brit- 
ish protectorate over Somaliland begins. 

1885. January. Dynamite explosions by Irish rev- 
olutionists culminate in attempt to destroy Houses 
of Parliament, Tower, and Westminster Hall. 

Jan. 27. Order in council for British jurisdic- 
tion over Bechuanaland ; incorporated in Cape 
Colony on October 3, 1895. 

Feb. 28. General act of Congo Conference 
signed (see Belgium). (ohanistan).I 

March. Russian advance on Herat (see Af-1 

June 12. Gladstone resigns, as his ministry 
has become miiwpular because of foreign and 
Irish policies. First (Conservative) ministry of 
IMarquis of Salisbury begins on June 23. 

Aug. 14. Ashbourne Land Purchase Act 
forms a fimd from wiiich Irish tenants may bor- 
row to buy their holdings; a Consen'ative remedy 
backed by Parnell. Later acts continue policy. 

December. General elections return 335 Liber- 
als and the same number jointly of Conservatives 
and Nationalists to Parliament. 

Dec. 11. Johore comes within British sphere of 
influence by treaty. 

Third Burmese War; rest of coimtry is annexed 
on January 1, 1886. 
1885-1888. Canadian fisheries controversy (see 
United States). 

1886. Jan. 12. Twenty-third Parliament of the 
I'nited Kingdom meets. January 28 Salisbury 
resigns. Gladstone forms his third (Liberal) 
ministry with W. Vernon Harcourt, Lord Rose- 
bery, John Morley (secretary for Ireland), and 
Jo.^eph Chamberlain in the cabinet. On April 8 
Gladstone annotmces his Home Rule Bill — 
an Irish legislature in two divisions, differently 
chosen, witii limited powers, and Irish members 
excluded from British Parliament, which retains 
much of the control o^er Irish affairs. Parnell 
supports the measiu-e, but the Liberal Unionists 
tmder Hartington and Joseph Chamberlain se- 
cede. On Jime 7 the bill is defeated and Glad- 
stone appeals to the people. The elections return 
a Conservative majority, so Gladstone resigns on 
July 20 and Salisbury's second ministry suc- 
ceeds, with Lord Iddesleigh (Northcote) as foreign 
secretary, Randolph Churchill as chancellor of the 
exchequer and leader of the Commons at first; 



1886 - 1905. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



57 



1886 {continued). 

later, Goscben and Balfour enter the cabinet. 
New pai'liament (twenty-fourth of United King- 
dom) meets on August 5. 

,•1 prii 23. Protectorate established over Sokotra. 
1887. Construction of Manchester Ship Canal 
begins; opened INI ay 21, 1S94. 

May. Suitan of Zanzibar makes a commercial 
concession to what becomes the Imperial British 
East Africa Company: beginning of East African 
prot'ectorate. Zanzibar itself, another portion of 
British East Africa, becomes' a protectorate by 
treaty. June 14, 1890; Uganda, recognized on July 
1, 1S90, by Germany as witliiji British sphere of 
influence, becomes a protectorate on Aug. 27, 1894. 

May 14- Ziiluland is declared a British posses- 
sion: incorporated in Natal on December 30, 1897. 

June. Victoria's golden jubilee (see jubi- 
lee, n. 3, in the Dictionary); a great imperialistic 
demonstration. 

July 19. Irish Crimes Act becomes law. Dur- 
ing its consideration a series of articles in the Lon- 
don Times accuses Parnell of complicity in Irish 
violence. Letters on which charges are based are 
proved to be forgeries by Richard Piggott. 

1888. Jtme. Christmas' Island, in Indian Ocean, 
annexed. 

Aug. 13. Local Government Act for England 
and Wales transfers comity administration from 
justices of the peace to elected coimty coimcilors; 
London included. 

Dec. 24- Affirmation instead of oath legahzed 
for Commons and law coiu-ts; the result of persist- 
ent efforts of Charles Bradlaugh, an atheist, long 
kept out of Parliament for this reason. 

1889. June 14- Samoau Treaty (see United 
States). [Scotland. I 

Aug. 29. Elected county councils enacted fori 
Oct. 29. Royal charter is granted to British 
South Africa Company, marking the beginning of 
Rhodesia (see South Africa). The region is 
placed within British sphere of influence by treat- 
ies with Germany (July 1, 1890). Portugal (June 
11, 1891). and Congo (May 12, IS94). 

1890. Great labor strilces throughout England. 
Feb. 13. Special commission on Parnell exoner- 
ates him on charge of personal complicity in out- 
rages, but considers him guilty of agitation wliich 
encouraged such actions. Parnell also receives 
damages from the Tijne.<:. 

July 1. Treaty with Germany dehmits respec- 
tive spheres of influence of the two nations in Africa ; 
Great Britain, in exchange for concessions there, 
cedes Heligoland (Helgoland) to Germany. 

Aug. 6. A simOar treaty with France recog- 
nizes the latter's control over Madagascar and in 
northern Africa. 

December. Division of Irish Nationalists due 
to charges of immorality against ParnelL The 
■majority come under the leadereliip of Justin 
McCarthy. 

1891. March 24. Protocol with Italy fixes respec- 
tive spheres of influence in Africa. 

April 5. Population of United Kingdom, 
38.104,975. 

May 14- Nyasaland (British East Africa) pro- 
tectorate is constituted. 

June 11. Treaty with Portugal ends contro- 
versy over African lands and dehmits respective 
spheres of influence. 

Aug. 5. Education Act continues and expands 
policy of the act of 1870, 

Oct. 6. Parnell dies and John Redmond 
succeeds as leader of the minority branch of the 
Nationalists. 
189?. Jan. 1 4. Albert Victor, heir apparent, dies. 
His brother George becomes heir apparent. 

May 27. Protectorate over Gilbert and Ellice 
Islands announced: annexed Nov. 10, 1915. 

June 27. Small Holdings Act authorizes 
county councils to acquire land by lease or pur- 
chase for letting or sale in small holdings to those 
who will cultivate it. and to advance purchase 
money to such persons. Proves a success. 

Auq. 4. Tw^enty-fifth Parliament of United 
Kingdom meets: it has four Laborite members. 
The ministry is defeated and resigns. Gladstone 
forms his fourth ministry (Liberal) with Vernon 
Harcourt, Rosebery, Morley, James Br>-ce, and 
H. Campbell-Bamierman in the cabinet. 

Novemher. Great strike of cotton spinners at 
Lancaster. [United States.)! 

189?-1893, Bering Sea seal fishery dispute (seel 
1893. Solomon Islands annexed in part; final Brit- 
ish protectorate November 14, 1S99, imder agree- 
ment with Germany. 

Feb. IS. New Home Rule Bill is introduced 
by Gladstone; similar to earlier one except that it 
permits Irish representation in British Parliament. 
Passes Commons on September 1, but is over- 
whelmingly rejected by Lords on September S. 
Gladstone tlireatens the House of Lords with loss 
of its right to veto legislation. Irish question now 
subsides, due to economic improvement. 
189i. March 1. Anglo-Chinese treaty on Bur- 
mese-Tibetan hmits (see China). 



March 3. Gladstone resigns because of old age 
and differences in the ministry; Rosebery be- 
comes prime minister. 

March 5. New Local Government Act estab- 
lishes elected district and parish councils in Eng- 
land and AVales, instead of appointed ones. 

May o. Treaty with Italy on spheres of influ- 
ence in Somaliland. 

July 31. Vernon Harcotu*t's budget introduces 
the policy of graduated taxation on estates. 

1895. June 22. Rosebery resigns when defeated 
on a minor matter; Salisbury on June 25 begins 
his third ministry (Conservative), taking the 
foreign portfoUo himself. Balfour, Sir Michael 
Hicks-Beach, Chamberlam (colonial affairs), 
Goschen, Devonshire (Hartington), and Lans- 
downe are in the cabinet. Parliament is dissolved 
on July 8. and the new government wins in the 
ensuing elections. 

Aug. 12. Twenty-sixth ParUament of United 

Kingdom meets. [South Africa). i 

Dec. 29. Jameson Raid on Transvaal (seel 

1895-1896. Venezuela-Guiana bomidary (seeLTNiTEo 

St.vtes). 

1896. Jan. 15. Convention with France regard- 
ing sphere of influence in Siam and independence 
of that nation, also regarding privileges in south- 
em China. 

Aug. 27. Protectorate over Ashanti, after an- 
other war. On Septeml^er 26. 1901, country an- 
nexed with same governor as Gold Coast. North- 
em Territories are under the same go\enunent. 
1896-1898. Kitcheners Sudan Expedition (see 
Egypt). 

1897. Jan. 11. As outcome of the Venezuelan 
boundary controversy a general arbitration treaty 
is signed with the United States, but the Senate of 
that coimtry rejects it. 

May 14. Treaty with Abyssinia on boundarj^ 
of Somali protectorate: portion of it is ceded to 
Abyssinia. 

June 23. Celebration of the sixtieth anniver- 
sary of Victoria's accession (diamond Jubilee): 
a demonstration in favor of a wide empire. 
Colonial premiers hold conference with Secre- 
tary Chaml>erlain. 

Aug. 6. H'orkmen's Compensation Act 
further regulates employers' liability, but permits 
outside agreements on the subject. 

1898. June 13. Canada grants the United King- 
dom and some colonies a preferential tariff. 

July 1. In the general scramble for Chinese 
territory England secures the lease of Weiiialwei : 
also (Jime 9) additional portion of Kowloon, 
opposite Hongkong. 

Aug. 12. Local Government Act for Ireland ex- 
tends to it the laws for county and district (not 
parish) councils. 

September- November. Fashoda incident of 
African rivalry with France (see Egypt). 

Dec. 25. Penny postage goes into operation 
throughout most of the empire. 

1899. Reimion of the di\isions of Nationahsts 
imder leadersiiip of John Redmond. 

May IS. First Hague Peace Conference assem- 
bles (see Nineteenth-Ce?:tury Period). 

July 13. London Government Act; the metrop- 
olis (outside the " city ") is divided into separate 
boroughs having the power hitherto exercised by 
the coimty coimcU. 

Aug. 9. National Education Act establishes 

a central board with ix)wer, among other things, 

to insiject secondary schools. [Africa).] 

1899-1903. South African War (see South | 

1900. Boxer Rising tsee China). 

May IS. Tonga (Friendly) Islands are put 
under British protection. 

July 9. Commonwealth of Australia Consti- 
tution Act (see Australia). 

Oci. 31. Union of the Free Church of Scotland 
with the United Presbyterian, forming the United 
Free Church. A small number of the Free 
Church ministers and congregations refuse to unite 
and claim all the Free Church property. House of 
Lords on August 1, 1904, upholds the contention, 
but on August II, 1905. a committee is appointed 
to apportion the property- 
Dec. 3. Twenty-seventh ParUament of United 
Kingdom meets: Conservative ministry is upheld 
by a large majority. 

1901. Jan. 22. Victoria dies; her son succeeds 
as Edward VII. He at once begins a policy of 
understandings with France and Russia, instead 
of " splendid isolation." [41,976,827.1 

April 1. Population of United Kingdom,! 

July 22- In the Taff Vale Case the House of 
Lords decides that labor unions may be sued 
as corporations. Trade-Unions Congress meets in 
September to devise means to combat decision, 

Aug. 17.- Royal Titles Act is passed, under 
which king adds to his official designation (king) 
" of ail the British dominions beyond the seas." 

Sept. lS-21. Millenary of Alfred the Great. 

Nov. IS. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty on Pan- 
ama Canal (see United St.\te8). 
1901-1904. An intermittent and indeterminate war 



conducted by British, African, Boer, Abyssinian, 
and Indian troops on a mullah in Somaliland. 

1902. Jan. 30. Treaty with Japan for defensive 
alhance in preserving integrity of China and 
Korea; if either is attacked by more than one na- 
tion, the other will afford active help. Consid- 
ered an offset to the Franco-Russian alliance. 

March 6. Great Britain joins in a general con- 
vention to abolish bounties on sugar: later she 
prohibits the importation of bounty-fed sugar. 

March 26. Death of Cecil Rhodes. \\\\\ pro- 
vides for scholarships at Oxford for colonial, Amer- 
ican, and German students (Rhodes scholars). 

May 15. Abyssmian treaty on Sudan boimdary 
and railway signed. 

June 30-Aug. 11. Council of colonial premiers, 
who discuss metric system, imperial defense, and 
preferential tariff. 

July 11. Salisbiu*y resigns: Balfour becomes 
prime minister (Conservative). 

Oci. 31. Completion of the all-British ("all- 
red ") cable around the world. 

December. Controversy over coercion of Vene- 
zuela (see Venezuela). 

Dec. IS. Education Act for England and Wales 
abolishes the special school boards, giving their 
power to coimty and ixjrough councils: church 
schools are placed on an even basis with the board 
schools as regards public support. Act so increases 
power of Anglican clergy over education that Non- 
conformists adopt a policy of passive resistance, 
refuse to send children to school or pay rates. 

1903. Coolie question in Transvaal (see South 
Africa). [States).! 

Jan. 24. Alaskan boimdary treaty (see United! 

May 15. Chamberlain launches hiis campaign 
for preferential colonial tariff in order to fur- 
ther imperial unification. Balfour leans toward 
a pohcy of retaliatory duties in dealing with for- 
eign countries. Chamberlain's resignation is 
announced on September 18, as are also those of 
various free-trade members of the ministry. 
. July. Edward VII. and the queen visit Ire- 
land and are warmly welcomed. Irish problem 
has, however, become acute again. There have 
been troubles over rent, pro-Boer demonstrations, 
and obstructions and disturbances in Parhament. 

July 30. Agreement l^etween the government 
and Cunard Line inaugurates a new policy for 
auxiliary cruisers, hitherto provided tlu'ough sub- 
sidies in time of peace. Money advanced for 
builduig certain class of vessels and annual sub- 
sidy for loss in running them, The company 
agrees to sell or hire its fleet to the government in 
time of war. and also to have a jxirtion of its offi- 
cers and crew naval reserve men. Mail subsidy 
is continued by a fixed annual amount. 

Aug. 14. Irish Land Purchase Act continues 
the Conservative policy of the act of 1S85. 

Aug. 25. Report of the commission on conduct 
of South African War strongly condemns the 
military system. Another (Esher) commission is 
appointed to plan a reorganization. 

Oct. 14- General arbitration tre^ity with France 
is signed: first step in the rapprochement, for 
which the king is largely responsible. 
1901. Feb. 1. Esher Commission makes its first 
report on army reform; plan adopted in the main: 
— a defense committee headed by the premier; 
an army coimcil. mcluding some civilians, in place 
of the commander in chief; and a general staff. 

April S. Agreement with France is signed 
(" entente cordiale ") by which French rights in 
Morocco and British in Eg>'pt are recognized; and 
notes are exchanged on Madagascar, Siam, and 
New Hebrides. On same day by convention 
France gives up some of her fishing rights on the 
coast of British America and in return Great Brit>- 
ain makes concessions in West Africa (see New- 
foundland). 

Sept. 7. Anglo-Tibetan Treaty (see India). 

Oct. 28. Firing by Ru-ssian men-of-war, en 
route to the Orient during Japanese war, on Eng- 
lish trawlers on North Sea; satisfaction is given by 
Russia after a commission investigates. 

1905. Aug. 12. New Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 
alliance for t«n years, provides for mutual assist- 
ance if attacked in the Orient, to defend peace in 
India, and preserve integrity of China. England 
recognizes Japan's right in Korea and agrees to as- 
sist her in Russian war if any nation assists Russia. 

Dec. 4. Balfour ministry, after holding out 
against several incidental adverse vot-es, resigns 
in order to put affairs to the test of a general elec- 
tion. Campbell-Bannerman forms a Liberal 
ministry with Asquith, Edward Grey, Lloyd 
George, Morley. Bryce, Bums (Lalwrite), and 
Birrell in the cabinet. 

1906. Jan. 8. Parliament is dissolved: elections 
result in a great Liberal victory'. New parha- 
ment (twenty-eighth of United Kmgdom) meets 
on February 13: Labor party has 41 members. 

Feb. 27. Joint Anglo-French protectorate over 
New Hebrides is established by a protocol; con- 
firmed, October 20, by a treaty. 

May S. Advocates of woman sufil^ge (suffra- 



58 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1906—1914. 



N 



U 



V 



W 



1906 (continued). 

gcttes) begin their campaign of keeping the mat- 
ter before the public attention through militant 
agitations and sabotage, and by a demonstration 
before the house of the premier, following it up 
on June 15 by mobbing Asqnith. 

July tfO. Education Bill« designed to separate 
state-aided schools from denominational control, 
passes Commons. In the Lords it is so amended 
as to defeat its intention. 

Xov. 2. London elections against advocates of 
municipal ownership of public utihties. 

Dec. £1. Trades Dispute Act reverses the Taff 
Vale decision, allows peaceful picketing, and pro- 
hibits suits for torts against trade-miions. At the 
same time a new Workmen's Compensation Act 
continues the right of " contracting out." 

1907. Feb. 13. " Suffragettes " riot and at- 
tempt to force an entrance to the House of Com- 
mons; sLxty are arrested. 

May £1. Convention of the Nationalist (Irish) 
party in Dublin refuses to support the Liberal 
party's bill for an Irish coimcil. wliich provides for 
an elective body, tliough the lord lieutenant re- 
tains the veto. Bill is withdrawn. 

June Id. Second Hague Peace Conference be- 
gins (see Nineteenth -Century Period). 

Aug. 23. Bill allowing marriage with a de- 
ceased wife's sister fmally becomes law. Long a 
matter of dispute between the Houses because of 
objections by the bisliops. Amendment of the 
Small Holdings Act authorizes a commission to 
investigate and draft schemes for such holdings: 
county coimcil may acquire necessary land com- 
pulsorily. 

Aug. 31. Anglo-Busslan Convention on 
Asiatic spheres; a rapprochement similar to that of 
the French treaty of 1904. Spheres in Persia de- 
limited; Russia declares Afghanistan outside her 
sphere: both nations agree to keep out of Tibet. 

Nov. 2. Treaty with France, Germany, Rus- 
sia, and Norway to preserve the independence and 
territorial integrity of Norway. 

1908. Feb. 26. Commons adopt a resolution urg- 
ing speedy transfer of Congo from Leopold's per- 
sonal rule to Belgium (see Belgium). 

April 4. General Arbitration Treaty with 
United States; later renewed. 

April 5. Campbell-Bannerman resigns; Her- 
bert H. Asquith becomes prime minister on 
April 8. Winston Churchill (.-liters the cabinet, 
and Lloyd George becomes chancellor of the ex- 
chequer. His revolutionary budgets are consid- 
ered an attack on property. 

April 23. Declaration of Great Britain. Den- 
mark, France. Germany, Netherlands, and Sweden 
to maintain the status quo in territories bordering 
on the North Sea. 

June IS, 21. Remarkable demonstrations of 
** suffragettes" in London. 

Aug. 1. Old Age Pension Act is passed. 
Irish Universities Act permits foimding of two 
imiversities (Dublm and Belfast) and dissolution 
of Royal University at Dublin and Queen's Col- 
lege at Belfast. Religious tests and privileges for- 
bidden. National University at Dublin with con- 
stituent colleges at Cork and Galway, and Queen's 
LTniversity are founded under the act. [effect. I 

Oct. 1. Penny postage with LTnited States in| 

Dec. 4. London International Conference on 
rules of naval warfare opens (see Nineteenth- 
Century Period). 

1909. Suffragette manifestations continue through 
this and following years: many arrests are made. 
In the debates on naval defense in Parliament 
both parties agree to maintain the " two-power " 
standard. 

Jan. 27. Fisheries Convention with United 
States (see United States ) 

March 10. Through a treaty with Siam four 
other (nonfederated) Malay States (Johore being 
the fifth) are brought under British suztrainty, 

March 23, Report is received from Lt. Shack- 
leton that his expedition on January 9 reached 
within 111 miles (97 geograpliical miles) of the 
South Pole. (Africa).] 

Sept. 20. L^nion of South Africa Act (see South I 
Labor Exchange Act is a remedy for unemploy- 
ment, to bring the " man and the job " together. 

Nov. /i. House of Commons passes a budget 
which includes a reform of land taxes. Novem- 
ber 30, Lords, including great landowners, reject 
it by 350 to 75; an exercise of its veto wliich has 
long been in abeyance. December 2, Commons 
indorse the budget, and on December 3 Parlia- 
ment is prorogued amid national excitement, and 
dissolved on January 8, 1910. 
1909-1910. " Mad Mullah " in Somaliland r^ 
news his raids and British retire from administra- 
tion of interior, confining control to coast towns. 

1910. Feb. 1. Parliamentarj^ elections result in 
seating 274 Liberals, 273 LTnionists, 82 National- 
ists, and 41 Laborites; a government majority of 
124 if aided by the last two. 

Feb. l.'>. Twenty-ninth Parliament of the 
United Kingdom opens. Opposition to land taxa- 1 



tion by the House of Lords causes a long debate in 
Commons. foUowed by the adoption of a resolu- 
tion on April 14 that the Lords be disabled from 
vetoing a money measure, and any other measure 
passed by the Commons in three successive ses- 
sions. A series of conferences held by leaders of 
the two main parties leads to no results. 

May 6. Edward VII. dies; his son succeeds as 
George V, 

Aug. S. Accession Declaration Act modifies 
the king's oath by omitting certain matters offen- 
sive to Catholics. 

Nov. 2S. Parliament is dissolved, and the gov- 
ernment appeals again to the people on question 
of status of the Lords. Kesidt leaves the repre- 
sentation practically michangetl. 

1911. Jan. SI. Tliirtieth Parliament of United 
Kingdom begins its sessions. It continues during 
the World War. its dissolution being iX)stponed. 

April 2. Population of United Kingdom, 45,- 
516, 259. 

May. Announcement is made that hereafter 
the Dominions would be consulted as far as 
possible in international affairs which involve 
their interests. [dia).| 

May S. Opium agreement with Cliina (see In- | 

May 15. House of Commons passes, by 362 
to 241, the Parliament Bill on the Lords' veto, 
thus practically repealing the equal legislative 
power of the Lords enjoyed for centuries. 

June 22. Coronation of George V. 

July 7. King and queen visit Ireland. 
Pelagic seahng trt-aty signed (see United States). 

Aiig. 10. House of Lords accepts the Parlia- 
ment Bill. It becomes a law on August IS. By 
it the life of a parliament is limited to five 
years. On August 10. also. House of Commons 
votes to pay the imsalaried members £400 
($2000) a year apiece. 

Aug. 17-20. General railway strike begins, 
involving 100,000 men. 

Nov. 8. Balfour retires and Bonar Law suc- 
ceeds as leader of Unionist party. 

Nov. 11. King George and the queen sail for 
India (see India). 

Dec. 16. National Insurance Act becomes law: 
in force on July 15, 1912. It includes provision 
for unemplojTiient insurance. Objection comes 
mainly from domestic servants, who desire to be 
excluded, and physicians, who object to inade- 
quate remuneration. 

1912. Jan. 1. Government takes over the busi- 
ness of the National Telephone Company (pay- 
ing S61. 000,000). thus completmg its control 
tliroughout the United Kingdom. 

Jan. 6. Sir Edward Carson organizes Ulster, 
which has a Protestant majority, against Irish 
Home Rule. 

Jan. IS. Capt. R. F. Scott reaches the South 
Pole {discovered earlier by Amundsen, Decem- 
ber 16, 1911). Scott and liis party perish on the 
return, March 29. 

Feb. 26. Coal strike begins; it affects 1.000,- 
000 miners and 500.000 from allied industries. 
Many industries and transportations are greatly 
affected. Government intervenes to cause a set- 
tlement, and as the minimum wage is chief ques- 
tion, on March 29 a Minimum Wage Act for 
coal miners becomes law. Strilie ends on April 9. 

March. "Suffragettes" enter Upon an intense 
window-smashing manifestation In London. 
Stores are assaulted, and British Museum, Royal 
Academy, and other likely objectives are closed. 
Many ' ' suffragettes ' ' are arrested and their head- 
- quarters are raided (March 5). 

April 11. Home Rule Bill for Ireland intro- 
duced: a bicameral parliament of domestic pow- 
ers, with Ulster safeguarded against religious dis- 
criminations: executive to remain vested in the 
representative of the crown; Ireland to have a 
small representation in the British Parliament; 
constitutionality of Irish legislation to be decided 
by the judiciary committee of the pri\-y coimcil; 
Great Britain to pay an annual subsidy to the 
Irish exche<iuer. IStates) . I 

April 15. Sinking of the Titanic (see UnitedI 

Mag 20. London dock laborers strike, and 
on May 2S all of the London transport workers 
are called out. The strike lasts till Jiily 27, intim- 
idation and rioting being of daily occurrence. 

May 29. At a conference at Malta, it is an- 
nounced that the British naval base in the Medi- 
terranean will be shifted from Malta to Gibraltar. 
That this change is due to the Triple Entente 
(between Great Britain. France, and Russia) is 
confirmed in September, when it is announced 
that France will concentrate her naval strength in 
the Mediterranean. 

Juue 20. Law lords of House of Lords hold it 
illegal to refuse Communion for reason of mar- 
riage to deceased wife's sister. This and the re- 
fusal to perform such marriages have been weap- 
ons employed by the clergy against the measure. 

July 1. New Copyright Act (passed Decem- 
ber 16, 1911) goes into effect. It extends dura- 
tion of copjTight to 50 years after death of author. 



but requires original publication within the em- 
pire, including the self-governing dominions wliich 
accept it; may be extended to foreign works under 
equitable arrangement. [Home Rule, i 

Sept. 2S. Ulster signs solemn covenant against 1 

Nov. 30. Riot in Conunous over an attempt to 
rescind an amendment carried by the ojiposition. 

Dec. 9. Great Britahi protests act passed by 
United States Congress (August 24) giving its 
coastwise commerce freedom from Panama Ca- 
nal tolls, as contrary to Hay-Pauncefote Treaty; 
that portion of the act is later (June 15, 1914) re- 
pealed, though the right is reserved. 

Dec. 10-14. Strike of 10.000 railway employ- 
ees in norfch of England, as a protest against the 
disciplining of an engineer. 

1913. Jan. 16. Home Rule for Ireland Bill passes 
Commons by 387 to 257; rejected on January 30 
by Lords by vote of 328 to 69. 

Jan. 27. Speaker of Commons intimates that 
he would rule out a woman-suffrage amendment 
to the Francliise Bill; government at once with- 
draws the whole bill and the militant suffragists 
resort to violent tactics — mccndiarism. bomb 
outrages, destruction of mail, burning of railway 
carriages, spoiling of golf luiks, etc. Convicted 
suffragists go on hunger strike, and the govern- 
ment passes on April 25 the " Cat-and-Mouse " 
Act for the reincarceration of suspended prisoners 
after recovery from self-imposed starvation. 

Fib. 6. Welsh Church Disestablishment 
Bill passes Commons; Lords reject it Feb, 13. 

Aprils. ISIrs. Emmeline Pankhurst, "suffra- 
gette" leader, sentenced to tliree years' penal 
servitude for inciting to destruction of property. 

May 7. Home Rule and Welsh Disestablish- 
ment bills again introduced in Commons, and 
passed on July 7 and S : rejected again by Lords on 
July 15 and 22. EmplojTnent of nonunionists 
causes strike of 50,000 miners in South Wales; 
settled, May 15. Irenewed.l 

June 11. Treaty of alliance with Japan isl 

July 12. Demonstration of 150.000 Ulstermen 
under Carson at Craigavad; resolution to resist 
by force; enrollment of Ulster Volunteer Force 
begins, arms smuggled into Ireland, and by end of 
year 100,000 men are enlisted. December 5, gov- 
ernment puts an embargo on importation of arms. 

Aug. 26. Irish transport workers go on strike 
in Dublin; many pitched battles with pohce before 
strike collapses on January 19, 1914. 

1914. March 2. Earl Roberts and others sign a 
protest against forcing the Home Rule Bill with- 
out a preliminary appeal to the nation, ^nd justi- 
fying resistance to it. 

March 9. Asquith announces a compromise 
home rule plan; each of the nine Ulster coimties 
allowed to exclude itself for six years. Rejected 
by LTnionists and Ulsterites. [202.450,000.1 

March 31. Net debt of United Kingdom, $3,-| 

April 2. Yorkshire coal strike for min imum 
wage affects 170,000 workers. 

May 12. Asquith pledges the government to 
introduce an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, 
if that measure becomes law. 

May 19. Welsh Church Disestablishment 
Bill passes Commons, and becomes law on Sep- 
tember 18 when signed by the king. Its preamble 
reads: "be it enacted . . . with the advice and 
consent of the Commons ... in accordance 
with the . . . Parliament Act* 1911." It is the 
first law enacted without the approval of the Lords. 

May 26. Home Rule Bill passes the Com- 
mons for the third time, and receives royal assent 
on September 18. 

July 21. Informal conference called by the king 
in an attempt to reach a solution of the Home Rule 
question: fails. 

July 25. Celebration of peace centennial 
with United States begins by the presentation to 
the American Ambassador of the keys of Siilgrave 
Manor, ancestral home of the Washington family. 

July 26. Troops and police at Dublin try to 
seize a consignment of rifles landed by Nationalist 
Volimteers; blood is shed. 

July SO. London Stock Exchange closes; re- 
mains closed for more than five months. 

WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 
1914- Aug. 4. War declared on Germany. (For 

e\ents leading up to Britisli participation in World 
War, and events of the war, see World War.) 
By mutual consent, domestic controversies — 
Irish, suffrage, labor — are suspended ; but labor 
unrest soon recurs, due to increase in cost of living 
and conflict V^tween go^'ernment necessity and 
principles of organized labor. 

Aug. 5. Prince of Wales National Relief Fund 
started ; some $5,000,000 subscribed the first week. 

Treasury notes for £1 10s. (about .S7,25) are is- 
sued, thus furnishing a paper currency; previously 
the £5 ($25) note was the smallest issued in Eng- 
land ; and postal orders become legal tender. Mo- 
ratorium is declared; lasts imtU Nov. 4. 

Sir John Jellicoe, commander in chief of the 
home fleet, takes supreme command in North Sea. 



1914 — 1916. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1914 (continued). 

Aug. 6. Lord Kitchener becomes Secretary of 
State for War. 

Aug. 7. House of Commons votes first war 
credit of $500,000,000 and increases the army by 
600,000 and the navy by 67,000. 

Aug. 12. Government accepts offer of men and 
warships from the self-governing dominions. 
Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hun- 
gary, [reaches France. I 
Aug. 16. First contingent of British troops I 
Aug. 28. Act giving the Treasiu^,- general au- 
thority to raise money by loans in such ways as 
seem best to it. 

.iug. SI. Act permitting the licensing justices 
to restrict sale and consumption of Uquor in any 
area during the war. 

Sepl. o. Great Britain. France, and Russia 
agree not to make peace separately; later 
Japan and Italy sign tlie agreement. 

Sept. IS. Redmond calls upon tlie Irish to take 
their part of the war burdens and sacrifices. 

Sept. 18. Royal assent given to Home Rule 
and Welsh Disestablishment bills, but both sus- 
pended during the war. Parliament prorogued. 
Oct. SO. Prince Louis of Battenberg, a German 
by birth, resigns as First Sea Lord, and is suc- 
ceeded by Lord Fisher. 

Nov. 2. North Sea is declared a "military 
area." on account of numerous German mines 
having been laid. 

Nriv. 0. War is declared on Turkey " owing 
to hostile acts committed by Turkish forces under 
German officers. ' Cyprus is formally annexed, 
Nov. 11. Parliament meets. 
Nov. £0. House of Commons votes second 
war credit of $1,125,000,000 (total war credits 
$1,625,000,000) and authorizes the enlistment of 
1,000,000 mofe men. War costs Great Britain 
$5,000,000 a day. 

Nov. 27. Defense of the Bealm Act 
(" Dora;" from tlie initial letters) permits, among 
other things, the taking over by the government 
of any factory making war material. 
Finance Act raises the duty on tea to SJ. (16 
cents) per poimd, doubles the income tax. and 
increases the tax on beer. 

Dec. 18. Turkish suzerainty over Egypt is 
declared terminated; Egypt made a British pro- 
tectorate, [formally recognized. I 
Dec. 19. French protectorate over Morocco is I 
Dec. 26. Protest of the United States on viola- 
tion of neutral rights (see United States) 
1915. For World War. see that title. 

Jan. B. London Stock Exchange reopens. 
Jan. 10. Preliminary reply to United States 
(see United States). 

Feb. 10. House of Commons adopts navy esti- 
mates for 250,000 men. 

Feb. IS. House of Conunons adopts army esti- 
mates for 3,000,000 men, and the annual act of 
March 16 calls for this number. 

March 1. Warning is given of intention to de- 
tain all ships carrj'ing goods of presumed enemy 
destination or origin. United States protests on 
March 5 (see United St.vtes) ; nevertheless, an 
order in coimcil is issued on March 15 putting the 
pohcy into effect. 

March 3. House of Commons votes third war 
credit of $1,435,(X)0.000 (total war credits $3,0G0,- 
000,000). 

March 16. Defense of the Realm Act of 
1914 is amended to permit taking over any factory 
plant, or the regulation or restriction of an.v fac- 
tory, the removal of the plant, and the seizure of 
imoccupied premises in order to house workmen. 
March 19. Arrangements for the settlement of 
latxir disput<js without stoppage of work are made 
at a conference between representatives of the 
government and thirty-five laiwr organizations. 

March SI. Net debt of United Kingdom. 
$5,241,514,000. 

.April 6. The king puts a stop to the use of 
alcoholic liquors in ail iiis houses; an example for 
the nation, for the unsatisfactory output of war 
munitions is partly attributed to druik. 

April 18. Chiu'ches observe "King's Pledge 
Simday"; pledge to abstain from intoxicants 
din-ing the war. 

.-ipril 20. Arrangements are made by which 
skilled workmen at the front may be recalled to 
work in mimition factories as needed. 

May 4. Budget of Cliancellor of the Ex- 
chequer Lloyd George arthounces cost of war to 
AprU 1st. 1915, as SI. 800.000,000, including 
$261,850,000 advance to allies and dominions; 
estimated total expenditures for fiscal year 1915- 
1916 is $5,663,270,000. War is costing Great 
Britain $10,000,000 a day. 

May 12. Viscount Brj'ce's committee on Ger- 
man atrocities reports, accusing Germany of 
shocking violations of rules of civilized warfare. 

May 19. Amendment to Defense of the Realm 
Act authorizes state control over hquor trade in 
areas prescribed by privy coimcil. 

May 2S. Coalition cabinet is announced. 



headed by Asqulth and containing 12 Liberals. 
8 Unionists, 1 Laborite, and 1 nonpartisan, includ- 
ing Lansdowne, Curzon. McKenna. Lloyd George. 
Grey, Ivitchener, Bonar Law. Austen Chamber- 
lain, Balfour, Birrch, Arthur Henderson (Labor), 
Walter Long, Churcliill, and Carson. 

June 9. Ministry of Miuiitions of War is cre- 
ated by Parliament; Lloyd George fills the post. 

June 16. Fourth war credit of $1,250,000,000 
is voted (total war credits $4,310,000,000). War 
is costing Great Britain S14.(X)0.000 a day. 

June 21. Chancellor of the Exchequer Mc- 
Kenna introduces plan for financing the war by 
issuing 4iSX bonds, partly in small denominations 
to be sold tlirough the post office. 

July 2. Munitions of War Act forbids strikes 
and lockouts and requires arbitration; labor re- 
strictions on output are suspended and employers' 
profits Uniited in " controlled establishments." 

July IS. Subscription to the war loan is about 
$3,000,000,000; 1,097,000 persons participating. 

July 14. Protest of the United States against 
treatment of neutral trade (see United States). 

July 15. Coal strike in South Wales involves 
200.000 men in spite of prohibition of Munitions 
Act; endangers supply of the fleet and manufac- 
ture of war miuiitions. Strike is settled five days 
later, government representatives acting as arbiters. 

July 21. Fifth war credit of $760,000,000 is 
voted (total war credits, $5,060,000,000). 

July 24. Reply to protest of United States 
(see United States). 

July 29. Act limits price of coal during the war. 
Finance Act does not change the income or other 
taxes, except to increase that on spirits. 

.4uff. IS. National registration day (pro- 
vided for by act of July 15) throughout the United 
Kingdom. Every person (male and female) be- 
tween the ages of 15 and 65 furnishes data to en- 
able the government to gauge labor resources and 
the number of men available for military service. 

Sept. 7. Trade-Union Congress protests against 
compidsory military service. 

.S'pp(. 16. Si.xth war credit of $1,260,000,000 
voted (total war credits, $6,310,000,000). 

Oct. 12. There are 979 controlled estabUshments 
under the ^Iimitions of War Act. 

Oct. IS. Act authorizes joint Anglo-French 
loan in United States. 

Oct. IS. Carson resigns from the cabinet owing 
to disagreement on Balkan affairs. 

Oct. 21. Renewed protest of the United States 
in regard to the conduct of the blockade and the 
seizure of American ships (see United States). 

Nov. 2. Asquith annoimces that a War Com- 
mittee wiiicli has been in existence in the cabinet 
for some time will be stabilized and hmited in 
number and have control over the " strategic con- 
duct of the war." November 11, ho announces 
it as of five members — the Prime Minister. First 
Lord of the Admiralty (Balfour), Minister of Mu- 
nitions (Lloyd George). Colonial Secretary' CBonar 
Law), and Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mc- 
Kenna). Later (July 9. 1916) Curzon is added. 

.Vr^i, 11. Earl of Derby, director-general of 
recruiting, announces that compulsory meas- 
ures will be adopted if sufficient numbers of un- 
married men do not enhst before November 30. 

Nov. 12. Churchill resigns from ministry, hav- 
ing earlier (May) given up admiralty portfolio. 

.\or. 13. Seventh war creditor $2,000,000,000 
is voted (total war credits. SS,310,(X>0,000). 

Dec. 16. Sir Douglas Haig succeeds Sir Jolm 
French in command of British troops in France 
and Flanders. 

Dee. 2S. Finance Act raises duty on tea, 
cocoa, coffee and substitutes, sugar, dried fruit, 
tobacco, gasoline, and medicine; imposes a custom 
duty on motor cars and parts, musical instruments, 
clocks, watches, and motion-picture films; in- 
creases the highest normal income tax and re- 
duces the exemptions; increases the supertax, and 
lays a 50% tax on excess war profits. 
Act is passed restricting during the war increases 
of rent or mortgage interest on small dweUings. 
1916. For World War. see that title. 

Jan. 4. Protest of the United States on mail 
seizures (see United States). 

Jan. 27. Compulsory Military Service Act 
provides that all unmarried British male subjects 
ordinarily resident in Great Britain (this excludes 
Ireland) who were between IS and 41 on August 
15, 1915, shall " be deemed ... to have been duly 
enlisted in His Majesty's regiUar forces for general 
service with the colors or in the reserve for the 
period of the war and to have been forthwith 
transferred to the reserve." Exemptions are 
given for emplo>-ment in necessary national inter- 
ests, physical disabiUty. dependents, and con- 
scientious objection. About 5.100.000 men have 
voluntarily enlisted. 

Parhament is prorogued after a session (with some 
recesses) of 14 months. It reconvenes on Feb. 15. 
Feb. 22. Eighth war credit of $2,100,000,000 
is voted (total war credits. $10.410.(X)0,000). 
War is costing Great Britain $22,000,000 a day. 



Feb. 2S. Lord Robert Cecil (already in the 
ministry-) becomes Minister of Blockades. 

March 8. House of Commons votes naval esti- 
mate for 360,000 men. 

March 30. Doctrine of continuous voyage is 
applied by orders in council to conditional as well 
as absolute contraband ; it is declared that a voy- 
age to a nonblockaded port shall not in itself gain 
immunity from capture, for vessel or cargo, for a 
breach of blockade. [380. 884. 000. | 

March 31. Net debtof United Kingdom. SIO.-I 

April 3. Reply to American protest on mail 
seizures (see LTnited States). 

.4 pril 4. Chancellor of the Exchequer McKen- 
na's budget statement shows that advances to al- 
lies and dominions during the fiscal year 1916- 
1916 have been $1,580,000,000; total expendi- 
tures during the year, $7,793,000,000; estimated 
total expenditiu-es for 1916-1917, S9,n7..5(X),fX)0. 

April 19. Annual Army Act caUs for 4,IX)0,000 
men. 

Finance Act lays a tax on entertainments, 
watches, table waters, and cider, in addition to 
previous taxes. 

A pril 22. Attempt to land arms and ammuni- 
tion in Ireland by a German auxiliary cruiser and 
a submarine is thwarted; a number of prisoners 
■are made, including the Irish Nationalist leader. 
Sir Roger Casement. He is convicted of high 
treason on June 29. and executed on August 3. 

Aprtl 24. Bebellion breaks out in Dublin, 
led by members of the Sinn Fein society; the 
post office and other buildings are seized, and 
fighting continues for a week. Martial law is de- 
clared tliroughout Ireland. May 3. three of the 
rebel leaders, including Padraic H. Pearse. " pro- 
visional president of the Irish Republic." are 
court-martialed and shot. Sixteen of the rebel 
leaders are con\icted of treason and shot. 1.619 
prisoners held, 161 others convicted, and 1,171 re- 
leased. Because of the revolt, Birrell (secretary 
for Ireland) resigns from the cabinet on May 3; 
the lord heutenant also resigns on JVlay 10. 

May. More than 43% of British merchant 
vessels have been requisitioned by the govern- 
ment for war purposes, and about 14% are em- 
ployed in behalf of the Allied governments, leav- 
ing only 43% for ordinary commerce; conse- 
quently the importation of various bulky and dis- 
pensable wares is prohibited except imder special 
Ucense. 

May 17. Advisory joint service Air Board is 
announced, with Curzon as president. Summer 
Time (" daylight-saving ") Act puts the clock 
forward one hour from May 21 to October 1; in 
later years the privy coimcil to decide on dates. 

May 24. Ninth war credit of $1,600,000,000 is 
voted (total war credits, $11,910,000,000). 
Second American protest on mail seizures (see 
United States). 

May 25. Amendatory Act on Compulsory 
Mihtary Service extends it to married men and to 
those becoming 18 since August 14. 1915, but for- 
bids the sending abroad of men imder 19. 

May 29. Announced that in 44 air attacks 
upon England smce the beginning of the war. 409 
persons have been kiUed and 1.005 injured. 

May 31. Sir Ernest Shackieton arrives at 
Falkland Islands after 17 months of Antarctic ex- 
ploration, during which his ship Endurance was 
lost ; 22 of his men are left behind in the Antarctic, 
but later are rescued. 

June 5. Earl Kitchener is lost when the 
cruiser Hampshire strikes a mine off the Orkney 
Islands while en route to Russia. 

June 23. Convention of Ulster Nationalists 
adopt proposals of exclusion from Home Rule Act. 

July 6. Lloyd George becomes Secretary of 
State for War. 

July 7. More than 3,5(X).000 workers, includ- 
ing 666.000 women, are engaged in war industries: 
4,000 controlled firms are producing munitions. 

July IS. Order in council blacklists a number 
of American firms (see United States). 

July 19. Finance Act continues previous 
taxes; increases tax on cocoa, coffee and substi- 
tutes, sugar, and gasoline; imposes a tax on me- 
chanical lighters; increases the normal income tax 
rate and raises the excess war profits tax to 60%. 

July 25. Tenth war credit of $2,250,000.1X10 
(total war credits. $14. 160.000.000). War is cost- 
ing Great Britain 825.000,000 a day. 

July 26. Protest of the United States on black- 
Usting (see July 18, above). 

July 27. Charles Fryatt. captain of a British 
merchant steamer, is executed by Germany be- 
cause of a previous attempt to ram a submarine; 
execution causes great indignation in Great Britain. 

.Aug. s. Act temporarily restricts the output 
of beer. 

Oct. 10. Reply to American protest on bla,ck- 
listing (see United States). 

Oct. 12. Reply to American protest on mail 
seizures (see United States). 
Eleventh war credit of $1,500,000,000 voted (to- 
tal war credits, $15,660,000,000). 



60 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



1916-1918. 



N 



U 



w 



1916 (continued) . 

A'oc. IB. Commons adopt a'resoiution author- 
izing the government to take exceptional meas- 
m'es to conserve the nation's food supply. 

Nov. SO. Sir Jolm Jellicoe, commander of the 
Grand Fleet, is succeeded by Sir David Beatty and 
becomes First Sea Lord. 

Dec. 1. Government takes control of the South 
Wales coal mines. 

Dec. 5. Asquith resigns; Bonar Law failing, 
Lloyd George forms a national ministry on 
December 7. It contains a war cabinet of five 
members — the I'rime Minister, Curzon {leader of 
the Lords), Bonar Law (Chancellor of the Excheq- 
uer and leader of the Commons) , Viscount Mihier, 
and Arthur Henderson (Laborite) without port- 
folios. Other members of the ministry are Bal- 
four (foreign). Long (colonies), Derby (war), Aus- 
ten Chamberlain (India). Carson (admiralty), Ce- 
cil (blockade). Addison (munitions). Cave (home). 

Dec. IS. Twelfth war credit of S2, 000.000,000 
is voted (total war credits, $17,660,000,000). The 
war Is costing Great Britain $28,500,000 a day. 

Dec. IS. Reelection of Ministers Act suspends 
the requirement, for Lloyd George's new ministry, 
of resignation and reelection. Tills is done also 
with the new war ministries later created. 

Dec. ^2. Act authorizes new ministries of 
labor, pensions (separate act), food, shipping con- 
trol, and air board, most of them to cease within a 
year after end of the war. Corresponding de- 
partments already exist in some cases. 
Parliament is prorogued. 

Dec. SI. For reply to German peace proposals, 
see 'WoBLD 'W.iR. 
1917. For World War, see that title. 

Jan. 11. For reply to Wilson's peace note, see 
World War. 

Feb. 7. Parliament reconvenes. 

Feb. 14. Thirteenth war credit of $2,750,000,- 
000 is voted (total war credits, $20,410,000,000). 

Feb. le. Third war loan brings in about .S4,- 
866,000,000, with 8,000,000 subscribers. 

Feb. gs. Naval estimate is for 400,000 men. 

March 1. Government assumes control of 
all coal mines; controller of coal mmes ministe- 
rial officer in charge. 

March 7. Irish Nationalists demand immedi- 
ate application of Home Rule Act. 

March 16. Fourteenth war credit of $300,000,- 
000 voted (total war credits, $20,710,000,000). 

March 20. First meeting of Imperial War 
Cabinet, attended by representatives of govern- 
ments of Canada, Newfoundland, South Africa, 
New Zealand, and India; Australia not repre- 
sented. Fom-teen meetings are held, and on May 
17 Lloyd George annomices that hereafter such 
meetmgs will be held annually or oftener. 

March SS. Act for ministry of national service, 
to control the making of the " best use of all per- 
sons ... in any industry, occupation, or service." 

March SI. Net debt of United Kingdom, 
$19,620,836,000. [5,000,000 men. I 

-4pri7 .5. Annual Army Act calls for force of I 
Eeview-of-Exemptions Act calls for reexamina- 
tion of discharged and rejected men. 

April 6. For entry of the United States into 
the war, see United States. 

April ST. War cabinet accepts the principle of 
an Imperial preference tariff to be established 
after the war, but specifies that no taxes shall be 
laid on foodstuffs. 

May 2. Chancellor of the Exchequer Bonar 
Law, in budget statement, says that during the 
fiscal year $2,970,000,000 have been advanced to 
allies and the dominicas (total advances $24,250,- 
000,000); total expenditures for year have been 
810,990,565,000 and estimate of all expenditures 
for 1917-191.S, 311,451,905,000. 

May 7. Manifesto issued by 18 Irish prelates 
afilrming " no partition and no coercion." 

May 11. Fifteenth war credit of $2,500,000,- 
000 voted (total war credits, $23,210,000,000). 

May 16. Lloyd George proposes to put Home 
Rule in operation, but excluding six Ulster coun- 
ties. Irish NationaUsts object and scheme is 
dropped. 

June. Gen. J. C. Smuts of .South Africa (not a 
member of Parliament) sits in the war cabinet, 
but does not appear on the official list as a member 
until November. 

Jxme 15. Government decides to release aU 
Dublin Rebellion prisoners. 

July IS. Austen Chamberlain, secretary for 
India, and Lord Hardinge (former viceroy), under- 
secretary for foreign affairs, resign when the re- 
port on the Mesopotamian campaign holds them 
responsible for disaster. 

July 16-20. In a reorganization of the minis- 
try, Carson becomes a member of the war cabinet 
(now of seven members) ^vithout portfolio. .Sir 
Eric Gcddes becomes First Lord of the Admiralty, 
and Winston Churchill Minister of Mimitions. 

July 17. King George changes his family 
(house) name from " Saxe-Coburg and Gotha " to 
''Windsor**; all German titles of the royal 



family are dropped, and the connected Teck and 
Battenberg families are given English titles. 
Report made by a royal commission on increase of 
labor unrest; finds it due to the high cost of living, 
restrictions on personal freedom and of occupa- 
tion, lack of confidence in government promise to 
restore after the war the antebeUum trade-imion 
conditions, government delay in settling disputes, 
lack of housing, mdustrial fatigue, and inconsider- 
ate treatment of women laborers. 

July 2S. Sixteenth war credit of $3,250,000,000 
voted (total war credits, $26,460,000,000). 
An Irish convention of 101 members, represent- 
ing all shades of opinion and interest 15 seats re- 
served for Sinn Fern, which refiLses to participate) 
assembles in Dublin under government sanction. 
Sir Horace Phmkett is president. It sits with 
closed doors, and later moves to Belfast. At- 
tempts to draw up a constitution for Ireland. 

Aug. 2. Finance Act increases tax on enter- 
tainments and tobacco and raises that on excess 
war profits to 80%. 

Any. 11. Henderson resigns from war cabinet 
and is succeeded by G.N. Barnes as Lalxjr repre- 
sentative. Resignation is forced, the Labor party 
having decided, with Henderson's apjiroval. to 
send delegates to the International Labor and So- 
cialist Conference at Stockholm, although the 
government had refused consent. On September 
4 the Trade-Union Congress overwhelmingly ve- 
toes further consideration of the Conference. 

Aui). 16. Lloyd George states that the loss of 
British vessels by submarine or mine has de- 
creased from 560.000 tons m April and 320.000 
tons in Jime to 170,(K)0 tons (estimated) in Au- 
gust. Taking into consideration new tonnage, 
the average net loss since February has been 250,- 
000 tons montlily. 

Aug. 21. Corn Production Act fixes a guar- 
anteed price for British-grown wheat and oats for 
6 years, with a miiumum wage for farm laborers 
Ministry of reconstruction is enacted; to end two 
years after war closes. 

Oci. 31. Seventeenth war credit of $2,000,- 
000,000 voted (total war credits, $28,460,000,000). 

Noe. 29. Air Force Constitution Act makes 
the air force a tliird service and substitutes a coim- 
cil (like those for army and na^-y) in place of the 
existing board. 

Dec. IS. Eighteenth war credit of $2,750,000.- 
000 voted (total war credits, $31,210,000,000). 
Navy estimates call for 450,000 men. 

Dec. 26. Sir Rosslj-n Wemyss succeeds Jellicoe 
as First Sea Lord. 
1918. For World War, see that title. 

January. Labor party conference states its 
demands: (1) imi\ei-sal enforcement of the na- 
tional minimum (minimimi wage) which is put at 
30s. ($7.25) per week; (2) democratic control of 
industry, including the immediate nationalization 
of railways, canals, and great steamsliip lines; 
(3) taxation reform, dependence chiefly on gradu- 
ated income tax and no encroachment on the na- 
tional minimum; (4) sequestrating death dues to 
prevent the passing on of great fortimes. Socialis- 
tic tendencies in the party cause movement for a 
separate Trade-Union party. 

Jan. 21. Carson resigns from the war cabinet 
in order to be free to act in Irish matters. 

Feb. 6. Representation of the People Act 
(Reform Act* establishes virtual manhood suffrage 
(residence requirement only), gives suffrage to 
women of 30 years who are occupiers or wives of 
such, provides for absentee voting, gives suffrage 
to men of 19 who have been in active service, 
limits plural voting to two votes, safeguards rights 
of those in service during registration, disfranchises 
conscientious objectors for five years after peace, 
cost of elections to be a pubUc charge and candi- 
dates' expenditiu'es more strictly limited, imiform 
nomination and election days tliroughout the 
kingdom. Seats in Great Britain are redistrib- 
uted and the membership in Commons increased 
from 607 to 707, Including six more university con- 
stituencies (15 in all). A separate act provides for 
redistribution in Ireland. In Great Britam there 
is one member to 70,000 people; in Ireland, one to 
43,000. Act gives parliamentarj- suffrage to 
about 2,000.000 men and 6.000.000 women. 
Lords vote for proportional representation, but 
this, as well as a Commons' measure for alterna- 
tive vote in triangular contests, is thrown out 
finally. Military Service Act abolishes certain 
exemptions and gives authority to withdraw ex- 
emptions on occupational groimds ( " combing 
out "). Parliament is prorogued, but reassem- 
bles on February 12. 

Feb. 16. Controversy as to the degree of power 
which the Supreme War Council of the Allies at 
Versailles should possess leads to the resignation 
of Robertson, chief of the imperial staff, who op- 
poses concentration of authority as against separ- 
ate commands. Sir Henry Wilson succeeds him. 

Feb. 2J,. Military reeivforcements are sent to 
west and south of Ireland in view of disturbances 
wliich approximate open rebellion. 



March 5. Sinn Fein revolutionists in Ireland 
capture liiltamagh. County Mayo. 

March 6. Jolm Kedmond, leader of the Irish 
NationaUsts, dies. 

March 11. Nineteenth war credit of $3,000,000- 
000 voted (total war credits, $34,210,000,000). 

March 12. John Dillon elected leader of the 
Irish Nationalists. 

March 26. Board of Trade, to save coal, issues 
a '■ curfew order," reducing the ordinary con- 
sumption of gas and electricity, restricting the 
time of serving of hot meals or cooking in restau- 
rants, clubs, etc., and the use of lights in theaters, 
dance halls, etc., and prohibiting the lighting of 
shop fronts at any time. 

March SI. Gross debt of United Kingdom, 
$28,431,000,000. 

April 5. Majority of Irish Convention re- 
port (Ulster delegates dissenting) in favor of a 
bicameral parUament for Ireland, Unionists to 
have 40% of the Commons; Commons to elect 42 
members to British Parliament ; lord lieutenant 
with an executive coimcil resjronsible to the Irish 
Conunons. 

April 7. Scheme for compulsory rationing, 
started in London on Februar>' 28, is made gen- 
eral: Sugar, fats, and meat, also tea in places. 
To keep down price of bread the government 
subventionizes millers and bakers 

April 14. Since the outbreak of the war 
1.426,000 women have entered eniploj-ment. 

April IS. Military Service (Man Power) Act 
raises the age to include 50 years, and in some cases 
55. Ireland is to be included by order of coim- 
cil ; but this is accompanied by the implied promise 
to put through a new Home Rule measure based 
on the convention's report. Govemnjent decid- 
ing this should not be done, and all factions in Ire- 
land except Carson's followers denoimcing con- 
scription, no attempt is made to put it in operation 
in Ireland. Irish members ab.sent themselves for 
three months (return on July 23). 
Austen Chamberlain becomes a member of the 
war cabinet without portfolio, replacing Mihier 
who becomes secretary for war, Derby going to 
Paris as ambassador. 

April 22. Chancellor of the Exchequer Bonar 
Law in his budget statement says that the ad- 
vances to allies and domuiions during the fiscal 
year have been 32.525.000.000, and the advances 
of United States to Great Britain have been 
$2,500,000,000; total expenditures diu-ing 1917- 
1918, $13,480,000,000; estimate of expenses for 
1918-1919, $14,860,000,000. 

May ,5. Field Marshal Lord French l>ecomes 
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and Edward 
Shortt cliief secretary. 

May IS. Revolutionary movements in Ireland 
lead to the arrest of many Sinn Fein agitators, 
including four members of Parliament. 

May 21. Scottish and Welsh congresses put 
forward idea of home rule for those cotmtries. 

June 3. Treaty is signed with United States 
by which citizens of each coimtry, resident in the 
other, are liable to conscription, but have sixty 
days in wliich to enlist in army of own countrj-. 
Irishmen in United States are excepted. 

June 11. Second session of imperial war cabinet 
begins and continues for two and a half months. 
Australia is represented this time A colonial 
conference, held at the same time, considers espe- 
cially questions of reconstruction and emigration. 
June 19. Twentieth war credit of $2,500,000,- 
000 voted (total war credits, $36,710,000,000). 

July 2S. Several thousand mimition workers, 
who struck for higher wages on July 24, return to 
work after the government declares that they must 
either work or fight and promises an investiga- 
tion of their grievances. 

July SO. Finance Act raises income tax, super- 
tax, and tax on spirits, beer, tobacco, matches, 
.sugar, and increases stamp duties and postage. 
Tax on liLxiu-ies is reserved for future enactment, 
but later withcU'awn. 

Aug. 2. Twenty-first war credit of $3,500,000- 
000 voted (total war credits, $40,210,000,000). 

Aug. 7. Lloyd George annoimces that the 
United Kingdom has raised 6,2.50.000 men during 
the war for the army and na.vy. the dominions 
1.000.000. and India 1,250,000. 

Aug. S. Education Act compels attendance 
at school imtil 14 (or 15 by local ordmance), com- 
pulsory attendance at continuation (liberal-edu- 
cation) schools from 14 to 16 imtil 1925, then 14 
to 18, all day, or 8 hours a week if child is at work, 
the 8 hours to be cotmted in the working hours; 
no cliild under 12 is to work for wages, between 12 
and 14 may work 2 iiours a day on Sunday or 
school days; social centers are to be created, partly 
at national expense; all fees for pubhc elementary 
schools abolished. 

British Nationahty and Status of Aliens Act per- 
mits revocation of naturalization and forbids 
natiu-alization of subjects of enemy nations (with 
certain exceptions) for 10 years after the war 
Oct. ie. British navy, including auxiUaries, 



1918-1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE). 



61 



1918 (co?itinued). 
has increased from 2,500.000 tons displacement at 
the beginning of the war to 6.500,000 tons, and tlie 
personnel from 146. GOO to 406,000. In the trans- 
portation of 21,500,000 soldiers by sea, only 4,391 
have been lost. 

Oct. 2S. Food controller increases the retail 
price of meat and reduces the ration to three 
quarters of a pomid weekly for each person. 

Nov. II. For the cessation of hostilities, see 
World War. 

Nov. 13. Final (twenty-second) war credit of 
83.500.000,000 voted (total war credits, $43. 710.- 
000.000). 

Nov. ei. Wages Act provides tliat war wages 
shall continue for six months of transition and re- 
construction period. [iiieiit. | 
Act passes making women eligible to Parlia-I 
Parliament is prorogued; dissolved 4 days later. 
Dtc. 6. War cabinet concedes an eight-hour 
day to railway men to avert a strike; in force on 
Fel^ruary 1. Labor unrest spreads rapidly 
throughout the country. Dec. 7-16, strike of 
100. (XJO cotton operatives in Lancashire. 

Dec. 14. General election, first smce 1910. 
Women are candidates in 14 constituencies; only 
one, a Sinn Feiner, is elected, and she does not take 
her seat. Coalition ministry wins 4S5 seats; 
Sinn Fein {Irish independence society) obtains 
73 seats, but refuses to enter Parliament; Labor 
party with 61 members becomes the official opposi- 
tion; while the Liberals have 26, Irish National- 
ists 7, Independent Unionists 28. and Unionists 
(Ulster) 27. 

Dec. 26-31. President Wilson is in England. 
1919. For negotiations following the World War. 
see World War. 

Jan. 10. Lloyd George's new coalition min- 
istry is annomiccd. War cabinet is continued 
and consists of the prime minister, Bonar Law 
(Privy Seal and leader of the Commons). Curzon 
as leader of the Lords. Chamberlain (Chancellor 
of the Exchequer), and Barnes (without portfolio). 
Others in the ministry are Balfour. Milner, 
Churchill, Long, Montagu. Stanley, and Addison. 
The undersecretary for India is a nati\'e (Lord 
Sinlia). Firstadmissionofan Indian tosuch a post. 
Jan. SI. Constituent assembly of 29 of the 
Sinn Fein members of ParUament (rest are in 
confinement) meets at Dublin and issues a Decla- 
ration of Independence together with a demand 
for the withdrawal of " foreign " garrisons. De 
Valera. the " president of the Irish Republic," es- 
capes from prison (February 3) ; goes to America. 
February. Great social unrest following the 
■war is reflected in strikes throughout the kingdom 
and dissatisfaction over progress of demobiliza- 
tion. Strike in Glasgow requires soldiers to guard 
the tramway, gas, and electric systems. Miners 
tlireaten a general strike for March 15, demanding 
a raise of 30% in addition to continuation of the 
war-time bonus, 6-hour day, and nationalization of 
mines and minerals, but agree to await a report 
by a royal commission, promised for March 20. 
War-time rationing of food is discontinued. 

Feb. 3-9. Strike on " tubes " and trains In 
London over the S-hour agreement; fails, as pub- 
lic supports the govenm.cnt. Other strikes pre- 
vented by operation of Defense of the Realm 
Act ('* Dora '*; from the mitial letters). 

Feb. 4. Thirty-first ParUament of United King- 
dom meets. 

Feb. 27. Reelection of Ministers Act repeals, 
as regards the first nine months after a general 
election, the requirement that new ministers shall 
seek reelection. 

Aerial Navigation Act regulates civilian flying. 
Princess Patricia, cousin of the king. is. with his 
approl:)ation, married to a commoner. 
British Industrial Parliament: Representa- 
tives of capital and labor meet to investigate so- 
cial and economic conditions. 

March 9. American and Canadian soldiers at 
London riot against the police. 

March 20. Coal Commission makes prelim- 
inary reports; that of the independent members 
allows an advance of 2 shillings (50 cents) a day, 
a 7-hour day now. and a 6-hour day in July. 1921. 
if economic conditions permit; also, an allocation 
from coal revenue for mmers' houses. Later 
report on nationalization is promised. Report 
strongly condemns existing system of o^vnership 
and working of mines. Government adopts this 
report and wanis mmers that a strike against it 
will be resisted. Mmers adopt report. March 26. 
March 31. Gross debt of United Kingdom 
$36,134,100,000. 

April 2. Rent Restriction Act continues for a 
year, with modifications, the war act of December 
23. 1915. 

.4 pril 6-25. Slmn Fein demonstration in 
Limerick leads to a general strike and military 
occupation. Martial law is declared there and 
also at Cork and Tipperary during the month. 

April 16. Naval. Military, and Air Force Serv- 
ice Act meets conditions of the period of transition 



between war and peace. Conscription acts con- 
tinued for a year. Annual Army Act calls for 
850.000 men, due to unrest at home, in Ireland, 
and in over-sea possessions. 

April SO. Chancellor of Exchequer Chamber- 
lain m budget statement says that total war 
advances to allies and dominions were SS.695.- 
000,000; expenditures for 1918-1919, S12.896,- 
505,000: estimates for 1919-1020. $7,174,550,000 
with estimated revenue at S5, 800,000, 000, leaving 
a deficit to be made good by borrowing of SI, 375,- 
000,000. 

May. Irish situation is aggravated by pres- 
ence of Irish-American delegates seeking recogni- 
tion at Peace Conference to present claim for 
Irish independence. 

May 6. Supreme Coimcil at Paris gives Great 
Britain mandate for German East Africa and 
Nauru Island (in the Pacific) and jointly with 
Fi-ance for Togo and Kamerun. British domin- 
ions get other mandates. 

May 13. Wliile American naval hydroplanes 
are attempting a stop flight across the Atlantic 
(see United States), Hariy Hawker (British 
aviator, born in Australia, l&SS) and Mackenzie 
Grieve (bom ISSO) attempt a no-stop flight from 
Newfoundland to Ireland, but are forced to de- 
scend. Rescued by a steamer. 

May 15. Body of Edith Cavell interred at 
Norwich after memorial services at Westminster 
Abbey. 

June 3. Ministry of health established. [ 

June 14-15. Capt..laterSir,JoIm William Alcock 
(killed in accident, Dec. 20, 1919) and Arthur 
Whitten (now Sir Arthur) Brown. British aviators, 
fly from Newfoundland to Clifdcn. Ireland, in a 
little over 16 hours; first no-stop flight across 
the Atlantic. Both aviators are decorated for 
this flight. 

June 20. Further reports by Coal Commission. 
Chairman and Labor members recommend im- 
mediate national acquisition of coal royalties and 
complete nationalization of mines after 3 years. 
Mine-owners' representatives declare nationaliza- 
tion will not lower prices. Another report favors 
nationalization of all mineral rights. 

June 2S. Anglo-Franco-American treaty 
of alliance signed; Great Britain and United 
States to assist France at once in case of an un- 
provoked attack by Germany. Not ratifled by 
United States Senate. 

July. Reqiuremeut of food cards for meat, 
butter, and sugar renewed. Select p arl lament ar>- 
commission to investigate profiteering. 

Jitly 2-6. Transatlantic flight of the R34, a 
British airship (see United States). 

July 31. Great Britain ratifles Treaty of Ver- 
sailles, also the French alliance treaty; l)ut ratifi- 
cation is not deposited imtil October 10, when all 
the dominions have acquiesced. 
Housing and Towu Planning Act makes it the 
duty of a local authority to see that people are 
properly housed; government subventionizes the 
activity. General deficiency in housing re- 
ported; dwellings for 3.000.000, includmg 758.000 
in London, are needed. 

Finance Act raises death duties on estates of $15.- 
000. reduces excess-profits tax to 40%, and in- 
creases tax on spirits and beer. 

August. Agreement with Belgium over Ger- 
man East Africa (see Belgium-). 

Aug. 1-6. Police strike in London. Liver- 
pool, and elsewhere for right to maintain connec- 
tion with outside organizations. At Liverpool 
riots break out, suppressed by military charges. 
Some sympathetic strilies by other public labor- 
ers. Pending bill, forbidding outside affiliation, 
enacted, August 15. Strikers dismissed. 

,4 ug. 5. Prince of Wales departs for his tour of 
Canada. 

Aug. 9. Anglo-Persian agreement (see Persia). 
Aug. 15. Ministry of transport (ways and 
communications) established. [tices. I 

Act restoring right of prewar trade-unions prac-| 
Aug. IS. Profiteering Act: Board of Trade 
empowered to investigate complaints and take 
proceedings. 

Sept. 10. Trade-LTnion Congress votes for na- 
tionalization of the coal mines by political ac- 
tion, hut is against direct action. 

Sept. 27-Oct. 6. General railway strike on 
wage demand, stopping traffic all over Great 
Britain; settled by continuance of war wages for a 
year and, also, after that unless cost of living drops 
15%. Strike costs government $50,000,000. 

Oct. £7. Small war cabinet replaced by a larger 
one of 20 members. 

Oct. 29. Supplementary' financial statement by 
Chamberlain places expected deficit for the year 
at $2,350,000,000. 

Oct. 30. Defeat in Commons by vote of 405 to 
50 of a Labor amendment advocating a levy on 
capital to meet the deficit. 

Nov. 15. At a by-election, Lady Astor. Union- 
ist, elocted to Parliament. First woman to be 
sworn in. 



Nov. 12-Dec. 10. First England-Australia 
flight accomplished by Ross Smith, stopping at 
various points en route. 

Nov. 25. Lord Lieutenant of Ireland issues a 
proclamation of suppression against the Sinn Fein 
throughout the island. 

Dec. 1 . Prince of Wales returns from American 
tour. 

Dec. 19. Attempt to assassinate Lord Lieuten- 
ant French at Dublin. 

Dec. 22. Lloyd George explains the new Home 
Rule Bill: Two parliaments, one for the whole of 
Ulster, other for the rest of Ireland; a coimcil as a 
coimectmg link between them, elected equally by 
the two parliaments and having private-biU legis- 
lation and such other powers as the Irish parlia- 
ments confer upon it; self-government for Ireland 
hi all domestic concerns, with fufl constituent 
power within that field, but no separation from the 
United Kingdom. Bill, formally introduced Feb- 
ruary 25. 1920, not satisfactory to Ireland, where 
the smoldering revolt becomes so pronoimced that 
martial law is virtually in effect. 

Dec. 23. Government of India Act (see India). 
1920. Jan. 15. Government offer on the wage 
question is finally accepted by the National Union 
of KailwajTiien. 

Si n n Fei n makes gains in the Irish mimicipal elec- 
tions. 

Jan. 27. Barnes, last of the Laborites, retires 
from the cabinet. 

Jan. SO. Organization of local boards, follow- 
mg the Siim Fein success in the miiiiiclpal elec- 
tions in Ireland, results in seditious acts by new 
officials, many of whom are arrested the next day. 

February. The Mad Midlah is finally defeated 
in Somaliland and control over the interior re- 
sumed. 

Feb. 4. Poimd sterling reaches a mhiimum of 
S3. 18 (normal exchange value, S4.86) in New 
York for demand bills of exchange, and then rises 
somewhat. 

Feb. 11. In the Commons, a Laborite amend- 
ment to the address demanding nationahzation of 
the coal mines is defeated. 329 to 64. 

Feb. 14. Former Premier Asquith retiuTied to 
ParUament at a by-election; indication of waning 
of the coalition rather than of revival of the Lib- 
eral party. 

Feb. 16. Jowett, a nonconformist clergyman, 
preaches in Diu"ham cathedral, 

March. Situation in Ireland becomes a 
reign of terror; repeated attacks on police bar- 
racks, raids on tax officers, cattle drives. British 
forces largely augmented and cordons drawn 
aroimd the chief cities. 

Movement for a British Middle-class Union of 
salaried persons. 

March 10. National Conference of Coal Min- 
ers votes for a strike and direct action to compel 
nationalization of the mines; but on March 11 the 
Trade-L'nion Congress rejects this by a majority 
of 2.820.000. 

March 16. Prince of Wales departs for Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand, 

March 20. Lord Mayor MacCtu-tin of Cork, a 
member of Sinn Fein, assassinated. 

March 26. Alan Bell, resident magistrate in 
Dublin, assassinated. 

April 4- Sinn Fein prisoners at Mountjoy go 
on a hunger strike. Irish laborers inaugiu"ate a 
general strike on April 13 and the government re- 
leases the himger strikers the next day. 



BRITISH DOMINIONS, COLONIES, 

PROTECTORATES, POSSESSIONS, 

AND DEPENDENCIES. 

The British Empire includes an area of 12,780,- 
380 square miles and a population estimated in 1919 
at 441,410,000. The subdivisions are here arranged 
under the six great divisions of the world: Europe, 
Asia, .\frica. America. Australasia, and Oceania. 

In form of government the colonies are divided 
into three classes: (1) The " crown colonies "' over 
whicli the home government exercises complete con- 
trol; (2) Possessions having representative institu- 
tions, in which the home government has a veto on 
legislation, and retains appointments and control of 
the principal public officers; (3) " Responsible gov- 
ernments." in wliich all the officials except the nomi- 
nal ones are appointed by the colonial governments ; 
the home government retaining a seldom-used veto 
on legislation. These include the great " self-gov- 
erning dominions " of South Africa, Australia, 
New Zealand, and Canada. A special merit of Brit- 
ish colonial government is its elasticity; it seeks no 
uniformity, and allows liberty as to details, so far 
as such liberty does not weaken or infringe upon the 
central home authority, which is always paramoimt 
and wliich keeps control of all foreign relations and 
treaties. 

The colonies are administered by a colonial ofHce 
in three departments: (1) The Dominions Depart- 
ment deals with business connected with the self- 



62 



NATIONAL HISTORIES : BRITISH EMPIRE (EUROPE -ASIA). 



N 



U 



W 



governing colonies and is joined with the secreta- 
riat of tlie Imperial Conference. (2) The Cromi 
Colonies Department deals with the admmistrativc 
and political work of the crown colonies and protec- 
torates. (3) The General Department, which is 
also the legal department, deals with matters com- 
mon to all crown colonies, such as education, tele- 
graphs, post office, banking, and currency. Con- 
nected with this department are standing commits 
tees which deal with promotion, pensions, finance, 
concessions, and railways. 

Great Britain expends in connection with the colo- 
nies and protectorates (exclusive of India) over 
$4,860,000 amiually. 

EUROPEAN DEPENDENCIES. 

ISLE OF MAN. 

The Isle ofM.^n is a small island in the Irish Sea, 
which is administered in accordance with its owii 
laws by a governor and legislative council appomted 
by the crown. The representative assembly, known 
as the House of Keys, consists of 24 members chosen 
for seven vears. The island is not bound by acts of 
Parliament imless specially mentioned in them. 

The principal products of the island are oats, 
barley, turnips, and potatoes. There are smaU de- 
posits of lead, zinc, and salt. 

The area of the island is 227 square nules, and the 
population is 52,016 (1911). 

CHANNEL ISLANDS. 
The Ch \NNEL Isl.^nds are a group of small islands 
off the coast of France, of which Jersey, Guernsey, 
Aldemey. and Sark are the most important. They 
are administered according to their own laws and 
acts of Parliament are not effective unless the islands 
are speciallv mentioned. They are governed by offi- 
cials appomted by the crown and representative as- 
semblies. , 

The chief industry is agriculture and cattle rais- 
ing for which the islands are famous. 

The area is 75 square miles and the population 
96,899 (1911). 

MALTA. 
M 4LTA, an island south of Sicily, was held by the 
Knights of St. Jolm after their expulsion from 
Khodes in 1565, and successfiUly withstood a long 
siege by the Turks. It surrendered to Napoleon m 
1798 passed to tiie British in 1800, and was formaUy 
annexed to the British crown in 1814. It is one of 
the most important ports of call in the world and is 
the naval base for the British Mediterranean fleet. 
Valletta is the chief town and port. 

The governor is assisted by an executive council 
and a council of government of nine official members 
and eight elective members. The chief products 
are potatoes, lemons, mandarins, oranges, omons, 
and grain. . . . 

The area is 92 square miles (with the neighbor- 
ing islands, 118 square mUes) and in 1918 the popu- 
lation was 224,000. 

GIBRALTAR. 
GIBR4LT.4R is a rocky area of nearly two square 
miles at the extreme southern point of Spam with a 
civil population (1919) of 16,096, and about 1.867 
aliens. It was seized by the British m 1704 and 
though enduring many sieves since, notably m 1782, 
it has never been retaken. Natiu-e and the most 
persistent care and skiU have rendered it one of the 
strongest fortresses in the world. It is also a naval 
base with a harbor of 260 acres. It is admimstered 
as a crown colony imder a governor who is at the 
same time military commander in cliief . 

BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. 
ADEN. 

Aden '■ the Gibraltar of the East," is a peninsular 
rock, city, and harbor on the extreme southern coast 
of Arabia, one hundred and five miles east of Cape 
Bab el Mandeb. The area is 75 square miles. (For 
population, etc., see imder Pebim.) It first came 
into British possession in 1839, when the East India 
Company occupied it. Great Britain now holds a 
protectorate of Aden, embracing 9,000 square 
miles. Great sums have been expended on the forti- 
fications and harbor. A political " Resident " ad- 
ministers affairs and also commands the troops of 
Perim, Aden, and the protectorate. Directly oppo- 
site in' Africa is the British Somaliland protectorate. 

PERIM. 

Perim is a strongly fortified island rock in the 
strait of Bab el Mandeb at the entrance of the Red 
Sea The strait is 15 miles wide, and its deep chan- 
nel is divided by Perim. The island was occupied 
by the British in 1857, because of the proposed cut- 
ting of the Suez Canal. The area is 5 square miles. 

The population of Aden and Perim was 46,000 m 
1911. Aden produces little, its chief industries being 
the manufacture of salt and cigarettes. The cliief 
exports are coffee, gums, hides, skins, tobacco, and 
sugar. 



SOKOTRA. 

SoKOTRA is an island farther east, at the entrance 
to the Gulf of Aden. It was acquired by Great 
Britain in 1870. The inliabitants were Christians 
until the close of the seventeenth century, when 
they were converted to Islam. The chief products 
are dates and various gums. The area is 1,382 
square miles and the population about 12.000. 

KURLA MURIA ISLANDS. 

The Kubia Muria Islands, a group of five rocky 
islets off the southern coast of Oman, were obtained 
from the Sultan of Maskat as a landing place of the 
Red Sea cable. 

BAHREIN ISLANDS. 

The Bahrein Islands are in the Persian GuK and 
have a population of about 103.000 and an area of 
about 230 square miles. The chief iiidustrj- is the 
pearl fisheries. Dates are also produced; and the 
islands ai-e noted for a remarkably fine breed of 
white donkeys. Sailcloth and reed mats are manu- 
factured. 



BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. 

British North Borneo comprises the northern 
part of the island of Borneo, wliieh lies southeast 
of the Malay Peninsula and southwest of the Phihp- 
pines It has an area of about 31.106 square miles 
and a population (191 1 ) ot 208,000, and is under the 
jurisdiction of the British North Borneo Company. 
The chief products are lumber (the greatest natiu-al 
resource of the coimtry), sago, rice, coffee, spices of 
all sorts, rubber, and tobacco. In 1888 the British 
government proclaimed a protectorate over North 
Borneo. 

BRUNEI. 
Brcnei. on the northwest coast of Borneo, was 
made a protectorate in 1888 and in 1900 the admm- 
istration was handed over to the British Resident. 
The area is about 4,000 square miles and the popula- 
tion is estimated at 32,000. 



SARAWAK. 

Sarawak has an area of 42.000 square miles and an 
estimated population of 600.000. The govemnient 
of part of the present territory was obtamed m 184_ 
by Sir James Brooke and the present rajah. Charies 
Vyner Brooke, is a descendant. Coal exists m large 
quantities, as well as gold, silver, diamonds, qiuck- 
silver. and antimony. The most valuable exports 
are rubber and pepper. 

CEYLON. 
Cetlon is an island in the Indian Ocean, southeast 
of the southern extremity of India. Because of its 
marvelous fertihty and luxuriant vegetation it is 
called the " peari garden of the world ■ Coast set- 
tlements which were foimded by the Portuguese m 
1505 were captured by the Dutch m the seventeenth 
century and lost by them to the British in 1-96. 
Two years later Ceylon was made a British colony_ 
The governor is assisted by an executive coimcU ot 
seven high British officers and by a legislative coun- 
cil of 21 members, among whom are ten persons, six 
of whom are named by the governor, to represent the 
various races of the country. The island often 
serves as a place of confinement for prisoners of war. 
Arabi Pasha and many of the Boer captives were 
exiled here. The area is 25,481 square miles and 
the estimated population (1918) was 4.686,383. 



tional square miles, including the port of Kowloon 
and the territory on the mainland in the immediate 
vickiity; these together with the island now consti- 
tute the crown colony of Hongkong, Hongkong is a 
first-class military and naval station and a free port. 
A larger tonnage enters and clears there than at any 
other port in the world. 

The area of Hongkong island is 32 square miles 
and of the colony 391 square miles; the population 
of the city of Victoria on Hongkong island is esti- 
mated (1918) at 299,450 and that of the colony at 
561,500. 

INDIA. 
Historical Outline. 

India almost deser\es to he called a continent by 
itself. Its poUtical history has no unity, but is the 
story of various races and creeds acting and reactmg 
upoii each other. The India of prehistoric ages was 
apparently populated by tlu-ee distinct stocks when 
it was- invaded by a branch of the great Aryan fam- 
ily in the second miUennium b. c. Tlie mtermixture 
of Aryans and aborigines constitutes the bulk of the 
population there to-day. During 2.000 years, inva- 
sions of barbarous Tiu-anians from across the Huna/- 
lavas have added vigorous strains to the blood of the 
population. To this essentiaUy foreign clement 
from the North was due the extension of Buddhism 
which arose in the Ganges valley as a protest agamst 
decadent Brahmanism. For generations it was a 
great unifying influence, but declined m the place of 
its birth, while its sway reached eveiituaUy the utter- 
most regions of .\sia. 

The quarrels between the creeds and races of In- 
dia were interrupted in the eleventh century a. d , 
by successive invasions of Moslem Tatars and Af- 
ghans from the Northwest. The invaders had 
learned to act together and were therefore superior to 
the native population. By the thirteenth century 
they had conquered neariy the whole of India, which 
remained more or less under Moslem rule untU the 
scepter passed to Great Britain. The most power- 
ful and effective of tliese Moslem dynasties was that 
of the Moguls, or ISlongols. descendants of Tamer- 
lane (Timoiu- the Great), who established them- 
selves in Delhi m 1556 and reigned witli splendor 
until 1707 The family of Bahadur Shah, sultan, 
continued nominal rulers tUl the suppression of the 
Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. ^ ., r^ 

The Portuguese found their way around the Cape 
of Good Hope in 1498, and began to trade with In- 
dia They made no attempt to secure anything 
more than trading stations, or factories. The 
French and the English aimed at small territorial 
bases, wliich enlarged steadily. In 1757, at the bat- 



THE MALDIVE ISLANDS 

This group of thirteen coral islands, four hmidred 
mUes west of Ceylon, has a population of 70.()00 and 
an area of about 115 square miles. The inhabitants 
are Mohammedans. The Maldives are a depend- 
encv of Ceylon. They aboimd in coconut palms, 
and yield millet, fruit, and edible nuts. The people 
are civUized and are great navigators and traders. 

CYPRUS. 

Cyprus is the third largest island m the Mediter- 
ranean. It has had a varied history for 2.500 years 
From 1878 to 1914. it was administered by Great 
Britain under a convention with the SiUtan of Tur- 
kev On November 5. 1914, it was annexed and 
given a representative form of government. The 
system of education provides that each race shall 
have its own schools, and in 1917 there were thus 4,9 
Greek Christian, 212 Moslem, four Armenian, and 
lour Maronite elementary schools. Cyprus is es- 
sentiaUy agricultm-al and its chief products are bar- 
lev wheat, vetches, and oats, as well as olives and 
cotton Grapes are produced in large quantities and 
sponge fishing is carried on . The people speak Greek 
and incline to union with Greece. ,■! he area 's ^584 
square miles and the population (1919) 311,108. 

HONGKONG. 

Hongkong was ceded to the British in 1S42. by the 
Treaty ot Nanking, at the conclusion of the Opium 
War It is an island off the southeastern coast of 
China about 90 miles from Canton, In 1898 Great 
Britain obtained a lease for 99 years of 3/6 addi- 



tie Of Plassey. the French enterprise was crushed 
Meantime the British East India Company »-as 
making itself master, taking advantage of the de- 
cline of the Mogul supremacy. Its extent and 
power grew tiU tlie Mutiny of 1857, a desperate and 
almost successful effort to shake off the British r(Ue. 
The relations between England and India are un- 
precedented in history. No previous instance iS to 
be found of the acquisition and successful govern- 
ment of a dependency so immense in extent and so 
popiUous. at such a distance from the central power. 
This magnificent conquest was made piecemeal. 
Englishmen at home hesitated to seize the prize 
while it was impossible to arrest the gravitation of 
the whole country toward British riUe as one state 
after another crumbled and fell from anarchy or 
sheer inanition. 

Since 1857 there has been a steady pres,ure m 
India for enlarged rights for the natives, and a share 
in the government. The country has mcreased in 
popiUation and wealth under the - Pax Britannica : 
but even the extension of native influence by the re- 
form of 1919 fails to satisfy the aspirations of native 
agitators and leaders. 



Organization. 

Government. An account of the government of 
India practicaUy involves a history of its gradual 
acquisition by Great Britain. From the three early 
factories of the East India Company there arose the 
three vast presidencies of Bengal. Bombay, and Ma- 
dras each with a governor, councils, and civU service 
of its o^™ Since 1858, the East India Company has 
been replaced by a Secretary of State for India, who 
is a member of the British cabinet, assisted by a 
coimcil of from ten to fomleen members, of whom a 
majority must have Uved in India, appointed for 
seven years by the Secretary of State for India. 
The Secretary of State and Coimcil control the ex- 
nenditm-e of the revenues of India, both in India and 
elsewhere and conduct the business transacted in 
tlie United Kingdom in relation to the government 
of India In 1919 the undersecretary of state for 
India was Lord Smha of Raipur, the first Indian to 
hold this office. ,,,„„■»„ i„ 

In India the supreme executive authonty is 
vested in a governor-general or viceroy, who is ap- 
pointed by the crown and usually holds office for 
five years The council of the governor-general is 



1498 — 1793. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (ASIA). 



63 



composed of the commander in chief of the British 
forces and six ordinary members, who usually hold 
office for five years. In 1909 the comicil was ex- 
panded into a legislative council by the addition of 
otiicr iii('nii)ers nominated by the viceroy or rlected 
und'T the Indian Councils Act. ''I'ln' Icf^i.sljitivc coun- 
cil cun.sisis (^f 68 members, including tlir tiovcrnor- 
general. 36 of whom are officials and 32 nonofficials. 
Special provision is made for the representation of 
]\Iohaminedans. 

This council, under certain restrictions, has power 
to make laws for all persons within British India and 
for all British subjects in the native states and for 
native subjects of the king in any part of the world. 
In 1912 India was divided into fifteen administra- 
tions: Madras. Bombay. Bengal, United Provinces of 
Agra and Oudh. Pimjab. Burma. Bihar and Orissa, 
Central Pro\inces and Berar. Assam, North-West 
Frontier Province. Ajmer-Merwara. Coorg. Baluchi- 
stan. Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, 

In three of these provinces (Madras. Bombay, and 
Bengal) the executive power is \'ested in a gov- 
ernor; elsewhere in a heutenant governor or ciiief 
commissioner. The administrative officers of the 
more important provinces are assisted by executive 
comicils There are also legislative coimcils con- 
sisting of the executive comicils and nominated and 
elected members; the provinces, therefore, though 
under the control of the government of India, have 
some administrative independence. The provinces 
are divided into divisions under commissioners, and 
then into districts at the head of each of which is an 
executive officer who has entire supervision of the 
district and is responsible to the governor of the 
province. 

The control which the government of India exer- 
cises over the native states varies in degree. They 
are all governed by Indian princes, ministers, or 
councils, but are imder the political supervision of a 
British Resident, who is the actual governing 
power. The chiefs have no right to make war or 
peace or to have relations with each other or external 
states. The size of the military forces is also hm- 
ited. The total number of Indian states is about 
700. varying from Hyderabad with an area of over 
82,000 square miles and a population of over 13.000.- 
000 to small states consisting of only a few villages. 

721 municipalities exist in India, with a total pop- 
ulation (1917) of over 17.(X)0.000. These mmiici- 
palities have charge of their own roads, water sup- 
ply, drainage, sanitation, medical relief, vaccina- 
tion, and primary education. Under the supervi- 
sion of the provincial government, they may impose 
taxes, enact by-laws, and expend money. Since 
1SS4, the elective principle has been extended in dif- 
ferent degrees over all India, the majority of the 
members of committees in the larger towns and in 
many smaller towns being elected by the taxpayers. 

Religion. The creeds of India have been im- 
portant in the political as well as the spiritual life of 
its people. The prehistoric cults were crude and 
gross. In contrast to these the Aryans brought into 
the coimtry a worship of singular purity and eleva^ 
tion. without shrines or images or offensive rites. 
Thf gradual intermixture of the two races resulted in 
a tleieriorated form of the higher religion known as 
Hinduism, the creed of three foiu-ths of the inhaljit- 
ants of India to-day. This has not been evolved, 
however, without some marked influences from 
Buddhism, which arose in the sixth century b. c, 
was made the state religion in Hindustan by Asoka, 
about 228 B. c, and flourished for about a thousand 
years side by side with Brahmanism. 

As a protest against the emptiness of the older 
creed. Buddhism was at first extremely effective, but 
finally declined and practically disappeared from 
the land. It still siu'\ives in Burma, where there 
are over 10,000.000 adherents of this faith. Jain- 
ism, an analogous but not an allied cult, still sur- 
vives, notably in Bombay and Kajputana. Next to 
the Hindus (217,587,000), the Moslems are most 
numerous (66,647,299), the great majority of them 
Sunnites, Adherents of other faiths foimd in India 
are the Sikhs (numbering 3,000,000), Parsis (about 
100,000), and Christians of all churches (3,876.203). 
Few regions of the earth have shown such an apti- 
tude and passionate concern for diverse religions as 
has India. The government permits and protects 
all forms of religion, except such practices and rites 
as thuggee and suttee. 

Industry and Labor. Because of the favorable 
climate and abundant rainfall. India has some of the 
most productive land in the world. The mainstay 
is agriculture, which by scientific methods, irriga- 
tion, and systematic rotation of crops, now yields 
more than at any past period. Its chief crops are 
wheat and other food grains, rice, cotton, opium, 
tea. sugar cane, tobacco, and indigo. Forests and 
mines are productive, while manufacture with mod- 
em machinery-, reljing on the abundant labor sup- 
ply, is bound to become a great industrial factor in 
the future. In 1913, the total sea-borne import and 
export commerce of India was worth $1,381,581,330, 
of which SS97,115,878 was exports. During the 
World War, this trade was much reduced, since it 
was hard to reach markets. 



Education. The problem of the education of the 
native population is tremendous and has never been 
fairly faced. According to the census of 1911, out 
of the 313,417,081 inhabitants, 18,539,431 were able 
to read and write. Fewer than 2,000.000 natives 
have a knowledge of English. The educational in- 
stitutions are of two classes: (1) Public or private 
schools, including mission schools wliich conform to 
the standards prescribed by the department of pub- 
lic instruction or by tiie universities and which un- 
dergo inspection. (2) Private institutions wiiicii do 
not fidffil the conditions prescribed by government, 

Pul)lic education provides for: (1) Primary Schools 
in which are taught reading and writing in the ver- 
naciUar and other elementar>' knowledge; (2) Sec- 
ondary Schools where instruction is brought up to 
a fixed standard of graduation. These schools are 
divided into English or vernaciUar and also into liigh 
and middle schools; (3) Colleges, where the students 
are studying for a degree. All the public colleges 
are affiliated with the five great miivcrsities of Cal- 
cutta, Madras, Bombay, the Pimjab. and Allaha- 
bad. New universities have been established at 
Benares and Patna and for Mysore. In all, there 
are 192.755 institutions of education, with 7,851,946 
students, besides numerous special schools. About 
four fifths of the children of school age are left unre- 
garded . 

Defense. The mihtary forces of India consist of 
the British troops stationed there, the Indian army, 
and the imperial-service troops. The army as a 
whole is divided into a Northern and a Southern 
army. At the outbreak of the World War (August. 
1914) the total of British troops in all India was 79.- 
953, but these were mostly withdrawn and their 
place taken by native imits. 

The Indian aniiy in 1914 consisted of 2.751 offi- 
cers, 159.134 other ranks. 45.660 noncombatants and 
36,767 reservists. These numbers were largely in- 
creased dm-ing the war. and on September 30. 191S, 
the Indian army was 1,161,789. Service in the ranks 
is voluntary and enlistment is for four years with the 
option of extending it to 32 years. About a third of 
the men are Mohammedans and nearly two thirds 
Hindus. Imperial-service troops are also raised and 
maintained by the native states, but trained by Brit- 
ish officers. In 1914 they numbered about 20,000 
with a cavalry force of 6,600. 

The militarj-^ forces in India are administered un- 
der the supreme control of the commander in chief by 
a headquarters staff. From August, 1914. to Sep- 
tember 30. 1918, 1,172,908 troops of all ranks were 
sent to the various fronts, exclusive of 42,430 British 
troops. 

Area and Population. The area of British In- 
dia is 1.093,074 square miles and its population in 
19U was 244,267.542. The Indian states, which 
are all imder the controi of the Indian government, 
have an area of 709.555 square miles and a popula- 
tion of 70,888,854. making a total for all India of an 
area of 1,802,629 with a population of 315,156,396. 

Chronology — India. 

1498. Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese, reaches 
Calicut by sea; the beginning c^f direct contact of 
India with western Em-ope Mohammedan king- 
doms occupy most of India, but a Hindu power is 
paramoimt in the South. 

1500. Cabral estabUshes Portuguese factories at 
Calicut and Coc hin 

1510. Albuquerque, as viceroy, captures Goa 
and makes it capital of Portuguese India. 

1511. He captiu"es Malacca and the Portuguese 
are flrmly established, in spite of repeated na- 
tive attacks, until Portugal becomes a part of 
Spain, when that nation's enemies, the Dutch and 
English, invade the East. 

15*26. Invasion of India by Baber, foimder of the 
Mogul (Mohammedan) Empire. 

1556-1605, Reign of Akbar, who extends the 
empire over all of India north of the Deccan. 

1600. Dec. 31. First charter of English East 
India Company, which gradually becomes a 
ruler of large areas, keeps up a fleet and army, 
makes war and peace, and annexes territory. 

1609. Dutch build a fort at Palghat (PuUcat) ; 
strife between Dutch. Portuguese, and Enghsh 
over East Indian trade continues. 

1611. English East India Company establishes a 
factory at MasuHpatam on eastern coast; reestab- 
lished m 1622. 

1613. March 12. Emperor permits English fac- 
tories at Surat and elsewhere on gulf of Cambay; 
Siirat becomes headquarters of the English Com- 
pany. Portuguese attempts to expel Enghsh fail. 

1633. English begin a factory in Bengal. 

1640. April. Completion by Enghsh Company of 
Fort St. George; beginning of Madras. 

1641. Jai}. 14- Dutch take Malacca from Portu- 
guese. Power of Portugal in India steadily wanes 
and is finaUy crushed by the Marathas; Goa, Diu, 
and Daman are now their only possessions there. 

1658-1707. Reign of Aurangzeb, who completes 
Mogul conquest of India, but witnesses rise of 
Hindu Maratha power and presages of rapid 
decline of empire, which is accomplished in next 



60 years by Hindu risings. Afghan and Persian 
invasions, and growth of European occupation. 

1660. July. Dutch complete expulsion of Por- 
tuguese from CeyloD. 

1661. June £3. Bombay is ceded by Portugal to 
England as part of dowry of bride of Charles II. 

1674. SfpL 5. French pm-chase Pondicherry; 
establislied, as a possession, 1687. 

1686. Headquarters of Bengal agency moved from 
Hooghly to Sutanati {lat^^r called Calcutta); 
abandoned, but reoccupied in 1690. 

1687. Seat of English Company*$ government 
in India is moved from Surat to Bombay. Sui-at, 
Madras, and Bengal are subordinate agencies or 
presidencies. 

1688. Chandemagore, on the Hoogtily, granted to 
French by emperor, 

1696. Fort William built at Calcutta. 

1702. July 22. On union of two rival English com- 
panies, 27 factories and forts are mentioned. 

1739. French at Pondicherry begui to Intervene 
in politics of southern India and gain great pres- 
tige, especially through activities of Bussy at 
Hyderabad. Franco-British contests during 
European wars (1746-1783); restorations by 
treaties, but French lose race for ascendancy. 

1756. June 19. Surrender of Calcutta to Nawab 
of Bengal; Black Hole of Calcutta. 

1757. Jan. 4. CUve reoccupies Calcutta. 

June S3. Battle of Plassey; Clive defeats the 
Nawab and sets up a rival, from whom he demands 
an enormous pajTuent. Marks downfall of French 
power in India. 

1758. Ju7ie 27. Cllve governor in Bengal. 

1759. August. Clive defeats a Dutch fleet and 
force sent agamst Enghsh Company's advancmg 
power in Bengal. 

1764. Oct. 23. Battle of Buxar leaves English 
masters of Bengal. 

1765. Feb. 20. Chve's treaty with the Nawab 
commits entire military defense of Bengal to 
the Company. On August 12 the emperor grants 
to the Company the financial administration 
of Bengal. Bihar, Orissa. and northern portion of 
Madras. Clive institutes a double (English and 
native) government, and also reforms the Com- 
pany, stopping private trading, 

1769. March 27. Treaty with Haldar All, ending 
first Mysore War, whicli has lasted two years. 
Mutual restorations, 

1772. Maratha (Hhidu) Confederacy (five 
branches) has become the paramount power In 
India. The emperor on surrender of Delhi (De- 
cember 22) passes imder their control, while a 
group of independent Mohanmiedan states have 
been estabhshed by the former governors of the 
empire. These lie as weak buffer states between 
the Marathas and Bengal, 

April 13. Warren Hastings governor in 
Bengal. 

May 14. Company decides to abolish dual 
government, and administer revenues through 
own servants instead of natives. 

1773. June SI. Regulating Act of Parliament; 
governor-general and council of four for Bengal, 
with power over the other presidencies; Warren 
Hastings named first governor-general (as- 
sumes oflflce October 20. 1774) ; crown to establish 
a supreme court at Calcutta. 

1778-1782. First Maratha War, in Bombay; 

treaty May 17, 1782. makes no changes. 
1780-1784. Second (First) Mysore War; begim by 

Haidar Ali against Madras presidency, finished by 

his son Tippoo. French assist Haidar. Treaty 

makes mutual restitutions. 

1783. Fox*s India Bill to deprive Company of 
exclusive power and reform abuses; defeated by 
king's personal antagonism to coahtion muiistry 
(see Great Britain). 

1784. Avg. 13. Pitt's India Act; board of con- 
trol appointed by crown with superintendence over 
the Company; royal approval of appointment of 
governor-general and other officials in India. 

1785. Feb. 8. Sir John Macpherson governor- 
general. 

1786. Sfpi- 12. Earl (Marquis) Cornwallis gov- 
ernor-general. 

1788. Feb. 13. Trial of Warren Hastings before 
House of Lords begins; impeached by Commons 
for alleged oppressive measures in connection with 
strengthening British position in the Ganges val- 
ley against advance of Marathas. Lasts until 
April 23, 1795. when acquitted. 

1790-1792. Third (Second) Mysore War. Corn- 
wallis with the Nizam of Hyderabad and Maratha 
troops defeats Tippoo. who on March 19, 1792, 
cedes half of his territory to the allies. 

1793. Cornwallis continues Hastings's policy by 
establishment of European criminal jiu-isdiction 
and other judicial reforms; 'also, the permanent 
settlement of law assessment, based on agricul- 
tiu-al capacity. 

September. On outbreak of Franco-British 
war, Pondicherry and other French establish- 
ments taken for third time: but French intrigue 
and influence over native princes continues a men- 



64 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (ASIA). 



1793-1912. 



1793 (continued). 
^ ace to British advancement, especially while 

French are in Egypt. French possessions re- 
stored by Treaty of Ami ens. 1802, again seized; 
restored by Treaty of Paris, May 30, 1S14. ytill 
continue; five scattered establishments of about 
196 square miles: Pondi cherry seat of government. 
Oct. 2S. Sir John Shore (Lord Teignmouth) 
governor-general. 

1796. Ceylon captured from the Dutch, coast 

possession only; first attached to Madras, but soon 
made crown colony. Interior taken over in 1815 
on deposing of king of Ceylon. Possession sanc- 
tioned by Dutch at Treaty of Amiens, 1802. 

1798. May IS. Marquis Wellesley (Earlof Mom- 
ington) governor-general. He inaugurates 
policy of British control over all India through 
dependent native states. 

P Sept. 1. Wellesley 's treaty with the Nizam 

(Hyderabad), making him a subservient ally, 

1799. Fourth (Third) Mysore War. Tippoo killed 
in storming of Seringapatam (May 4). Treaty. 
June 22. divides kingdom between Company, the 
Nizam, and a dependent kingdom of Mysore. Ni- 
zam cedes his portion to Company Oct- 12, 1800. 

1801. July. Government of the Camatic is taken 

Qover by the Company. This with Tanjore (ceded 
October 25, 1799) about completes present Madras 
presidency. 

■ Nov. 14. Treaty of Lucknow extends British 
rule farther up the Ganges valley. 

1802. Dec. SI. Treaty of Bassein; the peshwa 
(nominal h6ad of Maratha Confederacy) extends 
British influence in Bombay. 

__ 180.'{-1805. Second Maratha War, due to resent- 

R mcnt of peshw^a's action. Sir Arthtu* Wellesley 

(Wellington) and Lake operate in Deccan and 
Hindustan; Ahniadnagar captured August 12, 
1803; battle of Aligarh Augtist 28; Delhi cap- 
tured September 14; battle of Assaye Septem- 
ber 23; Agra captured October IS; battles of Las- 
wari November 1 and Argaon November 29. 
Later warfare, against Holkar, less successful. 
O By treaties British acquire western part of present 

"^ United Provinces, and Orissa; Berar goes to the 

Nizam as ally. 
1805. July SO. Cornwallis again governor-gen- 
eral, but dies, October 5. Sir George Barlow act- 
ing governor-general from October 10, 
1807. Earl of Minto governor-general. 
1813. Marquis of Hastings (Earl of Moira) gov- 
^ eruor-general . 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1814-1816. Nepal War. By Treaty of SegauU, 

March 3, 1S16, Gurkhas witlidraw from Sikkim 
and elsewhere (Simla), receive a Resident, but re- 
mam independent as regards internal affairs. 

1817-1818. Final Maratha War with crushing 
of predatory Pindaris. Peshwa's dominions an- 
11 nexed to Bombay' presidency, nucleus of present 

Central Provinces formed; Rajputana states be- 
come feudatories. 

1823. Aug. 1. Lord Amherst governor-general. 

1834. March 17. By Treaty of London Nether- 
lands cedes all India establishments to Great 
Britain. 

1821-1836. First Burmese War. By Treaty of 

VYandahu, February 24, 182G, Assam, Arakan, 
and Tenasserim ceded by the king, and claim to 
Manipur (native state) renounced. 
1828. July 4- Lord William Bentinck governor- 
general; reforms and advancement of condition 
of natives: widow-burning (suttee) abolished 
(1829); suppression of thugs. 
1833. Aug. 2S. New charter for Company; " gov- 
ernor-general in council " authorized to make laws 
^M for whole of British Iiadia. 

1835. March SO. Sir Charles Metcalfe acting 
governor-general. [general. 1 

1836. March 4. Earl of Auckland governor- 1 
1838-1842. First Afghan War l:)egim. to install a 

more subservient ameer and coimteract Russian 
advance (see Afgh.\nist.\n). After two years of 
British occupation, army forced to retreat from 

X Kabul, and is overwhelmed in Khyber Pass (Jan- 

uary, 1842). Later an advance reoccupies Kabul, 
but British withdraw from Afghanistan in Octo- 
ber, and former ameer resumes tlu-one. 

1842. Feb. 2S. Lord Ellenborough governor- 
general. 

1843. SInd. War: battle of Miani, February 17 
Coimtry is annexed. (governor-general.! 

1844. July 23. Sir Henry (Lord) Hardingel 
^r 1845. Feb. 22. Danish possessions in India ceded 

to the Company. 
1845-1846. First Sikh War. Sikhs (Hindus of a 
certain religious .sect) control the Punjab; but on 
death of Ranjit Singh (1839) dissensions occur, 
and leaders invac^e British territory. Battle of 
Sobraon, February 10. 1846; Sikhs driven back 
and Lahore occupied (Februar>- 22). By treaty, 

Z March 9, some territory is ceded; Kashmir made 

a separate native state; protectorate for Punjab. 
1848. Jan. 12. Earl of Dalhousie governor- 
general ; administrative reforms and public works. 



1848-1849. Second Sikh War; general rising 
against British. In battle of Gujarat (February 
12, 1849) Sikh army destroyed. Punjab an- 
nexed, March 29, as British province. 

1852. Second Burmese War; Pegu annexed on 
December 20. 

1853. AvTil 16. First railway opened; Bombay 
to Thana. 

May 21. The Nizam cedes Berar to the Com- 
pany on release of certain obligations. 

.4?/^- 20. New charter for Company, " imtU 
Parhament shall otherwise provide ' : one third of 
directors appointed by crown; appointments in 
service to be on examination. 

Dec. 11. Nagpur lapses to the Company on 
death of rajah without heir (right of adoption 
question) ; becomes Central Provinces. Other 
minor states taken over on same grounds. 

1854. May 14. Treaty with khan of Kalat (Ba- 
luchistan); alliance and subsidy. 

1856. Feb. IS. Oudh (United Provinces) put imder 

direct British administration because of nati\e 

misgovemment. [eral. [ 

Feb. 20. Viscoimt Canning governor-gen- 1 

1856-1857. War on Persia for her attack on Herat. 
Persians defeated and renounce claim to Herat or 
any Afghan province iINIarch 4, 1857). 

1857-1859. Sepoy Mutiny; nationalistic spirit of 
disaffection played upon by deprived princes ; 
political and army advancement closed to anibi- 
tious natives; army reduced and drained of best 
men. Outbreak begins at Meertit, May 10, whence 
rebels march to Delhi, andniutinj' becomes general 
throughout Ganges valley; btit Sikhs and troops 
of Madras and Bombay remain loyal. States of 
central India disaffected, except Hyderabad. 
June 6-27: Siege and surrender of Cawnpore to 
Nana Sahib: massacre on July 15. July 1-Sep- 
tcmber 25: Siege of Lucknow; relieved by Have- 
lock and Outram. September 14-20: Recapture 
of Delhi by Nicholson; last Mogul emperor is 
sent to Rangoon. Campaign of Campbell for re- 
duction of Oudh, where whole people have re- 
volted, lasts imtil January, 1859. Rose subdues 
central India during same period. Peace pro- 
claimed, July S, 1859. 

1858. Aug. 2. Act for the better government of 
India transfers entire administration from 
Company to the crown; secretary for India and 
coimcil to constitute home government. New 
government proclaimed November 1; Canning 
first viceroy, 

1861. Aug. 1. Indian Councils Act authorizes 
*■ additional" (nonofficial) members to councils of 
viceroy and provinces for purposes of legislation. 
Policy to select some of these from among natives. 

1862. March 12. Earl of Elgin viceroy. 

1864. Jan. 12. Sir Jolin Lawrence viceroy. 

1865. Nov. 13. Treaty with Bhutan, after a 
punitive expedition; subsidy during good be- 
ll a vior. 

1869. Jan. 12. Lord Mayo viceroy; assassi- 
nated February 8, 1872. 
1872. May 3. Earl of Northbrook viceroy. 

1875. Nov. S. Prince of Wales (Edward VII.) 
lands at Bombay; visit lasts until March 3, 1876. 

1876. April 12. Earl of Lytton viceroy. 

April 27. Act authorizing an Indian addition 
to queen's titles; queen proclaimed Empress of 
India at Delhi on January 1, 1877. 

July. New Baluchistan treaty; subordina- 
tion to British rule and troops to keep order. Be- 
ginning of gradual development into a province 
under British Indian rule of direct, administered, 
and feudatory territory. [India, I 

1877-1878. Great famine, especially in southern | 
1878-1881. Second Afghan War (see Afgh.\nis- 
TAN), rising out of Russian intrigue, a British em- 
bassy being barred from the capital (September 
22, 1S7S) . War is declared on November 22. On 
December 2. Roberts defeats Afghans at Pei- 
war Pass. May 26, 1S79, treaty is signed; Brit- 
ish frontier advanced to farther side of passes 
and British resident at Kabul. But on miu"der of 
resident, September 3, 1879. war is renewed, 
and Roberts enters Kabul on October 12, and 
routs the Afghans on September 1, 1880. A 
new ameer is installed and subsidized, and British 
troops gradually withdraw. 
1880. Junes. Marquis of Ripon viceroy. Local 
sclf-govenmient. judicial and revenue reforms, 
with promotion of agricuJtiu'e and education fea- 
tm*es of administration. 

1884. Dec. 13. Earl of Dufferin viceroy. 

1885. Russia and Herat (see Afgh.\nistan). In 
expectation of war, native princes for the first 
time offer money and troops to the British. 

November. Third Burmese War. King 
Thebau is deposed (December 1) and rest of 
Burma annexed to India January 1, 1SS6. 

December. First of the annual meetings of Na- 
tional Congress {of Hindus) to discuss political mat^ 
ters Tolerated but not recognized by government. 
1888. Dec. 10. Marquis of Lansdowne viceroy. 
Development of the imperial-service contin- 
gents, troops kept up by feudatory states for 



British service in case of war; efforts to reform 
child marriage and forced cehbacy of widows. 
1890. March 1 7. Chinese-British convention; 
boimdary between Sikkim and Tibet; British pro- 
tectorate over Sikkim recognized. 

1892. June SO. Indian Councils Act; additional 
members increased, appointments based on local 
recommendations; right of. legislative councils to 
discuss budgets and make interpellations. 

1893. Dec. -5. Chinese-British convention on 
trade across SiJddm-Tibet frontier. 

1894. Jan. 27. Earl of El^in viceroy. 

March 1. Chinese- British agreement on Bur- 
mese-Tibetan boimdarj'. 

1895. Frontier campaign agaln«t tribesmen, 
centering at Chitral; region come^ within lx>und- 
ary of later North-West Frontier Province. 

March 1 7. Russo-British agreement on spheres 
of influence in the Pamir supplements Afghanis- 
tan agreement. Russia's advances had involved 
Afghan. Chinese, and Kashn]irian rights. 

1886. Bubonic plague violent for several years; 
native opposition to sanitary measures develops 
into rioting at times. Famine also in 1897 and 
1900, leading to ext'ensi\'e irrigation projects, es- 
pecially in the Punjab. 

1897. Tirah campaign against frontier tribes about 
Khyber Pass: Mad Mullah 

Feb. 4. Modified Chinese-British agreement on 
Burmese-Tibetan boimdary. 

1899. Gold standard adopted; value of rupee 
fixed at about 32 cents. Effort to check falling of 
value by closing mints to free silver coinage in 
1892 had failed. 

Jan. 6. Lord Curzon of Kedleston viceroy; 
period of miusual material development and im- 
proved relations with native princes, but also in- 
crease of demonstrations of political imrest. 

1901. North-West Frontier Province erected ; rough- 
ly between the Indus and Afghanistan lx>undary. 

1902. Jan. SO. Anglo- Japanese defensive alhance 
(see Great Britain) involves India. 

1903. Jan. 1. Coronation durbar at Delhi; 
Edward VII. proclaimed emperor. 

1904. Military advance into Tibet by Yoimg- 
husband, following refusal of Lama to treat; Rtis- 
sian intrigues, and prevention of trade and settle- 
ment of boimdary question. Lhasa occupied, 
August 3. Treaty, September 7; boimdaries and 
commerce. Chinese ratification delayed until 
April 27. 1906. 

■March 21. Universities Act, tmifying higher 
education and reforming its administration; 
opposition of native politicians on ground that, 
it " officialized " tmiversities. 

1905. Aug. 12. New Anglo- Japanese aUiance (see 
Great Britain). 

Resignation of Curzon due to disagreement 
with Commander in Chief Kitchener and home 
government over army administration; remains 
tintil November IS. 

Oct. 16. Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam 
set off from Bengal; Bengali opposition and Eastern 
Bengal restored to Bengal on April 1, 1912, when 
that presidency, having previously had the viceroy 
as governor, is given a separate governor. 

Nov. 9. Visit of Prince of Wales (later George V.) 
and the Princess; ends March 17, 1906. 

Nov. IS. Earl of Minto viceroy. 
Political and anarchistic discontent increases; 
small but dangerous minority responsible for it: 
measures to suppress it through deportations and 
restrictions on freedom of utterance. 

1906. All-India Moslem League is established: 
aimual meetings. Similar to the (Hindu) National 
Congress. 

1907 . Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian Convention : Af- 
ghanistan outside Russian sphere; British-Tibetan 
convention recognized. 

Nov. 11. First Indian member of council of 
India (in England) takes his seat. 

1909. First native member of viceroy's (executive) 
coimcil takes liis seat. 

May 25. Indian Councils Act of Parliament 
provides for election of portion of members of legis- 
lative coimcils hitherto only nominated by cer- 
tain bodies. In 1919, 27 elected and 32 nominated 
(additional) members; all but 2 of elected members 
natives; 5 nominated members also natives. One 
of undersecretaries for India is a native, as are 3 
of coimcil of India. 

1910. January. Treaty with Bhutan; British 
assumption of foreign relations; increased subsidy. 

Nov. 23. Baron Hardinge of Penshurst 
viceroy. 

1911. May S. British-Chinese agreement on 
opium traffic, after long contest ; prohibition of 
export from India to China, cessation of cultiva- 
tion in China. 

Dec. 12. Coronation durbar at Delhi, held 
personally by the emperor (Geoi^e V.) and em- 
press. Change of capital to Delhi annomiced, 
also administrative changes in Bengal. 

1912. Dec. 23. Attempt to assassinate \iceroy on 
his state entry into Delhi to proclaim city as capi- 
tal of empire. 



gcale of English Statute Miles 
at drffcieut Lutitudcs 



o 000 I'MIO 

' OU Nautical Miles =1 at tlie Equator 69.16 Eiigli:<)i Mntiitc Miles = 1 at the E^iiuatoi 
The distances on the luud are hi Luglibh Istatut'j Miles 
The distances un the water aie in Nautical Uilcs 







I SF-niNGFIELO, MASS, 

THEWS-NOHTMRUP WORKSi BUFFALO, N. Y- 



Lon-ituue 120 Wt^st 



« y 














01 tl 



-^J- - - -^^Iiewvf 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EJIPIRE (ASIA — AFRICA). 



65 



WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. Question of rights of Hindus as Britisli sub- 
jects In South Africa aud Canada (see South 
Africa, p. 67 (1913). and Canada, p. 72). 

August. Enthusiastic support of the World 
War by people and native princes; large offers of 
men and contributions; prmces seek service 
personally. Aga Ivhan. head of Indian Moslems, 
supports empire; deprecates later Turkish action. 

Sept. 23. Landing of first Indian contin- 
gent of 70.000 at Marseilles. At end of 1915 
Indian troops are withdrawn from Europe for serv- 
ice nearer home. [loyal support of the war. I 

1915. Renewal of imrest accompanies continued] 

1916. April 4. Baron Chelmsford viceroy. 
December. National Congress joins in demand 

for home rule: elects Mrs. Besant president. All- 
India Moslem League elects as president a man 
in prison for sedition. Rapprochement of the two 
antagonistic bodies. 

1917. March- April. India is first represented at 
Imperial War Conference; a maharaja. another 
native, and an Enghshman are delegates. 

March 2. India Defense Force Act makes 
military service compulsory to aU British subjects 
of European origin from 16 to 50 years of age. 

1918. March 12. War expenditures of India, 
$640,000,000. 1.161,789 men have enlisted, be- 
sides 239,561 available at outbreak of war; 953.374 
sent overseas, more than half to Mesopotamia: 
33,031 killed. 52.296 wounded. 9.002 prisoners. 

Aug. 6. Montagu (secretary)-Chelnisford 
(viceroy) scheme for Indian government pre- 
sented in Parliament. Compromise measiu-e for 
gradual development of home rule and respon- 
sible government, beginning with local affairs; 
plan for imperial bicameral legislative council and 
connection therewith of native princes. 

1919. Jan. IS. India represented at Peace Confer- 
ence by Sec. ^Montagu and Maharaja of Bikaner. 

April-May. Serious home-rule disturbances 
occur in the Pimjab aud elsewhere, especially as a 
demonstration against an antisedition act. Se- 
vere suppression, especially at Amritsar. 

May. Outbreak of frontier war tlirough in- 
vasion by Afghan tribesmen, who are defeated and 
their strongholds bombarded by airplanes. 

Aug. S. Treaty of peace with Afghanistan, Af- 
ghans; placed on probation, [on British troops.] 

November. Frontier Afghan tribes reopen attack | 

Nov. 19. Joint parliamentary' committee at 
London reports on the Government of India Bill. 

Dec. S3. Government of India Act becomes 
law. Dual provincial governments, with division 
of duties, consisting of governor and executive 
council, with governor and ministry appointed 
from the elected legislature; niinistrj' lo be partly 
responsible, but. subject to higher veto, legisla- 
tion may be made by the governor on " reserved 
subjects " without approval of legislature; increase 
in financial powerof legislature. All-India govern- 
ment to have a larger, more representative, and 
more powerful Assembly, while in the Coimcil. 
which becomes more truly a second chamber, only 
a third of the members are to be officials. 
1930. Ja7iuary. Frontier fighting continues with 
increased se\ erity. 

Jan. 2. All-India Moslem Conference calls for 
a Mohammedan boycott of British goods if 
Turkish treaty is not satisfactorj- to Islam and 
leaves the sultan as caliph at Constantinople. 

DEPENDENCIES UPON INDIA. 

Certain states or territories are reckoned as de- 
pendent upon India. Such are Baluchistan, Sili- 
kim, the Andaman. Nicobar, and Laccadive Islands. 

Baluchistan (area 134,638 square miles, popula- 
tion about S34.000) is a wild region west of India and 
south of Afghanistan. Since 1876 the British have 
been extending their rule over this country. 

Sikkim (area 2,818 square miles, population 
about 88.000) is a little state in the Himalayas, south 
of Tibet. Formerly under nominal vassalage to 
China, the British protectorate was recognized by 
the Chinese government in 1890. 

The Andaman Islands (area 2.260 square miles, 
population in 1919. 16,786) are a group of five large 
and about 200 smaller islands in the Bay of Bengal, 
nearly 120 miles from Burma. They contain forests 
of great value. The Andanians now serve as penal 
settlements for about 13.000 convicts. The native 
population of 1.317 is made up of savages of a low 
Negritoid type. 

The Nicobars (area 635 square miles, population 
in 1911, about 8.818) are a group of nineteen islands, 
south cf the Andamans. The main occupation of 
the natives was formerly piracy and shipwrecking. 
Also, they have pUed the coconut trade for 1,500 
years. About 15.000,000 nuts are produced annu- 
ally. Since the British occupation in 1S72, the islands 
have become orderly. 

The Laccadives, the " Hundred Thousand 
Islands" (poptilation about 10,000), are a group of 
uncounted coral islands and islets in the Arabian 
Sea, west of the Rlalabar coast. 



Chronology — Baluchistan. 

1739. Nasir Khan, of Kalat. made head prince of 
all Balucliislan by the Persian ruler. 

1795. June. Nasir dies; thenceforward dominion 
decreases. [retire in 1841.1 

1839. British Indian troops capture Kalat, but I 

1S54. May 14. British treaty of offensive and de- 
fensive aUiance with the klian of Kalat (see India). 

1857. British agent begins residence at Kalat. 

1836, Following a period of anarchy, a new British 
treaty is signed (see India). Countrj' becomes 
%irtually a British dependency. 

1881. Certain districts in neighborhood of Quetta 
assigned to Great Britain. 

1S84-188S. Boimdary with Afghanistan estabhshed. 

1887. November. Enlarged area becomes British 
Baluchistan, a province of India. Oth^ dis- 
tricts and native states under a protectorate. 

1896. Boimdao' with Persia estabhshed by an An- 
glo-Persian commission. 

1918. British forces operating across Baluchistan 
to eastern Persia complete the railway from 
Quetta to Persian frontier at ^lirjawa, giving con- 
tinuous line from India. 

FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 

The Feder.\ted AI.^l.\t St.\te3 occupy a large part 
of the Malay Peninsula. They are: Perak, Se- 
langor, Pahang, and Negri Sembilan. Smce 
1896, when these states came under the administra- 
tion of a British Resident-general, there has been a 
marked decrease in crime. The area is 27,506 
square miles. The total population (1911) was 
1.036,999. of whom 725.000 were males and 311.000 
females. The disproportion of the sexes was due 
mainly to the influx of Chinese, of whom there are 
over 433.000. The staple products are coconuts, 
rice, rubber, tapioca, and pepper. 

MALAY STATES NOT INCLUDED IN THE 
FEDERATION. 

The ;MaIay states of Johore, Kedah, Perlis. Kelan- 
tan. and Trengganu. are not included in the federa- 
tion. Johore is governed by a sultan, assisted by a 
state council on which there are two European mem- 
bers. The area of the five states is 23,486 square 
miles and the population was 930.000 in 1911. 

The rights of protection and control of the other 
four states were acquired by Great Britain from 
Siam, March 10. 1909. In all these states the na- 
tive rulers are assisted in the administration by 
British advisors or agents. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
The Str-uts Settlements are a crown colony oc- 
cupying the southern extremity of the ^lalay Penin- 
sula and including the settlements of Singapore. 
Penang, and Malacca. The area is 1,600 square 
miles and the estimated population in 1919 was 
846,083. Singapore (area 217 square miles, popu- 
lation (1919) 387,336) is an island strongly fortified 
as a naval station, and is a port of entry. Penang, 
hardly less important, is an island and a strip of 
mainland, with a total area of 280 square miles and 
a population of 305.739. Malacca has an area of 
659 square miles and in 1919 the population was 
estimated at 153,008. These settlements have a 
large trade and the chief exports are gimis. gin, 
spices, and copra. 



The following are under the administration of the 
settlement of Singapore. 

Cocos, or Keeling, Islands are a group of about 

20 small coral islands 1200 miles southwest of Singa- 
pore. The estimated population (1917) was 819. 

Christmas Island is 700 miles east of Cocos Is- 
lands and is nine miles long by nine miles wide, with 
an estimated population (1917) of 2.040. The sole 
source of wealth to the island is phosphated lime, 
which is the article of export. 

The island of Labuan lies about sL\ miles off the 
northwest coast of Borneo, and was incorjwrated 
with Suigapore in 1907. The area is 28 square miles 
and the estimated population (1917) was 6.8&4. 

WEIHAIWEI. 

WEra.MWEi is a fortified seaport and district in the 
Chinese province of Shantung. It was leased to 
Great Britain in 1898 as a balance to the German 
occupation of Kiaochow and the Russian in Port 
Arthur. "With all the islands in the bay it has an 
area of about 285 square miles and a population 
(1911) of about 147,000. "Within a further addi- 
tional area of 1,500 square miles Great Britain has 
the right to take such mihtary measures as she deems 
expetlient. Weihaiwei is a free port. There has been 
great increase of prosperity since the British took 
possession. 



BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. 
ASCENSION ISLAND. 

Ascension Isl.\nd is a volcanic island situated 800 
miles northwest of St. Helena. It is entirely under 
the control of the British admiralty. It is famous I 



for its large sea turtles, which weigh between five 
hundred and eight hundred poimds. The area is 
34 square miles and the population 250. 

BRITISH EAST AFRICA. 

British East Afric.\ comprises a large area of 
the continent including the East Africa Protectorate 
and the Uganda Protectorate, together with the 
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. It lies between 
what was formerly German East Africa and Abys- 
sinia. It is controlled directly by the British colo- 
nial oflSce. The area is about 358,000 square miles 
and the population 6,322.000. 

East Africa Protectorate is crossed by the equa- 
tor and possesses immense tropical resoiu-ces. Vari- 
ous Protestant and Cathohc missions are working 
with success. It is traversed for a distance of 618 
miles by the railway from the port of Mombasa 
to the Victoria Nyanza. Tliis protectorate touches 
the frontier of the Anglo-Eg>-ptian Sudan. Thus 
from Mombasa, four d^rees south of the etiuator. 
British control extends unbroken across the conti- 
nent to Alexandria on the Mediterranean Sea. The 
area is 246.822 square miles and the population 
2.807.000. 

Uganda Protectorate is situated far inland, 
north of the Victoria Nyanza. The natural wealth 
is prodigious. It is said that here are found the 
richest fiora and fauna in all Africa. lYotestant 
and Cathohc missions have accomplished wonders. 
About 600. (X)0 natives have been converted to 
Christianity by British and French missionaries. 
The area is 110.300 square miles and the popula- 
tion (1919) is 3.31S.271. 

Zanzibar Protectorate comprises the two islands 
of Zanzibar (area 640 square miles) and Pemba (380 
square miles) Their united population in 1910 
was 196.000. Nominally the Sultan of Zanzibar still 
rules through a British prime minister. Notliing 
important can be done without the consent of the 
British agent and consul general. Cloves are the 
chief product. Protestant and Roman Catholic 
missions are maintained. 

MAURITIUS. 

Macritiits, formerly lie de France, is an island in 
the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of Madagascar. 
Discovered by the Portuguese in 1508, it passed im- 
der the Dutch in I59S. who named it in honor of 
Prince Maurice of Nassau. The French held it for 
nearly a century, losing it to the British in 1810. 
This is the scene of Bemardin de Saint-Pierre's Paul 
et Virginie. It is a colony with representative gov- 
ernment under a British governor, assisted by coim- 
cils. The Chinese and East Indians are rapidly 
gaining control of the agricultural and business in- 
terests. Sugar, aloe fiber, molasses, coconut oil, and 
vanilla are the chief exports. The area is 720 
square miles and the estimated population (1917) 
about 385.000. 

Several islands are dependent upon Maiuitius: 
Rodriguez, with an area of forty square miles and a 
population (1911) of 4,829. The Cargados Islands, 
mostly sandbanks: the Eagle Islands; and the Cha- 
gos Islands, of which Diego Garcia is the lai^est, 
with 517 inhabitants. 

NYASALAND. 
The Ny.\s.\land Protector.\te was known as 
British Central Africa until 1907. It Ues west and 
south of Lake Nyasa. Under British control the 
natives seem orderly, prosperous, and contented. 
Much is hoped from the attempted cultivation of 
cotton, and many agricultural experiments are being 
carried on. The area is 39.573 square miles and the 
native population (1918) about 1,208.000. 

ST. HELENA. 
St. Helena is a volcanic island, in the South At- 
lantic, distant about 1.200 miles from Africa and 
800 miles from Ascension Island, the nearest land. 
It is memorable as the place of exile of Napoleon 
from 1815 until his death May 5, 1821. Five thou- 
sand Boer prisoners of war were confined here in 
1900. The area is 47 square miles and the esti- 
mated population in 1918 was 3.654. 

TRISTAN DA CUNHA. 
ThisTAN DA CuNHA is a small group of islands in 
the South Atlantic, midway between Africa and 
South America, with 105 inhabitants in 1916. A 
garrison was maintained here until the death of Na- 
poleon at St. Helena. They are without govern- 
ment, being left entirely to themselves, except that a 
British ship \'isits the group once a year. 

THE SEYCHELLES. 

The Seychelles are a group of about 90 islands 
northeast of Madagascar. First settled by the 
French, Great Britain has held them since 1794. 
They were formerly dependent on Mauritius, but 
since ISSS have constituted a separate administra- 
tion under a governor and council. They are well 
supplied with schools, and local exarKlnations are 
held for Cambridge. The area is about 156 square 
miles and the population in 1917 was 24,000. 



66 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AFRICA). 



BRITISH SOMALILAND. 

British Somaliland (area about 68,000 square 
miles, population about 300,000, mostly ;Moslem 
nomads) lies south of the Gulf of Aden and north of 
Italian SomaUland. Armed resistance to British 
rule ceased in 1905. With the introduction of or- 
der, settlements on the coast are springing up and 
trade is increasing. The exports are ostrich feath- 
ers, gums, skins, and liides. The coimtrj- is admin- 
istered by a commissioner, assisted by British army 
officers. 

BASUTOLAND. 

BasutolandIs inclosed by the Orange Free State, 
Natal, and Cape of Good Hope Province. It is a 
native reservation. A resident commissioner ad- 
ministers affairs under the high commissioner for 
South Africa. It is better adapted for grain raising 
than any other region of South Africa. The area is 
11,716 miles and the population in 1911 consisted of 
403,111 natives and 1,396 Eiu-opeans. 

BECHDANALAND. 

BECHnANALAND is a protectorate, lying between the 
Transvaal Province and the former German South- 
west Africa. The Cape-to-Cairo Railway passes 
through it. A resident commissioner administers 
affairs imder the high commissioner for South Af- 
rica. The area is 275,000 square miles and the 
population in 1911 was 125,350, including 1,692 
Eiu'opeans. 

RHODESIA. 

Rhodesia perpetuates the name of the British 
financier and statesman, Cecil Rhodes. The re- 
gion extends from the Transvaal Province north- 
wards. Its neighbors are Portuguese East Africa. 
Nyasaland, the former German East Africa, Belgi- 
an Congo, Angola, and Bechuanaland. The British 
South Ai:rica Company, chartered in 1889, admin- 
isters the whole territory. It is divided by the Zam- 
bezi into Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia. 
Rhodesia is governed by an administrator, appomted 
by the Company, and an executive council. There 
is also a legislative council, partly appointed and 
partly elected by the registered voters. 

SoutliernRliodesiahasan area of 149,000 square 
miles, and thecstiinatcd population (1918) was 770,- 
000 natives and 37,000 Em-opeans, Tlie coimtrj' is 
rich in gold and other minerals: the total output in 
1917 being valued at over $19,440,000: gold alone 
being in 1918 312,791,500 The Rhodesian railway 
system extends from Cape of Good Hope Province 
northwards to the Belgian Congo. 

Northern Rhodesia has an area of about 291.000 
square miles and an estimated population (1918) of 
890,000 natives and 2,400 Europeans. .The govern- 
ment is vested in a resident commissioner and an ad- 
visory cotmcil of five members. Timber is plentiful 
and the agricultiu'al products are com, cotton, to- 
bacco, and wheat. Rubber is also produced. 

SWAZILAND. 

Swaziland is situated at the southeastern comer 
of the Transvaal. It is imder the control of the 
British government, which is exercised by the high 
commissioner for South Africa. Its agricultiu-al 
crops are com and tobacco. The territory is rich in 
minerals and in 1017-18 the output of tin was valued 
at $291,600. The area is 6,678 square miles and the 
population (1911) 99,959, of whom 98,000 are Zulus. 

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. 

The Union of South Africa, established by act 
of Parliament, September 20, 1909 (actually imited 
May 31, 1910). consists of the four self-governing 
colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Trans- 
vaal, and Orange Free State. The British govern- 
ment appoints a governor-general, who in turn des- 
ignates an executive coimcil of ministers responsible 
to the South African Parliament. 

The legislative power is vested in a Parliament 
consisting of a Senate and a House of .Assembly, 
which may be summoned or prorogued by the gov- 
ernor-general: and the Assembly may be dissolved 
and new elections called for. 

The Senate consists of 40 members, of whom, tmtil 
1920, eight were nominated by the governor-general 
and 32 elected, eight for each province. The sena- 
tors must be British subjects of European descent, of 
thirty years of age, and possessing property to the 
value of $2,500. The House of Assembly consists of 
130 members, 51 for the Cape of Good Hope, 17 for 
Natal, 45 for Transvaal, 17 lor Orange Free State. 
Members must be British subjects of European de- 
scent, and resident five years in the Union. 

Each province is governed by an administrator 
appointed nominally by the govemor-general of 
South Africa, actually by a ministry for the time 
being, and by a provincial council, elected for tliree 
years, which has authority to deal with finance, edu- 
cation, charity, municipal institutions, local worics, 
and other matters delegated to them. 

Religion and Education. The majority of the 
white people (693,898) are adherents of the Dutch 
Protestant churches. There are over 250,000 Angli- 
cans, 80,000 Wesleyans, 58,000 Presbyterians, 53,000 



Roman Catholics. Education other than higher edu- 
cation is in the control of the provinces, but the fed- 
eral department of education is concerned with nine 
luiiversities and colleges, at wliich are 2,077 students. 

Industry and Production. In agriculture, 
wheat has been increasingly cultivated and the crop 
of 1917 was estimated at five and a half million bush- 
els. The corn crop for the same year was estimated 
at 36,000,000 bushels. The production of cheese and 
iiutter is also important and there are vast herds of 
cattle and flocks of sheep and goats The produc- 
tion of wool for 1917 was 117,000,000 lbs., and of mo- 
hair 3,000.000 lbs. The growth of cotton is being 
undertaken with great success. Tobacco and tea are 
also produced. 

The chief source of the country's wealth, however, 
is gold and diamond mining. In 1917 the output of 
the gold mines was valued at .Sl,84,680,000 and of 
diamonds at $34,020,000, The total production of 
diamonds in South Africa up to the end of 1917 is 
given as $889,380,000 and of gold $2,687,580,000. 
It is estimated that the Union contains 56 billion 
tons of coal and in 1917, 10,000,000 tons were mmed. 
Other valuable mineral products are copper, silver, 
and tin. 

Defense. The defense forces consist of the per- 
manent force — South African moimted riflemen 
of five regiments. There is also a coast garrison 
force, a citizen force, the royal naval volunteer re- 
serve, and special reserves. Soutli .\frica furnished 
150,000 troops to the British forces in the World W ar. 

The area of the Union is 473,100 square miles; the 
population (1911) was 5,973,394, of whom 4,697,- 
152 were native or colored and 1,276,242 European. 

PROVINCES OF THE UNION. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 

The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was origi- 
nally fotmded by the Dutch in 1652. Great Britain 
occupied it from 1795 to 1803 and again from 1806 
until 1814, when it was formally ceded to Great 
Britain. It had a responsible go\'emment from 1872 
to 1910 when it formed one of the original provinces 
of the South African Union. It is divided into 119 
administrative districts, and there are 126 mimici- 
palities and 78 village-management boards. The 
area is 276,966 sq. miles: the population (1911) was 
2,564,965, Of whom 619,319 were Eiu-opeans. There 
were 1,437,688 Christians, and 1,047,233 natives of 
no religion. Education is compulsory for clilldren of 
European extraction, and there were 121,000 Euro- 
pean pupils and 148,000 non-Europeans. 

Production and Industry. The majority of 
the diamonds produced in South Africa come from 
Cape of Good Hope Province. 

NATAL. 

Natal was annexed to Cape Colony (now Cape of 
Good Hope Provmce) in 1844. given a separate gov- 
ernment in 1845. and responsible government in 
1893. The province of Zululand was annexed to 
Natal in 1,S97. In 1910 Natal became one of the 
provinces of the Union of South Africa. It has a 
seaboard of about 360 miles. The climate is well 
suited to Europeans, being semitropical on the coast 
and somewhat colder inland. 

Education. The province maintains 169 pri- 
mary schools, seven intermediate schools, and seven 
secondary schools, with various special schools. In 
1917 there were over 21,000 Eiu'opeans attending 
the government and inspected schools, and over 28,- 
000 colored children receiving education. About 
1,000 children attend private, unaided schools 

Production and Industry. There are vast 
sugar plantations on the coast of Ziduland, which in 
1917-18 produced 130,000 tons, while tea and cereals 
of all kinds grow abimdantly. Natal has a small 
gold production. Its coal production in 1917 was 
over 2,000,000 tons. The whaling industry is also 
important. 

The area of Natal (including ZuliUand, wliich is 
10,424 square miles) is 35,291 square miles. The 
population (1911) was 1,194,043, of whom 98,000 
were Europeans. The European population has 
more than doubled since 1891. 

TRANSVAAL. 

The Transvaal was colonized by the Boers in 
1836-37, and its independence was recognized by 
Great Britain in 1852. In 1877 it was annexed by 
the British government, but after the rebellion of 
1880 its independence was recognized tmder certain 
conditions. The discovery of gold in " the Rand " 
(see rand, in the Diet.) and the consequent influx of 
foreigners produced friction leading to the South 
African War (1899-1902), which resulted, in 1900, in 
the annexation of the Transvaal. In 1906 it re- 
ceived responsible government, and in 1910 became 
one of the provinces of the Union of South Africa. 

Religion and Education. The Dutch Protestant 
churches are the strongest religious denomination. 

The primary and elementary schools are main- 
tained by the province and consist of 900 primary- 
schools, with 85,000 pupils: 19 intermediate, and 11 
secondary, schools, with over 3,000 pupils; 350 state 



and state-aided schools for colored, native, and In- 
dian children, with 28, OCX) pupils. 

Industry and Production. Transvaal is a great 
stock-raising country, with vast flocks of sheep and 
goats. Large areas are adapted for agriculture, and 
the com and tobacco crops are important. The 
greatest resources, however, are gold (1917i $184,- 
680,000, diamonds $8,103,000, and coal $7,708,000. 

Transvaal has an area of 110,450 square mUes, 
and is divided into twenty-four districts. The pop- 
ulation (1911) was 1,686,212, of whom 420,5t.2 
were Europeans or whites. The Etiropean popula- 
tion is increasing. 

ORANGE FREE STATE. 

Europeans first crossed the Orange River in the 
middle of the eighteenth centiu-y, and made settle- 
ments in 1810 and 1820. In 1848 the whole terri- 
tory, including the Vaal, was proclaimed a British 
possession, but in 1854 British sovereignty was with- 
drawn. In the South African War the Orange Free 
State sided with the South African Republic (now 
Transvaal Province), and as a result was annexed, in 
1900, as the Orange River Colony. It was gov- 
erned as a crown colony until 1907. when it received 
responsible government, and in 1910 it became a 
part of the Union of South Africa. 

Religion and Education. The principal re- 
ligious denomination i> the Dutch Reformed t hurch, 
with 175,000 adherents. 

Primary and secondary education are controlled 
by the province, wliich is divided into school dis- 
tricts, for each of wliich there is a school board. In 
1917 there were 731 public, and 137 aided private, 
schools, with 36,938 pupils. Attendance is compul- 
sory, but fees are charged at all the schools. Both 
Dutch and English are taught to all children unless 
objected to by the parents. There are several in- 
stitutions of higher instruction: a norma, chcol, a 
polytechnic college, and an industrial schooi. 

Industry and Production. The province s 
well adapted for grazing, and stock farming is cut. 
chief industry, although an increasing quantity Ox 
grain is being produced. The province produced in 
1917, 34,551, ,800 worth of diamonds and $1,056,000 
worth of coal. 

The province has an area of 50,389 square miles, 
and is di\ided into 24 districts. The population 
(1911) was 175,189 whites, 352,985 colored. 

Chronology. 

Union of South Africa. 

1487. Dias rotmds Cape of Good Hope. 

165%. April. Dutch East India Company 

starts a station at Cape Town (Table Bay). 
1795. Sept. 16. First English occupation of Cape 

Colony. Though restored by Treaty of Amiens 

(1802), colony is again captured in 1806. 
1814. Aug. 13. British possession is confirmed by 

treaty with Netherlands. Colony then had about 

30,000 iniiabitants (Boers). 
1820. Begiiming of British assisted immigration: 

about 5, TOO arrive within a year, and are located on 

new land in Albany. 

1824. Beginning of Natal; settlement at Dur- 
ban of a few Englishmen. 

1825. Jan.l. English made the official language. 
1834. Dec. 1. Slavery abolished under British 

act of August 28, 1833. Colonists resent it and 
suffer from lack of reasonable equivalent: instru- 
mental in changing coimtry from agricultural to 
pastoral. 

1836. Beginning of the emigration (trek) of the 
Boers to the region beyond the Orange River and 
British sphere (see great trek, under great, in the 
Diet.), where they formed what became later the 
Orange Free State and South African Re- 
public. Some go to Natal. 

1842. British military force sent against Boers in 
Natal, and on May 12, 1843, the colony of Natal 
is proclaimed. Attached to Cape Colony, but 
made separate colony July 12, 1856, and given a 
constitution; in 1893 responsible government. 

1852. Jan.l?. Sand River Convention acknowl- 
edges independence of Boers north of Vaal Ri^■er 
(South African Republic). 

1854. Feb. £3. Followuig a defeat by Basutos and 
conferences with Boer settlers, British acknowl- 
edge independence of Orange River territory 
(Free State). 

June SO. First parliament of Cape Colony 
meets: representative govemment having been 
authorized by British government May 23, 1850. 

1859. Beginning of railroad construction. 

1868. March 12. Basutoland proclaimed British 
territory: for a while aimcxed to Cape Colony 
(1871-1883). but later directly governed. 

1869-1871. Discovery and development of the 
diamond fields, especially at Kimberley. Ju- 
risdiction over the Held contested by Orange Free 
State, but most of it put imder British control 
(Griqualand West) and the Free State given a 
pecuniary indemnity. Field mcorporated in Cape 
Colony in 1877 ICape Colony.! 

1872. Responsible government introduced ln| 



1875-1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AFRICA). 



67 



1875. Dec, 11. Treaty on bo^mda^ies of Portu- 
guese East Africa and South African Republic, 

1877. April 12. Proclamation declaring South 
African Republic to be British territory, a phase 
of Disraeli's imperialistic policy. State of re- 
public then so low people unable to resist the ac- 
tion beyond a formal protest. British commission 
assumes government. Plans for confederation of 
South African colonies fail. 

1879. Zulu War; ends with defeat of Cetewayo, 
the Zulu king, at Ulundi by Wolseley (July 4). 
and capture later of the king. [lie begins, i 

1880. Dec. 16. Revolt of South African Repub-| 

1881. Feb. 27. Defeat of British at Majuba Hill, 
March 6. Armistice followed by the Conven- 
tion of Pretoria, August 3, by wliich the Republic 
secures self-government under British suzerainty. 

1884. Feb. 27. Convention of London; practical 
Independence for South African Republic, ex- 
cept for British veto on treaties with other nations. 

1885. Sept. 30. British jurisdiction proclaimed 
over (British) Bechuanaland; annexed to Cape 
Colony, October 3, 1895. 

1886. Discovery of gold in the Rand, S. A. R., fol- 
lowed by development of Johannesburg, and 
great influx of outside capital and foreigners, to 
whose demands for equitable political and other 
rights and treatment the Boer government steadily 
refuses to yield, being determined to hold political 
power. ("Uitland'jr" [foreigner] controversy.) 

1887. May /-i. Zululand declared a British pos- 
session: added to Natal, December 1, 1897. 

1889. March 2S. Convention for customs imion be- 
tween Cape Colony and Orange Free State. Union 
extends also later to Natal and Bechuanaland pro- 
tectorate. Basutoland, Swaziland, and Rhodesia, 

Oct. 29. Incorporation of the British South 
Africa Company (Cecil Rhodes guiding spirit), 
to operate north of British Bechuanaland and 
south of the Zambezi; but administration over 
Bechuanaland protectorate never exercised. 

1890. Jinie SO. Order in council for Bechuanaland 
protectorate; further order on May 9, 1891. 

July 1- Treaty delimiting German and Brit- 
ish spheres in Africa; defliies British spheres as 
to Cape Colony, Bechuanaland protectorate, pres- 
ent Rhodesia, and Nyasaland. 

1891. February. Field of the British South Africa 
Company extended north of the Zambezi; not to 
include Nyasaland. [over Nyasaland. I 

May 14- Notification of British protectorate I 
June 11. Treaty delimiting Portuguese and 
British spheres; including Angola and Portu- 
guese East Africa on one part, and present Rho- 
desia, Nyasaland. and Natal on the other part. 

1893. War with the Matabele. 

Cape Towii and Port Elizabeth connected by rail- 
road with Johannesburg and Pretoria. ■ 

1894. May 12. Treaty delimiting British and Bel- 
gian Congo spheres, including present Rhodesia, 

July IS. Matabeleland, Southern Rhodesia, 
placed under British South Africa Company. 

Oct. 3. Railroad from Cape Town north (Cape 
to Cairo) opened to Mafeking. 

1895. Railroads from Lourenco Marques to Pre- 
toria and from Durban to Pretoria, via Johannes- 
burg, opened, 

Dec. 29. Jameson Raid; premature march 
into South African Republic of 500 horsemen of 
British South Africa Company with artillery, in 
connection with conspiracy of Rhodes and 
foreigners at Johannesburg to rise against Boer 
government: raiders defeated and captured (Jan- 
uary 2, 1896). Sixty-four of reform committee 
at Johaimesburg arrested. Fruitless negotiations 
between Transvaal and British govemrnmt riisuc; 
question of British suzerainty and rights of for- 
eigners (uitlanders); both sides making mihtary 
preparations. [missioner for South Africa, I 

1897-1905. Sir Alfred (Lord) Mllner high com-| 
1897. Cape-to-Cairo Railroad opened to Bula- 
wayo, in Southern Rhodesia. 

1899. May I. Salisbury in Southern Rhodesia 
(Mashonaland) connected by railroad with coast 
at Beira in Portuguese East Africa. 

Oct. 12. Boers issue ultimatum demanding 
withdrawal of British troopsfrom frontier; refused, 
and the two republics, South African Republic 
and Orange Free State (in alliance) begin South 
African War by besieging Mafeking and Kinibcr- 
ley, and invading Cape Colony, and Natal, where 
siege is laid to Ladysmlth. British defeated in 
series of battles for relief of Ladysmith (Colenso, 
December 15; Spion Kop, January 23, 1900; and 
Vaal Krantz, Februarj- 5); also at Magersfon- 
tein (December 10-11) and Stormberg (Dec. 10), 

Nov. 2S. Northwestern Rhodesia put under 
administration of British South Africa Company. 

Dec. IS. Lord Roberts made commander in 
chief of British forces; Kitchener, chief of staff. 

1900. Jan. 29. Northeastern Rhodesia put imder 
the British South Africa Company. 

Feb. IS. Relief of Kimberley. February 27, 
Cronje. Boer commander, surrenders to Roberts 
at Paardeberg. February 28, Ladysmith relieved; 
May 17, Mafeking relieved. 



May 24. Orange Free State annexed as 

Orange River Colony, later again known as Orange 
Free State. 

May 31. Johannesburg occupied. On JimeS, 
Roberts enters Pretoria. 

Sept. 1. South African Republic annexed 
as Transvaal. Roberts goes liome, leaving Kitch- 
ener in charge, Boers resort to guerilla war- 
fare, conducted imder Botha and De Wet, com- 
pelling large British force to keep the field 

1902. May 31. Peace of Vereeniging; honorable 
terms received by the Boers, but independence 
surrendered. British employ about 450.(300 men 
in the war; Boers (including Cape Colony rebels), 
about 95,000. British casualties: 5.774 killed, 
22,829 wounded; Boers had about 3,700 killed. 
War cost Great Britain $1,(X)0.000,000. 

1903. Chamberlam, colonial secretary, visits South 
Africa on matters of reconstruction ; chief problems 
are labor, the war contributions of the conquered 
republics, and the language question. Boers also 
demand responsible government. 

Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, connected with the 
Cape-to-Cairo Railroad, giving a continuous 
line between Beira and Cape Town, 

Auoust. Convention for customs imion, with 
preference of 25% to United Kingdom. 

1904. Feb. 18. Jameson becomes premier of 
Cape Colony; his conservative ministry finds 
Dutch support. 

April 25. Cape-to-Cairo Railroad reaches 
Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, 

June 22. Arrival of first shipment of Chinese 
contract coolies to work in mines. Deemed tem- 
porarily necessary by Lord Milner, governor of the 
Transvaal and Orange River Colony, sufficient 
number of blacks not being available, and whites 
unwilling to work with blacks. Popular opposition. 
Number of coolies reaches 50,000 next year, but 
policy is then reversed and in 1910 last of them sent 
back to Hongkong. 
1905-1910. Lord Selboume high commissioner. 

1905. Dec. 6. Responsible government In 
Transvaal; idea of a war contribution has been 
dropped. Language question (Taal and Eng- 
lish) ultimately compromised; higher education 
to be entirely in English, lower education bilingual. 

1906. Dec. 1. Order in council transfers Swaziland 
from Transvaal to cro\v7i administration, as in 
Basutoland ; this leaves Zululand alone of the great 
native reservations under colonial (Natal) control. 

1907. July 1 . Responsible government proclaimed 
for Orange Free State. 

1908. Oct. 12. National Convention meets at Dur- 
ban, later at Cape Town; forms a constitution 
for Union of South Africa composed of Cape 
Colony. Transvaal, Orange Free State, and Natal, 
which is promulgated February 9. but later 
amended, and finally approved by the British Par- 
liament on September 20, 1909. Suffrage prob- 
lem; Dutch, having a majority in the Union, re- 
quire that it be limited to men of Eiu-opean origin; 
native suffrage continues in Cape Colony but can 
be abrogated by a two-thirds vote of LTnion Par- 
liament. Other portions of South Africa may be 
admitted to Union. 

1910. May 31. Cnion of South Africa pro- 
claimed. Lord Gladstone sworn in as gov- 
ernor-general. Botha, a Boer general, heads 
first ministry. 

July 1. New customs union formed; includes 
Union of South Africa and all the other British 
possessions in South Africa. 

Nov. Jf. Duke of Connaught opens first par- 
liament of Union. 

1911. Cape-to-Cairo Railroad crosses Congo 
border and is completed to Elizabethville in that 
colony. 

May 7. Population of Union of South Africa 
5,973.394. of whom 1.276,242 are whites. 
1913. June 13. South Africa Defense Act; 
includes a permanent force, coast -garrison force, 
active and general- citizen force, and naval reserve. 
Peace training for all men between 21 and 25. 

1913. June-July. Strike of white miners in Rand 
imder sj-ndicahst propaganda: rioting at Johannes- 
burg on July 4; martial law next day. 

November. Strike of Indian workers in Natal, 
due to race discrimination; sporadic rioting, also 
passive resistance. In 1914 a parliamentary In- 
dians Relief Act accepted as sufficient settlement 
of grievances, 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. Jan. S-22. Railway strike, followed by 
s>-ndicalist call for a general strike. 

Martial law is proclaimed and leaders arrested. 
January 24, nine of strike leaders deported to 
London. Indemnity Act, March 19, protects 
government officials against pimishmcnt for illegal 
acts. Other legislation aimed against labor agita- 
tion, but a Workmen's Compensation Act also 



Aiigust. Outbreak of World Warinvolves South 
Africa as part of British Empire. Forces raised. 
Part of the Dutch seize opportunity to rise. 



September. Sydney (Lord) Buxton governor- 
general. 

October. Several parties of Boers under Ma- ' 
ritz. De Wet, Beyers, and Kemp revolt through 
Gurman intrigue; speedily suppressed by Botha 
with force of 20,000 Dutch and 10,000 British, 
De Wet captured December 1, later convicted of 
high treason but released; Kemp also captured 
February 1, 1915; Beyers killed; and Maritz. es- 
caping into German Southwest Africa, executed 
by Germans for treacliery. 

1915. February. Botha begins invasion of Ger- 
man Southwest Africa; some 27,500 British and 
22.500 Boer troops participate; Windiuik, the 
capital, occupied on May 12. and formal surren- 
der of territory made on July S, 

Oct. 20. General election; bitter contest; 
Botha and war policy sustained by 54 seats for 
his party (South African) and 40 for Unionists; 
Nationalists, Dutch, led by Hertzog, who keep up 
a steady opposition to the war and British con- 
nection, get 27 seats; Independents, G; and Labor- 
ites. 3. 

December. First contingent of South African 
troops for overseas reaches England; about 
70,000 are sent out during the war. 

1916. South African troops participate in cam- 
paign against German East Africa; Jan Chris- 
tiaan Smuts commands. Daressalam, the capi- 
tal, occupied on September 4. 

1917. Campaign continues in German East Africa: 
Van Deventer succeeds Smuts, who goes to Eng- 
land and becomes a member of the war cabinet 
there. At end of year territory is cleared; Ger- 
man troops driven into Portuguese territory. 

i918. Population of Union 6,872,164, including 
1,467.457 whites. [Congo at Bukama.l 

May 22. Cape-to-Cairo railway readies the| 
A' fir. 14. After armistice, German force of 
East Africa surrenders. Total S. African force 
in war about 150,000; casualties: 6,533 killed. 
11,661 wounded, 1,637 prisoners and missing. 

Dec. 2. Botha leaves to attend Peace Confer- 
ence, to wliich Smuts is also a delegate. Smuts 
draws up a plan for a League of Nations. 

1919. March. Strike at Johannesburg with revo- 
lutionary tendencies. Strikers take possession of 
pubUc service and set up a board of control. Dies 
out. [ceeds.l 

Aug. 2S. Premier Botha dies; Smuts suc-| 
Sept. 12. Treaty of Versailles ratified by 
South Africa. 

1920. March 10. General elections. Laborites 
gain. Nationalists (Dutch) do not. Ministry re- 
tains majority by help of Unionists and Inde- 
pendents. 

BRITISH WEST AFRICA. 

British West Africa includes the colony and 
protectorate of Nigeria, the Gambia colony and pro- 
tectorate, the Gold Coast colony with Ashanti and 
the Northern Territories, and the Sierra Leone col- 
ony and protectorate. 

Nigeria lies between Dahomey and Kamerun. 
The colonies and protectorates in this region were 
amalgamated, January- 1. 1914, into the colony and 
protectorate of Nigeria, with the capital at Lagos. 
It is a cro^vn colony under the control of a governor- 
general and executive coimcil. Slaver>' was not 
completely abolished until 1917. In 1917 there 
were in the northern province over 24,000 Moham- 
medan schools, with 200, (WO pupils, and in the south- 
em province there were over a thousand govern- 
ment and private schools, with an attendance of 
53,000, The chief products are palm oU, rubber, 
groimdnuts, ivorj', ostrich feathers, liides, and cot- 
ton There are rich deposits of tin in the northern 
pro\ince and of coal in the southern province. The 
area is about 332,000 square miles and the popula- 
tion (1918) about 16.750,000. 

Gambia is at the mouth of the river Gambia and 
has an area of four square miles with a population of 
8,000. The protectorate has an area of 4,500 square 
miles and a population of 2(X),000, The chief ex- 
ports are groimdnuts, liides, palm kernels, and gold. 

The Gold Coast extends 334 miles along the Gulf 
of Guinea Ix-tween the French Ivory Coast and To- 
goland. It is a crown colony, and with Ashanti and 
the protectorate of the Northern Territories, has an 
area of about 80.000 square miles. The population 
in 191 1 was 1,500,000, The chief exports are cocoa, 
gold and gold dust, kola nuts, lumber, palm kernels, 
palm oil. and rubber. 

Ashanti has been under British protection since 
1896, and was annexed by Great Britain in 1901. 
The population (1911) was 287,814, The chief 
I^roducts are cocoa, nil^ber, and gold, Ashanti is 
rich in forests, rubber-producing plants, and trees 
yielding fruits rich in oil. 

The Northern territories lie between the French 
possessions and Togoland and were placed imder 
British protection in 1901. They are said to con- 
tain wide gold areas. 

Sierra Leone (colony) is between French Guinea 
and the republic of Liberia. The original colony 
was foimded in 1787 for the purpose of making a 



68 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AFRICA). 



1517-1915. 



home for free negroes. Freetown, the capital, has 
lO an excellent harbor and ranks as the chief seaport of 

West Africa. The chief exports are palm kernels. 

kola nuts, and palm oil. The area iL approximately 

4,000 square miles and population (1911) 75,572, of 

whom 702 were whites. 
The protectorate of Sierra Leone, with an area of 

27.000 square miles and a population (191 1) of 1.327.- 

560. was established in 1896. The chief exports are 
^^ palm kernels, kola nuts, and palm oil. 

EGYPT. 

Historical Outline. 

Egypt was conquered by the Romans in 46 a. d., 
and its national existence ended with the establish- 
ment of the Arabian dominion in (i41 a d. For the 
next six centiu-ies the comitry was one of the cali- 
P phates of Islam. In 1250, Egypt was conquered by 

the Mamelukes, origmally Tatars and Tm-ks. who 
from bemg a race of slaves, rose by insurrection to 
become the dominant people of tlie counti-y. This 
line of sovereigns continued imtil 13S2. wlien a new 
line, the Circassian Mamelukes took their place. 
In 1517 the Sultan Selim I. invaded and subdued 
Egypt. In the two centuries following, this depend- 

Qency lost vitality, though it was never destroyed and 
the Mamelukes were still a power in Lower Egypt. 

In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egjpt and 
almost destroyed the Mamelukes in the battle of the 
Pyramids. Napoleon took Egypt as a station on the 
conqueror's road to Asia. After the imsuccessfizl 
siege of Acre he was obliged to give way. and ui 1801 
the French army evacuated the country. 

__ In 1805 Alehemet All. the thst viceroy of the 

R coimtry. gained virtual independence. He affected 

European methods and became a powerful ruler. In 
1S30 he made a successful invasion of SyTia. and 
cliallenged the sultan to open war. In 1839 the 
Turks were defeated in the battle of Nizib. The 
Western powers came on the scene and obliged Me- 
hemet All to resiune his relation as a viceroy of the 
Ottoman Empire. The sultan, in 1848, appointed 

O Ibrahim, son of Mehemet, as regent of Egypt. 

^ Thereafter, a succession of weak princes ruled Egyi)t 

till, in 1863. Ismail succeeded to the pashaUc Four 
years later he was designated by the sultan as khe- 
dive of Egypt. 

Ismail tried to westernize his realm by lavish ex- 
penditure, subsidized the opera, and contracted 
large foreign debts. The completion of the canal 

^ across the Isthmus of Suez in 1869 gave Ismail great 

I prestige in Eiu-opean coimtries and enaliled liim, in 

the name of the government, to l:)Orrow enormous 
Slims of money for his personal use. In 1879 the 
reign broke down, he was expelled, and his son, Tcw- 
flk. was established in his stead. Tewflk was obliged 
to appeal to Western powers for aid. Not even the 
interest on the public debt could be paid. 

In this emergency. Great Britain and France m- 

U tervened, and from 1879 to 1883 Egyptian affah^ 

were imder the supervision of two controUers gen- 
eral, appointed by France and England. This hu- 
miliatmg condition of the Egyptians led to an msur- 
rection in 1SS2: in a nationalistic movement Arabi 
Pasha, the minister of war, took the lead and raised 
a little army. England intervened and bombarded 
Alexandria, defeated Arabi Pasha, and restored Tew- 

Vflk. In this intervention France had taken no part 
and as a result, in 1883. a single English financial ad- 
visor was appointed without whose concurrence no 
unportant financial decision could be made. France 
rather unwillingly acquiesced, but in the Anglo- 
French convention of 1904 gave her approval to the 
system. 

Under Ismail and Tewfik the authority of Egypt 
was pushed up the Nile. In that distant region ap- 
^M peared the Mahdi (see in the Dictionary), one of the 

fanatical prophets who from time to time became 
leaders in the Sudan. He all but aimiliilated an 
Egyptian army tmder English officers, and the rule 
of the British was shaken. 

In 1884 General Charles George Gordon (" Chi- 
nese Gordon ") was sent with a small British force 
into the Sudan. Left wit'liout support, he was 

X cooped up in Khartum, and on Januarj' 26, 1885, 

the town was stormed and Gordon was killed, just 
as a British relief force was nearing. The British 
abandoned the Sudan imtil 1898, when General 
Kitchener defeated the dervishes at Omdurman and 
reoccupied Khartmn. 

In 1892 Abbas Hilmi Pasha succeeded his father, 
Tewflk, and showed considerable independence of, 
and irritation at, British control. For some of his 
Y *cts he was forced to apologize publicly in the official 

gazette. The British were obliged to recognize the 
desire of the Egyptians for a share in their own gov- 
ernment. 

In 1913 a legislative assembly of 89 members 
(only 66 elected) was set up. In the first year of the 
World War. the khedive was deposed and Eg>-pt 
became substantially an imperial colony, though 

Z nominally Hussein Kamil was recognized as sultan 

of Egypt. He died in 1917 and was succeeded by 
Fuad I. 

During 1915 the Suez Canal was threatened by a 



Turkish force organized by the Germans. Egypt 
then became a base for a successful movement on 
Palestine, which was occupied in 1918. Pressiu-e of 
the Egyptians for self-government was at once re- 
newed. 

Organization. 

Production and Industry. In the region wa- 
tered by the Nile the soil is extremely fertile and pro- 
duces three crops each jear. The chief exports are 
textiles and yams, cereals, colonial produce (cotton 
seed, sugar, beans, cigarettes, etc.), liides, tobacco, 
animals, and animal food products. 

Education and Religion. In 1919, there were 
about 200 schools tmder the immediate direction 
of the Egyptian government, at which there were 
nearly 35,000 pupils. In addition there were over 
3,700 provincial schools, with nominally more than 
228,000 pupils. Nine tenths of the population are 
Moslems and seven per cent Christian, includmg 
Copts, who are the lineal descendants of the ancient 
Egj-ptians. 

Defense. The organization of the Egj-ptian 
army is in the hands of a British general with the 
title of shdar. Service is compulsory, but only four 
per cent of the men liable are called upon. The total 
strength of the army was (1919) about 17.000. Be- 
fore 1914. Great Britain kept an army of occupation 
of about 6.000. 

The area of Egypt, excluding the Sudan, is 
about 350,000 square miles and the population 
(1917) 12,750,918. 

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. 

SrDAN extends from the frontier of Egypt to 
Uganda and the Belgian Congo, and from the Red 
Sea to Wadai, in Central Africa. At various times a 
nominal authority was exerted over it by Egypt, but 
from 1882 imtil the victories of Kilchener in 1898 
and 1899 there was no EgjiJtian influence there. 

It is governed by a governor-general appointed by 
Egypt with the assent of Great Britain, assisted by a 
coimcil. The Sudan is divided into fifteen provinces, 
over wiiich are British officers. 

In 1918 there were 63 elementary schools, with 
over 5.000 pupils, and Gordon College where pupils 
are trained for government positions and for teach- 
ers. A begiiming has been made in the establish- 
ment of girls' schools. 

Sudan is the chief source of the world's supply of 
gum arable and ivory. Other important products 
are cotton, ostrich feathers, doom palm nuts, dates, 
hides, skins, and gold. 

The area is 1.014.400 square miles and the esti- 
mated population (1917) 3.400,000. 

Chronology. 
Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. 

151J. ottoman conquest ends nUe of Mame- 
lukes. A pasha is nominal ruler; much trouble 
with the army, and m the eighteenth century 
with the Mameluke beys. 

1769. Ali Bey declares Egypt independent. He 
gains control of Arabia and Syria, but is be- 
trayed by his general (1772) and nominal Tiu'kish 
rule is resumed. 

1798. Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes at the 
battle of the Pyramids, July 21, and occupies 
Lower Egypt, the " road to India "; but defeat 
of French fleet at battle of the Nile, August 1, 
makes ultimate success impossible. 

1799. Bonaparte's imsuccessful Sj-rian campaign 
is followed by his return to France without his 
army in October. 

1801. Under compulsion of Tiu'kish and British 
forces French evacuate Egypt. 

1803. Rise of Mehemet Aii, head of Albanian 
troops in Egypt, who. after conquests for and 
against both pasha and beys, is made pasha him- 
self (May. 1805). 

1811. Mehemet Ali finally crushes the beys, and 
rules, practically independent, until 1847: eco- 
nomic progress and order, but severe repression of 
the people. [Heja2).| 

1811-1819. War in Arabia (see Arabia, underl 

1831-1833. Contest between Mehemet AU and 
Turkey over Syria; former is recognized by con- 
vention of Kutaia, May 14. 1833, as pasha over 
SjTia, Aleppo, and Adana. 

1839-1841. Renewal of contest. Powers (France 
excluded) covenant, .luly 15. 1840. to save Tur- 
itey. Ibrahim. Mehemet All's son and general, 
driven out of S>Tia: but France saves Egypt for 
the pasha. Pashalic of EgjTDt is made hereditary 
in his family, February 13, 1841; later changed. 
May 27, 1866, to primogeniture. 

1854. Nov. SO. Concession for the Suez Canal 
granted to De Lesseps; amplified on January 5, 
1856; construction begins April 25, 1859. 

1867. Title of khedive conferred on the pasha. 

1869. Nov. 16. Foracal opening of Suez Canai. 

1875. Ismail's extravagances compel him to sell his 

- canal stock, which Great Britain purchases. 
Subsequent foreign investigation shows impend- 
ing national bankruptcy. A dual control of the 



finances by France and Great Britain, and inter- 
national protection of foreign bondholtlers (C'aisse 
de la Dette) are instituted. 
1879. June B6. Ismail is deposed by Turkey at 
wishes of France and Great Britain; TewHk suc- 
ceeds. Evelj-n Baring (Lord Cromer) becomes 
English agent in the dual control. 

1882. Antiforeigu anti-Ctiristian party under 
Arabi gains control; massacre at Alexandria, 
Jime 11. British fleet bombards city, July 11. 
Turkey declining to suppress a Mussulmanic 
movement and France and Italy refusing to par- 
ticipate. Great Britain lands an army under 
Wolselcy, and suppresses the revolt at the bat- 
tle of Tel el Kebir, September 13. Army con- 
tmues in occupation. Arabi Pasha sent to Ceylon 
as a state prisoner. 

1883. Jan. IS. Dual control ends; English 
financial advisor or agent (Baring) instituted; vir- 
tual power behind the throne. Baring reorgan- 
izes the nation; great enonomic and social im- 
provements. 

Nof. .;. .inniliilation of army of Hicks Pasha 
in the Sudan, where there is a revolt under a re- 
Ugious fanatic who proclaims himself the Mahdi. 

1884. British government orders Egypt to aban- 
don the Sudan; Gordon, former governor-general 
of region, arrives at Khartum, February 18. to 
plan evacuation. He is environed. British re- 
lief expedition under Wolseley starts up the Nile, 
but Khartum is captured and Gordon killed 
on January 26, 1885. 

1885. Troops withch'awn from Sudan, May 11. 
IMahdi dies June 22. British public opinion much 
aroused over vacillation and delay of expedition. 

1888. Oct. S9. Suez Canal Convention at Con- 
stantmople for neutralization of the waterway: 
Great Britain makes reservations which prevent 
ratification till April S, 1904, when free passage 
in peace and war is affirmed for vessels of all 
nations. 

1892. Jan. S. Tewflk dies; Abbas Hilmi succeeds. 

1896-1898. Renewal of Sudan campaign by 
Kiteliener, sirdar of Egyptian army. By end of. 
1897 advance has occupied Berber (September 5), 
and railway is constructed from Wadi Haifa 
across Nubian Desert to that place. British 
troops are added to sirdar's army in 1S9S. On 
September 2, khalifa's (caliph's) army defeated 
before Omdurman, and Khartum reoccupied 
September 4. Power of rebels entirely destroyed. 

1898. Fashoda incident. French flag raised on 
Wiiite NUe, July 10, as part of plan to form a 
French belt across Africa at that latitude. Ivitch- 
ener's advance frustrates it. War threatens, but 
by agreement of March 21, 1899, France renounces 
the Nile valley and British sphere is extended over 
Libyan Desert. 

1899. Jan. 19. Agreement for Joint administra- 
tion of Sudan by Egypt and Great Britain. 

Dec. 12. Railway between Wadi Haifa and 
Ivhartum (Cape to Cairo) opened to traffic. 
1902. Dec. 10. Formal opening of the Assuan 
Dam on the Nile; a great irrigation project. 

1904. Aprils. Anglo-French declaration recog- 
nizes dominance of France in Morocco and of 
Great Britain in Egypt. Other powers recognize 
British control later. 

Nor. 2S. Powers approve of a decree restoring 
Egj-ptian financial independence; Caisse de la 
Dette abolished. [becomes prominent. | 

1905. Nationalist and Pan-Islamic movement! 
October. Khartum is connected by railway with 

Port Sudan on Red Sea. 

1906. May 14. Turklsh-Egj-ptian jigreement as- 
signs Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. 

1907. April 11. Cromer resigns; Gorst succeeds 
as British agent. 

1910. Feb. 21. Egj-ptian premier killed by a Na- 
tionalist, because of his British sympathy. 

1911. July 16. Kitchener is appointed British 
agent. 

1912. February. Railway opened between Ivhar- 
tum and El Obeid; Cairo-El Obeid line completes 
northern portion of Cape-to-Cairo project. 

1913. July 21. Changes in parliamentary sys- 
tem; one legislative assembly, with a majority of 
indirectly elected members, displaces two former 
consultative bodies. It possesses some right of 
initiating legislation, but final legislative power 
remains m the government. 

July 23. Khedive is wounded by a Nationalist. 

1914. Dec. 18. British protectorate over 
Egypt is proclaimed and Turkish suzerainty abol- 
ished, following war with Turkey. Abbas is de- 
posed, December 20, and Hussein KamH ele- 
vated, with title of sultan. Protectorate recog- 
nized by allied and neutral powers. 'Vessels of 
Germany and her allies not allowed to use the 
canal for commerce or passage of warships. 

1915. January. March of 40,000 Turkish troops 
under Djemal by tlu-ee routes across Sinai to in- 
vade Egypt. Force defending canal consists 
of Egyptians, British, Anzacs, and Indians. At^ 
tempt to pass canal on February 3 fails, and Turks 
retreat. 



1915 — 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 



69 



1915 (continued). 

Xoiember. Invasion of western Egypt by 

30.000 Moslems under a Senussi leader; beaten 
back after a campaign of five months. 

1916. Atwust. Attack of 18,000 Turks mider 
Kressenstein against British force at Romani at 
the head of the railway being estabhshed across 
Sinai. Turks defeated and retire, being finally 
driven from Rafa on January 9. 1917, and Slnal 
cleared. Railway pushed forward in prepara- 
tion for Allenby's campaign in SjTia. 

1917. Oct. 9. Ahmed Fuad becomes sultan 
as Fuad I. on death of Hussein. 

1918. May. Cairo is joined by railway bridge 
across the canal with the Sinai -Palestine system, 
giving rail connection from Central Africa with 
Constantinople and Europe. 

1919. March. Revolt at Cairo. Alexandria, and 
elsewhere by Nationalists, predatory element, and 
Bedouins; soldiers off duty are special object of 
attack. Further rioting occurs later in month 
when Allenby releases imprisoned Nationalists. 
Some 2.000 natives sentenced for participation. 

April ei. General strike and resignation of the 
president of the council. Following a warning 
proclamation by Allenby, the civil officials return 
to their duties. 

Juti€ SS. In the Treaty of Versailles, Germany 
recognizes the British protectorate over Egj-pt 
and renounces all special privileges and rights in 
the region, including exterritoriality. 

Nov. 2U. Nationalist rioting and a ministerial 
crisis occur; Moslem unrest over future of Tur- 
key is an element in the trouble. 

Dec. 14. Attempted assassination of the pre- 
mier by a student. 

1920. Jan. 2. Milner mission, sent to study the 
situation on the basis of autonomy imder British 
protection, is told by head of the Eg>'ptian Mos- 
lems that the people demand independence. 

May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to Turk- 
ish delegates; by it Turkey relinquishes all claim 
to Egypt, recognizes the British protectorate, and 
surrenders to Great Britain all Suez Canal rights. 



BRITISH COLONIES AND 
f>OSSESSIONS IN AMERICA. 

CANADA. 

Historical Outline. 

England began to colonize America as early as 
1567; and at one time held as colonies the whole area 
of the present United States east of the Mississippi. 
That possession was lost in the American Revolu- 
tion, and in 1846 Great Britain gave up claim to the 
Oregon country south of 49°. Otherwise, nearly 
every island and continental area that Great Britain 
has ever occupied in the two Americas is still British. 

The Dominion of Canada is a fine example of the 
colonizing ability of Great Britain. The difficulty of 
organizing the provinces of Canada into a federation, 
leaving to the crown the central authority, was great. 
Ti*e"whole region reaching from Nova Scotia far into 
the interior was once possessed and colonized by the 
French. This Gallic foimdation had to be taken 
into accomit. but English institutions have fixed 
themselves alike in old French Canada and in those 
parts colonized by Great Britain herself. 

Old Canada, often called Quebec, included that 
coimtry between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the 
Lakes Superior and Hiu-on. The modem Dominion 
of Canada embraces Quebec. Ontario. Nova Scotia, 
New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island as well as 
the great region of the Northwest — Manitoba. Sas- 
katchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and the 
Northwest Territories. The total area, excluding 
the water surfaces, is 3.603.910 square miles, which 
is greater than that of the United States inclusive of 
Alaska and Hawaii. The Hudson's Bay Company's 
claims to the western half of this domain were in 1869 
purchased for 31,400,000. 

The Frencli who penetrated the valley of the St. 
Lawrence set up a mild feudaUsm , which had no per- 
manent effect. The last traces disappeared in 1854. 
In the latter part, of the 17th centur>^ the city of 
Quebec became the seat of administration for ^ion- 
treal, Quebec, and Three Rivers. The governing 
body was the governor, the bishop of Quebec, five 
associate judges, and the king's attorney. To this 
period also belong the discoveries and explorations 
of La Salle. He explored the Great Lakes and the 
river systems and reached the Mississippi, which 
he descended to its mouth. His great and rational 
plans of colonization drew the attention of France to 
the possibilities of an empire in the New World. 

In the struggle between the British and French 
nations for colonial empire, the first weakening of the 
French was shown in the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, 
by which Hudson Bay. Newfoimdland. and Acadia 
were relinquished to Great Britain. The American 
possessions of France were restricted thenceforth to 
the valleys of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. 
The contest was renewed in 1744, and again in 1754. 
After seven years' conflict. England was victorious. 



New France was conquered. Canada was transferred 
to Great Britain; Louisiana, to Britain and Spain. 

At thetimeof the Treaty of Paris (1763), the total 
population of Canada was scarcely more than 65.000. 
Primitive manners still prevailed. The chief inter- 
ests of the people were In the fur trade, and hardy 
and adventurous trappers traversed the forests far 
into the interior. Nevertheless the Canadians were 
an agricultural people easily supporting themselves. 
The transfer to England brought great changes in 
the social and industrial as well rts the pohtical con- 
dition of the country-. Within ten years exports 
increased threefold and amoimted to $1,775,000, and 
the import trade amoimted to SI. 367, 000. 

Just before the outbreak of the American Revolu- 
tion, the British government pas.sed the Quebec Act 
(1774), by which the province of Quebec was gov- 
erned by a legislative council appointed by the crown 
and the Roman Cathohc Church was estabUshed by 
law. Moreover, the Umits of Quebec Province were 
extended to include the territory lying between the 
Great Lakes and the Ohio River. 

This act greatly aroused the Thirteen Colonies, 
who expected to share in the founding of "' back col- 
onies," beyond the Alleghenies. At the outbreak 
of the American Revolution, the Thirteen Colonies 
vainly solicited the Canadians to make common 
cause against the mother countrjv A disastrous 
campaign of invasion was conducted by Montgom- 
erj- and Arnold in the winter of 1775. Thenceforth, 
during the great conflict with Great Britain, Canada 
was a refuge for the American loyaUsts, who were 
welcomed and received lands. 

Great Britain, aft^r the Treaty of 1783. closed the 
ports of her colonies to the trade of the United States 
wliile granting Canada a valuable privilege in sup- 
plying the British West Indies with her principal ex- 
ports. In 1822. the importation of wheat and lum- 
ber from the L^nited Stat^^s was conceded. From 
the beginning of her history, the question of trade 
and of the economic laws by which trade is governed 
has been one of the leading poUtical questions in 
Canada. 

After 1783. Canada remained a royal government. 
In 1791, however, a constitution was granted conced- 
ing to the Canadians the right to establish a govern- 
ment of their own with an elective legislatiu*e. The 
old French colony was designated henceforth as 
Lower Canada. Upper Canada, with an English- 
speaking population, was made a separate province. 
The civil and religious rights of the French Cana- 
dians were so well guaranteed by the constitution 
that the revolution in France did not react upon 
them or arouse them. 

In the War of 1S12 the Canadian frontier was the 
scene of the principal hostilities. Little battles were 
fought on the line of Niagara, and the St. Lawrence, 
but the Canadians with some British troops held 
their own. Later, jealousy grew up between Quebec 
and Ontario out of conflict of commercial and finan- 
cial interests. An eflFort was made in 1822 for the 
union of Upper and Lower Canada, but this was not 
efl'ected imtil 1840. In the year 1849 the free-trade 
policy of Great Britain was extended to the colonies, 
and the old restrictive navigation laws were finally 
abrogated. 

At the same time the coal btxis of Vancouver and 
the gold deposits of the British mainland were dis- 
covered. The organization of British Columbia, the 
first British province on the Pacific, followed. Ef- 
forts were made to do away with ecclesiastical en- 
dowments and other special interests. In 1854. the 
reserve privileges of the established clergy and the 
seigniorial teniu-es in property were annulled in 
Upper and Lower Canada. In the same year the 
Great Western Railway was undertaken — a work of 
the greatest importance in promoting the interna- 
tional relations and interests of Canada and the 
United States. 

The American Civil War showed the strength of 
federation and, also, brought out the possibility of 
annexation by the great neighbor. After long dis- 
cussions and controversies, the people of all the 
pro\inces came to an understanding, In 1867. the 
British North American Act was passed, by wliich 
all the eastern continental colonies were united, in- 
cluding Quebec and Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick. 

In 1869, the possessions of the Hudson's Bay 
Company were piu-chased by Great Britain, and in 
1870, what was then the vast territory of Manitoba 
became an independent province of the Dominion. 
In 1871, British Oolumbia was admitted as a mem- 
ber of the federation. In 1873, Prince Edward Is- 
land was admitted. Then, in 1882, came the organi- 
zation of several northwestern territories. The ter- 
ritorial organization was completed by an order in 
co^cil in 1895. By this decree the remaining por- 
tions of the Northwest Territories were divided into 
four districts, to which were given the names Un- 
gava. Franklin, Mackenzie, and Yukon, In 1898, 
the Yukon Territor>- was made a separate political 
unit, and in 1905 Assiniboia. Saskatchewan, Alberta, 
and Athabaska were reorganized as the provinces 
of Saskatchewan and Alberta and admitted to the 
Union. L'ngava was annexed to Quebec Province in 



1912. The Dominion now consists of nine prov- 
inces, the Yukon Territory, and the Northwest Ter- 
ritories, w^hich last in 1920 were redivided into the 
provisional districts of Franklin, Mackenzie, and 
Keewatin. 

Organization. 

GoTernment. The constitution of Canada de- 
pends upon the British North America Act of 1867, 
which provides that the constitution of the Domhi- 
ion shall be " similar in principle to that of the 
United Kingdom." The executive authority is 
vested in the crown of Great Britain and Ireland, 
but carried on by a governor-general and a pri\T 
council (King's Pri\'j- Coimcil) which is virtually the 
ministry for the time l>eing. The mmisters are desig- 
nated by the governor-general and are responsible 
to the party having a majority in the lower house 
of Parliament, that is, to the House of Commons. 
Thus parliamentar>' responsibility is established. 

The King's Privy Coimcil consists of the prime 
minister, usually called the premier, the president of 
the Coimcil. the secretary' of state and minister of 
mines, the ministers for the departments of Trade 
and Commerce; Justice; Marine. Fisheries and 
Naval Service; Militia and Defense; Militia and De- 
fense (overseas); postmaster-general; ministers of 
Agriculture; Public Works: Finance; Railways and 
Canals: Interior: Customs and Inland Revenue: 
Labor: Immigration and Colonization; Soldiers' 
Civil Reestablishment ; and two members without 
portfolios. These ministers form the responsible 
cabinet; and their chief, the prime minister, is the 
head of the government. 

The legislature consists of a Senate nominated for 
life by the governor-general. It now consists of 96 
members. The total numbermust never exceed 104. 
Senators must be at least thirty years of age and pos- 
sess property, either real or personal, to the value of 
S4.000. within the province from which they are 
appointed. 

The House of Commons is elected by the people 
for a term of five years, unless sooner dissolved, one 
representative for everj- 30,819 persons. The 
Province of Quebec chooses 65 members and the 
other provinces proportionally according to their 
populations. In 1919, the House of Commons con- 
sisted of 234 members — 82 for Ontario, 65 for Que- 
bec. 16 for Nova Scotia. 11 for New Brunswick, 15 
for Manitoba. 13 for British Columbia. 3 for Prince 
Edward Island, 16 for Saskatchewan, 12 for Alberta, 
and one for Yukon Territorj-. At the election held 
in 1917, the Unionist party obtained 151 seats 
against 81 for all other parties. 

Under the constitution, the Dominion govern- 
ment, unlike that of the United States, is endowed 
with all the powers not assigned exclusively by this 
document to the provincial legislatures. Each of 
the nine provinces has a separate Parliament and ad- 
ministration, with a lieutenant governor designated 
[ by the governor-general. The provincial prime min- 
\ ister corresponds to the governor of a State, with 
large legislative powers added. The provincial 
prime ministers have full powers to manage local 
afl'airs and dispose of their revenue, provided they do 
not interfere with the action and policy of the Do- 
minion administration. They may amend their 
pro\Tncial constitutions (except as regards the office 
of heutenant governor), le\^ taxes, borrow money, 
manage the sale of cro\m lands within the province, 
and exercise general police power except over lines of 
ships, railways, canals, and telegraphs which extend 
beyond the orovince or coimect with other prov- 
inces. The federal Parliament, however, may de- 
clare certain public works for the general good and 
thus withdraw them from the control of the provin- 
cial Parliaments. 

Production and Industry. Canada is a great 
agricultural coimtrj-. providing enormous quanti- 
ties of field crops, the value of which in 1917 was esti- 
mated at SI. 145,000.000, In 1918, the wheat crop 
was estimated at 210.000,000 bushels; barley, 83.- 
000.000: oats. 456.000,000: potatoes. 105,000.000; 
flax. 7,695,000: and hay and clover. 14,495.000 tons. 
There are enormous ranches in Canada and a large 
amount of live stock. According to the returns for 
1918. there were 3.000,000 horses, 3.000,000 milch 
cows. 6.000,000 other cattle. 3.000.000 sheep, 4.000.- 
000 swine. For 1917. the important dairy products 
were creamery butter to the value of 934,000,000, 
factorj- cheese valued at $41,000,000, evaporated 
condensed milk and cream valued at S6, 000, 000, and 
other dairy products' valued at nearly §12,000,000. 

It is officially estimated that there are between 
500 and 600 million acres of timl^er land, and the* 
forest products for 1916 were valued at $190,000,000. 

The Atlantic provinces have a coast line of over 
5.000 miles, and on the Pacific coast the meandering 
line of British Columbia is 7,000 miles. In addition 
there are 220.000 square miles of fresh water, abun- 
dantly stocked with fish. In 1917, the total value of 
the produce of the fisheries of Canada was S52,00O,- 
000. The principal kinds of fish caught were sal- 
mon, codfish, lobsters, herring, halibut, haddock, 
sardines, and whiteflsh, and the exports in fish were 
valued at $32,000,000. 



70 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 



1497-1627. 



Canada has great mineidl resources, and in 1917 
its mineral products were valued at S192,982,S37. 
The principal products in order of value were coal, 
nickel, copper, pig iron, and silver. 

With the consent of the Britisli government, Can- 
ada maintains a protective tariff with a differential 
of about 15% on values In favor of tlie mother coim- 
try. The tariff and the growth of business caused by 
the war resulted in a threefold increase of manufac- 
tures in the two years between 1915 and 1917. The 
following are the largest industries: food products, 
valued at $388,000,000: textiles, 5144,000,000; tim- 
ber, $123,000,000; iron and steel, $120,000,000. 

On December 31, 1917, there were 4,925 sailing 
vessels and 4,264 steamers registered, witii a total 
net tonnage of 971.438. The canal, river, and lake 
navigation of Canada covers over 2,700 miles and 
28,000 trips aggregating 20,000,000 in tomiage were 
made tlirough Canadian canals in 1917. 

In 1917, the total length of the railways was 38,- 
604 miles; an increase of 1.170 miles over the previ- 
ous year. The government railways in operation 
are 3,944 miles in length. The Canadian Pacific 
railway extends from Montreal to Vancouver, and is 
2.i.L/3 miles in length. This railway and a line of 
It -iic steamers bring Liverpool and Yokohama 
witlun twenty-five days of each other by " The 
All-Red Line." The Grand Trimk Pacific Railway 
was completed in 1914, from Moncton, New Brims- 
wick, by way of Quebec, Winnipeg. Saskatoon, and 
Edmonton to the Pacific coast at Prince Rupert, 
British Columbia. It has a length of about 3,600 
miles, IS entirely within Britisli territory, and forms a 
link in the siiortest route between Europe and Asia. 

Education is controlled by the provincial authori- 
ties on systems based upon the principle of free edu- 
cation: although education is more or less compul- 
sory, the law is not strictly enforced. In Quebec the 
pubhc schools are partly Cathohc and partly Protes- 
tant. In Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatche- 
wan there are separate schools for Roman CathoUcs. 
Elsewhere the schools are nonsectarian. 

Each province lias at least one university — 22 in 
all, with about 16,000 students. Tlie most impor- 
tant of these are RIcGill University, Montreal, the 
University of Toronto, and the French Canadian 
University of Laval. In the school year 1916-17 
there were more than 1,300,000 pupils in attendance 
on 27,000 schools. 

Defense. By the Militia Act of 1904, the land 
forces are divided into the active and reserve militia. 
Service in the active militia is vohmtary for three- 
year enlistments. In case of need it is compulsory. 
The permanent force consisted of two regiments of 
cavalry, a brigade of horse artillery, a battalion of 
infantry, and other troops. British subjects be- 
tween the ages of IS and 60 who are not exempt or 
disqualified by law are liable for service in the militia. 

The operation of the Militia Act and the organiza- 
tion of the military forces in Canada were suspended 
as a result of the World War, during which conscrip- 
tion was employed. There were, however, in 1919 
about 12,000troopsforhomedefense. 418,052troops 
of all ranks were sent to France up to October 31, 
1918, and the total casualties amoimted to 213,586. 

Area and Population. The area of Canada (in 
part estimated, owing to lack of definite topographical 
information with reference especially to the northern 
stretches of the new provisional district of Franklin) 
is 3,729,665 square miles, including the water sur- 
faces, and the population by the census of 1911 was 
7,206,643 (1917, estimated, 8,361,000). Between 
1914 and 1918, 347,774 immigrants arrived in Can- 
ada, of whom 188,030 were from the United States. 

CANADIAN PROVINCES. 

ALBERTA. 
The district of Alberta was organized as part of 
the Northwest Territory in 1875, and admitted as a 
province of the Dominion in 1905. Alberta is pre- 
eminently an agricultural province, the area of ara- 
ble land being 100,000,0(X) acres, about a twelfth of 
which is under cultivation at the present time. In 
1917. the total value of the crops was $177,000,000, 
of wliich wheat, oats, barley, and flax were the most 
important. From 1880 to 1900 Alberta was the 
greatest ranching coimtry in America, but farming 
has superseded cattle raising. Nevertheless, in 
1918 there were over 3(X),000 milch cows, 1,362,000 
other horned cattle, and the wool clip was estimated 
at 2,400,000 poimds, net. There are valuable coal 
deposits, and 1 1 ,000,000 acres of forest reserve. The 
area is 255.285 square miles and the population 
(1916) 496,525. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

Bbitish Columbia, first coasted by Spanish navi- 
gators, and more completely explored by Cook in 
1778 and Vancouver in 1792, was for a time known 
as New Caledonia, and formed a portion of the Hud- 
son's Bay Company's concession, but in 1858 was 
made a crown colony. In 1866 it was united with 
Vancouver Island, and in 1871 entered tlie Cana- 
dian confederation. British Columbia has vast 
joineral deposits and the value of the output in 1916 



was $42,290,462; gold $5,000,000, copper $17,000,- 
000, coal $7,000,000, lead $3,000,000, silver $4,000,- 
000. It contains more than half the standing timber 
in Canada and it is estimated that there are about 50 
billion feet board measure imder the control of the 
Dommion. The area is 355,855 square miles and 
tlie population in 1919 was estimated at 400,000. 

MANITOBA. 

Manitoba, for two centuries the center of the 
Hudson's Bay Company's activities, then known as 
the Red River Settlement, entered the Dominion in 
1870, Manitoba is the great grain-producing prov- 
ince of Canada, the value of its crops ln'1917 being 
$137,471,000. In 1918, it produced over 55,000,000 
bushels of wheat, 63,000,000 bushels of oats, 31,000,- 
000 bushels of barley, 8,000,000 bushels of potatoes, 
and 5,(K)0,000 bushels of rye. The province is be- 
lieved to be rich in gold deposits and the value of the 
minerals, chiefly coal, produced m 1917 was $2,539,- 
000. Manufacturing is prosperous and the value of 
the products m 1918 was over $01,000,000. The 
area is 251,832 square miles and the population (in 
1916) was 553,860, more than double that of 1901. 
The capital, Winnipeg, has a population of 103,000, 

NEW BRUNS'WICK. 

Settlements were made in New Brunswick as 
early as 1762, and in 1784 it separated from Nova 
Scotia. It is one of the original pro\'inces of the 
Dommion. The value of New Brimswick's agricul- 
tural crops in 1917 was over $24,000,000, and the 
timber products were valued at more than S20,- 
000,000. Nearly $4,000,000 is invested in the fish- 
ing industry and the value of the products for 1917 
was over $5,000,000. There are deposits of miner- 
als, but active mining is confined to coal and gyp- 
simi. The area is 27,985 square miles and the pop- 
ulation in 1911, 351,889. 

NOVA SCOTIA. 

Settlements were made in Nova Scotia, then 
called Acadia, by the French at the beginningof the 
seventeenth century. Port Royal was taken by the 
New Englanders in 1690, but restored. In 1713, the 
province was ceded to the British by the Treaty of 
Utrecht and the name was changed to Nova Scotia. 
It was one of tlie original provinces of the Doimnion. 
The chief industries of Nova Scotia are agriculture 
and fisiiing. Fruit growuig is extremely important 
and on an average a million barrels of apples are 
raised yearly. The chmate is well adapted for the 
growth of fodder and pasturage, and the annual wool 
clip is over a million pounds. There is considerable 
mineral wealth of coal, iron, gypsum, building stone, 
limestone, manganese, and timgsten. Nova Scotia 
has the most extensive fisheries of any of the Cana- 
dian provinces. More than 38, 000,(100 is invested 
in this industry and the value of the product in 1916- 
17 was over $10,000,000. The area is 21,428 square 
miles and the population (1911) was 492,338. 

ONTARIO. 

Ontario, knowm as L^ppeb Canada from 1791 to 
1867, was one of the original provinces of the Domin- 
ion. The province contains great agricultural and 
mineral resources, extensive forests, great water 
power, and valuable fisheries. The cliief industry 
is agriculture and the value of the crops in 1917 was 
over $333,000,000, wliich mcluded more than 14,- 
000,000 bushels of wheat, 23,000.000 bushels of 
barley, 116,000,000 bushels of rye, 2,000,000 bushels 
of peas, 4,000,000 bushels of buckwheat, 2,000,000 
bushels of potatoes. The tobacco crop for 1918 was 
estimated at 10,(X10.000 poimds. The mineral pro- 
duction of 1917 Included nickel $20,943,000, silver 
$8,698,000, copper $7,824,000, pig iron $14,201,000. 
The total value of the minerals produced was over 
$72,000,000- In 1915, there were nearly 10,000 in- 
dustrial establishments, the products of which were 
valued at $715,000,000. The area is 407,262 square 
miles and the population in 1911 was 2,523,274. 
The largest cities are Toronto, the capital of the 
province, with 470,000; Ottawa, the capital of the 
Dommion, with 102,000; and Hamilton with 101,000 
inliabitants. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
Prince Edward Island, once known as the Isle 
St. Jean, was discovered by Cartier in 1534. It was 
occupieci by the British in 1758 and received its 
present name in 1798. It was admitted to the con- 
federation in 1873. Prince Edward Island is the 
smallest of the Dominion provmces and lies at the 
mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Its chief indus- 
tries are agriculture and fishing. In recent years the 
provincial government has acquired the oyster beds 
from the Dominion government , and is rapidly devel- 
oping them. A imique industry is the raising of sil- 
ver fo.xes. The province has an area of 2.184 square 
miles and a population in 1911 of 93.728, which 
shows a decrease of about 10 per cent from 1901. 

QUEBEC. 

Quebec, formerly called New France or Canada 
(1608-1763), Provmce of Quebec (1763-1790), Lower 



Canada (1791-1840), Canada East (1841-1867), and 
again the Province of Quebec from 1867, was first 
occupied by the French in 1608; taken by the British 
in 1629 but restored till 1763, when it was surren- 
dered finally by the French. It became one of the 
original provinces of the Dominion in 1867. The 
popidation is sharply divided into two racial ele- 
ments, 1,605,000 inhabitants being of French origin 
and 316, (MO of British origin, accordmg to the census 
of 1911. In order to protect this French majority 
from oppression by the English majority of the whole 
Dominion, the province is guaranteed 65 members in 
the Dominion Parliament. The Roman Catholics 
are nearly ten times as numerous as all other de- 
nominations together. All public schools in Quebec 
are either Catholic or Protestant. 

The value of the field crops in 1917 was over 
$153,000,000. There are over 174,000 square miles 
of forest reserve and Quebec furnislies more than half 
of all the pulp wood produced ui Canada. The min- 
eral resources of the province are extremely "varied ; 
In 1917, the product amounted to over $16,000,000 
and included asbestos $7,198,000, copper and sulphur 
ore $1,205,342, and many rare minerals. In 1916, 
there were 7,158 industrial establishments whose 
total products were valued at $387,000,000. 

The area of Quebec is 706,834 square miles and 
the population in 1911 was 2,003.232, sliowing an 
mcrease of 21.45% .since 1901. The principal city 
is Montreal with a population of 700,000 (1917). 

SASKATCHEWAN. 
Saskatchewan was admitted to tlie Dominion in 
1905, It is preeminently an agrictdtural province 
and the principal crops in 1918 were oats 134,000,000 
bushels, wheat 106,000,000, barley 161,000,000, po- 
tatoes 6,951,000. Its mmeral productions in 1917 
were valued at $832,000, being mauily coal. The 
area is 251.700 square miles and the population in 
1911 was 492,432, having quadrupled in ten years. 

YUKON. 

After gold was discovered in the Klondike district 
on tributaries of the Yukon River in 1896, Yukon 
Territory was constituted a separate imit (1898), 
governed by a commissioner and a Legislative Coim- 
cil of ten members. "The chief occupation i^mining, 
coal, gold, copper, and silver beuig the chief min- 
erals. The total mineral production in 1917 was 
$4,.380,000, Between 1885 and 1918, $196,000,000 
worth of gold was produced. The area of the Ter- 
ritory is 207,076 .square miles. After the gold ran 
out. the population in 1911 was 8,512, showing a 
decrease of about two thirds since 1901. 

The Northwest Territories comprise the three 
provisional districts of Franklm, aiackenzie, and 
Keewatin and have an area of approximately 2,843,- 
900 square miles, but a large part of the area for 
Franklin is estimated without any definite topo- 
grapliical data, especially with reference to the north- 
ern stretches. The population in 1911 was 18.481, 
showing a decrease of about 8 per cent since 1901. 
The government is in the hands of a Commissioner 
and a Cotmcil of Four and the administration is car- 
ried on by the officers of the Royal Northwest 
Mounted Police. 

Chronology — Canada. 

1497-1498. Cabot's voyages (see L'nited .States). 
1534-1541. Cartier's voyages (see LTnited States). 

1604. Sieur de Monts under French letters patent 
settles Acadia (Nova Scotia) on the Sainte Croix 
River, but next year removes to Port Royal 
(Annapolis). Samuel de Champlain explores the 
coast to Cape Cod. [company extends to 45°. I 

1606. April 10. English grant to the Plymouth] 

1605. Quebec founded by Champlain. 

1609. Champlain invades the Iroquois coimtry and 
begins the interminable warfare between the Iro- 
quois and New France which so greatly influenced 
the development of the colony. 

1610. Henry Hudson seeking for England the 
" northwest passage " e-xplores Hudson Bay. 
lie is followed on the same quest by Button (1612), 
Fox (1631), and James (1631). Possession is 
taken for England. 

1613. Argall, from Virginia, destroys French set- 
tlements on Mt, Desert Island and at Port Royal. 
Champlain ascends the Ottawa River. 

1615. Champlain crosses from Ottawa River by 
way of Lake Nipissing to Georgian Bay (Lake 
Huron) and also crosses Lake Huron, The Ot- 
tawa-H uron route becomes the mam one for French 
exploration and trade, as Iroquois control the lower 
lake pa.ssage. 

1621. English grant of Nova Scotia (so called in 
the grant) to Sir Wm. Alexander (Lord Stirling). 
His settlement is absorbed by the French. 

1627. April S9. Company of the Hundred 
Associates (or Company of New France) is or- 
ganized by Richeheu to control New France. Set- 
tlement is very slow; fur trading the main interest: 
Jesuits influential in control; government pa- 
ternal ; Protestants not permitted to take part in 
settlement. 



1629—1867. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 



71 



1639. July 2B. English capture of Quebec by the 
Kirkes; Port Royal also taken; possession held un- 
til Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (March 39, 
1632) restores the country to France. 

1C34. Nicolet crosses Lake Huron to Sault Ste. 
Marie; he reaches the shore of Lake Iilichigan near 
Cireen Bay and ascends the Fox River (Wis.). 
Fort built at Trois-Rivieres (Three Rivers). 

1643. Montreal founded. 

16S8-1662. Radisson and Groseilliers are in Lake 
Superior region; probably cross to Hudson Bay. 

1683. Charter of One Hundred Associates sur- 
rendered; crown assumes direct control oi 
colony. 

1065. Allouez explores Lake Superior. 

1668. Mi-5sion station founded at Sault Ste. Marie. 

l««it. Uolher de Casson and Galinee traverse Lakes 

Ontario, Erie, and Huron. 
1670. May 2. Enghsh charter of Hudson's Bay 

(.'ompany. Fur-trading posts established on 

tile Bay; control over the whole basin claimed. 
1GTJ-16S3. Frontenac governor of New France. 
1GJ3. Marquette and Joliet on the Mississippi 

(see United States). 

Fort Frontenac (Kingston: built. 
r67,S. Du Lhut begins liis exploration of the region 

around Lake Superior. 
16S2-1687. La Salle and Louisiana (see United 

States) . 

1684. French post on Hudson Bay taken by Eng- 
lish. 

1686. French, traveling overland, capture Hud- 
son's Bay Company posts. Struggle for posses- 
sion continues during King William's War. 
Later. Treaty of Ryswick (Rijswijk) (1697) leaves 
control mainly with French. 

1687. Fort Niagara built. 

1688. Noyon gets as far west as Lake of the Woods. 
1689-1697. King William's War (see United 

States). 

1689-1698. Frontenac again governor. 

1690. May 21. Port Royal captured by the Eng- 
lish; restored. 
Attempt to capture Quebec fails, 

1697. Sepi. 20. Treaty of Ryswick. See Early 
Modern Period. 

1699. French settlement of Louisiana. 

1701. Detroit and cham of posts founded (see 
United States). 

1703 1713. Queen Anne's War (see United 
St.\tes). [tured.i 

1710. Oct. 6. Port Eoyal (Annapolis) again cap-' 

1713. March SI (..April 11 New Style) . Treaty of 
Utrecht; France cedes Acadia (Nova Scotia) to 
England and relinquishes claim to Hudson Bay 
region and Newfoundland. 

1720. Hudson's Bay Company builds Henley 
Hou.se on Albany River; first inland post. 

1731-1748. La Verendrye and his sons, seeking for 
the " Western Sea." explore the region of Lake 
Winnipeg and lower Saskatchewan River, pene- 
trate to the Missouri in Dakota, and see a range of 
the Rocky Mountains. They build various posts, 

1744-1748. King George's War (see United 
States), 

1745. June 17. Louisburg captured by New Eng- 
landers and British navy, but restored by Treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, 

1748. Oct. IS. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. See 
Early Modern Period, 

1749. Halifax founded. [States),! 
Celeron de Bienville on the Ohio (see United I 

1754. Hendry for Hudson's Bay Company pene- 
trates the Saskatchewan region, (States).! 

1754-1763. French and Indian War (see LTnitedI 

1763. Feb. 10. Treaty of Paris; France cedes all 
of Canada to Great Britain, as well as Louisiana 
east of the Mississippi, 

Oct. 7. Proclamation of 1763 establishes the 
Enghsh province of Quebec with restricted boimd- 
aries and the promise of a representative govern- 
ment; but adaptation of British principles of gov- 
ernment to a French-Catholic population mostly 
under seigniories is difficult. Nova Scotia and 
Newfoundland have separate governments; the 
first has had an assembly since 1757. 

1770. Prince Edward (St. Jean) Island made a 
separate colony and granted an assembly three 
years later. 

1770-1772. Heame for the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany explores the region to the Arctic at the 
mouth of the Coppermine River, and discovers 
Great Slave Lake. 

1774. Cumberland House near the Saskatchewan 
River; first Hudson's Bay Company post in that 
region. 

June 22. Quebec Act; province extended over 
the region between the Ohio and the Great Lakes, 
and the Alississippi, the watershed of the Great 
Lakes on the north, and Labrador; French civil 
law recognized, English law to govern in criminal 
cases; Catholic Chiu'ch recognized; and an assem- 
bly declared inexpedient. Act reverses earlier 
attempt to Anglicize colony. 

Oct. 28. FiFst Continental Congress addresses 
the Canadians, inviting them to the " fellowship. 



1775. Henry, for what later becomes the North- 
West Fur Company (organized 1783), builds a 
pest on Churchill River. Rivalry between tlic 
two companies becomes great ; their explorers push 
farther west, followed by the founding of posts. 

Ma rch. John Browii reaches Montreal as agent 
of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress; influ- 
ence coimteracted by French-Canadian satisfac- 
tion with Quebec Act. 

May 10, 12. Capture by Americans of Ticon- 
deroga and Crown Point opens way for inva- 
sion of Canada. 

Nov. 12. American army under Montgomery 
captures Montreal. Another force, under 
Arnold, is advancing through Mame; they imite 
before Quebec. [Montgomery killed, I 

Dec. 31. Assault on Quebec repulsed;! 

1776. .Ilarch 17. Britisli evacuate Bo.ston and 
sail for Halifax, taking with them many loyal- 
ists. Diu'ing and followuig tlie war, settlement of 
loyalists in Nova Scotia and Canada adds a strong 
element to these colonies, 

.4 pril 29. Delegation from American Congress 
— Franklin, Samuel Chase, Charles and Jolm 
Carroll (a priest) — reaches Montreal, but accom- 
plishes nothing, 

June. Americans driven out of Canada. 

1777. Burgoyne's invasion of New York from 
Canada (see LTnited .States), 

1778. Pond for the North- West Company, crosses 
the Methye portage into the Athabaska Basin and 
builds a post near the lake, 

James Cook explores the Pacific coast from Oregon 
northward; beginning of British claim, 

1783. Sept. S. Peace of Paris defines botmdary 
between Canada and United States; continues 
American "liberty " to fish on Canadian coast, 

1784. New Bnmswick and Cape Breton made 
separate provinces, latter later returned to Nova 
Scotia (1,S20), 

1789. Mackenzie descends the Great Slave River 
and Mackenzie River to its mouth, 

1791. June 10. Constitutional Act; Quebec di- 
vided into Lower Canada and Upper Canada 
(settled by loyaUsts), each with a coimcil and as- 
sembly; return to principle of Anglicization, 

1792-1793. Mackenzie for the North- West Com- 
pany ascends the Peace and Parsnip rivers, reaches 
the Pacific Ocean by way of the Bella Coola River, 
and returns. First transcontinental journey nojth 
of California, 

1792-1794. Vancouver voyages along the Pacific 
coast from Oregon to Alaska, 

1793 Toronto (York) founded. 

1794. Nov. 19. Jay Treaty calls for the relin- 
quishment by the British of pests within United 
States boundaries and for settlement of disputed 
boundary line, 

1805. Lewis and Clark cross continent and de- 
scend Columbia River in advance of Hudson's 
Bay Company, 

1807-1811. Thompson for North-'West Company 
explores whole length of Columbia River 

1808. Eraser of the North-W&st Company descends 
the Eraser River to Puget Sound, 

1812. Red River Settlement (Rupert's Land) 
founded by Lord Selkirk under grant from Hud- 
son's Bay Company, 

1812-1814. War of 1812 (see United States). 

NINETEENTH-CENTURIf PERIOD. 

1814. Dec. 2.^. Peace of Ghent; commissions to 
settle disputed boundaries between Canada and 
United States, right of fishing not restored to 
United States. 

1815. North-West Company destroys Red River 
Settlement. Hostilities continue for several years, 

1818. Oct. 20. Treaty between Great Britain 
and United States: Fisheries, Oregon country, 
boundaries (see United States), 

1818-1830. Controversy with United States over 
trade in American bottoms. 

1821. Absorption of North-West Company by 
Hudson's Bay Company. 

1822. June 21,. British Trade Acts repeal Navi- 
gation Acts to extent of permitting trade in sched- 
uled articles between British possessions in Amer- 
ica and other places in America in ships of the 
other places, and direct trade between American 
possessions and Europe in British ships, 

Aug. 5. British act permits limited overland 
and inland water trade between Canada and 
United States, and regulates apportionment of 
duties on imports to Upper Canada through Lower 
Canada, 

1824. Canada Company formed: most ambitious 
of several projects for settlement, especially of 
Upper Canada, after War of 1812. resulting in ex- 
tensive immigration, assisted also by government, 
of English, Scotch, and Irish. 

1825. Fort Vancouver, Hudson's Bay Company 
post on lower Columbia River, founded, 

Feb. 2S. Anglo-Russian Treaty fixes bounda- 
ries of Alaska. 

June 27. Further Trade Act extends Acts of 
1S22 to all goods not especially prohibited by the 



act and permits trade with Europe in vessels of 

country of goods imported, 
1826. Ottawa (Bytown) laid out. 
1829. Welland Canal opened. 

1836. Champlain and St, Lawrence Railroad; first 
railroad in Canada. 

1837. Feb. 11. Howe moves his Twelve Resolu- 
tions in Nova Scotia Assenii^ly, demanding re- 
sponsible government. Maladministration and 
much legislative conflict have resulted tliroughout; 
the provinces through the irresponsibility of the 
council and executive, especially in Upper Canada 
("Family Compact"). In Lower Canada the 
movement is a BYench-Canadian one, involving 
nationalism. 

November. Outbreak of rebellion In Lower 
Canada, led by Papineau; quickly suppressed. 

Deetmber. Rebellion in Upper Canada, led 
by Mackenzie; defeated. Caroline affair. 

1838. Earl of Durham reaches Quebec as governor- 
general. 

1839. Jan. SI. Durham's report on Canadian 
conditions; masterly analysis of troubles, recom- 
mendation of responsible government in purely 
colonial affairs, and reunion to submerge French- 
Canadian nationality. 

1840. Act of Union; compromise between the de- 
mands of the rebels and position of oligarchical 
loyalists and " British-connection " men. Upper 
and Lower Canada reunited; elected assembly 
with equal representation of two provinces; coim- 
cil appointed for life; fixed civil list, but other ex- 
penditures under control of Assembly; taxes only 
with consent of Canadian Parliament. Respon- 
sible government not in act, but Lord Jolm Rus- 
sell instructs governor-general that wishes of As- 
sembly must not be opposed unless "honor of the 
crown or interests of the empire are deeply con- 
cerned " Principle of responsible government 
wins recognition within the decade in Nova Scotia 
and New Brunswick, as well as in Canada. 

1842. Hudson's Bay Company starts a post on 

Vancouver Island, at present Victoria; it succeeds 

Fort Vancouver on Columbia River as western 

headquarters. (States).! 

Aug. 9. Ashburton Treaty (see United! 

1846. June 16. Oregon Treaty (see United 
States) . 

1847-1854. Earl of Elgm governor-general of Can- 
ada; important services in economic and political 
development of province. 

1849. Vancouver Island is granted to the Hud- 
son's Bay Company; on July 28 British Parlia- 
ment authorizes a colonial government for the 
island ; in 1856 legislature meets. 

April. Passage by Canadian Parliament of 
Rebellion Losses Bill leads to riots by loyaUst 
partisans in Montreal, burning of Parliament 
buildings, and insults to Elgin. Later in the year 
capital is removed from Montreal. 

June 26. Repeal of last vestiges of Navigation 
Acts (see Great Britain). 

July 28. British act permitting colonial inland 
posts; under this in 1851 the Canadian provmces 
take over the post office. 

1851. Population, 1,842,265. [States).! 

1854. June S. Reciprocity Treaty (see United) 
Aug. 11. British act autliorizes alteration of 
constitution of council under Act of Union ; in 1856 
Canadian Parliament makes coimcil elective. 
Dec. IS. Act abolisliuig seigniorial tenure. 

1858. Decimal coinage system goes into effect in 
Canada. 

Ottawa is selected as capital of Canada; Parlia- 
ment meets there on June 8, 1866. 
Hudson's Bay Company surrenders Vancouver 
Island to the crown. (Columbia. | 

Aug. 2. British act for pro\1nce of British! 

1860. Winnipeg begins to develop around Fort 
Garry of Hudson's Bay Company, 

Prince of Wales (later Edward VII,) visits Canada. 
Joint occupation of San Juan Islands by British 
and American troops, 

1861. Population, 3,090,661. 

1866. Vancouver is founded. (terminates, l 
March 17. Reciprocity with United States! 
June. Fenian invasion of Canada from Buf- 
falo; defeated and turned back, 

Aug. 6. British act uniting colonies of British 
Columbia and Vancouver Island, 

1867. March 29. Under the British North 
America Act, in force on July 1, Canada, Nova 
Scotia, and New Bnmswick are united as the 
Dominion of Canada. The Dominion com- 
prises four provinces, Canada being redivided 
into Quebec and Ontario, The act also provides 
for: A governor-general with a council; a Parha- 
ment of two houses, senators being appointed for 
life, house elected on popiUation basis; provinces 
each with an appointed lieutenant-governor and 
an assembly: enumerated powers of provinces, 
rest lodged in Dominion, 

July 1. Lord Monck sworn in as first gov- 
ernor-general of the Dominion; Macdonald co- 
alition ministry. Isembles.l 

Nov. 6. First Parliament of Dominion as-l 



72 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 



1869 - 1915. 



1869. Red River Rebellion of French halt-breeds 
under Louis Kiel against transfer of region from 
Hudson's Bay Company to Canada; Riel flees be- 
fore force under Wolseley; reaches Fort Garry 
(August. 1870). lernor-general.l 

Feb. 2. Sir John Young (Lord Usgar) gov-l 
March 9. Agreement for cession to Canada 
by Hudson's Bay Company of latter's govern- 
mental and property rights: about 2,3(X),(XX) 
square miles of territory given for $1,500,(K)0 and 
certain land grants. 

June 22, " Better-Terms Aft " ends oppo- 
sition of Nova Scotia to the confederation; leader 
of opposition, Joseph Howe, has entered Macdon- 
ald ministry. [fails. | 

1870. Second Fenian invasion from Vermont I 
July 10. Manitoba admitted to the confedera- 
tion (act of May 12). 

1871. Population, 3,635.024. 

April iJf. General Banii Act establishes 
Canadian system. [States).! 

May 8. Treaty of Washington (see United! 

July 20. British Columbia admitted to the 
confederation; agreement that continental rail- 
way i)e built within 10 years. 
187?. JuneH. First charter of Canadian Pacific 
Railway: land grants and subsidy by Dominion; 
but plan under charter not carried out. 

June 25. Earl of OulTerin governor-general. 

Oct. 21. San Juan award (see United 
States). Ends Pacific boundary controversy. 

1873. May 23. Act for establishment of North- 
west Mounted Police. 

July 1. Prince Edward Island enters the 
confederation (act of May 23). 

Nov. 5. Macdonald ministry resigns, antici- 
pating vote of censure on Paeiflc scandal of char- 
ter of Canadian Pacific Railway. Alexander 
Mackenzie forms Liberal ministry; sustained in 
general election (January, 1874). Government 
decides to construct transcontinental railway. 

1874. April 26. Parliamentary Election Act pre- 
scribes vote by ballot, elections throughout Do- 
minion on one day, expenses limited, corrupt 
practices forbidden. 

Nai'. 17. Proposed tenns for settling con- 
troversy between the Dominion and Britisli Co- 
lumbia over conditions of union, esijecially as to 
railroad. Not carried out. Controversy contin- 
ues and leads to a separation movement. 

1875. Aprils. Act to estabhsh Supreme Court 
of Canada. 

1876. Railroad between Halifax and Quebec 
opened . [States) . I 

1877. Non. 23. Halifax award (see LInitedI 

1878. Sept. 17. General election; Conservatives 
succeed on protective (National or " Canada 
first ") policy. Government resigns (October 
16) and second Macdonald ministry is formed. 

Non. 25. Marquisof Lome governor-general. 

1879. May 15. Protective Tariff Law. 

1880. Canadian high commissioner to United 
Kingdom first appointed. 

1881. Population, 4,324.810. 

Feb. 15. Act for construction of transconti- 
nental railway; Canadian Pacific Railway com- 
pany to construct, receiving cash and land dona- 
tions and portions of road already built by gov- 
ernment, [general. I 

1883. Oct. 23. Marquisof Lansdowne governor- 1 

1884. July 22. Decision of judicial committee of 
British privy council on Manitoba-Ontario 
boundary^ confirming award of 1878 and settling 
long-standing dispute. 

1885. March-May. Riel leads another half-breed 
rebellion on the Saskatchewan; captured and 
hanged. 

June 30. End of fisheries reciprocity; renewal 
of controversy (see LTnited States). 

July 20. Dominion Franchise Act; imiform 
suffrage and low property quaUflcation. Re- 
pealeti when Liberals get control. 
Act putting poll tax of $50 on Chinese immi- 
grants; British Columbia desires exclusion, and 
continues agitation as act has little effect. Tax is 
doubled by act of July 18, 1900, and made S500 
by act of May 15, 1902. Meanwhile, issue com- 
plicated by Japanese and East Indian laborers. 

1886. Vancouver laid out as terminus of trans- 
continental Une. 

June 28. Canadian PaciHc Railway opened 
for tlirough traffic. [United States).] 

1888. Feb. 20. Proposed flsheries treaty (seel 
June 11. Lord Stanley of Preston (Earl of 
Derby) governor-general. 

1890-1897. Manitoba school controversy; pro- 
vincial act (1890) abolishes public denominational 
schools; question becomes a Dominion political 
issue, finally settled by some concessions to Catho- 
lics. Problem of separate and bilingual schools 
continues here and elsewhere in Dominion. 

1891. Population, 4,833,239. 
Establishment of line of transpacific steam- 
ships by Canadian Pacific Railway Company. 

June 6. Death of Premier Macdonald. Sir 
John Abbott succeeds as premier. 



1892. Feb. 29. Bering Sea Treaty (see United 
States). [premier. I 

Dec. 5. Abbott resigns. Sir Jolm ThompsonI 

1893. Aug. 15. Bering Sea award (see United 
States). [eral.l 

Sept. IS. Earl of Aberdeen governor-gen-1 

1894. June 2S. Colonial Trade Conference 
opens at Ottawa, attended also by delegates from 
Australia and Cape Colony ; discussion of imperial 
trade preference. 

Dec. 12. Sir Jolm Thompson dies; .Sir Mac- 
kenzie Bowell succeeds as premier. 

1896. Discovery of gold in Klondike; great 
rush. Alaskan bomidai*y question becomes im- 
portant. 

.ipril 27. Following cabinet crisis, ministry 
reorganized by .Sir Charles Tupper. 

July S. Ministry, defeated in general election, 
resigns and (Sir) Wilfrid Laurier forms Liberal 
ministry on July 13. 

1897. Preferential Tariff Act chiefly affecting 
British imports, which pay only seven eighths of 
regular duties for a year, then three fourths. Ger- 
many deprives Canada (July 7, 1899) of most- 
favored-nation treatment. Canada denounces 
treaties with Germany and Belgium, and prefer- 
ence is confined to the empire, and mcreased to 
scale of two thirds of regular duty in 1900. 

June 29. Act for responsible government in 
Northwest Territories. 

1898. June IS. Yukon Territory set off from 
Northwest Territories. 

Dominion Franchise Act repealed. [States).] 

Aug. 23. Joint High Commission (see United 1 

Nov. 12. Earl of Minto governor-general. 

1899-1903. Canada furnishes several contingents 

of troops (7.368 men) for the South African War; 

opposition is offered to the pohcy, especially in 

Quebec Province. 

1901. Population, 5,371,315. 
September-October. Visit of the Duke of Corn- 
wall (Prince of Wales, now George V.) and 
Duchess of Cornwall. 

Nov. 22. Prohibition Act of Manitoba 
(1900) declared constitutional by judicial com- 
mittee of British privy coimcil; act passed after 
referenda on July 23, 1892, and September 29, 
1898. Further referendum on April 2, 1902, is 
adverse, so law is not proclaimed. Local option 
(imder Scott Act) makes steady progress 
throughout the Dominion, already covering Prince 
Edward Island and most of Nova Scotia. 

1902. March 14. Prohibition Act in Ontario: 
referendum (December 4) shows majority, but 
not that required. 

Gel. SI. First message over British Pacific 
cable, completing the " all-red " (that is " all- 
British ") line aroimd the world. 

1903. Limited tariff preference with New Zealand. 
Discovery of silver at Cobalt, Ontario. 

Jan. 24, Oct. 20. Alaskan boundary (see 
United States). 

Aug. 17-21. Meeting at Montreal of delegates 
from chambers of commerce ttooughout the Brit- 
ish Empire to discuss imperial trade questions. 

Oct. 24. Act for the Grand Trunk Pacific 
Railway; a second transcontinental Ime from 
Moncton, N. B., to Prince Rupert, B. C, to be 
built jointly by government and Grand Trimk. 

1904. Limited tariff preference with South Africa, 
June 14. Dismissal by Canadian government 

of Lord Dimdonald, British general officer com- 
manding the militia, for insubordination to the 
responsible government. 

Aug. 10. New Militia Act makes possible a 
Canadian commander, and recognizes more com- 
plete Canadian control over defense. 

Nov. S. General election: Grand Tnmk Pacific 
Railway main issue, with Dimdonald (militarism) 
and race questions as minor ones. Government 
victory. 

Dec. 10. Earl Grey governor-general. 

1905. Sept. 1. Alberta and Saskatcliewan ad- 
mitted to the confederation (acts of July 5). 
Question of sectarian education met by privilege 
of limited religious instruction in public schools. 

Dec 7. Transfer of defen.ses at Halifax to 
Canadian control. RegiUars also leave Esqui- 
mau, B. C. (May 17, 1906), leaving defense en- 
tirely in Canadian hands. 

1906. July IS. Lord's Day Observance Act 
limits Simday labor, trade, and amusements. In 
force March 3, 1907. 

Sept. s. Serious rioting in Vancouver against 
Japanese and other Asiatics. Canada makes 
reparation. 

1907. March 22. Industrial Disputes Investi- 
gation Act (Lemieux Act) makes strikes or lock- 
outs in mines and public service companies illegal 
imtil the dispute has Ix'en investigated by board 
of conciliation; act applies permissively to other 
industries. 

.Aug. 29. Collapse of portion of great bridge 
being constructed across the St. Lawrence at 
Quebec. [northern Ontario. I 

1908. Discovery of gold In Porcupine region of | 



Jan. 1. Government of Manitoba takes over 
telephone system. Alberta does it on April 1, 
and Saskatchewan on May 1, 1909. 

Jan. 21. Report is made in Parliament of a 
gentlemen's agreement with Japan for restric- 
tion of impiigration. 

July 20. Old Age Aimuities Act becomes law. 

July 20-31. Tercentenary of Quebec: 
Prince of Wales, Lord Roberts, Vice President 
Fairbanks, and other notables present. 

Oct. 26. General election ; government triumphs 
on general record rather than special issues. ' 

1909. Jan. 11. Boundary-waters treaty (see LTnited 
States). [States).] 

Jan. 27. Fisheries convention (see L'nitedi 

1910. May 4. Naval Service Act, following an 
Imperial Defense Conference in London in July, 
1909, provides for a vohmteer force, naval college, 
and fleet of 5 cruisers and 6 destroyers to be built 
in Canada: service at disposal of IJritish Empire 
in case of emergency. Much opposition to act. 
Act on combinations and monopolies, not 
directed against organizations, but against unfair 
exercise of power; Ixiard of 3 to investigate, tariff 
protection may be withdrawn or daUy fine imposed. 

May 21. Treaty on Passamaquoddy Bay boun- 
dary (see LTnited States). 

Sept. 7. Award on flsheries rights by Hague 
Tribimal (see United States). 

1911. Population, 7,206,643. 

July 7. Fur-seal treaty (see United ST.4TEe). 

Sept. 21. General election: issue is reciprocity 
agreement with United States (see United St.^tes) : 
Lam-ier's government is badly defeated and re- 
signs, thus defeating reciprocity. (Sir) Robert L. 
Borden forms Conser\'ative ministry. [eral. | 

Oct. 13. Duke of Connaught governor-gen- 1 

1912. April 1. Manitoba extended north to 60° 
and Hudson Bay, Ontario to Hudson Bay, and 
Ungava (east of the bay) added to Quebec. 

.April 9. Trade agreement with some of 
British West Indies (not including Jamaica): 
preference of about 20 per cent. 

July 22. Judicial committee of British privy 
council on appeal from stated judgment of Su- 
preme Court, apropos of the Hebert case, decides 
Dominion has no power to pass a uniform mar- 
riage law, and that provincial laws may impose 
conditions affecting validity of contract. Does not 
decide directlj" whether marriage of two Catholics 
by other than a priest (forbidden by the church's 
Ne Temere decree) is binding if performed ac- 
cording to statute, but Supreme Court so declares, 
June 8, thus denying legal force of canon law. 

1913. .4pri( 24. Closure rule is adopted in Com- 
mons in order to facilitate passage of government 
measure to build three dreadnoughts. 

May 29. Naval Bill (which passes Commons 
on May 15) is rejected by the Senate. 
Oct. 7. Oil is discovered in Alberta. 

1914. Feb. 2. Parcel-post system is inaugurated. 
April 7. Last spike is driven in Grand Trunk 

Pacific Railway between Winnipeg and Prince 
Rupert. Eastern (government) portion of the 
Une finished by end of 1915; but the Grand Tnmk 
does not assume operative control of this portion. 

May 2. Arrival at Vancouver of ship with 396 
Hindus. Admission denied; courts sustain the 
government. Hindus resist attempt to return 
them, but finally yield, July 23, and start back. 
More rioting at Hongkong and seditious utter- 
ances on reaching India. 

May 29. Empress of Ireland sinks in the St. 
Lawrence Elver after coUision; 1,024 fives lost. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. .■iug. 4. On outbreak of the World War 
financial strain is relieved by order in council 
making bank notes legal tender and temporarily 
irreclaimable In gold. 

A ug. 22. War Measure Act puts the cotmtry 
on a war basis: authorizes censorship and espio- 
nage; control of transportation, trading, manufac- . 
turing, and property. 

Increase in tariff rates and excise on liquor and 
tobacco, and power to increase amount of Domin- 
ion notes are first financial measures. First 
war credit is for S50,000,000. Great Britain also 
advances $G0,000,(X)O up to March 31, 1915. 
Large voluntary contributions of money and sup- 
plies for many purposes: Canadian Patriotic 
Fund, estabUshed to care for soldiers and famfiies. 
Belgian Relief Fimd, Red Cross, etc.; work of wo 
men done largely tlirough Imperial Order Daugh- 
ters of the Empire 

Sept. 22-Oct. 1. First Canadian contingent 
of 33,000 men embarks at Quebec for England. 

1915. March 29. Short-term government loan of 
$25,000,000 is oversubscribed. July 21, S45,000,- 
000 on short-term notes borrowed in New York. 
Canadiancredit con tin uesexceUent throughout war 
under financial management of Sir Thomas White. 

April S. War Revenue Act: tax on bank- 
note circulation, trust companies, insiu'ance, tele- 
grams, traveling tickets, wine; also, increase In 
postage and stamp duties, and in the tariff. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA). 



73 



1915 (continued). 

April IS. Second war credit for SIOO.OOO.OOO, 

June 9. Dispensary iiquor system ustablislied 
in Saskatche\^'&n ; in force Jnly 1. 

July .it. l^rohibitioii approved by referen- 
dum in Alberta: in force July 1, 191G. 

Oct. IS. First through train on Canadian 
Northern Railway reaches Vancouver from 
Quebec; third transcontinental line, built up since 
1896 by construction and absorption of existing 
lines: government has large interest. 

N'jt. 1. Expeditionary force raised to author- 
ized limit of 250,0(JO men, and at end of year to 
500,000 men : by end of the year 212,000 are under 
arms, of whom 118,922 have been sent overseas 
with loss of but one life in transport. 

Nov. 22. First domestic loan for 550,000,000 
(3%, 10 years); total subscription S114,G00,0O0; 
allotment, §97,000,000. 
]91ti. Feb. 3. Dominion Parliament buildings 
at Ottawa burned; possibly incendiary origin. 

March. Loan of S7o,000,000 floated in New 
Yorii (5%, 5-15 years). 

March S. Manitoba act prevents more bilin- 
gual schools, and promotes end of existing ones; 
considered by French Canadians and foreign ele- 
ments as contrary to 1S97 compromise on schools. 

May IS. Act of Parliament prohibits importa- 
tion of liquor into " dry " provinces. War credit 
of .$250,000,000 voted. Revenue acts, except for a 
few tariff changes, chiefly notable for war-profits 
tax of 25%. InsLU-ance companies to keep cer- 
tain part of a::sets in Dominion currency, bonds, 
or debentuie stock. 

June 1. Prohibition in efl'ect in Manitoba; 
law of January 28, and referendum on March 13. 

July 1. Prohibition in effect in Nova Scotia; 
chiefly affects Halifax as most of province al- 
ready subject to temperance laws. [accident I 

Sept. II. Quebec bridge drops span — .second I 

Sept. le. Second domestic loan for $100,000- 
000 (5%, IS years): total subscription, 3195,000,- 
000; allotment, S103,C00,C00. 

Sept. 16. Prohibition goes into effect in On- 
tario (law of April) as war measure, with refer- 
endum in June, 1919. 

Nov. 2. Judicial committee of British privy 
council upholds regulation in Ontario tor require- 
ment of instruction primarily in English. 

Nov. ti. Duke of Devonshire governor- 
general. 

Sir Sam Hughes, minister of militia and defense, 
resigns on request ; friction with premier and others 
in ministry. 
1BI7. Jan. 20. War expenditures to date S444,- 
000,000; war costing about $1,000,000 a day. 
1 Feb. 7. War credit of $500,000,000 voted, 

March 12. Third domestic loan (first Vic- 
tory Loan) for $150,000,000 (5%, 20 years); total 
subscription .«237, 000,000; allotmentS166,000,000. 

May 1. Prohibition in effect in New Bruns- 
wick (act of April 21, 1916). About S0% of 
province under local option before. 

June 6. Laurier refuses to join a coalition 
government, being opposed to conscription. 

July. SlOCOOO.OtX) borrowed in New York. 

iuly I. Prohibition in effect in British Co- 
lumbia; referendum of September 14, 1916. 

July 14. Prohibition in effect In Yukon 
Territory. This leaves Quebec only province 
where sale of liquor at retail is permitted, 

July 2d. Increase is made in war-proflts tax 
(one half of profits between 15% and 20%; tliree 
fourths beyond 20%). 

Aug. 20. Compulsory Military Service Act; 
affects men between 20 and 45 ; first class — immar- 
ried men of 20-34; French-Canadian opposition. 

Sept. 20. Income Tax Act; graduated from 
4% on over $1,500 for unmarried men to 25%, on 
above $100,000; income tax of 4% on corpora- 
tions (see also July 25, above). 
Military Voters* Act provides for voting during 
the war by aU British subjects ordinarily residents 
. of Canada, male and female, in active service. 
War-Times Election Act gives francliise tempo- 
rarily to near female relatives of men overseas, 
and disfranchises all of alien enemy birth or tongue 
naturalized since 1901. As women have suffrage 
in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, 
and British Columbia, this act disfrancliises a por- 
tion of them for coming parliamentary election. 
Act to acquire rest of stock of Canadian Northern 
Railway. (raised to position 1 

Central span of Quebec bridge successfully I 

Oct. 13. Union ministry is formed with Bor- 
den premier; 13 Conservatives and 10 Liberals; in- 
ner war cabinet has 5 Liberals and 5 Conservatives. 

Nor. 12. Fourth domestic loan (second Vic- 
tory Loan) for $150,000,000(55 %, 5-20 years) ; total 
subscription, 8419,000,000; allotment, $398,000,- 
000. 

Drc. 6. Explosion of cargo of ammunition in 
Halifax Harbor destroys large part of city; 1,200 
killed: suffering increased and rescue Impeded by 
tire and blizzard. 

Dec. 17. General election; Union government 



wins 153 seats on issue of conscription and " "^vin 
the war "; opposition, led by Lam-ier, 82 seats. 

Dec. 2J,. Prohibition placed on importation 
of intoxicating liquor into Canada; prohibition 
of manufacturing held in reserve. Prohibition of 
interprovmcial transportation issued April 1, 1918. 

1918. March 2S- April 2. Anti-draft riots in 
Quebec, caused by taking of defaulters under 
MiUtary Service Act ; suppressed by troops. 
May I-2S. Strike in Winnipeg of civic em- 
ployees including firemen iimionized), sympa- 
thetic strikes of other laborers and threat, under 
1 W.W. and other radical propaganda, of gen- 
eral strike. Labor mirest during the year tlirough- 
out the Dominion, under socialistic incitation; 
prominent question that of right of civic guardians 
to unionize. 

May 24. War Revenue acts; increase in in- 
come, profits, excise, tariff, and other taxes; tax on 
matches, playing cards, moving-pictme films, 
jewelry, automobiles, and mechanical musical in- 
struments. 
War credit of 8500,000,000 voted. 

July. Strike of postal employees in Toronto 

Aui;. IS. Fifth domestic loan (third Victory 
Loan) for $300,000,000 (5i%, 5-15 years); total 
subscription, $687,000,000. 

Dec. 10-14. Strike of Montreal police and 
flremen, accompanied by rioting; right to miion- 
ize demanded by strikers. Association per- 
mitted, but no affiliation with other imions. To- 
ronto police strike on same question Dec. 13-20. 

Dec. 31. Report (as revised Decembers, 1919) 
that 595,411 men were enlisted or drafted in 
Canada during the war, of whom 418,0.52 sailed 
for England and 4,214 for Siberia. 
Casualties: 63,786 deaths, 148,869 wounded. 

1919. .At request of Canadian govenmient, British 
government ceases to confer titles on Canadians. 

Jan. IS. Canada has two delegates at the 
Peace Conference at Paris. 

Feb. 16. Laurier dies. August, Mackenzie 
King chosen his successor as leader of opposition. 

March 19. Budget statement calls for unusu- 
ally large expenditures for shipbuilding, roads, 
and railway equipment. 

March St. Net debt $1,438,000,000, an in- 
crease of $1,102,000,000 since March 31, 1914. 

May-June. Strike at Winnipeg, including 
police, flremen, and other official .servants, made 
the basis for revolutionary propaganda; all public 
utilities idle. Volunteers man street cars; re- 
turned soldiers act as police. Strikes elsewhere, 
esp. at Toronto. No serious disorders anywhere. 

Jutie 6. New Immigration law increases re- 
strictions, developing new policy. 

July 7. Act to assist returned soldiers in 
settling on the land provides for government 
acquisition, by purchase or expropriation, and re- 
sale to soldiers. 

A ug. 1 o. Prince of Wales lands in Canada for a 
tour wliich lasts until Novemljer. 

Sept. 11. Parliament ratifies the Treaty of 
Versailles, including the League of Nations, of 
which Canada is a member. 

Oct. 20. Election in Ontario. Prohibition 
retained. L'nited Farmers party assisted by La- 
borites wins at polls and United Farmers min- 
istry takes office November 1. 

Nuiember. Government takes over the 
Grand Trunk Railway, making about 22.000 
miles of government-controlled lines in Canada. 
Canadian Pacific the only important private line. 
Victory Loan tor 8300,000,000 o\ersubscribed. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

Newfoundland is nearer Eiu-ope than is any other 
land in America. It was discovered by Jolm Cabot 
in 1497. In 1583 Su- Himipiu-ey Gilbert declared it 
a possession of Queen Elizabeth, and, though claimed 
by Franco, it has been held by England ever since. 
In 1869 the people of Newfoundland, then a sepa- 
rate island colony of Great Britain, voted against 
union with Canada. In 1918 it was made a domin- 
ion of the empire. Responsible government has 
existed since 1885. The governor, appointed by the 
crown, is assisted by an E.xecutive Council of not 
more than 9 members. Parliament consists of a 
Legislative Council, of not more than 24 members, 
and an .Assembly of 36 members. 

The fisheries are the chief industry, producing about 
$10,000,000 annually. The forests are extensive and 
valuable. The mineral deposits include iron, coal, 
copper, silver, lead, and gold. In religion, the 
population is divided almost equally between Roman 
Cathohcs, Anglicans, and Methodists, while a few 
adhere to other communions. Schools and colleges 
are maintained by the leading religious bodies. 

The area is 42,734 square miles. The popula- 
tion in 1918 was 254,587. 

Labrador. lying farther east than any other part 
of tlie continent, is a dependency of Ne\vfoimdland. 
There are latent resoiu'ces of value in its forests, 
fisheries, and mines. Its area is about 120,000 square 
miles, and known population (1918) 4,073. 



Chronology — Newfoundland. 

1497. Cabot's voyage (see United States). 

1500-1.502. Cortereal's voyages (see United 
States). These voyages followed by Portuguese, 
Enghsh, French, and Basque fishermen on the 
Banks. St. John's developed as a free port, fre- 
quented especially by English merchantmen. 

1583. .iug. 3. Sir Humphrey Gilbert puts in at 
St, John's, refits, and takes possession of the 
colony. [island. I 

1610-1621. Various EngUsli colonies started on the | 

1637. Nov. 13. Grant of island to Hamilton, 
Kirke, and others. 

1638. Kirke comes as governor. 
1662. French settlement at Placentia. 

1699. May 4. Act to encoiu-age trade to New- 
foundland; control by fishing admirals. 

1713. March SI [April 11, N. S.). Treaty of 
Utrecht; France relinquishes claim to island, re- 
tains right to fish and dry fish on coast from Cape 
Bonavista around northern end to Point Riclie. 
I'nder tliis and later treaties grows up a French 
claim to exclusive rights on the " French Shore." 

1729. Henry Osborne, first 'governor. 

1783. Sept. S. Treaties of Versailles and Paris; 
French fishing right shifted from Cape Bonavista 
to Cape St. Jolm and down the western shore to 
Cape Ray: Americans retain right to fish and dry 
fish on the island; islands of Saint-Pierre and 
Miquelon ceded to France. 

1818. Oct. 20. American fishing rights on coast, 
w Inch were lost by War of 1 8 1 2 , are restored Ijy con- 
vention as to portions of Newfoundland and Labra- 
dor, with right to dry fish in imscttled .sections. 

1832. .\uf}. 1. Act of Parliament creating a rep- 
resentative assembly in Newfoimdland. 

1855. Responsible government inaugurated. 

1867. Dominion of Canada formed ; Newfoundland 
holds aloof, her interests bemg more dii'ectly with 
Great Britain and United States. 

1877. Nor. 23. Newfoundland's share in the 
Halifax award (see United States) is $1,000,000. 

1890. Nov. 15. Bond-Blaine reciprocity treaty 
v\ith United States drafted: imperial consent is 
withlield at suggestion of C^anada. 

1893. May 16. Reid contract for construction 
and operation of transinsidar railway, with large 
land grant. 

1S9S. April. Conference for union with Canada 
fails over debt question ; island nearly insolvent. 

1898. Fiu-ther contract with Reld negotiated, giv- 
ing him virtual control over development of the 
island, lands, minerals, telegraph, railway, local 
sea commimications, docks, and iTOstal service. 

1900. Nor. S. Government responsible for Reid 
contract defeated at election; (Sir) Robert Bond 
becomes premier, and Reid, for changes in form of 
his company, agrees (July 19, 1901) to return the 
telegraph, modify land grant, and permit final 
reclamation of railroad. 

1902. Nov. S. Bond-Hay reciprocity conven- 
tion with United States. Rejected by U.S. Senate. 
Newfoundland enacts measures to hamper Amer- 
ican fishing rights under treaty of 1818. 

1904. April S. French-British treaty puts 
end to " French Shore " controversy, wliich has 
been source of many reprisals (Bait Act of 1887); 
France abandons all rights in Newfoundland (ex- 
cept Saint-Pierre and Miquelon islands), receiving 
compensation in Africa, and money indemnity. 

1909. Jan. 27. Fisheries convention (see United 
States). (States).! 

1910. Sept. 7. Fisheries award (see United! 
1914. At outbreak of World War island raises a 

regiment, also contriliutes men to naval service. 
Regiment maintained diu-ing war: .some 9,000 men 
serve in it and the navy. Others enlist in Cana- 
dian regiments. 

1917. Jan.i. Prohibition goes into effect under 
referendum of November 4, 1915. Most of island 
under local option previously. 

1918. Jan. 5. Colony given title of Dominion by 
home government. 

May. Compulsory Military Service Act makes 
possible maintenance of regiment at full strength. 

1919. Jan. IS. Newfoundland is represented at the 
Peace Conference by the premier. Dominion not 
formally treated as party to Treaty of Versailles 
or as a separate member of League of Nations. 

BERMUDAS. 

The Bermudas are a group of over 300 islands in 
the .Atlantic, 5S0 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras. 
The.\' are not strictly reckoned as a part of the West 
Indies and were once attached to Virginia. They 
constitute a crown colony, and are exceedingly im- 
portant, both as a strongly fortified station of the 
British fleet and because of their commanding stra- 
tegic position. The permanent military force com- 
prises an average of 3,000 men of ail branches. The 
chief exports are onions, potatoes, and other vege- 
tables. Of late years these islands, with their 
delightful climate, have become a tourist's resort 
much visited from the United States. Area about 
19 square miles, population (1918) 21,840. 



74 



NATIONAL HISTOKIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AMERICA — AUSTRALASIA). 



N 



U 



W 



BRITISH WEST INDIES. 

Columbus on reaching Guanahani (now gener- 
ally identifled with Watling Island) supposed he 
had found the Indies. Thus arose the name West 
Indies applied to the great archipelago curving 
from Florida and Yucatan to South America. The 
group is geographically American, but the polit- 
ical and international relations of the West Indian 
islands until the end of the nineteenth centiirj- was 
chiefly European. The West Indies include tliirty 
major islands and many groups of islands 

Among these islands the Spaniards coasted and 
colonized until no other part of the New World was 
so well known and so fully occupied by colonists. 
The easy conditions of the climate, the gentleness of 
the aborigines, the richness of the islands, and the 
ease of conquest, made the Spaniards masters for a 
century. Then other European powers began to 
dispute these rich possessions. From 1600 to 1650 
the French and English occupied several islands not 
colonized by Spain. 

Most of the natives of the islands were killed out 
by Spanish officers: and Negro slaves were intro- 
duced by all the colonists, thus fi.xing this cmse in 
one of the fairest parts of the globe. As the Spanish 
monarchy declined, the islands were detached from 
herempire. TheBritishseized Jamaica in 1655. Den- 
mark, France, and Holland took and held islands or 
groups. In 1S98 the United States annexed Porto 
Rico. The island of Haiti has had an independent 
government since about 1795. Cuba — last remnant 
of the .Spanish American empire — was made nomi- 
nally independent, actually a protectorate of the 
United States, by the war of 1898. The greater num- 
ber of islands have passed into the possession of Great 
Britain, but the Uniled States is at present the most 
active and strongest power in the Caribbean region. 

BAHAMAS. 

The B.\hamas are a group of about 30 inhabited 
and over 600 uninhabited islands northeast of Cuba. 
Guanahani, one of the Bahamas, was the first land 
discovered by Columbus in his first voyage, 1492. 
It was named by him San Salvador. The islands 
were without civilized inhabitants until the arrival 
of English colonists in 1629. Then they were fought 
over until their final cession to Great Britain in 1783 
Nassau, the capital, on New Providence island, has 
a fine harbor and was the headquarters of blockade 
rimners during the Civil War Fruits and vege- 
tables are exported; also shells, pearls, and amber- 
gris. There are sponge and turtle fisheries. The 
area of the group is 4,404 square miles. The popu- 
lation was estimated at 59,928 in 1918. 

BARBADOS. 

Barbados is the most eastern of the West Indian 
islands. Though geographically one of the Wind- 
ward Islands it is administratively a colony by itself, 
having its own governor assisted by a Legislative 
Council of 9 members, all appointed by the crown, 
and its own Assembly of 24 members annually 
elected by the people. Most of the inhabitants be- 
long to the Church of England. Sugar and cotton 
are the chief products. Also manjak. a kind of as- 
phalt, is exported. Violent hurricanes are frequent 
and destructive. Barbados has been made very 
prosperous by the high price of sugar. The area is 
166 square miles and the population (1918) 191,664 

JAMAICA. 

Jamaica, one of the Greater -Antilles, from its 
history, size, and relative situation, is the most im- 
portant of the British West India islands. It was 
discovered by Columbus in May, 1494. Fifteen 
years later the first colony was planted by the Span- 
iards. Columbus called the i'^land Santiago, but the 
name was soon replaced by the native " Jamaica," 
signifying the " country of springs." In the time 
of Cromwell, Admiral Penn at the head of an English 
fleet wrested Jamaica from the Spaniards. All sub- 
sequent efl'orts of Spain to reconquer it were failures. 

The island soon became known for its sugar pro- 
duction. In 1673 the first pot of sugar was sent to 
England by the governor of the island. The slave 
trade furni-slied the means of developing the indus- 
try. The slaves multiplied and some escaped to 
the Blue Mountains. These so-called " maroons ' 
made a descent upon the plantations in 1715 and a 
servile war continued for 23 years. The authorities 
were glad to make peace by many concessions. 

The sugar industry increased in importance. 
During the first three quarters of the eighteenth cen- 
tury more than five hundred thousand slaves were 
imported. In 1795 the slaves revolted, but they 
were suppressed. The island was very prosperous: 
some wealthy Jamaican planters settled in New 
England and elsewhere. The trade between Ja- 
maica and Great Britain was profitable. 

In I,S07 the British government totally abolished 
the slave trade with all its colonies. The antislavery 
reformers headed by Wilberforce next turned upon 
slaveholding, and in 1834 secured an act of Parlia- 
ment for the abolition of slavery in all the British 
colonies. At that time there were 322,000 slaves in 



the island. These were first raised to apprenticeship 
for four years, and then to freedom. The masters 
were indenmified with a payment of $28,362,000 by 
the British Parliament. The victory for human- 
ity was costly to Jamaica and the other sugar-pro- 
ducing British West India islands. The abolition of 
slavery and other changes in the trade relations of 
the West Indies caused a decline from which the 
island has never recovered. 

In 1692 Port Royal, the old capital, was destroyed 
by earthquake and Kingston became the seat of gov- 
ernment. Another earthquake destroyed the town 
of Savanna la Mar in 1740. Cholera ravaged Ja- 
maica in 1846 and some of the principal settlements 
lost the greater part of their inhabitants. A Negro 
insurrection in 1865 was put down by Governor E>Te 
with a strong and brutal hand. Though cleared by 
an official inquiry, public opinion was against liim. 
In 1907 an earthquake destroyed a great part of the 
town of Kingston and killed nearly 1,000 persons. 

The island is rided by a governor, assisted by a 
Privj^ Coimcil and a Legislative Council of 29 mem- 
bers, 14 of whom are elected. Jamaica is divided 
into 15 parishes, in each of which an elected board 
administers local affairs. The government main- 
tains elementary, secondary, and industrial schools : 
also colleges for training teachers. There is no state 
church. Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyte- 
rians, Roman Catholics, Moravians, Congregation- 
alists, are, as to numbers, in the order named. 

The cliief exports in 1917 were sugar, S3,421,500: 
logwood extract, 31,924,600: bananas, $1,105,500; 
coconuts, $721 ,000 ; cocoa, $572,8(X) ; coffee, $568,500. 

The area is 4,207 square miles and the estimated 
population (191S) 891,040. 

Dependent upon Jamaica are Turk.s and Caicos 

Islands (area 165i square miles, population (1918) 
5,615), two southern groups of the Bahamas. Their 
chief industrj' is salt making, 1,700,000 bushels be- 
ing annually exported. The Cayman Islands also 
are attached to Jamaica. They export coconuts, 
rope, turtle shell, and cattle. 

LEEWARD ISLANDS. 

The Leeward Islands, so called from their rela- 
tion to the trade winds, are the northern half of the 
prolonged group known as the Lesser Antilles. The 
principal British islands are Dominica, Antigua, St, 
Christopher (St. Kitts), Nevis, Anguilla, Montserrat, 
Barbuda, and Redonda. The British Virgin Islands, 
comprising all those not included in the Virgin 
Islands of the United States, are a part of the Lee- 
ward group. The Leewards have one governor, ap- 
pointed by the crown, and one Federal Legislative 
Coimcii of 16 members, one half appointed and the 
other half elected. Most of the schools are main- 
tained by the various churches. Sugar, molasses, 
lime juice, cocoa, and onions are articles of export. 
The entire area is 715 square miles and the popu- 
lation (1911) about 127,000. Less than 5 percent 
of the population are whites. 

TRINIDAD. 

Trinidad lies directly opposite the northern mouth 
of the Orinoco. Discovered by C^olumbus in 1498, 
it was held by Spain until its capture by Great Brit- 
ain in 1797. Most of the inhabitants are of mixed 
race, descendants of Europeans and Africans, and it 
is estimated that one third of the population is com- 
posed of East Indians and their descendants. Three 
fourths of the people are Christians, nearly one half 
of whom are .\nglicans and the other half Roman 
Catholics. From the large asphalt lake, 109, (X)0 
tons of asphalt valued at $677,500 were exported in 
1917. Other exports were cocoa, $7,821,600: sugar, 
$7,093,800. The culture of rubber, cotton, and 
tobacco has been introduced into Tobago and the 
cacao industry is receiving increasing attention. 
Trinidad is ruled by a governor, aided by an Execu- 
tive Council and a Legislative Coimcil. The area 
is 1,860 square miles and the t«tal estimated popu- 
lation (1918) of Trinidad and Tobago was 381,309. 

Dependent upon Trinidad is Tobago, a popular re- 
sort of American and British pleasiu-e seekers. Area, 
114 sq. miles; estimated popiilation (1917), 23,587. 

WINDWARD ISLANDS. 

The Windward Islands, so called from their sup- 
posed situation relative to the trade winds, are the 
southern half of the prolonged group kno^^Tl as the 
Lesser Antilles The principal British islands are 
Grenada, St. Vincent, and St. I ucia. In connec- 
tion are the group of the Grenadines All are under 
one governor, but otherwise each island conducts its 
own affairs. In St. Lucia most of the schools are 
under Roman Catholic control, aided by government 
grant: in the other islands they are maintained by 
the government. Cocoa, nutmegs, spices, and cotton 
are the chief products. The entire area is 520 square 
miles and the population (1918) about 179,650. 

BRITISH GUIANA. 

British Guiana is situated between Dutch 
Guiana, Brazil, and Venezuela. It was taken from 



the Dutch in 1803. A dispute with Venezuela as Ur 
the boundary threatened complications with the 
United States in 1895 The matter was afterward 
settled by direct arbitration with Venezuela. Gold 
mining and diamond mining are carried on. The 
chief exports (1917) are sugar, $12.150,000;diamonds. 
$188,000; rice. $1,440,600. Authority is in the hands 
of a British governor, who is assisted by an Executive 
Council and a Court of Pohcy. 

The area is 89,480 square miles and the popula- 
tion (estimated 1918) is311,000. The Immigration 
Department estimated (1917) that there were 138,140 
East Indians in the colony, of whom over 105,000 
were agricultural laborers, mostly employed on the 
sugar plantations. 

BRITISH HONDURAS. 

British Honduras was originally a settlement of 
British logwood cutters made about 1638. In reality 
it was fortified by England as a convenient point 
from which to attack Spanish commerce. By the 
treaty of 1763 it was agreed that Great Britain 
should remove her fortifications from the Bay of 
Honduras, and in 1783 Great Britain promised to 
give it up altogether. British sovereignty, however, 
was established by the defeat of the Spaniards in 
1798. This settlement led to difflciUties with the 
United States, which were enhanced by the Clayton- 
Bulwer Treaty of 1860. Tills part of Central Amer- 
ica was called " His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay 
of Honduras." It yieltls large quantities of mahog- 
any and logwood. It is now a crown colony with an 
area of 8,592 square miles and a population (esti- 
mated Dec. 31, 1918) of 42,368. The birth rate (1917) 
per thousand was 40.3% and the death rate 31.3%. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS. 

The Falkland Islands are a group of about 200 
islands situated in the South Atlantic, 250 miles 
northeast of Tierra del Fuego, and constitute a 
crown colony. They were discovered in 1592, and 
have been claimed by the French. Spanish, and 
British. The latter have held them since 1833 
The chief industries are sheep farming, raising of 
horses, and the whale fisheries. The leading ex- 
ports (1917) were whale produce, $7,581,600; wool, 
$1,161,500; skins and hides, $103,000. A decisive 
naval battle was fought off these islands in 1915, re- 
sulting in the destruction of the German squadron 
The area of the islands is 6,500 square miles and the 
population (1918) 3,252. 



BRITISH COLONIES AITO 
POSSESSIONS IN THE PACIFIC. 

COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. 

Historical Outline. 

The continent of Australia became known to 
Europe through the captain of the Dutch ship Duyf- 
ken in 1606. In 1770 Captain James Cook, the 
great navigator, landed on the southeast coast, 
named many places, and hoisted the British flag 
at Port Jackson ; and the country was accepted as a 
British possession. In 1788 a penal settlement was 
established at Botany Bay. Other such settlements 
were started at Sydney and elsewhere. Opportuni- 
ties for sheep farming and the natural advantages 
of the coimtry attracted many other settlers, who 
bitterly resented the importation of felons. Their 
resistance was effectual. Few convicts were sent 
out after 1837, and none after 1867. 

The sentiment for autonomy grew strong during 
the administrations of Sir Thomas Brisbane and Sir 
Ralph Darling. The discovery of gold in 1851 was 
followed by a great influx of population. The col- 
onies of Australia developed into flourishing states. 
Both the Commonwealth and the various states have 
tried many experiments in progressive legislation 
and have adopted invalid and old-age pensions, 
advanced land legislation, and labor laws. 

Organization. 

The Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed 
by Queen Victoria on September 17, 1900, on a con- 
stitution enacted by the British Parliament at the 
request of the colonies concerned. It was inaugurated 
at Sydney, January 1, 1901. The Australian feder- 
ation is similar to that of the United States, and was 
accomplished only after much opposition and long 
discussion. 

The Commonwealth is composed of the five con- 
tinental states of New South Wales, Victoria, 
Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, 
and the insular state of Tasmania In 1911 South 
Australia transferred to the Commonwealth the 
Northern Territory, with an area of 523,620 square 
miles and a European population of 1,418. At the 
same time the Federal Capital Territory (Yass-Can- 
berra) of 912 square miles, with a population of 1,714, 
was* transferred to the Commonwealth by New South 
Wales. In 1917 this Federal area was increased to 
940 square miles. It is planned to build a mag- 
nificent capitol there. Each state has its own local 
government, presided over by a governor appointed 



1605-1858. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AUSTRALASIA). 



75 



by the crown, who is assisted by a council of minis- 
ters. Kacli has an upper and lower legislative house. 
In each state every man and woman over 21 years 
of age is cnlitled to vote, imless disqualified. 

Government. By the constitution, approved 
by popular vote of each state and by the British 
Parliament, legislative power is exercised by a fed- 
eral Parliament, consisting of the king, a Senate and 
a House of Representatives. The king is repre- 
sented by a governor-general, appointed by the 
crown, and controlled in most of liis executive fimc- 
tions through a Council of the state ministers, who 
constitute a cabinet. These ministei-s in 191S were: 
Prime Minister and Attorney-General: Minister for 
the Navy: Public Works and Railways: Home and 
Territories: Minister of Customs: Treasurer; Post- 
master-General: Minister of Defense; Minister for 
Repatriation: Vice President of the Executive 
Coimcil. and three Honorary Ministers. The Senate 
is compo.sed of 6 senators from each state, elected for 
6 years, one half retiring every 3 years. The House 
is as nearly as possible twice as mmierous as the 
Senate, and the members are chosen for three years 
by imiversal adult suffrage, the number from each 
state being proportioned to its population, save that 
no state shall ever be represented by less than five. 
The legislative powers of the Parliament are ample. 
In operation the Australian government is carried 
on by ministers responsible to Parliament, the gov- 
ernor-general being a flgurchead: a federal court 
exercises the power to annul statutes of the states 
and of the union without appeal to Great Britain 
unless it certifies the case itself for imperial decision. 
Religion. There is no state church. The 
Church of England leads in number of commtmi- 
cants. Then come Roman Catholics, Methodists, 
Presbyterians, Lutherans, and Baptists in the order 
named. 

Industry and Labor. Agriculture, cattle and 
sheep raising, dairy farming, and mining are the 
chief occupations. The chief exports 1917-18 were 
wool, $119,492,000: wheat. $29,112,800: flour. S21.- 
482.900: butter. S23.835.500: beef. S17.97S.600: 
copper. S15. 140.000: lead. $15,612,700; tin, S5,321,- 
700; skins and hides, $13,864,000. 

Eduration is in the hands of the various states 
and is generally free and compulsorj". In 1917 there 
were 9.197 state schools, with 782.504 pupils. In 
addition there are numerous private schools, largely 
denominational or technical, and schools giving spe- 
cial training. In each state there is also a imiversity. 
Defense. By the Defense Act of 1903. amended 
by the various acts since passed, compulsory militarj' 
training is established, beginning with cadets of 
twelve to eighteen years of age. This is followed by 
two years in the citizen forces as recruits and six 
years as soldiers. Liability ends with the comple- 
tion of the twenty-sixth year. The actual period 
of training, however, is veo' short, about sixteen 
days each year. When the system is tmder full op- 
eration it is estimated that there will be 150.000 
cadets and 120.000 citizen soldiers. Before the 
World War the militia consisted of 50.000 and 
there were 90.000 undergoing compulsory training as 
senior cadets. It is estimated that the annuarcost 
when this system is in full working order will some- 
what exceed $14,580,000. The total military forces. 
June 30. 1917. amounted to 281,942. of whom 3.923 
were permanent. During the World War. more 
than 750.000 men volimteered and 300.000 were sent 
overseas. Proposals to establish conscription were 
defeated. 

The Commonwealth plans to make Australia self- 
defending, and in 1911 agreed to furnish an Austra- 
lian fleet unit together with the necessary auxiliaries 
such as docks and depot ships. In time of peace 
this navy was to be under the control of the Com- 
monwealth, but in time of war one of the units of the 
royal navy. A ship of this imit chased and de- 
stroyed the German commerce destroyer. Emden. 

Area and Population. The area of the Aus- 
tralian Commonwealth (not including New Guinea) 
is 2.974,581 square miles and the population (esti- 
mated, 1919) 5.140,153. 

NEW SOUTH WALES. 

New .South Wales was the earliest settled and is 
now the most populous of all the Australian states. 
In 1840 New Zealand was separated from it and or- 
ganized as a separate colony Responsible govern- 
ment was established in 1855. The general election 
of 1904 was the first in the state in which women 
were entitled to vote. The permanent capital of 
the Commonwealth will be located in New South 
Wales at Yass-Canberra. The state is entitled to 
27 members in the Commonwealth House of Repre- 
sentatives. The area is 3 10,372 square miles. The 
estimated population in 1919 was 1.960.597. 

VICTORIA. 

VicTORtA is the most southern and. in territory, 
the smallest of the continental states. It was per- 
manently colonized in 1835. when Melbourne was 
founded. Respoifeible government dates from 1855. 
97% of the inhabitants above fifteen can read and 
write. Victoria is entitled to 21 members in the 



House of Representatives of the Commonwealth. 
Melbourne, with its suburbs, had in 1917 an esti- 
mated population of 708,240 and is the temporary 
capital of the Federation. The area is 87.884 
square miles, little more than one thirty-third of all 
Australia. The estimated population in 1919 was 
1.467. 188. 

QUEENSLAND. 
Queensland is the most northeasterly of the 
states. It was colonized in 1825 and separated 
from New South Wales in 1859. when responsible 
go\emment was conferred. Literacy is high. 98% 
of the population abo\e 15 years of age being able 
to read and write. Queensland is entitled to 10 
members in the House of Representatives of the 
Commonwealth. The area is 670,500 square 
miles; estimated population in 1919, 712,827. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 

South Australia occupies the center of the con- 
tinent, which it spans from north to south. It 
was made a British province in 1836. Women were 
granted the franchise in 1S94. A large part of the 
interior is occupied by the almost limitless and des- 
ert Austral Plain. It is entitled to 7 members in 
the Commonwealth House of Representatives. The 
area is 380,070 square miles. The estimated popu- 
lation in 1919 was 455,944. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 
Western .\ustralia occupies all the western part 
of the continent. The flrst settlement was planted 
on the Swan River, in 1829. Responsible govern- 
ment was granted in 1890. This was the last of the 
states to join the Federation. It has 5 members in 
the House of Representatives. The area is 975,920 
square miles. The estimated population (1919) 
was 323,220 as against only about 50,000 thirty 
years ago. 

TASMANIA. 

Tasmania is separated from Australia by Bass 
Strait, about 150 miles in width. In 1642 it was dis- 
covered by the Dutch navigator Tasman. whose name 
it bears. He called it Van Diemen"s Land, for a 
Dutch governor of Java who claimed the island for 
Holland. The Frenchman Marion-Dufresne visited 
the island in 1 772. and provoked the natives to hostil- 
ity. Five years af tenvard Captain Cook anchored in 
Adventure Bay. Then came a brief contest among 
repres€*ntatives of different European powers for the 
right of dominion. Captain Bass circumnavigated 
the island in 1798. Because of his favorable descrip- 
tion, the site of Hobart Town was afterward chosen. 

In 1803 a colony was planted on the Derwent. 
In the same year a penal colony was established at 
Port Phillip, Australia, but was transferred to Ho- 
bart Town in 1804. The natives were constantly 
hostile, but were brought to subjection in 1830, after 
which the aboriginal race rapidly dwindled 

Tasmania was a dependency of New South Wales 
tmtil 1825. Then the inhabitants declared them- 
selves independent, and sought to estabUsh a civil 
government of their own. Next, they successfully 
resisted the further importation of criminals, which 
ceased in 1853. In 1856 responsible government was 
put in operation. In 1901 it became one of the states 
of the Commonwealth of Australia. Tasmania now 
has five members in the House of Representatives. 

The island is rich in metaUic ores and coal. The 
main crops are oats, wheat, potatoes, and hay. A 
relatively large state debt has been contracted for 
public improvements. The area is 26.215 square 
miles; estimated population in 1919. 210.881. 

NEW GUINEA OR PAPUA. 

British New Guinea, now officially called the 
Territory of Papua, was transferred to the Austra- 
lian Commonwealth in 1905. Situated on the other 
side of the island-studded Torres Strait at a short 
distance from Australia, the political destiny of New 
Guinea vitally affected the inliabitants of Queens- 
land and of all the Australian states. It is governed 
by a lieutenant governor and a council of six. nomi- 
nated by the governor-general of Australia. It has 
some valuable mineral fields, particularly of copper 
and gold. 

The area is 90,540 square miles and the native 
population (1918) was about 200,000. 

Chronology — Australia. 

1605. Torres, for Spain, sails through Torres 

Strait. Dutch vessel Duyfken is traditionally 

supposed to reach north coast of Australia in 

March. 1606. [voyages follow. | 

1616. Hartog is on the west coast. Other Dutch' 

1642. Nov. 24. Tasman discovers Van Diemen's 

Land (Tasmania), and lands on New Zealand 

(December). 

1644. Tasman is on north and northwest coast of 

Australia, which he names New Holland, [coast. I 

1699. Dampier is first Enghsh navigator on west I 

17J0. March. Capt. James Cook for England. 

after exploring New Zealand coast, reaches Botanj- 

Bay on the east coast of Australia which he ex- 1 



plores northward to Torres Strait, taking posses- 
sion for England and naming the region New 
South Wales. 

1783. June SO. Actof Parliament for transporta- 
tion of criminals. Order in council in 1786 se- 
lects east coast of .\ustralia as place. 

1788. Jan. 26. Arthur Phillip, with 750 convicts 
and detachment of marmes. begins settlement of 
New South Wales in Sydney (Cove) of Port Jack- 
son; military government. 

1791. Beginning of transportation of Irish political 
convicts. 

1797. Coal Is discovered and Newcastle founded. 

1804. Ffb. 20. Settlement of Van Diemen's 
Land begun at Hobart Town by Collins. Latm- 
ceston is started two years later. Island becomes 
penal settlement. 
Insurrection of convicts in New South Wales. 

1808. January. Military revolt in New South 
Wales; governor deposed. 

1810. Population estimated at 11.500. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1823. July 19. Act for government of New 
South Wales: Court refonii; jur.v; council, while 
remaining appointive, enlarged by 3 nonofflce- 
holding colonists and has consultative legislative 
and financial power: separate governorship for 
Van Diemen's Land; favors free emigration. 

1826. Moreton Bay (Brisbane) made a penal col- 
ony, but real settlement of Queensland begins 
with advance of interior pastoral exploration to 
the Darling Downs ; not connected with coast imtil 
1840. when penal settlement is broken up. 

1828. July 25. Act enlarges council of New South 
Wales to 15, with greater legislative powers. 

1829. White population of New South Wales. 
35,610. 

May 14. Act for settlement of Western 
Australia. In June expedition tmder Stirling 
lauds; starts Perth as capital. 

1834. Aug. Jo. Act authorizing province of 
South Australia; transportation of convicts for- 
bidden there: complicated government with land 
commissioners sitting in London. 

1835. Main settlement of Victoria begtm at Mel- 
bomne and Geelong by Fawkner and Batman. In 
1834 settlement by Henty at Portland Bay. 

1836. Ju!y 27. Settlement of South Australia 
begins at Kangaroo Island. 

1837. Adelaide founded. 

18*0. Transportation of convicts to New South 
Wales ceases; Van Diemen's Land becomes the 
chief colony for convicts and is in danger of being 
swamped. 

1842. Discovery of copper in South Australia. 

June 22. Crown Land Sales Act: uniform sys- 
tem throughout Australia; survey before sale; 
auction ; minimum price of £1 (about $5) per acre. 
Cause of much complaint; repealed, except as to 
Western Australia, when responsible government 
is conferred in 1850. 

July SO. Act for representative government 
In New South Wales; 24 of 36 coimcilors to be 
elected : general legislative powers. 

1846. Aug. 2S. Act to do away with evils of 
squatting for pasturage; pastoral leases to be 
granted with first right of purchase. 

1849. Demonstrations in Sydney and Melbourne 
against the renewal, tmder order in coimcil of 
1848. of transportation of convicts. Ministry 
yields: but a stream of convicts and ticket-of- 
leave men is directed to Western Australia, along 
with a home subsidy, and that colony prospers. 

1850. Aug. 5. Representative government — 
elected coimcil — is extended to South Australia, 
Van Diemen's Land, and Victoria, the last being 
set off from New South Wales after July 1, 1851. 

1851. White population estimated at 430,596. 
Feb. 12. Discovery of gold in New South 

Wales; government adopts system of hcense to dig 
alluvial gold and later demands royalty on rock 
gold, whether in public or private lands; such 
taxation causes much controversy; later, export 
duty on gold is substituted. Gold fields also 
found in Victoria. Rush of miners similar to that 
to California in 1849. 

1853. Transportation of convicts to Van Die- 
men's Land ceases; event celebrated August 10, 
and colony renamed Tasmania. 

1854. November-December. Revolt Of miners in 
Ballaret District. Victoria; discontent over li- 
censes. Eureka .Stockade stormed by soldiers on 
December 3. Expulsion of Chinese miners by 
whites. [matta. I 

1855. First railway opened; Sydney to Parra-| 

1856. Responsible government with bicameral 
parliaments and control over revenue and ex- 
penditures put in operation in New South Wales, 
Tasmania, and South Australia. 

April 21. First Eight Hoiu^ Demonstration 
Day in Melbourne; an annual holiday since. 
Victoria becomes a leader in labor reform, both 
private and legal. 
1858. Torrens Act on transfer of real property in 
South AustraUa. (See Tobhens system, in Did.) 



76 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE (AUSTRALASIA). 



1859 — 1920. 



N 



U 



W 



18SD. Dec. 11. Under letters patent Queensland 
becomes a separate colony with responsible gov- 
ernment. 

1861. Nov. 27. New South Wales places restriction 
and tax on Chinese immigrants. Victoria has a 
similar act. Early phase of " White Australia " 
movement ; other colonies support policy. 

1863. July 6. British act places Northern Terri- 
tory under South Australia. 

1865. S}st«m of Kanaka laborers begins for plan- 
tations of Queensland. 

J868. Britisli government, in answer to complaints 
of other colonies, ceases to send convicts to 
Western Australia. 

1870. Western Australia is given a legislative 
council, partly elective. 
Imperial forces are v.ithdrawn from Australia. 

1871. Population. 1,924,770. 
1881. Population, 2,253,617. 

December. Further act in New South Wales 
against Chinese immigration; limit on number 
arriving in each vessel; .S.50 head tax. 
1883. Plan for a Federal Council of limited legis- 
lative power. Not a success, though sanctioned 
by British Parliament (Aug. 14, 1SS5). Council 
meets fh-st in February, 1884, but New South Wales, 
South Australia, and New Zealand ignore it. 
1885. CJold discovered in Western Australia. 

April /,. Queensland takes possession of Brit- 
ish New Guinea (Papua). 
1S86. April 6. British-German convention on 
spheres in Oceania. Under this, British New 
Guinea is made a crown colony on Sept. 4, 1888. 
Queensland assisting m administration and support. 
1888. New .South Wales's anti-Chinese act is 
made more drastic; head tax of $500, and num- 
ber permitted on each ship reduced two thirds; 
no mining or naturalization. 

Aug. IS. British Parhament passes Austral- 
asian Naval Defense Act, carrying out agree- 
ment of colonies to pay interest on prime cost and 
also peace maintenance of 7 warships stationed m 
the region. Later renewed and enlarged. 

1890. Great strike involving shearers, dock work- 
ers, seamen, miners, and others. Shearers strike 
again in 1891 to enforce union labor, but fail 

February. Conference of New Zealand and New 
South Wales delegates with Federal Coimcil to 
consider federalization. 

July 25. British act for responsible govern- 
ment in Western Australia, embodying a re- 
served colonial act of April 29, 1899. 

1891. Population, 3,174,253. 
March. National Convention at Sydney 

drafts a constitution for a Commonwealth of Aus- 
tralia with delegated powers: largely a basis for 
discussion. 
189t. South Avistralia adopts woman suffrage. 

1898. March 1 6. Convention of delegates author- 
ized by the colonies of Australia (except Queens- 
land) "after prolonged discussion adopts a Com- 
monwealth Bill. In June it is approved by ref- 
erendum in Victoria, South Australia, and Tas- 
mania only. [Australia. I 

1899. Woman suffrage established in Western I 
January. Conference of premiers at Melbourne 

and compromise reached on question of federal 
capital and division of customs revenue (" Brad- 
don clause"); thus amended, the Federation Bill 
is adopted by referendum in all the AustraUan col- 
onies but Western Australia. 

1900. July 9. Adoption by British Parliament of 
the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution 
Act. being the Federation Bill with some modifica- 
tion of right of appeal to privy council. Members 
are called states, upper house modeled on United 
States Senate, federal powers enumerated; a Su- 
preme Court to pass on statutes — no appeal to 
England except by consent of courts. Western 
Australia ratifies the federation on July 31, but 
New Zealand remains outside. 

1900-191)3. Australia sends about 21.000 soldiers 
to South African War; she also has a naval con- 
tuagent in the Boxer suppression in China. 
1901. Population. 3.771.715. 

Act of New South Wales for conciliation and 
compulsory arbitration of labor disputes, 
modeled on New Zealand act. Later. Western 
Australia and South Australia adopt such meas- 
lu-es. Systems of wage boards also exist. 

Jan. t Earl of Hopetoun inaugurated at 
Sydney governor-general of Commonwealth of 
Australia; Barton ministry is formed 

May 9. First parliament of Common- 
wealth opened at Melbourne by Duke of Corn- 
wall (Prince of Wales, now George V.). At first 
the ministry has 42 seats in House and 14 in Sen- 
ate; the opposition, 32 in House and 21 in Senate. 
1903. Woman suffrage adopted in New South 
Wales. (elections. | 

January. Woman suffrage adopted for federal I 
Immigraticn Restriction Act; a "White Aus- 
tralia " mea-sure also demanded by Lahorit.es, 
Immigrants must be able to write 50 dictated 
■words in prescribed European language: a sham 
test to cover intended exclusion of Asiatics. 



Pacific Islands Laborers Act: directed against 
the Kanakas on the Queensland sugar plantations 
and the methods of labor traflic. AU such labor- 
ers to be deported witliin a specified time. In 1903 
a bounty enacted for sugar grown by white labor. 

1903. Jan. 9. Lord Tennyson governor-gen- 
eral, having been acting as such since July 17 
1902. Iminister.l 

Sept. S4. Deakin succeeds Barton as primel 

1904. Jan. 21. Lord Northcote governor-gen- 
eral. 

March 2. Second parliament assembles: m 
House 27 support the ministry, 24 are in opposi- 
tion, and 24 are Laborites; in Senate 15 Laljorites, 
12 in opposition, and 7 supporters of ministry-. 

April 27. Watson (Labor) ministry takes 
over the government on Deakm's resignation over 
the Arbitration Act. 

Aug. 17. Reid-McLcan ministry, the Labor- 
ites having met defeat on the Arbitration Act. 

Dee. 8. Commonwealth Conciliation and 
Arbitration Act; prohibits strikes and lockouts 
and authorizes a court of conciliation and com- 
pulsory arbitration in Interstate controversies. 
Does not prevent strikes. 
1906. July B. Second Deakin ministry begins 

Dee. 11. Trade-marks Act with a ■' Union- 
label ■■ clause, which was later declared unconsti- 
tutional by the federal Supreme Court. 

Dec. IS. Immigration Restriction Amendment 
Act removes word " European " because of diplo- 
matic complications with India and Japan, but 
policy of exclusion through prescription of lan- 
guage test continues. 

1906. Sept. 1. Papua (British New Gumea) be- 
comes a territory of the Conmionwealth. 

Sept. IS. Australian Industries Preservation 
Act, directed against " dumping " and trusts. 

October. Excise Tariff (Agricultiu-al Machin- 
ery) Act, a " new protection " measure, lays an 
excise on such manufactures when not produced 
under specified labor conditions. Later declared 
unconstitutional. 

Customs Tariff Act provides for reciprocal prefer- 
ential duties with South Africa. 

1907. Bounties Act for boimty during 15 years on 
production of certain goods. 

1908. May 29. Tariff Act increasing protection 
and giving Great Britain 5 per cent preference on 
portion of items. 

June 10. Federal Old Age and Invalid Pen- 
sion Act; such measiu-es already exist in New 
South Wales, Victoria, and Qvieensland. 

Sept. 9. Earl of Dudley governor-general. 

Nov. IS. Fisher (Labor) ministry succeeds. 
Laborites having withdrawn support from Deakin 
(Liberal) mmistry. 

Dec. 8. Act locating federal capital at Yass- 
Canberra, in New South Wales. On October 18, 
1909, a formal agreement is reached to that effect 
between the Conmionwealth and state, later rati- 
fied by the two parliaments, and the district of 900 
square miles is transferred to Commonwealth 
control on January 1, 1911. 

1909. March IS. Royal Australian Navy is be- 
gim in the construction of three destroyers. In 
August at imperial conference the Commonwealth 
agrees to provide and maintain a fleet unit. 

June 2. Third Deakin (antilabor fusion) 
ministry begins. 

1910. First high commissioner for AustraUa at 
London. 

April IS. General election: House, 30 Mmis- 
terialsts, 42 Laborites, 3 Independents: Senate, 
13 Ministerialists, 23 Laborites. Two constitu- 
tional amendments voted on: one for assumption 
of whole of state debts adopted; other for substi- 
tute for expiring Braddon clause rejected, but gov- 
ernment adopts its principle (annual payment to 
states of $6 per capita) for 10 years. 

April 29. Second Fisher (Labor) ministry. 
November. Defense Act; besides the perma- 
nent and instructional forces, general compulsory 
trainmg in graded stages between 12 and 26 years 
of age. 
1911. Population. 4.455.005. [toria.l 

Compulsory preferential votmg adopted in Vic- 1 
Jan. 1. Northern Territory passes to control 
of the Commonwealth. 

April 26. Popular vote on two constitutional 
amendments; one givmg Commonwealth control 
over all commerce and all mdustrial matters^ the 
other, power to take over and operate any Indus- 
try deemed subject of a monopoly; both defeated. 
July SI. Lord Denman governor-general. 
Oct. SB. Laimching of the Australia, the battle 
cruiser of the new Australian fleet imit. 
1913. Sept.H. Work begim on federal transconti- 
nental railway to connect Western Australia with 
rest of country. 

Oct. 19. Commonwealth Maternity Bonus 
Act; S24 grant at birth of each child. 
1913. March 12. Formal naming of federal capital 
as Canberra. 

May. General election: House. Liberals 38, 
Laborites 37; Senate, Liberals 7, Laborites 29. 



June 24. Ccok (Liberal) ministry succeeds. 
Labor govenmient. 

Oct. 4- Arrival at Sydney of Australian navy; 
1 battle cruiser {Australia), 3 cruisers, and 3 de- 
stroyers; 3 more destroyers and 3 submarines will 
complete the unit. 

WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 
1914. May IS. Su- Ronald Munro-Ferguson 
governor-general. 

August. All British possessions Included in 
declaration of war on Germany and Austria. For 
the World W.ar. see that title. 

.\ua. 39. Capture of German Samoa by New 
Zealand troops and Australian navy. 

Sept. s. General election; House, 44 Laborites, 
33 Liberals, 1 Independent; Senate, 32 Laborites, 
4 Liberals. 

Sept. 11. Australian na\T occupies Bismarck 
Archipelago. Sept. 13. Solomon Islands taken. 

Sept. 17. Third Fisher (Labor) ministry; 
members chosen by Labor caucus. 

Sept. 2J,. German New Gumea is occupied. 
Australian vessels also visit other islands and the 
German wireless system in the South Seas is de- 
stroyed and raids by German cruisers prevented. 

Oct. 17. First contingent of over-sea troops, 
, 20,343, sails. 

Nov. 9. Destruction of Gei-man cruiser 
Emden by Australian cruiser Sydney. 

1915. January. New tariff continues preference 
to the United Kmgdom, New Zealand, and South 
Africa, but not to Canada. 

Feb. 11. Policy of food control begms by tak- 
ing over all meat for export ; later, wheat also is 
controlled by government. 

Oct. 27. Hughes succeeds Fisher as prime 
minister, and Labor ministry is reorganized. 

1916. August. Hughes, advocatmg conscription, 
is expelled from Labor party, 

Oct 28. First referendum on conscription: 
for, 1,087.918; agamst, 1,146.198. Labor party 
is disrupted over issue: I. W. W.'s. Reds, pacifists. 
Sinn Femers. and women voters are active ele- 
ments against conscription. 

Dec. SI. Australian voluntary relief contribu- 
tions to date are about $25,000,000. 

1917. January. Conference of state governments 
(crown lands being vmder state control) formu- 
lates plan for land settlement of Australian and 
British veterans. 

Feb. 19. Hughes resigns, but at once organizes 
a coalition (Commonwealth-War) ministry. 

May B. General election: House. 53 National- 
ists (Hughes). 22 Laborites; Senate, 24 National- 
ists, 12 Laborites. [Western Australia. I 

Oct. 20. First train on transcontmental line to I 

Dec. 20. Second referendum on conscrip- 
tion: for. 1.013.000; against. 1.178,000. 

1918. Hughes again resigns because of conscription 
vote, but returns to power. 

June SO. To date Great Britam has advanced 
$237,000,000 to Australia; and war expenses have 
been $1 ,074,000,000. Includmg the seventh loan, 
of 'October 15. 1918. about $945,000,000 has been 
thus raised. The chief addition to taxes has been 
a federal income tax; excess-profits tax is laid for 
one year only. Total enlistments to end of 
war 415.685; sent overseas. 330.000: casualties: 
57.871 killed. 150.241 wounded. 4.264 prisoners. 
1919^ Jan. IS. Australia is represented at Peace 
Conference by Premier Hughes and Ex-Premier 
Cook 

May 6. Mandate for German interests in 
the Pacific south of the equator (except Samoa 
and Naiu-u) is given to AustraUa. New Guinea 
is the chief of the possessions. 

Oct 2 Treaty of Versailles is ratified. 

December. At the elections, the supporters of 
the government get 49 seats in the House, to 10 
for the LalX)rites. 
1930. January. A permanent commissioneris sent 
to the United States. 



NEW ZEALAND. 

Historical Outline. 

The Dominion of New Ze.\lasd is the largest 
insular possession of Great Britain. It includes 
North Island, South Island, Stewart Island, and 
some dependent groups. In the interior, moimtam 
ranges rise to considerable heights. Some among 
them are still active volcanoes and there are glaciers 
and scenic hot springs. The climate is one of the 
best in the South Temperate zone. 

Tasman discovered New Zealand in 1642, and an- 
chored in a bay of South Island. Captain Cook in 
North Island in 1769 proclaimed the sovereignty of 
Great Britain. He introduced swine and European 
vegetables. Settlements were made by Englishmen, 
and American whaling ships visited tlie islands. 
Friendly relations were cultivated with the natives, 
the Maoris, who were a brave and vigorous race, 
physically of fine form and mentally well endowed. 
In"l820 Hongi Ika, the Maori king, visited England 
and was honored by George IV. TMrteen years 



1542-1919. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BRITISH EMPIRE — BULGARIA. 



77 



later a British Resident was appointed, and in 1S.3S. a 
lieutenant governor. Tiie New Zealand Company 
was chartered in 1839. Beginning with 1S44 there 
were a number of fierce wars with the JMaoris, who 
were subdued with diflicnlty. 

Constitutional government was establishsd in 
1852, the colony being divided into provinces, each 
governed by an elected superintendent and provin- 
cial council. This was succeeded by the parliamen- 
tary system in 1S76. On September 9, 1917, the 
designation of the colony of New Zealand was 
changed to the Dominion of New Zealand. It has 
declined to enter the Australian Federation, the near- 
est part of wliich is 1,200 miles away. 



Organization. 



CJovernnient. The executive power is exercised 
by a governor-general, who may assent or refuse to 
assent to bills or reserve them for the English crown. 
He may summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Parlia- 
ment and may retimi bills for amendment to either 
house The legislative function is vested in the 
governor-general and a Parliament, which consists of 
a Legislative Coimcil and a House of Representa- 
tives. The Legislati\'e Council has 38 members 
(Jime, 1918). After former life appointments ex- 
pire, all members will hold seats for seven years. In 
1920 an elective Legislative Council of 40, of which 
the governor-general may appoint three Maori 
members, is to he established. The House of Rep- 
resentatives nimibers 80 members, including four 
Maoris, and is elected by the people imale and fe- 
male suffrage) for three years. More than half of 
the population are enrolled as electors. Few coun- 
tries have carried experiments in stat« socialism and 
governmental participation in the affairs of capital 
and labor as far. 

Industry and Labor. New Zealand is rich in 
agricultural, grazing, and forest resoiu'ces, and in 
1917exported $59,172,000 worth of wool, 829,074,500 
frozen meat, 529,066.700 butter and cheese, S9,048,- 
500 iiides. skins, and pelts. Its manufactm-es are 
also rapidly increasing, the most important being 
connected witli preserving meat, making butter 
and cheese, grain mills, sawmills, tanning, and wool 
scouring. 

Religion. No form of religion receives state aid. 
The leading church is the Church of England, with 
43% of the poptilation, afte. wliich come the Pres- 
byterian and Roman Catholic. 

Education. Education is thoroughly systema- 
tized and wides;<read. 95% of the popidation over 
live years of age were able to read and WTite in 1916. 
At that date there were 37 endowed secondary- 
schools, with 7,052 pupils and 2,355 public primary 
schools, with an enrollment of 185,884. There were 
also 305 private schools, with 23,000 pupils. The 
University of New Zealand is an examining body 
with wliich are aCBliatcd four colleges. In addition 
there are normal and teclmical schools and 118 na- 
tive schools, with 5,132 pupils. 

Defense. The Defense Act of 1909, amended in 
1910, provides for the gradual training of everj' New 
Zealander between the ages of twelve and twenty- 
flve. From IS to 25 service is required in the terri- j 
torial force, which before the World "VVar was about 1 
30,000 strong. Between 25 and 30 years, service in 
the reserve is reciuired. The territorial force is re- 
quired to attend seven days' annual drill, besides 
thirty drills and six whole-day parades each year. 
Conscription was introduced in i-916 and during the 
World War nearly 100,000 w'ere sent overseas. The 
Na\al Defense Act of 1913 provides for a force raised 
by volimtary enlistment, which is put at the dis- 
posal of the British government. 

Area and Population. The area is 103,581 
square miles and the estimated population in 1919 
was 1,139,014, exclusive of the aborigines. In 191G 
there were 49,766 Maoris. 



The following groups of islands in the Pacific are 
attached to New Zealand: , 

Aurliland Islands, an iminhabited group about ; 
200 miles south of Stewart Island. The largest has j 
an area of about 330 square miles. 

Ctiatham Islands, a group of 375 square miles 
area, 536 miles east of New Zealand. In 1016 it had 
a population of 477. 

Kermadec Islands. This group is now unin- 
habited. It is 600 miles northeast of New Zealand 
and has an area of 15 square miles. 

Cook Islands and otber South Paciflc Islands. 
These islands are widely separated in the south cen- 
tral Pacific and were annexed to New Zealand m 
1901. The total area is about 2S0 square miles and 
the population in 1916 was 12,797. The more im- 
portant islands are Rarotonga, Nine (Savage Island), 
Mangaia, Aitutaki, and Atiu. The first two have 
resident commissioners. The prmcipal products 
are fruits and copra, with some coffee and pearl shell. 

Chronology — New Zealand. 

16t?. Tasman discovers New Zealand. 

1769. Cook circumnavigates the islands. Irregu- 
lar settlement by European riffraff ensues; followed 
in 1814 by missionaries 



1S33. Busby arrives as resident magistrate, 
sist«d by British man-of-war, to prevent outrages; 
but suzerainty not yet claimed. 

1839. New Zealand Company organized (char- 
tered February 12, 1841) to colonize region; gov- 
ernment loans. Trouble over land pm-chases 
(individual and tribal ow-nership by Maoris). 
New Zealand is included m commission of gov- 
ernor of New South Wales: lieutenant governor 
appointed ; trouble over dual control by govern- 
ment and the New Zealand Company. 

1840. Feb. 6. Treaty of Waitangi; chiefs of 
North Island acknowledge British suzerainty, 
tribes guaranteed proprietary rights. Auckland 
founded as seat of government. Wellington has 
also been settled by Company. 

Aug. 7. Act authorizes separate crown col- 
ony; carried out by letters patent on Nov. 16. 

1841. New Zealand Company begins settlement of 
South Island at Nelson. 

1845. First Maori War; caused by land question. 

1846. Proclamation of Governor Grey forbids di- 
rect land purchases from natives; problem of 
squatters. 

1848. New Zealand Company forces governor to 
purchase from the natives South Island, which, 
tlu'ough act of Parhament, is practically at the 
Company's disposal. [charter. I 

1850. July J,. New Zealand Company surrenders I 

1852. June SO. Federal Constitution Act: sLx 
elected provincial councils; general bicameral Par- 
liament of appointed coiuicil and elected house 
with general legislative powers. 

1854. Mt^y. Colonial Parliament first meets. 

1856. Responsible government begins; but Ma- 
ori control reserved to crown, 

1858. White population, 59,413. 

1860-1869. Second Maori War, caused by land 
question, but also due to militarv' instinct of na^ 
lives. Control over Maoris turned over to colo- 
nial government ; but also cost of defense 

1864. White population, 172,1.58. 

1865. Wellington becomes capital. 
1875. Provinces are abolished. 
1SJ8. White population, 414,412. 

1886. White popidation, 578,482. 

1887. New Zealand shares in subsidy of fleet for 
.Australasian waters (see Australia). Amount 
and mmiber of ships later increased. [tales. , 

1891. Graduated land tax to discourage large es-i 

1893. Woman suffrage (white and Maori) and 
compulsory voting. Latter repealed (1905). 

1894. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration 
Act: compulsory arbitration, model for such meas- 
m'es elsewhere. New Zealand leads in other 
labor reforms and experiments. 

1896. White ixjpidation, 703,360, 
1898. Old Age Pensions Act. 
1906. White population, 888.578. 

1908. Second Ballot Act; second vote between two 
highest candidates, if no majority. 

1909. July. Defense Act: compiUsory military 
training between 12 (later 14) and 25 years of age, 

1912. Xew Zealand, a battle cruiser donated by- 
colony to imperial navy, is commissioned. 

1913. Naval Defense Act; fleet with volimtary 
force and reserve to be organized. 

1914. Aug. £9. New Zealand troops occupy Ger- 
man Samoa. 

Oct. 16. First over-sea force sails. 
1916. White population, 1,099,449. 

.\ug. I. Compulsory Military Service Act, 
20-46 years of age; Labor opposition. 
1918^- March 31. War expenditures to date, 
»3S0,000,000; met by loans of $230,000,000, m- 
crease of tax on incomes, lands, customs, and 
beer, excess-profits tax for one year, stamp duties, 
increase in railroad rates, postage, and telegrams, 
tax on amusements. 

.iiig. 1.5. Men mobilized to date: 114,410; sent 
overseas, 100,000: casualties: 13,457 killed, 33,961 
woimded, 347 prisoners. 
1919. Jan. IS. New Zealand is represented at 
Peace Conference by Premier Massey. 

April 11. Prohibition is defeated tlirough 
the vote of the soldiers in the field. 

May 6 Mandate over German Samoa is 
given to New Zealand. 

Sept. 2. Treaty of Versailles is ratified. 

December. Pi'Ohibition is again defeated at the 
polls: plurality but no majority for it. 

FIJI ISLANDS. 

The Fiji GHorp comprises over 200 islands, 
eighty of which are inhabited, lying between 177° E, 
and 178° W. long., being thus at the antipodes of 
Greenwich. The principal islands are of coral and 
volcanic origin. The surface is mountainous; many 
of the peaks rise above 3,000 feet and a few of them 
above 4,000 feet. The climate is healthful. 

Fiji was discovered by Tasman in l(j43. Escaped 
convicts from Australia and fugitive sailors took the 
risk of settlement as early as 1804. During the first 
halt of the century there was almost constant war 
among the natives. 

Until recently the native Fijians were the best- 



known savages of Oceania. Cannibahsm flourished 
to the middle of the nineteenth century. The peo- 
ple were organized into clans: the clans were aggre- 
gated into larger groups. The religion was a form of 
shamanism. The Fijians have yielded to foreign in- 
fluence, and their religious usages and social customs 
have been altered. 

The king or overchief of the island, Thakombeau, 
was pressed by the government of the United 
States to atone for mjuries to the American consul. 
In his distress the king, who had become a Christian, 
but without improving liis position, was mduced to 
ofl'er (in 1858) the sovereignty of the island to Great 
Britain, and in 1874 the British government took 
possession, leaving the native king in nominal au- 
thority. 

Fiji is a crown colony of the British Empire. The 
governor, who is appointed by the crown, is assisted 
by an executive council. The laws are enacted by 
the Legislative Council, consisting of 21 members. 
C liristianity has been introduced by both Protestants 
and Catholics. Some progress has been made in pub- 
lic education. The instruction of native children is 
intrusted to Pirotestant and Catholic missionaries. 

In industry, there are six sugar mills, one tea fac- 
torj". 22 boat^buflding yards, and two rice mills. 
The important exports are sugar, copra, green fruit, 
rubber, and molasses. Other exports are maize, 
vanilla, and shells. The export trade is carried on 
almost entirely with Australia and New Zealand. 

The area is 7,083 square miles; the estimated 
popidation (1918) was 163,416, including 87,700 
Fijians and 61,700 East Indians. There has been a 
gradual decrease of the native population since 1875. 

OTHER ISLANDS IN THE PACIFIC. 

There is hardly a habitable reef or atoll in the Pa- 
cific or the Indian Ocean, over wliich some European 
power does not now assert authority. A majority 
of the groups, scattered over the face of the Paciflc, 
are under Great Britain. Space is lacking to men-, 
lion even their names. 

The most familiar of these islands are the group of 
Tonga, or Friendly, Islands and Pitcairn Island. 
Germany, Great Britain, and the LTnited States had 
conflicting interests in the Tongas, but finally the 
other powers consented that a British protectorate 
be proclaimed in 1899. The native king was left on 
the tlirone, but a British commissioner conducts the 
administration. The inhabitants numbered 23,766 
in 1917. All are Christians and the great majority 
are adherents of the free cliurch of Tonga. A good 
deal of enterprise is shown, and exports and imports 
are rapidly increasing. The total area is about 385 
square miles. The Tonga Islands were discovered, 
by Tasman in 1643. 

Pitcairn Island, 25 degrees south of the equator 
and at the extreme east of PoijTiesia, by its isolation 
attracted the nine mutineers of the Bounty in 1790. 
It was visited by no others imtil 1808, and then 
again in 1825. Its area is 2 square miles. The in- 
habitants in 1914 numbered 140, all descendants of 
the original settlers. They* are an orderly and In- 
dustrious community. 



BULGARIA. 
Historical Outline. 

Bulgaria has had a long and turbulent history. 
The Bulgars, a Ural- .\ltaic race, made their first his- 
torical appearance on the banks of the Volga in the 
latter part of the 7th century. A small body of Bul- 
garians descended on the Slavs south of the Danube, 
conquered them, mixed with them, took then- lan- 
guage, and thus arose a Bulgarian nation. In the 
9th centurj* Bulgaria reached a high point among the 
civilized powers of the earth, occupying an empire 
from the Black Sea to the .Adriatic and from Thes- 
saly to the Carpathians. That empire soon declined 
and was conquered by the Byzantine emperors. In 
1186 by a general insurrection the nation recovered 
its independence, and under Ivan II. (1218-1241) 
gained control of Albania, Epirus, Macedonia, and 
Thrace. It was unable to repel the Turks, who eaily 
began to ravage the country. In 1366 the Bulgarian 
Czar, Ivan Shishman III, was compelled to abdicate 
and declare himself a vassal of the Sultan. 

For five centuries (1366-1878) Bulgaria suffered 
under characteristic Turkish rule. Towns and vil- 
lages were sacked and the peasants were massacred 
with indescribable cruelty. Some of the inhabi- 
tants fled to the mountains, but many of the nobles 
embraced Mohammedanism and were liberaUy re- 
warded. The majority of the people, however, re- 
mained Christians and though subject to heavy taxes 
were contemptuously disregarded by the Turks. 

At the beginning of the 19th century Bulgarian 
nationality had almost disappeared. Then books 
began to appear WTitten in modem Bulgarian; in 
1835 a Bulgarian school was established ; and at- 
tempts were made to revive the national spirit. 
■Various insurrections took place which were put 
down with awful cruelty. _ For instance, after the 
rising of 1876 at Koprivscica and Panagjurishte, 



78 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BULGARIA. 



1648-1915. 



N 



U 



W 



bands of bashi-bazouks. Turkish irregiilar cavalry, 
were sent through the districts, and more than 15,000 
people were massacred. 

As a result of the Russo-Turkish War and the 
Treaty of San Stefano (see Turkey), Russia planned 
to erect a greater Bulgaria independent of Turkey. 
The great powers refused to allow tliis plan to be 
carried out and the Congress of Berlin divorced 
Eastern Roumelia from Bulgaria and established 
Bulgaria as a nominal dependency of Turkey, 
under the rule of Prince Alexander of Battenberg. 
Since the Congress of Berlin provided no govern- 
ment tor Eastern Roumelia, the Bulgarians in 1885 
took possession of it in defiance of the Treaty of Ber- 
lin, but with the sympathy of Great Britain and in 
spite of the opposition of Russia and Turkey. While 
the Turkish troops were massed on the border, Ser- 
bia suddenly declared war. Contrary to all expec- 
tations, the Bulgarian army, alth.ough imperfectly 
equipped, defeated the Serbs and ijeace was declared 
March 3, 1886. About a month later. Prince Alex- 
ander was recognized by the sultan as governor- 
general of Eastern Roumelia. 

This victory made Prince Alexander a national 
hero. Russia, however, was dissatisfied with Bul- 
garia's prosperity and stirred up an insurrection 
among the army officers, by whom he was seized and 
compelled to abdicate. Stambuloff, president of the 
Assembly, initiated a counter-revolution, and Alex- 
ander was restored to power. He committed the 
blunder of offering to resign the tlirone to Russia, 
thus recognizing Bulgarian dependence on Russia. 
The national leaders turned against him and he was 
allowed to abdicate and leave the country. 

A regency was formed in which the most promi- 
nent figure was Stambuloff, who combated the Rus- 
sian attempt to name the ruling prince. Finally, 
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was elected 
prince and accepted the tlirone. During his early 
years Ferdinand depended upon Stambuloff, who 
ruled with an iron hand, but nevertheless prevented 
Russian intervention and maintained authority in 
Bulgaria. In 1894 Stambuloff resigned and Prince 
Ferdinand inaugm-ated a policy of conciliation 
toward Russia, hoping to obtain recognition. The 
death of the czar, Alexander III., and the conver- 
sion of Prince Boris to the Orthodox Greek faith led 
to the withdrawal of Russian opposition and the rec- 
ognition of Ferdinand as prince of Bulgaria. 

In 1908, when Turkey was in the throes of a revo- 
lution, Ferdinand annoimced his independence of 
Turkey and proclaimed himself czar of Bulgaria. 
War began October 17, 1912, and Bulgaria, as one of 
the Balkan allies, took a leading part in the Balkan 
War (see Turkey). With an army of 300,000 men, 
they invaded Turkey and fought and won the bat- 
tles of Kirk Kilise and Lijle-Burgas By the middle 
of November the Bulgarians reached the Chatalja 
line of fortifications and were within twenty-five 
miles of Constantinople. An armistice was granted 
to Turkey , but Bulgaria demanded the siu-render of 
Adrianople. The war was resumed, Bulgaria with 
Serbian assistance pushed the siege of Adrianople to 
a successful conclusion (March 0, 1913), and Turkey 
was compelled to accept the terms of peace. By the 
Treaty of London (May 30, 1913) a line was drawn 
from Enos. on the .Egean, to Midia, and all west of 
that line was ceded by Turkey to the Balkan allies. 

Serbia, discontented becau.se of the recognition of 
Albania (see Albania and Serbia) demanded com- 
pensation in Macedonia. This was refused by the 
Bulgarians, who treacherously attacked both Greeks 
and Serbians Jime 29, 1913. Thus was inaugurated 
the second Balkan War. At first the Bulgarians 
were successful against the Serbians: but on July 
10 Roumania proclaimed war, and on July 12 the 
Turks invaded the recently lost territory and rcoccu- 
pied Adrianople. By the end of July the Rouma- 
nians were within two miles of Sofia and Bulgaria 
sued for peace. By the Treaty of Bucharest (August 
10, 1913) Bulgaria was compelled to cede to Serbia 
all the Macedonian territory occupied by the Serbian 
troops, as well as the Turkish province of Kossovo. 
Greece secured additional territory, including Ka- 
vala, but Turkey retained Adrianople. 

During the first year of the World War, Bulgaria 
by tortuous means maintained a neutral position, 
waiting to determine which side would be victori- 
ous; after the successes of Hmdenburg and Macken- 
sen in East Prussia and the failure of the Allies at 
Gallipoli, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers (Octo- 
ber 5, 1915) and Great Britain declared war upon 
her (October 15. 1915). The Central Powers atonce 
moved against Serbia: and while the Germans and 
Austrians invaded from the north, Bulgaria attacked 
from the east. For the next three years the Bulga- 
rian force was held in Macedonia to check the Allies 
at Saloniki. In September, 191.S, the Allied forces 
advanced and defeated the BiUgarians in a disastrous 
series of battles, and Bulgaria made unconditional 
surrender September 30, 1918. 

Organization. 
Government. The constitution of 1879, 
amended in 1893 and 1911, vests the legislative au- 
thority m a single chamber called the Sobranje, or 



National Assembly, which consists of one representa- 
tive for every twenty thousand of the population. 
The Assembly sits for four years, but may Iw dis- 
solved at any time by the king, who has a veto on its 
acts. Tile executive power is vested in a council of 
eight ministers appointed by and responsible to the 
king. As a result of Bulgaria's defeat in the war 
Ferdinand abdicated (October 4, 191S) in favor of 
his son Boris. On November 2 Boris III. abdicated 
and a " peasant government " was estabhshed. 

Industry and Labor. Agriculture is the main 
source of wealth and peasant proprietorship is al- 
most universal, the average size of the farms being 
eighteen acres. The people are frugal, dislike dis- 
play of wealth, and are mdustrious, sober, and hard- 
working. The more important agricultural crops 
are wheat, rye, oats, tobacco. Bulgaria is adapted 
for grazing and there are vast herds of cattle, horses, 
mules, asses, pigs, and sheep. The chief manufac- 
tured products are woolens, cottons, and cigarettes. 

Bellglon. The state religion is that of the Ortho- 
dox Eastern Church, but in 1870, because of its 
desire for religious autonomy, the Bulgarian Church 
was declared by the Patriarch of Constantinople to 
be outside the Orthodox commimion. 

Education. Education is free and nominally 
obligatory between tlie ages of 8 and 12. In 1913-14 
there were over 4,000 elementary schools, 316 lower- 
middle schools, and 47 high schools. There is a mii- 
versity at Sofia. Many Bulgarian public men were 
educated in Robert College. Constantinople, by 
American teachers and \alue general education. 

Defense. Before the war mihtary ser\'ice was 
compulsory and imiversal, begimiing at the age of 
20. The peace strength of the Bulgarian army was 
about 60,000, and the war strength about 500,000. 

The area as estimated in 1917 was 47,750 square 
miles and the population, 5,517,700. After the 
Peace Treaty of 1920, however, Bulgaria was esti- 
mated to have an area of about 35,000 square miles 
and 4,5(X),(X)0 population. 

Chronology. 

For details previous to 1648, see Medieval Period 
and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 

1618. Balkan Peninsula at this period is wholly 
in the hands of the Turkish Empire, but the 
Turkish race has never been the largest element. 
The chief race elements are Albanians (Moslem 
and Christian), Serb-Croats (Roman Catholic and 
Orthodox Greek), Bulgars (Orthodox), Rouma- 
nians or Wallachians (Orthodox), and Turks. Ex- 
cept Albanians, Greeks, and Turks, the races are 
of Slavic origin or admixture, though the Rouma- 
nians suppose themselves Latin and the Bulgars 
are in origin Turanian (Ural-Altaic), Before the 
Turkish conquest — fourteenth and fifteenth cen- 
turies — various Serbian, Bosnian, and Bulgarian 
states arose and strove against the Greek Empire. 
Under the Turks, all except the Albanians and 
Montenegrins were poUtically crushed, but retain 
their language, religion, and pursuits. As a prov- 
ince of the Turkish Empire. Bulgaria had Uttle 
memorable historj- previous to 1878. 

1774. July 10. Treaty of Kiiebiik Kainarja 
gives Russia right to protect the Orthodox Chris- 
tians of the Balkans. First formal recognition of 
special relation of Russia to fellow Slavs. 

1835. Revival of Bulgarian language and national- 
istic movement is marked by first native school. 
Greeks have gained control of the church and 
Greek is the language of the schools and upper 
cla.sses. 

1870. Feb. 28. After a long struggle a Bulgarian 
exarchate is permitted by the Porte. 

1876. May. A premature revolt is followed by a 
general massacre by the Turks (" bashi- 
bazouks ") which causes indignation throughout 
Europe, but no action is taken by the powers. 
Serbia declares war, but is defeated by the 
Turks. A conference of the powers at Constan- 
tinople in December (see Nineteenth-Century 
Period) leads to no results. 

1877. April B4. Russia declares war on Turkey 
(see Turkey); Bulgars have a contingent in the 
Russian army. Sympathy in England with op- 
pressed Bulgarians. 

1878. March S. Treaty of San Stefano, exe- 
cuted by Russia, provides for an autonomous 
principality, covering almost all the region occu- 
pied mainly by Bulgars (except Dobruja) . 

Jnly IS. Treaty of Berlin: the powers at the 
Congress of Berlin (see Ninetee.vth-Century 
Period) object to this large new state under 
Russian protection and divide the new principal- 
ity into three parts: the southern portion (Mace- 
donia) is returned to Turkey: the middle portion 
becomes a separate autonomous section called 
Eastern Boumelia; the rest forms the new 
Bulgaria. 

1879. April. Prince Alexander of Battenberg, 
a German, but nephew of the czar, is elected 
prince (of Bulgaria) by the assembly of notables 
and a liberal constitution adopted. Alexander 
is conservative and a Russophile, and is soon 
sharply in conflict with his people. 



May SO. Alexander Vogorides is installed as 
governor-general of Eastern Roumeha : appointed 
by the Porte with approval by the iiowers. A na- 
tional convention adopts a liberal constitution. 

1881. May H. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria as- 
sumes absolute power, but finds liimself merely a 
Russian tool. 

1883. Sept. 19. Alexander restores the constitu- 
tion and incurs Russians displeasure. 

1S85. Sept. IS. Eastern Boumelia unites with 
Bulgaria in spite of the Treaty of Berlin. 

Nor. 14. Serbia, roused by this enlargement 
of her neighbor, declares war on Bulgaria; is 
defeated at the battle of Slivnica, November 19, 
but is saved from invasion by Austrian interven- 
tion. Otherwise, powers make no objection to 
the imion. Treaty at Bucharest (March 3, 1886) 
ends the war without change or indemnity. 

1886. ,4prj7 o. Sultan recognizes Alexander as 
govemor-general of Eastern Roumelia. stipulating 
a personal union only, but it is practically a part of 
Bulgaria. 

A ug. el . Alexander is forced by a Russian con- 
spiracy to abdicate; he is restored by a popular 
revolt led by Stambuloff, but compromises him- 
self with his people and abdicates again on Sep- 
tember 8. A regency with Stambuloff at its head 
assumes the government. 

1887. JulyT. Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha is elected ruler by the Grand Sobranje 
(Assembly). StambulolT is prime minister; he 
suppresses internal disorder and overcomes Rus- 
sian intrigue. 

1895. July IS. Stambuloff is assassinated. 

1896. Feb. 14- Boris, Ferdinand's son and heir, is 
formally converted to the Orthodox faith, and 
Russian influence again predominates. 

1908. Oet. o. Ferdinand, taking advantage of the 
condition of the powers (see Nineteenth-Century 
Period) proclaims Bulgaria (including Eastern 
RounieUa) an independent kingdom, and as- 
sumes title of king (later czar) of the Bulgarians, 
intending to stress the nationalistic idea, including 
the claim to Macedonia. The various Balkan 
peoples are in contest and commit excesses on each 
other's .supporters (" Comitadji "). 

1909. April 19. Agreements among Turkey, Russia, 
and Bulgaria are signed recognizing the Independ- 
ence of Bulgaria and arranging her financial rela- 
tions with Tiu-key. The other powers recognize 
independent Bulgaria at about the same time. 

1913. Aug. 26. Offensive alliance of Bifigaria 
with Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece against 
Turkey (see Nineteenth-Century Period, and 
for the first Balkan War see Turkey). 
1913. May 28. Serbia demands of Bulgaria a revi- 
sion of the ante-bellum agreement on territory : 
Vierma and Berlin endeavor to break up the 
league, which they consider a menace to their 
plans in regard to tlie Near East. 

May 29. Serbo-Greek convention against Bul- 
garia suggests war, which the powers endeavor to 
prevent. Russia offers mediation : Serbia accepts, 
but Bulgaria declines. Frequent clashes among 
the troops on the disputed border. 

May 30. Treaty of London leaves most of 
European Turkey to be divided among the allies; 
but the powers ha\ing forbidden to Serbia and 
Greece expected gains in Albania, these countries 
seek recompense in opposition to Bulgarian claims 
in Macedonia and Thrace. 

June 29. Second Balkan War begins with a 
sudden night attack by the Bulgarians onGreek and 
Serbian troops : the latter take the offensive and by 
the end of July drive Bulgarians to their frontier. 

July 10. Boumania declares war on Bul- 
garia and advances on Sofia. 

July 12. Turks begin reconquest of Thrace, 
occupying Adrianople imopposed. 

July SI. Armistice is signed, after atrocities 
by all parties during the two wars. Macedonia 
in frightful condition, as shown by a report of a 
neutral commission. 

Aug. 10. Treaty of Bucharest deprives Bul- 
garia of most of assigned conquest from Turkey; 
Bulgaria retains a portion of Thrace with an 
outlet on the -Egean. but is excluded from most 
of Macedonia, and cedes the Danube-Tutrakan- 
Balchik triangle to Roumania. 

Sept. 20. Treaty with Turkey restores 
Adrianople and part of Thrace to Turkey. 
1914-1915. Bulgaria's attitude toward the 
World War luicertain, especiaUy after Turkey 
joins the Central Powers. Great Britain offers 
Bulgaria concessions at expense of Serbia, but the 
Central Powers bid higher (.see Oct. 5, below). 
1915. Sept. 10. Tiirko-Bulgarian agreement for 
the cession of the Dedeagach Railway and the 
territory west of the Maritsa River to Bulgaria. 

Sept. 14. Final proposals of the Allies to Bul- 
garia: To receive all of Macedonia lost in the 
second Balkan War, and diplomatic support for 
other concessions by Greece and Serbia. 

Sept. 20. Turko-Bulgarian Convention of 
Armed Neutrality is annoimced; three days later 
Bulgarian decree for mobilization is issued. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: BULGARIA — CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES. 



79 



1915 icontinued). 

Oct. 6. Allied ministers at Sofia demand their 
passports and war begins. Bulgarians take part 
at once in the concerted attack on Serbia. (See 
World War, for military events.) 

1916-1917. Bulgarians hold the front in Mace- 
donia. Indecisive advances and withdrawals. 

1918. Sfpl. 16. Allies begin a vigorous Balkan 
offensive, before which the Bulgarians give way. 

Sept. SO. Armistice, asked for by Bulgaria on 
Septeniter 26 and signed on the 29th. goes into ef- 
fect, a complete military surrender: Evacua- 
tion of all Greek and Serbian territory: demobili- 
zation; surrender of control of Danube: free pas- 
sage for Allied forces: military occupation. Bul- 
garia is supposed to have lost 101.224 killed during 
the war. 

Ocl. J,. Czar Ferdinand abdicates in favor of 
his son Boris; goes to Switzerland. 

1919. Sept. 10. Bulgarian delegates are hajided 
the treaty of peace. 

Nov. 1,. New pro-Entente ministry orders ar- 
rested all ex-ministers and others (some 400) who 
by their Germanopliile tendencies involved Bul- 
garia in the war. They are to be " judged of their 
conduct and crimes." 

JVoi. 27. Treaty of Neulliy between the Al- 
lies and Bulgaria: Bulgaria relinquishes territory 
in Thrace (later assigned to Greece) and cedes four 
small sections to Serbia; is to pay a large indem- 
nity in money and dehver .50.000 tons of coal an- 
nually to Serbia. Severe hmitations placed on 
her military power 



CANADA. 



See under British Empire, page 69. 



CANAL ZONE. 

See under Unitkd States, page 210. 



CANARY ISLANDS. 

See under Spain, page 146. 



CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES. 

The six little countries of Costa Rica. Guatemala, 
Honduras, Nicaragua, Salvador, and Panama are 

nominally free and independent members of the 
family of nations, but the United States has an ab- 
solute protectorate over Panama and. since 1912. a 
virtual protectorate over Nicaragua, Despite the in- 
dividuality of each, their nearness to each other, their 
situation in the tropics, the type of their political life, 
and the frequency of their revolutions give them 
many characteristics in common. 

Panama, because of its peculiar international sig- 
nificance, is separately treated after the chronology 
of Central America. The other five countries are 
Included in a common chronology. 

COSTA RICA. 
Historical Outline. 

CoLUMBrs, on his third voyage, traced the coast 
of Costa Rica for a considerable distance. On his 
fourth and last voyage he again visited this region, 
and soon afterwards the Spanish established them- 
selves there. The Mayas who occupied the coim- 
try were among the most advanced of all the abo- 
riginal peoples in America. By 1.530 the Spanish 
conquest of the country was completed and it was a 
province of the Spanish captaincy general of Guate- 
mala until 1.S21. 

Costa Rica, in common with the other Central 
American provinces, revolted, and imited with the 
Mexican Empire of Iturbide in 1821 : but this union 
was never popular in Costa Rica. In 1S23, when 
the Mexican Republic was established, Costa Rica 
withdrew and after 1824 was a part of the Republic 
of the United Provinces (States) of Central America. 
The central government had little effective authority 
and fell to pieces in 1839. 

Costa Rica built up its trade during this period, 
and in 1848 became an independent republic. It has 
so remained except for a short time when it joined 
the Greater Repubhc of Central America, composed 
of Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador. In 
1856-60 Costa Rica was involved in civil war by the 
American adventurer, William Walker. Unlike the 
other Central American states, its .subsequent his- 
tory has been comparatively peaceful except for 
occasional bloodless revolutions, as in 19X7. 

In 1907 Costa Rica and the other four Central 
American states signed a treaty by winch they agreed 
to submit disputed matters to a court of arbitration 
whose decisions should be binding on all parties. 
In 1916 Costa Rica brought suit for infringements of 
rights resulting from a treaty between the United 
States and Nicaragua. The court ruled in favor of 
Costa Rica, but held that the treaty could not be de- 
clared void because the United States was not sub- 
ject to the jurisdiction of the court, and the central 
tmion broke down. 



Organization. 

Government. The legislative power is vested hi 
a Chamber of Representatives of 43 deputies elected 
by miiversal suffrage for terms of four years, one half 
retiring every two years. The executive authority 
is in the hands of a president chosen for four years. 
A standing committee of five deputies represents 
Congress during the recess and advises the president. 
There are sbc cabinet ministers appointed by and 
responsible to the president. 

Industry and Production. Part of the country 
is high table-land with a temperate climate; but 
along the coast the land is low, with tropical vege- 
tation and tropical climate. The principal industry 
is agriculture and the cliief products are coffee and 
bananas. Mining ranks second in importance; there 
are rich gold mines in several districts. The exports, 
t ho greater part of wliich go to the United States, ex- 
ceed the imports by over .S5,000,000. 

Religion and Education. The constitution in- 
sures entire religious liberty. Roman Catholicism 
is the state religion. Elementary schools are main- 
tained by local school boards, while the national 
government pays the teachers and gives financial 
aid. There are secondary schools, one college for 
girls, a normal school, three municipal colleges, and 
medical, law, and dental schools. Spanish is the 
language of the countrj'. 

Defense. Costa Rica has an army of 52,208, of 
which 38,000 are active. The peace strength is 
1 .000 men and the war strength is estimated at 50.000 
mihtia. since every male between IS and 50 may 
be called upon. The navy consists of two motor 
laimches. one on the Atlantic and one on the Pacific. 

The area is estimated at 23,000 square miles and 
the population (1918) at 459,423 

GUATEMALA. 
Historical Outline. 

Guatemala was conciuered for tiie Spaniards by 
Pedro de Alvarado in 1524, and a Spanish captaincy 
general eslablishe<l which included fifteen provinces. 
During the colonial period the native triloes almost 
disappeared, while the Roman CathoUc Church and 
the Spanish language became permanently identi- 
fied with the culture of the country-. In 1821 Guate- 
mala, in common with the other Central American 
provinces, revolted and joined the Mexican Empire 
of Iturbide. From 1S24 it was a member of the Cen- 
tral American confederation which was dissolved in 
1839, and Rafael Carrera was made president of the 
republic of Guatemala. In 1851 a new constitution 
was adopted for Carrera and in 1854 the presidency 
was conferred upon him for life — practically a dic- 
tatorsliip. 

Guatemala was involved in wars among the five 
Central American states In 1873 Rufino Barrios 
was elected president and governed the coimtry as 
a dictator, expelling the Jesuits, confiscating their 
property and disestabUshing and disendowing the 
church. Although he encouraged education and 
succeeded in settling tlie Me-xican boimdary, liis 
administration was bad for the country. In 1885 he 
proclaimed himself military chief of Central America 
and claimed the command of the military forces of the 
five states, but was defeated and killed in battle. In 
1S98 Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera was elected pres- 
ident, an office m which he continued until 1920. In 
1906 a band of adventurers invaded Guatemala and 
gained considerable sj-mpathy from the German and 
British residents, but Cabrera held his groimd and, 
through the intervention of President Roosevelt and 
President Diaz of Mexico, peace was made. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution adopted in 1879 
has been revised four times, last in 1903. The legis- 
lative power is vested in a National Assembly, one 
member for every 20,000 inhabitants, elected by uni- 
versal suffrage for four years ; and a Coimcil of State 
of 13 members partly elected by the assembly and 
partly appointed by the president. The president 
is elected for a term of six years. 

Industry and Production. The soil is ex- 
tremely fertile. The most important crop is coffee, 
which is raised on vast plantations, fifty per cent 
of wliich are owned by Germans. Next to coffee are 
sugar, plantains, and bananas- Guatemala abounds 
in mahogany and dyewood. There are rich mines, 
but owing to the lack of transportation they are little 
developed. 

Religion and Education. Most of the people 
of Guatemala are Roman Catholics, but reUgious 
liberty prevails. There is no state religion. The 
bishops of Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and 
San Salvador are the suffragans of the archbishop 
of Guatemala. Education is free and obligatorj' for 
all children between the ages of six and fourteen. 
There are nearly 2,000 government schools, includ- 
ing 18 kindergartens, .500 primary schools for boys, 
more than 500 schools for girls, 50 night schools for 
workmen, and schools of arts and crafts. By a de- 
cree of May 2, 1918, a government university was 
established. 



Defense. The military force of Guatemala 
when mobilized consists of 85,535 oflBcers and men. 
There is a reserve army of more than 40,000. All 
male citizens between the ages of 18 and 50 are liable 
to conscription. 

The area is estimated at 48,290 square miles and 
the estimated population (1914) at a little over 
2.000,000. sixty per cent of whom are pure Indians, 
most of tlie remainder being half castes. 

HONDURAS. 
Historical Outline. 

Columbus first landed on the American continent 
at Cape Hondiu-as, 1502. The first settlement was 
made in 1524 by Olid, a lieutenant of Cortes, who 
had heard rumors of rich and populous empires in 
tills region. In 1525 Cortes reached the colony and 
foimded the city wliich is now Puerto Cortes. The 
early explorers found numerous ruins of stone tem- 
ples and cities, which seem to be akin in art and 
arcliitecture to early Asiatic buildings. In 1539 
Honduras was incorporated in the captaincy general 
of Guatemala. The mines of the province were the 
richest which had yet been discovered in the New 
World, and several large cities came into existence. 
For the following 150 years Honduras remained a 
part of the viceroyalty of Guatemala and suffered 
the apartiy and decline wliich prevailed throughout 
that part of the Spanish Empire. 

In 1821 the province broke into revolt and de- 
clared its mdependence. Two years afterwards it 
became a member of the Central American union, 
which contmued until 1839, when Honduras became 
independent. During a long period aU Central 
America was the scene of civil war. In the end 
Marco Aurelio Soto became president, and a new 
constitution was adopted in 1880. Frequent out- 
breaks of civil war occurred between 1883 and 1903, 
when Manuel Bonilla gained the presidency and suc- 
ceeded in maintaining order until, toward the end of 
his term, he was involved in war with President Ze- 
laya of Nicaragua. Bonilla was defeated and forced 
to flee. By a convention at Washington (1907) the 
territory of Honduras was neutralized and a high 
court was established to which it was agreed all fu- 
ture Central American disputes should be submitted. 
This system broke down in 1916. 

Organization. 

Government. The republic of Honduras is gov- 
erned by the charter of 1894. The legislative power 
is vested in a Congress of Deputies of 42 members 
chosen for four years by popular vote. The execu- 
tive authority is vested in a president elected by 
popular vote for four years. 

Industry and Production. The chief culture 
is that of bananas, which are mostly raised on the 
Atlantic coast, where coconuts are also grown. Rub- 
ber is produced, and coffee of fine quality is raised. 
Honduras, however, is essentially a cattle-producing 
coimtry and there are 1,500 cattle ranches. 

Religion and Education. The inhabitants are 
chiefly Indians with a mixture of Spanish blood; on 
the north coast there is a consideral:)le Negro popula- 
tion . All creeds are free and the state contributes to 
no church, but Roman Catholicism is the prevailing 
religion. 

Education is free and compulsory between the ages 
of 7 and 15 and is entirely secular. There are nearly 
a thousand schools, of wliich nearly six himdred are 
public schools. At Tegucigalpa there is a central 
university and a school of social jurisprudence; five 
normal schools also exist. 

Defense. Every citizen of Honduras belongs to 
the regular army between the ages of 21 and 35 and 
to the reserves between 35 and 40. The troops 
number 46,000 in the regiUar army and 21,000 re- 
serves. 

The area of the coimtrj' is about 44,275 square 
miles and the population in 1916 was 605,997. 

NICARAGUA. 
Historical Outline. 

Columbus discovered the coast of Nicaragua in 
1502, but it was not regularly explored imtil 20 years 
later, when Gil Gonzalez de Avia penetrated to the 
western provinces and dispatched his heutenant 
Cordoba to circumnavigate the Great Lakes. The 
city of Granada was founded in 1524. The early 
Spanish government was abominable. Father 
Boyle declares that the first two governors were mur- 
derers, the third killed the second, the fourth was a 
forger, and the fifth a rebel and a homicide. In 1685 
the town of Leon was sacked by the Dutch under the 
leadership of Dampier. 

In common with the other states of Central Amer- 
ica. Nicaragua revolted in 1821 and two years later 
joined the five central states in a federal union. 
During the sixteen years that this league lasted there 
was not a single year of peace. Civil strife broke 
out and in ten years there were 396 so-called presi- 
dents. Nicaragua includes the central lake which 
lies at an elevation of 135 feet above the Pacific 
Ocean, wliich is only 95 miles away. The lake 



80 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES. 



1502 — 1857. 



N 



Q 



U 



W 



drains into the Atlantic, thus furnishing a possible 
interoceanic canal. This bi-ought Nicaragua mto 
the controversj- between the United States and 
Great Britain, which was settle'd l5y the Clayton- 
BiUwer Treaty of 1S50. 

An aristocratic party established itself in Granada, 
to aid wliich William Walker, an American fUibus- 
terer, invaded the coimtry m 1855, with the sup- 
port of Cornelius Vanderbilt, who was then carrying 
on a transport hne across the coimtry. At £hst 
Walker was successful, but was soon e.xpelled. He 
attempted a second invasion in 1857, but was cap- 
tured and shot in 1860. 

In 1894 a new constitution was adopted and Blue- 
flelds, the settlement of the Mosciuito Indians, was 
invaded. British and American forces were sent for 
the protection of the nationals of those coimtries. 
and m 1S95 the British fleet occupied Cormto to en- 
force claims for damages during the civil wars. In 
1900 a revolution broke out which lasted for nearly 
two years, followed in 1912 by another revolution, 
when the United States landed forces and pro- 
claimed martial law. 

Under the protection of the United States, Adolfo 
Diaz was elected president in 1912, and in 1914 a 
treaty was signed by wliich the United States gained 
the perpetual right to construct an interoceanic canal 
and obtain naval bases near the Panama Canal. 
This treaty was ratified m 1910. Costa Rica, claim- 
ing that her rights were violated, brought suit in the 
Central American Court and obtamed judgment 
against Nicaragua, but the United States ignored 
the court and the whole system broke down. Be- 
cause of its proximity to tlie Panama Canal, Nica- 
ragua is of vital importance to the United States and 
since 1912 it has been virtually a protectorate. 

Organization. 

Government. Tlie constitution which came 
into operation April 5. 1913, vests the legislative 
power in a congress of two houses, consisting of 40 
deputies, elected for foiu- years by universal suffrage, 
and 1.3 senatoi-s elected for six years. The president 
serves for four years and exercises his fimction 
tlirough a coimcil of responsible ministers. 

Industry. Agriculture, lumbering, and mining 
are the cliiet industries. In the eastern part of the 
repubhc the banana is the chief product, though co- 
conuts, plantams, oranges, and pineapples are also 
raised and ric^ is cultivated to a small extent! In 
the westom half the products are more varied, the 
most important being sugar cane, cocoa, com, 
beans, and coffee. The armiial average output of 
coffee is estimated at 22,000.000 poimds. There are 
valuable forests of mahogany and cedar; gold mines 
are worked by American and British companies. 

Religion and Education. The prevailing form 
of religion is the Roman Catholic. 

There are three universities, ten secondary schools 
which are supported by private individuals, and 
about 356 primary schools. 

Defense. The active army is composed of 2,000 
men and in time of war may be increased to 7,000. 
Compulsory military service is required of all men 
between 17 and 55 years of age. The period of 
active service is one year. The navy consists of 
one very small boat on the Pacific coast. 

The area is 49,200 square miles and the estimated 
population in 1917 was 746.000. 

SALVADOR. 
Historical Outline. 

Stretching along the Pacific coast, from Guate- 
mala to tlie Gulf of Fonseca. lies the little republic of 
Salvador. Tliis was the ancient community of Cus- 
catlan which was conquered by Pedro de Aivarado 
in 1524. During the whole colonial period it was 
included in the captaincy general of Guatemala. 
When, by the general revolts from Spain, Guate- 
mala was disrupted, Salvador i>ecame a member of 
the Central American confederation (1823-1839). 
During this period there were frequent wars and 
revolutions, and m 1S42 Salvador achieved its inde- 
pendence, which was recognized by the other repub- 
lics and by Spain. It is the smallest and at the same 
time most densely populated of the Central Ameri- 
can states. 

In common with the other Central American 
states, Salvador has been the scene of frequent 
revolutions, and has also been drawn into the strug- 
gles between the states desiring a Central American 
union patterned on the United States and the party 
desiring local independence for each state. In 1907 
Salvador supported Honduras in its struggle against 
Nicaragua and in 1908 was sued by Honduras and 
Nicaragua in the Central American Court. 



Organization. 



Government. The constitution proclaimed in 
1824 has been modified seven times and vests the leg- 
islative power in a congress of forty-two deputies 
elected for one year by miiversal suffrage. The 
executive power is in the hands of a president whose 
tenure of office is limited to four years. 

Industry and Labor. The chief occupation of 



the people is agricultural. The principal product is 
coffee, to wMch 153,000 acres are devoted. Boun- 
ties are offered by the government for the production 
of cotton, and attempts are made at wheat cultiva- 
tion. The mineral wealth includes gold, silver, cop- 
per, iron, and mercm-y. 

Religion and Education. The religion is Ro- 
man Catholic. Education is free and compulsory. 
There are about a thousand primary schools, 27 
higher schools, including three normal schools and a 
national university with professional schools. 

Defense. The military strength of the coimtry 
consists of first, the available force of more than 16,- 
000 officers and men: second, forces which can be 
made available, 11,500; third, reserve forces, 17,500. 
In case of war, military service is compulsory be- 
tween the ages of IS and 50. There is one custom- 
house cruiser. Ition (1919) 1,298,621.1 

The area is 13. 176 square miles and the popula-l 

Chronology. 
Central American States. 

Panama, because of its peculiar international sig- 
nificance, is separately treated, pp. 81 and 82. 
1502. Columbus on liis foiu-th \-oyage skh-ts the 

Atlantic coast of Central America from Honduras 

to the GiUf of Daricn. 
1510. First settlement of North American 

mainland on Ciulf of Darien. 
1522. Gonzalez de .4vila from Panama journeys by 

sea and land along Pacific coast into Nicaragua 

and discovers Lalce Nicaragua. 

1524. Pedrarias de Avila (Pedro Arias de Avila) 
from Panama founds Granada and Leon (site 
changed m 1610) in Nicaragua. 

Gonzdlez de Avila makes a settlement on Gulf of 
Honduras in present Guatemala. Idm-as. !• 

Cortes sends Olid and Casas to the Gulf of Hon- 1 
Aivarado, Cortes's lieutenant, marches from 
Mexico and conquers Guatemala and Salvador. 
Guatemala city (Santiago) foimded (site changed 
in 1.528). |to Honduras. I 

1524-1525. Cortes journeys overland from Mexico I 

1525. Trujillo, Honduras, foimded. 

1527. Dec. IS. Captaincy general of Guate- 
mala established, including Cliiapas and all of 
Central America except Panama. Continues dur- 
ing colonial period. Natives reduced to slavery 
and in great part exterminated or driven into 
interior wUds. 

1638. Begmnmg of British Honduras (Belize) by 
logwood cutters. Various unsuccessful attempts 
by Spanish in next 150 years to drive them away. 

1783. .Se;i(. S. Treaty of Versailles concedes to 
British subjects right to cut logwood in Belize. 
New treaty on July 14, 1786. ConfUct continues 
until 1798. No formal acknowledgment of Brit- 
ish suzerainty until 1859. 

1811. Nov 5. Attempted revolt at San Salvador; 
soon abandoned. Various circumstances keep 
Central American provinces quiet after revolts 
begin in jMe.xico and South America. 

1821. Sept. 3. Chiapas joins Mexico imder Itur- 
bide's rule. September 15. Guatemala declares 
Independence; followed by Salvador and Nica- 
ragua September 21. Honduras October 16, and 
Costa Bica October 27. 

1822. Jnn.B. Jimtaat Guatemala (city) proclaims 
union of whole of Central America with Mexi- 
can Empire imder Plan of Iguala (see Mexico). 
War between Guatemala and Salvador results. 

Dec. 2. Salvadorean congress repeals imion 
with Mexico and places country under protec- 
tion of United States as an integral portion 
thereof. Mexican partisans, however, subdue 
coimtry again, in February-. 1823. 

1823. June 2J,. Iturbide having fallen. Central 
American congress meets. It becomes a con- 
stituent assembly and, Jidy 1, declares Honduras, 
Guatemala. Sahador. Nicaragua, and Costa Rica 
an independent confederated state, the United 
Provinces (States) of Central America. Ac- 
tion reaffirmed October 1. Costa Rica's connec- 
tion is largely formal. 

1824. A-pr\l. Slavery abolished by constituent 
assembly. 

Not. 22. Federal constitution promulgated. 

1825. April 21. Arce elected first president. 
Conflict between state and federal government 
soon develops 

Dec. 5. Commercial treaty with United- States, 
wliich earlier in 1825 recognized the new nation. 

1826. Julie. Panama Congress (see Panama). 
1827-1829. War between Sah-ador and federal 

government supported by Guatemala. 

1828. Feb. 14. Informal resignation of Arce. 

1829. April. Morazan. leader of victorious Sal- 
vador Liberal arm.v. assumes powers of federal 
state on occupation of Guatemala city. Later 
Barrundia becomes provisional president. 

Sept. 7. Congress suppresses religious orders. 

1830. Sept. 16. Morazan inaugurated president. 
1832. Jnn. 7. Salvador secedes, but forced to 

return after Morazan captures San Salvador. 
1837-1838. Revolt, largely of Indians, in Guate- 



mala led by Carrera and incited by clerical and 

'* Servile " opponents of Liberal government. 

1838. April SO. Nicaragua secedes. 

May SO. Congress decrees virtual dissolu- 
tion of confederation by granting states privi- 
lege of separate action. 

Oci. 26. Honduras secedes. November 15, 
Costa Rica follows. 

1839. Feb. 1. Morazdn's term expires; no effort 
to elect a successor. 

April 17. Guatemala declares its independ- 
ence. Clerical ohgarchy under Carrera rules. 
1839-1840. Honduras and Nicaragua, with Carrera, 
make war on Salvador and Federalists imder 
Morazdn. (leaves the country. I 

1840. April 5. IVIorazdn, last link of confederacy, 1 
1842. April 7. Morazan lands in Costa Kica. 

He becomes head of that government. Reaction- 
ists, especiaUy Carrera, promote revolt against' 
liim; he is captured and executed, September 15. 

1842-1845. Attempts to form a new imion fail. 
During this period Salvador and Guatemala are at 
war, also Honduras and Salvador against Nica- 
ragua, revolt in Salvador, and war of Salvador 
against Honduras. States in lamentable condi- 
tion. Costa Rica more stable and prosperous. 

1846. Concession by Nicaragua to Ij>uis Napoleon 
for a canal. Nothing done. 

1848. British, claiming protectorate o\-er Mos- 
quito Coast Indians of Nicaragua and Hon- 
duras, with strong desire to stretch it over Nica- 
ragua canal route, occupy Greytown (San Juan 
del Norte). Crisis hi a poUcy of aggression 
deemed contrary to Monroe Doctrine and 
American interest in Isthmian transit made 
important by acquisition of California and dis- 
covery of gold there (see Pana.ma). 

1849. June 21. Draft treaty (Hise) between 
United States and Nicaragua for exclusive 
American control over Nicaragua canal 
route. Repudiated by new American adminis- 
tration. 

Sept. ,3. Draft treaty (Squier) between United 
States and Nicaragua for neutralization of canal 
and guarantee of Nicaraguan sovereignty. Squier 
also secures canal concession for the American 
Compiflia de Trdnsito de Nicarugita. 

Sept. 2S. Draft treaty between United States 
and Honduras for cession of Tigre Island, com- 
manding western end of Nicaragua canal route. 

Oct. 16. Britisli fleet seizes Tigre Isl-ind. 

1850. Salvador, Honduras, and Democrats of 
Nicaragua ally against autocracy in Guatemala. 
Carrera invades Salvador, where revolt over- 
tlirows the government. Peace not made till 1853. 

April 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between 
Ignited States and Great Britain. 'Mutual con- 
trol and protection of any ship canal or other 
means of Isthmian transit, and mutual renuncia- 
tion of control over Nicaragua or other portions 
of Central America. British Honduras not em- 
braced in treaty. Tigre Island given up ; but con- 
troversy continues over Mosquito Coast and in- 
terpretation and fulfiUment of treaty. 

May 10. Spain recognizes independence of 
Costa Rica; first formal acknowledgment of loss 
of suzerainty over Central America. 

1851. American Accessory Transit Company of 
Nicaragua absorbs earlier American company (see 
1849) and develops route with steamers on lake 
and river. Important route until Panama 
Railroad opened in 1855. 

Jan. 9. New imion of Honduras. Nicaragua, 
and Salvador, but Salvador and Honduras set it 
aside in 1853. 

1852. April. Greytown (San Juan del Norte) 
made a " tree city " imder British promotion. 
Trouble results with the Transit Company. 

July 17. Bay Islands, off northern coast of 
Honduras, proclaimed a British colony. 
1853-1856. War between Guatemala and Hon- 
duras. 

1854. July IS. Bombardment of Greytown (San 
Juan del Norte) by U.S.S. Cyane in protection of 
rights of Transit Company. 

Oct. 21- Carrera proclaimed president of 
Guatemala for life. 

1855. June IS. Walker, American filibuster with 
ultimate aim of adding Central America to slave 
States of United States, lands in Nicaragua. 
October 13, he occupies Granada and becomes 
master of the country. [slaverj-.t 

1856. July. Walker decrees the restoration of| 
October. Central American forces unite, and 

after months of fighting force Walker to sur- 
render. May 1, 1857. He leaves on an American 
naval vessel. 

1857. Oct. 19. Costa Rica declares war on Nica- 
ragua; thought to be for conquest. Peace made 
January 16, 1858. 

Nov. 16. Martinez becomes president of 
Nicaragua. Interval of internal peace and pros- 
perity resifits. 

Dec. S. Walker, attempting another expedi- 
tion, intercepted and sent back by an American 
naval ofllcer. 



1858 - 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES. 



81 



1858. April 16. Boundary treaty between Costa 
Rica and Nicaragua. The latter disavows it later. 

May. Canal concession by Nicaragua and 
Costa Rica to a French company imdei Belly. 
American protest nullifies it. Attempt of Na- 
poleon III. to revise it fails. 

1859. April SO. British-Guatemalan treaty; 
British suzerainty over British Honduras acknowl- 
edged by delimitation of boimdaries. 

Xov. 2S. British treat j- with Honduras; Bay 
Islands ceded to Honduras and protection over 
Mostjuito Indians within borders of Honduras 
transferred to Honduras. 

1860. Jan. ^S. Nominal sovereignty over Mos- 
quito Coast ceded to Nicaragua by Great Britain, 

Aug. 6. Walker lands at Trujillo on a tliird 
expedition. Siu-rendered by British to Honduras 
and executed, September 12. 
1863. War of Nicaragua and Guatemala against 

Salvador and Honduras. 
1865. April 14. Death of Carrera. Corna suc- 
ceeds as i-uler over Guatemala. (Nicaragua. I 

1867. March 1. Martinez retires from office in| 
June 21. Dickinson-Ayon Treaty between 
United States and Nicaragua: right (not exclusive) 
to build canal or other means of transit given in 
return for guarantee of neutrality and Nicaraguan 
sovereignty. It is probably contrary to Ciayton- 
Bulwcr Treaty, which United States desires to 
abrogate, 

1SC9-1873. American Interoceanic Canal Com- 
mission appointed by President Grant to survey 
routes. Report made. February 7, 1S76, in favor 
of Nicaraguan route. 

1871. June. Overtiirow of Cerna's oligarchical 
government in Guatemala by Liberals. Severe 
anticlerical decrees follow: archbishop, bishop, 
and Jesuits expelled: religious communities sup- 
pressed or limited; ecclesiastical legal privileges 
abolished; religious freedom established. 

1871-1876. New attempt at union. 

187*i. War of Salvador and Guatemala against Hon- 
duras, now the chief reactionary government. 

1873. Jxnif If. Rufmo Barrios inaugurated con- 
stitutional president of Guatemala. Economic 
and social advancement, but unfavorable political 
conditions follow. 

1876. "War between Guatemala and Salvador. 
Peace terms. April 25. compel change in Salva- 
dorean government and Zaidivar t>ecomes presi- 
dent. July 19, and continues in office for nine years. 
Barrios also secures m Hondiu-as a government 
favorable' to his plans for reunion. 

1879. Provisional Interoceanic Canal Company 
organized in United States; concession for canal 
from Nicaragua (see Panama for French con- 
cession). 

1881. Jesuits from Guatemala have settled in 
Nicaragua. Fanatical Indian insurrection laid at 
their door and they are expelled. 

Jubj 2. Emperor of Austria as arbiter decides 
that Nicaragtian sovereignty over Mosquito Coast 
under treaty of 1S60 is limited by the self-govern- 
ment of the Indians conceded in the treaty. Fa- 
vorable to British policy and connected with Amer- 
ican efforts to abrogate Clajlon-Bulwer Treaty. 

1884. Dec. I. Draft treaty between United 
States and Nicaragua negotiated by President 
Arthur for canal constructed by United States 
to be owned jointly with Nicaragua. Guarantee 
of Nicaraguan territorial integrity. Violates 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, President Cleveland, 
March 13, I8S5. withdraws it from Senate, thus 
reversing policy of predecessors for canal imder 
American control (see Panama). 

1885. Fib. SS. Barrios, on his own initiative, 
proclaims consolidation of the five states. 
Hondiu'as appro\es, ^larcii 7, but other states do 
not, and foreign mmisters disapprove of action. 

March 30. Barrlos invades Salvador; de- 
feated and slain, April 2. End of attempted 
reimion. 

1886. Dec. £.',. Nicaragua and Costa Rica submit 
validity of boundary treaty of 1858 to Presi- 
dent Cleveland, who, on ilarch 22. 1S8S. de- 
clares it valid. 

1889. Feb. 20. Incorporation by United States 
Congress of the Maritime Canal Company of 
Nicaragua. 

Oct. 2. Opening of the first Pan-American 
Congress at Washington (see United States). 
All the Central American states send delegates. 

1890. June 8. Construction of Nicaragua Canal 
begun. 

Barrundia, a fugitive revolutionist, takes refuge 
on board an American steamer in the harbor of 
San Jose; his surrender is demanded by Guate- 
malan authorities; he resists and is killed. Secre- 
tary Biaine censures United States officials for 
failing to protect him. 
1893. Zelaya raised to presidency of Nicaragua by 
a revolt. He remains in control and as a disturb- 
ing factor in Central American affairs imtil 1909. 
in spite of various risings against him. 

Aug. 30. Nicaragua Canal Company fails. 
Work never resumed. Attempts for American 



governmental aid during next ten years fail. 
Concession expires and Nicaragua also cancels that 
of another American company. 

1894. Feb. 12. Nicaraguan forces occupy Blue- 
fields on JVIosQuito Coast and assume control. 
British marines landed. Diplomatic contro- 
versy between United States and Cireat Britain. 
November 20, Mosquito Indians recognize abso- 
lute sovereignty of Nicaragua over the region. 

1895. April 1. Tlu-ough American mediation. 
Mexican-Guatemalan boimdary dispute settled 
and armed conflict avoided. 

1895-1898. Short-lived Greater Republic of 
Central America, with which all the sta.tes are 
associated, altliough Costa Kica does not join un- 
tU 1897. 

1898. Feb. S. President Jose Barrios of Guate- 
mala assassinated. Barillas provisional presi- 
dent. Estrada Cabrera inaugiu-ated president, 
September 25. In power until 1920. Admmis- 
tration. practically a dictatorship, promotes eco- 
nomic development. 

1899. March 3. New American Isthmian Cana! 
Commission authorized to report on routes. 

1960. Feb. .5. Draft ifirst) Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty (see Panama). 

Sept- 13. Arbitration of Costa Rican-Colom- 
bian boundary by president of France. Not final, 
\ov. 30. Preliminary report by Canal Com- 
mission recommends Nicaraguan route, but 
chiefly because of supposed difficulty of obtaining 
control of Panama route and construction; but 
on January 18, 1902, after the French company 
agrees to sell to United States, the Commission 
recommends the Panama route (see Panama 
for fiu*ther history of the canal). 

1901. Nov. IS. (Second) Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 
(see Panama). 

1905. April 10. British-Nicaraguan treaty: ab- 
solute sovereignty of Nicaragua over Mos- 
quito Coast recognized; Indians to have cer- 
tain special privileges. 

1906. March. Ex-President Barillas invades 
Guatemala. Civil war results, the other states 
aiding Barillas against Cabrera. Presidents 
Roosevelt and Diaz (of Mexico) mediate and 
armistice, July 20, leaves Cabrera in control. 

Dec. 23. Award of king of Spain on Xicara- 
guan-Honduras boimdary. Not satisfactory. 

1907. February. War of Nicaragua against Hon- 
duras and Salvador. Nicaragua victorious by 
April. American marines land and prevent pro- 
longation of the war. 

March. Flgueroa inaugurated president of 
Salvador. 

Aug. IS. Davila becomes president of Hon- 
diu-as. 

Dec. 20. General treaty of peace and amity 
with seven supplementary conventions on extra- 
dition, communication, etc.. signed by all of the 
Central American states at Washington. Pro- 
visions fora Central American Court of Justice 
(opened May 26, 190S), an International Central 
American Bureau, and a Pedagogical Institute. 
Measiu-es particularly dii-ecled toward promotion 
of peace by pretention of imneutral use of one na- 
tion by political refugees of another. 

1909. Jan. 20. Meeting of delegates of the five 
states at the first Central American Congress. 
Conventions signed for miification of money, cus- 
toms, weights and measiu-es. consular services, 
and fiscal laws. Not carried out. 

Dec. 16. President Zelaya of Nicaragua forced 
to resign following a revolt and threatcni'd diffi- 
culty with United States. Madriz succeeds as 
president, but revolt continues. 

1910. May 8. Jimenez inaugiu-ated president of 
Costa Rica. 

Aug. 22. Estrada, following flight of Madriz. 
proclaimed president of Nicaragua. 
1911- Jan. 10. Loan convention between 
United States and Honduras; United States to 
sponsor and guarantee loans for rehabilitation of 
Hondm-as finances ("dollar diplomacy"). Not 
ratifiecl by American Senate. 

March 1. Araujo inaugurated president of 
Salvador. 

March 2S. President Ddvila of Honduras re- 
signs to calm an insurrectionary aiovement Ber- 
trand succeeds provisionally, and regularly on No- 
vember 3. 

May II. Estrada resigns presidency of Nica- 
ragua: succeeded by Diaz, who becomes regular 
president. Januarj-^ 1, 1913. 

June 11. Loan convention between United 
States and Nicaragua, similar to the Hondiu-as 
one. Also not ratified. Put in operation with 
control of customhouse by President Taft without 
ratification: a virtual protectorate. 
1912. Feb. 1. Bonilla inaugurated president of 
Honduras. 

August. Mena revolts in Nicaragua. Amer- 
ican marines assist to suppress revolt and 
Mena surrenders to them. September 25. Ma- 
rines remain until after presidential election, when 
Diaz is reelected. 



1913. Feb. 3. Treaty negotiated imder President 
Taft with Nicaragua by which for S3,000,000 the 
strategic islands of Little Corn and Great 
Corn and a naval station in the Gulf of Fonseca 
are leased to United States along with exclusive 
canal rights by the Nicaraguan route. It is 
later modified by Prt-sident \Vil.son so as to estab- 
Ush a virtual protectorate over Nicaragua. Be- 
cause of the protectorate the American Senate re- 
fuses to ratify the treaty. 

Feb. 9. President Araujo of Salvador assassi- 
nated. Melendez succeeds. 

March 13. President Bonilla of Honduras dies. 
Bertrand resumes the chair. 

1914. May S. Gonzalez Flores inaugurated 
president of Costa Kica. 

Aug. 6. New American-Nicaraguan treaty 
like that of 1913, liut without the protectorate. 
Ratified by American Senate February 18, 191G. 

Aug. 2if. Molina becomes president of Salva- 
dor on resignation of Melendez. 

Sept. 12. Award of Cliief Justice White of 
United States Supreme Court on the Costa Rican- 
Panama boundary. Panama repudiates it (1915). 

1915. March 1. Melendez again president of 
Salvador. 

19ie. M'jy 26. Costa Rica brings suit in Central 
American Court of Justice against Nicaragua 
for infrmgement of rights by canal treaty with 
United States. Salvador and Honduras also 
bring suit against the treaty. Court decides in 
favor of Costa Rica. Nicaragua refuses to accept 
decision and denoimces convention of 1907 creat- 
ing the court. Conventions expire in December 
and court ceases. 

1917. Jan. 1. Chamorro inaugurated president 
of Nicaragua. 

Jan. 37. President Gonzalez Flores of Costa 
Rica deposed. Frederico Tinoco Granados 
provisional president, and regular president after 
April 11. American government refuses him 
recognition. 

April 28. Guatemala severs diplomatic in- 
tercourse with Germany. May 17, Honduras 
does likewise. Nicaragua on May 19, and Costa 
Rica on September 21. 

1918. Jan. 6. Destruction of Guatemala city by 
earthquake. 

April 21. War declared on Germany by 
G uatemala. also by Nicaragua (May 6), Costa Rica 
(May 23), and Honduras (July 19). Nicaragua 
also declares war on Austria-Hungary (May 8). 

1919. Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua have 
each a delegate at the Peace Conference at Paris. 

May. Exiles invade Costa Rica from Nica- 
ragua; Nicaraguan aid reported. American ma- 
rines landed to protect property. August 12, 
President Tinoco Granados departs. Quiros. 
later Barquero, provisional president. Acosta 
elected regular president, December, and in- 
augurated on May 9, 1920. 

August. Revolt in Honduras against Presi- 
dent Bertrand. American marines land. Ber- 
trand lea\es the coimtry in September; Bogran 
becomes provisional president. 

Oct. I. Guatemala ratifies the Treaty of Ver- 
sa illes. 

1920. Feb. 2. L6pez Gutierrez inaugurated presi- 
dent of Honduras. 

March 10. Salvador joins the League of Na- 
tions. Costa Rica not requested to join. 

April. Revolt in Guatemala overthrows 
Estrada Cabrera (president since 1898), who is 
captured April 14. 

PANAMA. 
Historical Outline. 

In 1513 Vasco Nufiez de Balboa had his first view 
of the Pacific Ocean from a moimtain in Panama; 
and from that tim.e the transit across the Isthmus 
made Panama important as the main canal route 
from Spain to the Pacific coast and the Piiilippines. 
It was one of the first provinces to revolt from Spain 
and was a portion in succession of the republic of Co- 
lombia, the repubhc of New Granada, and the United 
States of Colombia. The development of California 
made Panama a trade route between East and West, 
and led to projects for a canal and to the constnjc- 
tion of a railroad across it. In 1SS6, as a result of a 
revolution, the constitution of Colombia abohshed 
the sovereignty of the province and reduced it to de- 
partments imder governors appointed by the presi- 
dent of the republic. 

The trade through the Isthmus was an important 
source of revenue to Colombia, but the people had 
little or no share in their own government, and de- 
rived little benefit from the traffic. The French 
project 0' a canal in 1879 and the interest of the 
United States in it aroused Panama, especially after 
the British withdrew their claims (1901). Colombia 
prepared a canal treaty, then refused to ratify it, 
and. with the good will of President Roosevelt, Pan- 
ama revolted from Colombia m 1903. The revolu- 
tionarj- government was at once recognized by the 
United States etnd a treaty negotiated by which the 



82 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES — CHILE. 



1502-1920. 



United Stat-es obtained perpetual occupation of a 
^J zone (Canal Zone) Ave miles wide on either side of 

the Canal route and was given jurisdiction over the 
cities of Panama and Colon as to quarantine and 
sanitation. The islands in Panama Bay were ceded, 
as was the coast line of the Canal, for such works of 
defense as might be necessary. On the ratification 
of tlie treatj' (1904), the United States paid Panama 
ten million dollars; and undertook to make a per- 

Opetual annual pa^inent of two hmidred and fifty 
thousand dollars, beginning nine years from that 
time. 

Organization. 

Government. By the constitution of 1904 the 
executive functions are exercised by a president, who 
is elected for four years, as are the tliree vice presi- 
dents (or designados). and the legislative functions by 
P a Chamber of Deputies of (1919) 33 members (one 

for every 10,000 inhabitants), meeting biennially. 
The president is assisted by a cabinet of five mem- 
bers. No action is taken by the government or the 
electors which it is believed would be unwelcome to 
the United States. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is still of a primitive 
order and although the soil is of great fertility only 

Q about five eighths of the whole area is occupied and 

only a small part properly cultivated. The chief 
products are bananas, caoutchouc, cacao, and ma- 
hogany. All ordinary minerals but coal are foimd. 

Religion. Most of the inliabitants are Roman 
Catholics. The population is Spanish American 
with Indian admLxture. 

Education. The government maintains 398 
public schools at which are enrolled 22.000 cliildren. 
R A university has been opened at the cost of about one 

and a half million dollars. 

Defense. Panama, being imder the protection of 
the United States, has no army or nav-y- 

The area is 32,380 square miles and the popula- 
tion (estimated 1917) is 450.000. 

Chronology — Panama. 

150?. Columbus skirts the Atlantic coast of the 
^ Isthmus. 

1510. Governors of provinces of Castella de Oro 
and Nueva Andalucia found Darlen and Nombre 
de Dios upon the Isthmus. 

1513. September. Nuiiez de Balboa crosses the 
Isthmus and discovers the Pacific Ocean. 

1514. Provinces united as province of Tierra 
.^ Firma, later New Granada (sec Colombia). 

1 Isthmus never associated with rest of Central 
America in captaincy general of Guatemala. 

1519. City of Panama founded. Becomes great 
Pacific port for the transshipment of treasures and 
other cargoes to and from Peru. Porto Bello 
(for which Nombre de Dios has been abandoned) 
becomes the Atlantic port of the transisthmian 
route and emporium of Peruvian trade, with great 
fair. 

15!39. Saavedra Ceron credited with earliest 
plans for transisthmian canal. Darien. Pan- 
ama, Nicaragua, and Tehuantepec routes indi- 
cated by Galvao later. 

1570. Philip II. forbids canal plans as contrary 
to will of God. 

1671. Morgan, the buccaneer, sacks Porto Bello 
. - and entirely destroys city of Panama. Pan- 

V araa rebuilt, 1763, on new site. 

1698. Scotch Darlen Expedition, planned by 
Paterson to give British control of the Isthmus. 
Soon abandoned. Paterson advocates a canal, 

1718. Panama included in viceroyalty of New 
Granada, later in republics of Colombia and 
New Granada (see Colombia). 

1835. Humboldt publishes obser\'ations on canal 
^M routes across Central America from Tehuantepec 

to Atrato River. 

1836. June 20. Assembly of Panama Congress, 
called by Bolivar for Pan-American advancement. 
Colombia, Central America, Peru, and Mexico at- 
tend. President Adams desires participation and 
leadership by United States, but complications 
due to slavery question prevent American dele- 

X gates arriving on time. Congress without practi- 

cal results (see also Cuba). 
1841. First secession of Panama from Colombia. 

State of Isthmus of Panartia short-lived. 
1846. Dec. 12. Treaty between United States 
and Colombia on isthmian transit (see United 
States). 
1848-1849. Acquirement by United States of Cali- 
fornia increases pubUc interest in Isthmian transit. 
Y Controversy between Great Britain and United 

States over control (see Centr.^l America). 
1850. Asplnwall (later renamed Colon) founded 
by Panama Railroad Company, an American cor- 
poration. Takes place of Porto Bello as Atlantic 
terminus of Isthmian transit. 

April 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (see Cen- 
tral America). 
Z1855. Completion of Panama R-allroad across the 
Isthmus between Aspinwall and Panama; the 
chief route until the completion of the canal. 
1856. Blots in Panama threaten the safety of 



U 



transit. American government endeavors to 
obtain further treaty. I'nlted States naval 
demonstration in protest of a Colombian ton- 
nage tax. 

1857. Second short secession by Panama. 

1859-1863. Mosquera's civil war (see Colombia) 
repeatedly threatens safety of transit. 

1869. -American Interoeeanic Canal Commis- 
sion (see Centr.\l America). Earlier sur\'eys 
have been made by United States, especially under 
President Buchanan. 

Jitn. llf. Draft treaty between United States 
and Colombia superseding that of 1846. giving 
I'nited States sole riglit to construct and 
control a sliip canal (contrary to Clayton-Bul- 
wer Treaty) and a zone tw^enty miles wide across 
the Isthmus American Senate fails to ratify it. 

1870. Jan. 26. Further draft of American-Co- 
lombian treaty: similar, but less favorable, 
terms; never ralitled. Tlie.se treaties part of 
effort to abrogate or nullify Ciayton-Buiwer 
Treaty for joint control, a part of American policy 
for half a centtu-j- (see Central America). 

1878. May 2S. Colombia grants concession for 
a canal to Wyse, who organizes the (French) In- 
ternational Interoeeanic Canal Society. Panama 
route adopted. De Lesseps put in charge. 

1879. May 15. Meeting at Paris of the Interna- 
tional ** Engineering " Congress imder De Les- 
seps, a remnant of wliich ratltles the French 
scheme for an ocean-level canal. 

1S80. March S. Message by President Hayes of 
United States on canal declares that the " policy 
of this country is a canal under American con- 
trol . . . virtually a part of the coast line of the 
United States." Colombia warned against in- 
fringing American rights imder treaty of 1846 
Posssesion taken of coaling stations in pro.ximity 
to French route. 

1881. Feb. I. Construction work on French 
canal started. Company becomes involved in 
great extravagances, lack of sanitation at Isth- 
mus, corruption in affairs at Paris. 

1885. .American marines landed to protect transit 
route diu-ing Liberal re\'olt in Colombia. 

1888. Dec. 13. Banliruptcy of French Canal 
Company. 

1893. Ocl. SI. New French Panama Canal Com- 
pany organized; construction continued, but com- 
pany Inadequate. 

1895. Revolt in Panama. 

1899. March 3. New .American Isthmian Canal 
Commission authorized to report on routes. 

1900. Feb. e. Draft (first) Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty to permit canal construction and opera- 
tion by United States alone. Amended by 
American Senate, falls through. 

Nor. SO Preliminary report by Canal Com- 
mission favors NIcaraguan route (see Central 
America). 

1901. Kov. IS. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (.second) 
signed. It supersedes Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 
and provides for canal construction and opera- 
tion and regulation by United States alone; neu- 
tralization, but American right of military police 
protection Ratified by United States Dec. 26 
and proclaimed Feb. 22, 1902. 

1903. Jan. IS. French Canal Company agrees 
to sell its rights to United States for S40,(X)0,000. 
Canal Commission now recommends Panama 
route (see 1000. Nov. 30. above). 

March. Revolt in Panama causes United 
States to send warships to the Isthmus. Septem- 
ber, more serious rising followed by landing of 
American marines, who forcibly prevent obstruc- 
tion of transit or use of railroad by combatants. 
Marines withdrawn November 19. 

June es. Hepburn Isthmian Canal Act of 
American Congress. Purchase of French 
rights and right of way from Colombia and con- 
struction of Panama route authorized, with 
construction of Nicaraguan Canal as alternative. 

1903. Jan 22. Draft Hay-Herran Canal Treaty 
between United States and Colombia. Colombia 
rejects it. November ,3, expecting to force better 
terms on expiration of French concession. 

Nov. 4. Panama declares its Independence. 
Under treaty of 1S46 Ignited States " preserves 
order " on transit route, which prevents any at- 
tempt of Colombia to regain control. 

Nov. 6. United States recognizes Panama 
Kepublle. Other powers follow suit. 

Nov. IS. Bay-Bunau-Varilla Panama Ca- 
nal Treaty between United States and Panama 
(see United States). 

1904. Feb. IS. Constitution of Panama promul- 
gated. Amador Guerrero first president. 

Feb. 29. American commission to construct 
the canal appointed. 

April 2S. Canal Zone Act of American Con- 
gress (see United .States). 

1905. March 29. Reorganization of Canal Com- 
mission (see United States). 

1906. June 29. American Congress authorizes 
a lock canal. [Zone and Panama | 

Nov. 16. President Roosevelt visits Canal] | 



1907. Feb. 26. Construction of canal placed in 
hands of Engineer Corps of United States Army 
under Goethals; Gorgas in charge of sanitation. 

1908. Oct. 1. Obaldia inaugurated president. 

1909. Jan. 9. Draft treaties between Colombia 
and United States and Panama to settle contro- 
versy growing out of revolution, American recog- 
nition, and canal. Not ratified; imsatisfactory to 
Colombia. 

1910. President Obaldia dies, March 1; Mendoza 
becomes acting president, and later (Oct. 5) 
-Arosemena is inaugurated. 

1912. July n. .American officials, at request of 
Panama, supervise the election. Porras elected 
president; inaugurated October 1. 

Aug. 24. Act for operating Panama Canal (see 
United States). 

1914. April 7. Treaty signed between Colombia 
and United States to end Panama and canal 
controversy (see United States). Not ratified 
by American Senate because of " expression of re- 
gret." (traffic. I 

May 18. Panama Canal opened to bargel 

Aug. 15. Formal opening of canal to 
steamer traffic. 

Sept. 2. Treaty with Umted States modifying 
boundary of Canal Zone, and treating of con- 
trol of harbors, certain islands, and a battery site. 

Sept. 12. Panama-Costa Rica boimdary (see 
Central America). 

October. Slides temporarily close the canal. 

1915. Sept. IS. Great slide in Culebra Cut 
closes canal until April 15, 1916. 

1916. February. Opening of National Exposi- 
tion of Panama, commemorating Ballxia's dis- 
covery. 

Ocl. 1. Valdes inaugurated president. Elec- 
tion again supervised by American officials. 

1917. April 7. War declared on Germany. 
May. Constitutional amendments: capital 

punishment abolished: election of president by 
direct popular vote. 

1918. June 3. President Valdfis dies; Crriola, 
later Porras, acting president. 

1919. Jan. IS. Panama has a delegate at the 
Peace Conference at Paris. 

1920. Jan. 30. Lefevre assumes presidency. Por- 
ras resigns to qualify for regular election to office. 



CEYLON. 

See imder British E.mpire, page 62. 



CHILE. 
Historical Outline. 

Chile extends from the extreme southern point of 
South America along the western coast for nearly 39 
degrees of latitude, or 2.700 miles, while nowhere is 
it more than 250 miles wide, averaging only a hun- 
dred. The land was originally occupied by Indians 
who were above the stage of savagery, but far below 
the level of culture of the races in Mexico and Peru. 
In the 15th century, previous to European discov- 
ery, northern Chile was conquered by the Peruvians 
and a higher civilization introduced which tended to 
weaken the resistance of the Indians to the later 
Spanish conquerors. Beyond the territory con- 
trolled by the Incas the Indians of Chile were fierce 
and warlike. 

The first Spanish Invasion was in 1535, when Di- 
ego de -AJmagro was sent by Pizarro from Peru. In 
1540 a centm^' of continuous warfare began imder 
Pedro de Valdivia, who founded Santiago. The In- 
dians desperately resisted the conquest and settle- 
ment and were m possession of the territory south of 
the Biobio River. The constant warfare with the 
Indians and the fact that lack of gold compelled the 
settlers to engage in hard, continuous work, pro- 
duced a stronger and hardier race than is foiuKi in 
most of the other South American repubUcs. But 
these conditions did not bring about the material 
prosperity wliich characterized many of the Spanish 
colonies in South America. 

During the period of Spanish control the thirteen 
provinces of Chile were under the administration of 
a governor appointed by the Peruvian viceroy and 
the Spanish system of restricting colonial trade 
worked against material development. When the 
Spanish monarchy was overthrown by Napoleon the 
Chileans were among the first to revolt (1810). The 
government, however, was not easily overtlirown 
and after a tliree years" conflict the Spanish rule was 
restored. In 1817 a patriot force wliich had been 
organized in the .Argentine by San Martin, an .Argen- 
tine officer, and by 0"Higgins crossed the .Andes and 
defeated the Royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. 
During the eight years following, the Spanish occu- 
pied certain strongholds, especially on the coast, from 
which they were with difficulty expelled. 

.After the revolution, the government was organ- 
ized imder the dictatorship of O'Higgins, who be- 
lieved that firm and orderly government was more 
important than liberty. His policy aroused opposi- 
tion, and in 1823 he was compelled to resign. During 



1535 - 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHILE — CHINA. 



83 



the next seven years three different constitutions 
were proclaimed and ten governments set up, but in 
1830 the Conservatives, supported by a military up- 
rising led by General Joaquin Prieto, gained the 
power. Prieto was elected president and a new con- 
stitution promulgated in IS33, wliich with some 
modifications is still in force. 

During the next thirty years there were only tlu-ee 
small and unimportant uprisings and. imder the 
firm rule of the Conservatives. Chilu made rapid 
progress. Schools and libraries were established, 
tlie foreign debt consolidated, and finances were im- 
proved. In 1S36 war broke out between Chile and 
the confederation of Peru and Bolivia. Cliile was 
successful and the confederation was cHssolved. 

In 1S65 an alliance was made by Chile and Peru 
in a war with Spain. The conflict lasted for four 
years and was ended through the inter\ention of the 
United States. In 1879 war broke out between Cliile 
on the one side and Peru and Bolivia on the other, in 
wliich Ciiile was successful and occupied the nitrate 
fields of Bolivia along the seacoast (1882). A formal 
treaty of peace, however, was not made imtil 1905. 
Bolivia ceded all claims to a seaport and a strip of 
the coast, on condition that Chile would construct at 
her own cost a railway from La Paz to the port of 
Arica, giving Bolivia free transit across Chilean ter- 
ritory to the sea. 

In 1886 Jose Manuel Balmaceda was elected pres- 
ident. His pohcy involved heavy expenditures and 
corruption. The president in 1891 atteniptrd to set 
up as dictator. Civil war broke out. and Baliiuii-fda 
showed himself very cruel. His forces were defeated 
and he shot himself. 

Diuing the Civil War (1891) the Congressional, or 
anti-Balmaceda, party attempted to forward arms by 
the steamer Itata from San Diego. California. The 
United States government ordered the detention of 
the Itata. an order subsequently held invalid by the 
Federal courts. The Itata escaped and reached 
Chile. Wliile negotiations for the surrender of the 
Itata were pending, a party of American sailors from 
the ship of war Baltimore went ashore at Valparaiso. 
They were attacked by a mob, many wounded and 
one killed. This affair produced great excitement 
in the United States. Delay in examining into the 
affair caused a threat of war by President Harrison. 
Chile at last offered an apoiogj'. Otherwise, the 
relations between Chile and the United States have 
been amicable. 

Since that time the internal condition of the coun- 
trj' has been peaceful and prosperous. In 1902 a 
long-standing boundary dispute between Chile and 
the Argentine Repubhc was terminated by arbitra- 
tion. A terrible earthquake in 190fi almost entirely 
destroyed Valparaiso and did much damage to other 
cities. In 1914 Chile, with Argentina and Brazil, 
the three being commonly caUed " the ABC pow- 
ers," attempted to mediate between the United 
States and Mexico. 

Chile is divided into three zones. The desert re- 
gion in the north is rainless, barren, and absolutely 
destitute of vegetation, but rich in mineral and sa- 
line deposits. The agricultural region, lying between 
the coast range and the Andes, is known as the Vale 
of Chile. It is a higlily fertile region and tiiickly 
populated. South of the forty-first parallel thecoun- 
tr>' is mountainotis. heavily forested, and subject to 
almost continuous rainfall. The coast of northern 
Chile is singularly deficient in good harbors. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution (1833) vests 
the legislative power in a national congress. A Sen- 
ate of 37 is popularly elected by the provinces for a 
term of six years, a Chamber of Deputies of 118 is 
chosen directly by the departments for tliree years. 
The suffrage is open to all men of 21 years of age who 
are able to read and write. The executive power is 
vested in a president chosen for five years by indi- 
rect vote. The retiring president is not ehgible for 
reelection. 

Religion and Education. The Roman Catholic 
religion is maintained by the state, but the consti- 
tution guarantees free exercise of all religions. Edu- 
cation is free, but not compulsory. There are 3,000 
public primary schools. The higher institutions of 
learning are two universities and the National Insti- 
tute at Santiago, besides professional and technical 
schools- 
Industry and Labor. Agriculture and mining 
are the chief occupations. "Wheat and other cereals 
are produced in considerable quantities, and cattle 
and sheep are numerous. Before the AVorld War, 
Great Britain obtained the greater share of both the 
export and import trade. Since 1916, however, the 
commerce with the United States has far surpassed 
that of any other cotmtrj'- The chief source of 
wealth is the trade in nitrates from the districts con- 
quered from Peru and Bohvia. 

Defense. All able-bodied citizens are liable to 
service from the ISth to the 45th year. Recruits are 
called up in their twentieth year and trained for one 
year. After that they are enrolled for nine years. 
The total strength of the active army in 1916 was 
17,283. The air force consists of foiu*leen seaplanes 



and 50 airplanes. The navy consists of one pre- 
dreadnought, two armored cruisers and four pro- 
tected cruisers, together with eleven destroyers and 
five modem torpedo lx>ats. 

Area and Population. The area of Cliile is 289,- 
829 square miles and the popidation (1918) 3.945.- 
538. the greater part of wliich is of Eiu-opean origin. 

Chronology. 

1535. Spanish, under Almagro. first invade Chile, 
1541. February. Santiago is fomided. Incessant 

war with natives continues for a centur>-. 
1810. Sept. IS. Beginning of Independence; 

governor forced to resign and power invested in an 

elected junta. 
1814, Oct. V. Independence forces crushed by 

Spanish troops from Peru at Rancagua. 

1817. Feb. 1j^. Patriot army from Argentina, un- 
der San Martin and 0*Hlggins, routs Loyalists at 
Chacabueo. O'Higglns made dictator-general. 

1818. Feb. 1:2. Independence formally declared. 
1833. O'Higgins forced to resign. Period of con- 
fusion and many brief governments ensues. 

1831. Prieto elected president. Conservatives 
secure power; narrow government, but stabihtj- 
and economic progress. 

1833. May 22. Permanent constitution adopted. 

1836. War against confederated Peru and Bolivia. 

1841. Bulnes becomes president. [Chile. I 

1844. ,4 pril 2S. Spain recognizes independence of | 

1851. Manuel Montt succeeds as president. 

1861. Perez begins his presidential term. Liberal 
reaction sets in. 

1866. War with Spain; Valparaiso bombarded. 

1871. Sept. 18. Errazuriz Zanartu inaugurated as 
president. 

1876. Sept. 18. Pinto inaugiu*ated as president. 

1879. February. War with Bolivia and Peru 
breaks out. Underlying cause is Chile's desire for 
enemy's nitrate and guano fields. Peruvian navy 
annihilated and Bolivia coast province of Antofa- 
gasta and Peruvian province of Tarapacd occu- 
pied by end of 1879. Further conquests in 1880. 

1881. Jan. 17. Lima is occupied, after Peruvian 
defeats at ChorriUos (January 13) and Mirafiores 
(January 15), Callao surrenders. January IS. 
Cliile occupies and administers coast region. 
Guerrilla warfare continues in interior. 

Sept. IS. Santa Maria inaugiu-ated as presi- 
dent; a Liberal who antagonizes tlie Clericals. 

1883. Oct. 20. Treaty of peace with Peru; 
Tarapacd ceded to Chile. pro\Tnces of Tacna and 
Arica to be occupied for ten years, then a plebi- 
scite m the provinces to decide connection. Pleb- 
iscite has never taken place; diplomatic contro- 
versy, with occasional clashes, over it continues.- 

1884. April 4. Truce with Bolivia; Chile to con- 
tinue to occupy Antofagasta. Bohvia cut off 
from the coast . 

1886. Sept. IS. Balmaceda, Liberal, inaugurated 
as president. Program of extensive public worlcs; 
corruption, and violation of rights of Congress. 

1889. Oct. 2- First Pan-American Congress opens 
at Washmgton 'see United States). 

1891. Jan. 6. Civil war begins. Congressional 
party controls most of the na^T and gains jwsses- 
sion of northern pro'vinces. August 28, decisive 
victorj' before Valparaiso by Congressional army. 
City occupied, also Santiago. No further fighting : 
end of war. September IS. Balmaceda commits 
suicide. [United States). I 

Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors (seel 
Oct. IS. Jor^e Montt. leader of Congressional 
party, inaugurated as president. 

1892. Jan. 21. Crisis in controversy with L'nited 
States (see United States). 

1896. Sept. 18. Errdzuriz Echaturen inaugurated 
as president, [tina (see Argentina).! 

1899-1902. Boundary controversy with Argen-| 
1901. May 1. Errazuriz Echaurren resigns be- 
cause of ill health. Vice Pres. Zaiiartu succeeds- 
Sept. IS. Riesco inaugurated as president. 
1904. Oct. 20. Bolivian treaty of peace ends 
truce of 20 years: coast province ceded to Chile; 
in return Chile pays an indenmity and builds a 
free-transit railroad (opened August 6, 1912) 
from port of Arica to La Paz. 
1906. Aug. 16. Great earthquake at Valparaiso. 
Sept. 18. Pedro Montt inaugurated as presi- 
dent. 
1908. Dec. 26. First Pan-American Scientific 

Congress meets at Santiago. 
1910. Rail connection with Buenos Aires com- 
pleted, 

Aug. 16. Montt dies; Vice President Albano 
succeeds. 

Sept. 6. Albano di^; Minister of Justice Fi- 
gueroa becomes acting president. 

Dec. 23. Barros Luco inaugurated as president. 

1914. April-June. ABC m^ation (see United 
States) , 

1915. March 14. British squadron attacks Ger- 
man warship Dresden in Chilean waters. Later 
an apology is extended, and accepted by Chile. 

May 25. ABC tripartite treaty (see Argen- 
tina). 



Dec. S3. Sanfuentes inaugurated as president. 

1917. Chile persists in neutrality after renewal 
of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare. 

1918. Nov. 5. Government takes possession of 
84 interned German ships to prevent their de- 
struction by the crews. 

1919. Nov. Jf Chile joins the League of Nations. 

1920. January. Peru said to intend submitting 
Tacna-Arica controversy to League of Nations 
(see Peru, 1909). 

March. Bolivian question (see Bolivia). 



CHINA. 
Historical Outline. 

China, in the broadest sense, includes Manchuria, 
Mongoha, and Tibet. But the name is more strictly 
applied to the eighteen provinces occupying the 
southeastern part^ of the republic. This vast region 
is separated from the rest of Asia by lofty table-lands 
and rugged moimtains, from which the great rivers 
descend eastward. Western China consists of high 
lands which are generallj' only sparstiy populated; 
eastern Cliina, of lowlands densely populated, — the 
province of Shantimg is estimated to have a popu- 
lation of 528 per square mile. 

The Chinese regard themselves as the original 
inhabitants of the soil, but foreign scholars believe 
that they are descendants from wandering tribes of 
Tatars or from the ancient peoples of Tibet and 
Farther India. They are members of the Turanian 
(Ural-Altaic) family and belong to the Mongohan 
race. Cliinese tradition regards Fu-Hi as the first 
historical emperor and places his lifetime between 
the years 2852-2738 b. c. but this early history is 
foimded on. and may in part have been invented to 
explain the origin of, some institution or culture. 
Thus Fu-Hi is reputed to have invented the plow, 
to have introduced matrimony, and in general to 
have brought order out of chaos. 

Not until the Chow d>-nasty, 1123-255 b. c, do 
we reach liistoric ground. At tliis time a feudal sys- 
tem was introduced; since the imperial domain lay 
in the middle of the population, the name Middle 
Kingdom was applied to the empire. During this 
dynasty was bom Confucius, the founder of the na- 
tive religion of China (Confucianism). During the 
Tsin djTiasty (255-206 b. c.) the empire was ex- 
tended to, the sea, the Mongols were defeated, and 
the great]Chinese Wall built as a protection against 
the raids of Tatar horsemen. This vast structure, of 
wliich several branches and parallel lines still stand, 
was over 1,400 miles long, from 30 to 50 feet high, 
and 15 to 25 feet thick. 

From 206 b. c. to 221 a. d. was a brilliant period in 
Chinese liistorj-. Feudahsm was checked by the de- 
velopment of the royal power, and the empire was 
consolidated. Conquests extended the rule west- 
ward to Russian Turkestan ; and in the east north- 
em Korea was conquered. This epoch was followed 
by a period of confusion, but finally, in 590 a. d., 
Yang Kian. prince of Suy in the northern kingdom, 
extended liis conquest southward, brought the whole 
empire under his control and founded the Suy dy- 
nasty. 

In 618 the usurper Li Yuen brought an end to the 
line of Suy and founded the dj-nasty of Tang, wliich 
lasted for over three hundred years. Its fame 
spread westward, and in 643 embassies arrived from 
Persia and Constantinople. During this time came 
the golden age of Chinese literature. During the 
last two himdred years, Tatar raids distressed the 
country', and by the end of the tenth centiun,' Chi- 
nese emperors suffered the humiliation of pajing 
tribute to the Tatars, Ciradually the Tatars occu- 
pied the northeastern provinces of Cliina and estab- 
lished an empire wliich was overtliro^Ti in the thir- 
teenth centm-y, partly by the great conqueror Gen- 
ghis Khan. 

The Mongol emperor Kublal Khan (1259-1294) 
included China in his empire, which spread over most 
of Asia save Hindustan and Arabia. It was during 
tliis reign that Marco Polo, a Venetian, visited the 
Cliinese court and brought back to Europe the fhst 
extended authentic knowledge of Chinese life and 
customs. In the fourteenth century the Ming dy- 
nasty was founded as a native Chinese power and 
Tatary was conquered. During the fifteenth and 
early sixteenth centuries China had little to show 
except rebellions and Tatar invasions, ending in the 
estabhshment of the Manchus as rulers of China 
(1644). This Tatar or Manchu dynasty ruled the 
Chinese Empire imtil February 12, 1912. when it 
gave way to a repubhc. 

The foreign relations of the Manchu dj-nasty de- 
serve mention. Although one empire in form, the 
different provinces of China were ruled by civil vice- 
roys and by " Tatar generals " directly representing 
the military power of the Empire. These princes 
were often engaged in civil wars and insurrections. 
Under Manchu rule. China made little progress in 
culture or wealth, except under pressure of foreign 
powers. That influence was almost always resisted 
by the Chinese themselves and in particular by the 
Manchu rulers. 



84 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA. 



Not till near 1800 was a British ambassador re- 
ceived at Peking, and the first Protestant mission- 
ary, Reverend Robert MoiTison. readied Canton a 
little later. Foreign intercourse was confined to one 
port. Canton, where a large European trade had de- 
veloped. This trade, chiefly in opium, tea, and silk, 
in the hands of the British, Dutch, and Portuguese 
was subject to many restrictions and exactions. 
Disputes arose about the importation of opium 
which was forced by Great Britain upon the Chinese 
in the face of an imperial decree. In 1S40 the Brit- 
ish declared war upon China. As a result of this so- 
called Opium War Hongkong was ceded to Great 
Britain and the Five Treaty Eorts of Canton. 
Amoy. Fooctiow. Ningpo. and Shanghai were opened 
for general commerce In 1.S44 the United States 
made its first treaty witli China on similar lines. 

Six years later broke out the frightful Taipmg re- 
bellion, which lasted for nearly twenty years. In 
1S56 England and France again declared war upon 
Cliina to obtain redress for alleged injiu'ies to their 
commerce and citizens. In 1858. by a general] 
treaty with Great Britain. France. Russia, and the 
United States, the Chinese government yielded its 
claims in the Amur region in favor of Russia. The 
practice of Christianity was officially permitted. 
Other wars occurred between Cliina and Great Brit- 
ain and France ; Peking was occupied in 1860. and the 
imperial Summer Palace was looted. Finally the 
Taiping rebellion was broken, partly tlirough the 
victory of tlie imperial troops under ttiarlcs George 
Gordon and General Ward, an American, and partly 
through the elTorts of LI HuDg Chang, a statesman 
just coming to the front. 

In 1872 thirty Chinese boys were sent to the 
United States for education. This was the begin- 
ning of China's direct touch with Western cultm-e. 
Thousands of Chinese students have since been sent 
to the United States and to Eiu-opean countries, and 
later many to Japan, in order that Western ideas and 
methods might be introduced into the empire. 

In 1S04 Japan made an alliance with Korea and 
declared war upon China. After a brief struggle 
Cliina was abjectly defeated. Port Arthur and other 
territory being captured. Japan demanded the ces- 
sion of Port Arthur, which w'as close to the heart, of 
the Chinese Empire, and an immense indemnity 
(see J.^PAN). As the result of a protest by Russia, 
France, and Germany, Japan was forced to give up 
Port Arthiu- and to consent to a reduction of the in- 
demnity (see Russia). 

In the meantime Russia, which had begim the Si- 
berian railway, obtained (1896) from China the 
right to exploit the mines, industries, and forests of 
Manchm-ia and the Liaotung peninsula, to import 
goods from Siberia on spe-cial terms, to construct a 
system of railways in Manchuria, and also in connec- 
tion with them to establish military guards for the 
stations and Unes. The effect was practically to 
place Mancliiu'ia in Russian control; thus was begiui 
a systematic movement for the dismemberment of 
the Chinese Empire. 

Other European powers came into this process. 
In 1897 Germany, as reprisal for the murder of two 
missionaries, seized the town and bay of Kiaochow 
in southern Shantimg and received a lease for ninety- 
nine years of the territorj- occupied and the right to 
administer the surrounding territory, together with 
the railroads and coal mines of tlio province. The 
following year. Russia obtained tlie ports of Port 
Arthur and Talien (Dairen). which gave her an 
arsenal of great strength and the advantage of an 
ice-free port. Great Britain obtained additional 
territory in Kowloon and received a lease of the 
fortified harbor of Weihaiwei. France obtained 
privileges in the island of Hainan, and the right to 
extend a railway from Tonkin into the southern 
provinces of China. The United States demanded 
no forced concessions from China and tirged that the 
European powers should recognize the policy of the 
" open door " — equal rights of all nations to trade 
in all parts of China. 

In the meantime two internal movements arose in 
China. On the one hand the more progressive of the 
yoimger generation demanded Western education 
and Western knowledge, hoping that China might 
benefit by a transformation similar to that which 
had taken place in Japan thirty years before. The 
yoimg emperor supported tills movement and prom- 
ised many reforms both in e<iucation and in adminis- 
tration. On the other hand the old biu'eaucracy and 
the officeholders stood by their vested privileges. 
They were aided by the feeling that Western influ- 
ence was breaking China to pieces. The reaction- 
aries raised ttie cry of " Cliina for the Cliinese " and 
demanded the expulsion of the foreigners. The 
emperor was practically deposed and the Empress 
Dowager Tzu Hsi An took control of the govern- 
ment, cancelled the reform edicts and attempted to 
suppress the movement for modernization. 

Just at tills time came the Boxer rebellion 
(190O), The Boxers were a secret association which 
appeared first in Shantimg. hostile to foreigners and 
tlrawn chiefly from the lower classes. Perhaps it 
was an agent of the d^^lasty. for it had the favor if 
not the guidance of the government. The Boxers 



displayed on their banners the legend " Exterminate 
the foreigners and save the dynasty." 

Sporadic outbreaks occurred throughout China, 
in which many foreigners and Chinese converts were 
murdered. In Peking the European officials and 
residents took refuge in the British legation and 
were there besieged from June imtil August. News 
of their plight reached the outer world and an inter- 
national force of British. Russian. French. German, 
Austrian. Italian, American, and Japanese troops 
was hurried to their rescue. The forces were delayed 
and were compelled to capture Ticnt-sin; but iilti- 
mately. by forced marches, they reached Peking and 
rescued the prisoners in the legation. The dowager 
empress fled with the emperor, and the imperial 
palace at Peking was looted. As a result of this re- 
belhon China was forced to make formal and humili- 
ating apologies to Germany and Japan and to pay an 
indemnity of over $,300,CKX),000. By 1902 order was 
somewhat restored in the coimtry and conditions 
seemed fairly normal. 

The Manchurian question at once revived. By a 
formal convention (19021 Russia agreed to the grad- 
ual evacuation of ]Manchuria. A delay offended ! 
China indirectly and brought to the surface the con- 
flicting interests of the Western powers and of Japan 
in particular, which felt constricted both in Man- 
chiu-ia and Korea. Believing that China was help- 
less. Japan took it up directly with Russia and finally ' 
declared war upon that coimtrj- in 1904. (See J.\- 
PAN, Russia.) Japan recaptured Port Arthur, over- 
ran Korea, and. in the Treaty of Portsmouth, these 
possessions were confirmed though Manchuria was 
nominally restored to Cliina. 

The lessons of the Boxer rebellion and the con- 
temptuous way in which China had been treated dur- 
ing the Riis-'O-Japanese War had their effect. Re- 
forms in administration were made; the special privi- 
leges of the Manchus were attacked: and the de- 
spised militao' profession was raised to an honorable 
calling. A national army was formed, which was 
expected to take the place of the old provincial ar- 
mies imder the viceroys. The most striking proposed 
reform was the setting up of a representative assem- 
bly and a parliamentary system of government. 

The old question of opium came up again. The 
vicious use of this drug was widespread in China and 
between twenty-flve and thirty million people were 
addicted to it. The opium question, however, was 
j not simply a moral issue. The British sent great 
1 quantities from India, and deri^ ed a large Indian 
j revenue from the tax upon it. The United States 
j and eventually Great Britain aided the Clnnese in 
I their crusade in 1902. In 190S an agreement was 
reached with Great Britain restricting the importa- 
tion of opium and the sale and use of the drug was 
prohibited after ten years 

Educational reforms led to the abolition of the old 
examinations, based on a knowledge of the Chinese 
classics. Examinations in modem subjects were re- 
quired for admission to the civil service. In 1908 
both the emperor and the Empress Dowager Tzu 
Hsi An died, and Prince Chim became regent for 
the Emperor Hsiian-timg. his three-year-old sou. 
the heir to the throne. 

In 1910 the National Assembly met for the first 
tune. It was nothing but a consultative body hav- 
ing no control over the purse or other questions, and 
was soon dissolved (January. 19111. In that year 
a cabinet and general staff were organized in which, 
as in the National Assembly, the Manchus held the 
preponderance of power. 

Friction between the Manchus and the Chinese 
developed throughout the empire, leading to many 
insurrections and riots, led by a group of patriotic 
but radical reformers. These revolts took place in 
southern and central China where the feeling was 
most strong that the Manchus were hindering prog- 
ress. In October the National Assembly was recon- 
vened and a constitutional government promised: 
but the revolutionists succeeded in capturing Shang- 
hai. Hankow, and Nanking. By the end of the year 
a republic was set up with Sim Yat Sen as provi- 
sional president. On Februarj- 12. 1912. theManchu 
dynasty, after 268 years of rule, formally abdicated. 
Two days later Sun Yat Sen resigned the provi- 
sional presidency and was replaced by Yuan Shih- 
kai; and suffrage was granted to literate women 
property owners. In 1913 the first parliament of the 
Chinese Republic was convened at Peking and recog- 
nized by the United States. Then Yuan Shih-kai 
wiis elected president of the Chinese Repubhe by the 
parliament on October 6, and the new republic was 
recognized by the European powers on October 10th. 
The majority of the parliament however was opposed 
to Y'uan Shih-kai, who ordered the dissolution of the 
Kuo Ming Tang (the party in opposition) and abol- 
ished the parliament (January. 1914) and mMay be- 
came practicaUy dictator. 

In 1915 most of the provmces voted to reestabUsh 
the monarchy imder Yuan Sliih-kai as emperor: but 
the more democratic southern provinces revolted, 
and foreign powers intervened Insurrection and 
civil war continued through 1916 and 1918. Yuan 
Shih-kai died June 6. 1916. and the newly elected 
president. Li Yuan-hmig. and later Feng Kwo-chang. 



who succeeded in office, continued the struggle 
against the disaffected provinces in the south. 

The outbreak of the World War in 1914 greatly 
affected China. Japan, as the ally of Great Britain, 
entered into the struggle and demanded that Ger- 
many should evacuate Tsmgtau. the port of Kiao- 
chow in the province of Shantung. On refusal. Ja- 
pan, after a brief siege, obtained possession of this 
port and the surrounding district. May 25, 1915, 
China was practicall.v forced into signing a treaty 
with Japan in which she acceded to certain demands 
which materially altered the relations between China 
and Japan and affected the position of other powers 
in relation to China. These demands may be classi- 
fled under flve heads: (1) Shantimg. China agreed 
that Japan should succeed not merely to a position 
which Germany had occupied in that province but 
engaged to make no cession of territory to any third 
power and to consent to Japan's extending the rail- 
way and dominating the trade of tlie province. (2) 
Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Here Japan de- 
manded the lease of Port Arthur and Talien (Dairen) 
and the Southern Manchurian raiiwaj- for 99 years, 
together with special privileges and advantages for 
her subjects. (3) The Hanyehplng. This company 
controlled the Hanyang iron works and coal mines. 
Japan demanded a joint Chinese and Japanese com- 
pany in control of all mines in the neighborhood, 
giving a monopoly of rich iron ores and other mineral 
resources. (4) Territorial concessions. A mutual 
declaration against cession or lease of territory along 
the coast of China. (5) .Special privileges. For 
hospitals, churches, police instructors, mimitions, 
construction of raihoads, capital, and Japanese polit- 
ical, financial, and military advisors. China made 
every effort to avoid signing this treaty, but was 
forced to consent. 

The United States was aware of these negotia- 
tions, which could hardly have taken place except 
for the World War. In November. 1917. Secretary 
Lansing in an exchange of notes with Viscount 
Ishii. special .lapanese ambassador, stated that 
since " territorial propinquity creates special rela- 
tions between countries " . . . " the United States 
recognizes that Japan has special interests in China." 
Both nations disclaimed interference with the inde- 
pendence or territorial integrity of China and reas- 
serted the principle of the " open door." or equal 
opportimity for commerce and industry in China. 

Cliina declared war on Germany and Austria- 
Hungarj' August 14. 1917. somewhat agamst the will 
of the United States and the Allies. This entry into 
the war complicated the pajTnents of the Boxer Re- 
bellion indemnity, and gave China a status as a bel- 
ligerent, which admitted her to a share in the peace 
negotiations with Germany in 1919. At the confer- 
ence in Paris. Japan demanded and obtained the ces- 
sion of all rights and privileges which Germany had 
enjoyed in China — this specially affected the rich 
province of Shantimg. .\lt hough Japan had formally 
promised the United States to restore these to China 
at some future period, nothing to that effect appeared 
in the treaty. As a result. China refused to sign it. 

Organization. 

Government. Before the establishment of the 
republic in 1912 China was supposed to be governed 
by an emperor, exercising ai:)Solute and arbitrary 
power, who ruled as vice regent of lieaven. not for his 
own pleasure but for the good of his people. In 
practice, the power of the emperor was checked and 
often nullified. The imperial edicts, which were law 
tor the empire, were framed by a secret and irrespon- 
sible body of officials, mostly Manchus in Peking. 
The magistrates were appointed out of a small class 
of men who were able to take a high stand on hterary 
examinations which tested mainly knowiedge of Chi- 
nese classics. Nobody received a significant ap- 
pointment who had not the backing of influential 
people ; and the high posts went only to those who 
had shown ability in office. 

The admmistration of the eighteen provinces was 
vested in governors and viceroys and other officers, 
nominaUy appointed by the emperor, but practically 
by the palace officials. In theory the central gov- 
ernment had complete control over the provincial 
administration, but actually the viceroys of the 
provinces were laws imto themselves: the central 
government had power to remove or degrade any 
prov^incial governor, but usually went no further 
than to transfer him to another province. Yet the 
imperial government alone had official relations with 
outside nations and was held responsible if the lives 
and property of foreigners suffered. 

The republican government estabUshed In 1912 
consists of a president and vice president elected for 
five years and a bicameral legislature, composed of 
a senate ( T^an i'i Yuan ) of 264 members and a house 
of representatives (r/iwnff Yi >'i/^«) of 596 members. 
Since the establishment of the republic, however, 
there liav^e been almost continuous insurrections and 
civil wars. The aim was to form a strong central 
government exercising great control over the pro- 
vincial governments. In each province there was 
to be a supreme governor appointed by the president 
and removable by Iiini. but this led to local rebelUons, 



1644-1885. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA. 



85 



and in the struggle between the " North and the 
South " the central government has lost control over 
both. In 1919 the students at Pekmg made a dem- 
onstration agauist certain officials wlio they be- 
lieved had been bribed to betray their coimtryto 
Japan. 

Industry and Resources. China is essentially 
an agricultural countrj-. The land is held in small 
freehold estates on pajraent of an annual tax. The 
soil is generally fertile and the people are most in- 
dustrious, but the holdings are so small and the im- 
plements so primitive that the Chinese are rather 
gardeners than farmers. Wheat, barley, corn, and 
other cereals are chiefly cultivated in the north, and 
rice, sugar, and indigo in the south. Cotton is ex- 
tensively grown and tea is an important product. 
Silk cultm'c is one of China's most es.sential indus- 
tries and site produces about a fourth of the world's 
supply. 

Manufactiu'ing was rapidly developing in China 
before the World War, partictilarly in the cotton, 
woolen, and silk industries in Shanghai and Canton. 
In large centers floiu- and rice mills are being estab- 
lished and at Hanyang near Hankow there are im- 
portant ii-onworks- China is immensely rich in 
minerals. The coal supply is almost mirivaled and 
the ammal output of about 15.000,000 tons can be 
indefinitely enlarged- Iron ores are abuntlant. In 
the Yangtze valley exist rich deposits of petroleum; 
tin and antimony are foimd, as well as gold and silver. 

Religion. The Chinese acknowledge three reli- 
gions as indigenous: Confucianism, Buddhism, and 
Taoism. Mohammedanism and Christianity have 
been introduced. Mohammedans are found in every 
province, and it is estimated that they number be- 
tween five and ten million. Roman Catholicism, 
introduced more than three centuries ago, now has 
two million converts. The Protestant denomina- 
tions began their work in 1S07 and coimt about half 
a million native Cliristians. There is aLso a Russian 
OrthcKio.K mission which dates from 1GS6. 

Education. Until 1905 education in China was 
of a piu-ely Chinese character, ba.sed on the study of 
Chinese classics and tested by public examinations. 
success in wiiich opened the way for government 
employment. Some of the Chinese had been edu- 
cated in the mission schools, and a few had studied 
in Europe and the United States. In 1905 the old 
system of examinations was swept awaj* and a new- 
educational system wa.s initiated. 

Primary education is to be compulsory in the 
hands of the provincial authorities: and schools are 
to be establi.sln-d throughout the coimtry. Second- 
ary and higher education is given over to the board 
of education of tlie central government. There are 
to be foiu" national imiversities with preparatory 
colleges attached, besides technical schools and nor- 
mal schools. The Peking government imiversity. 
established in 1898 and completely reorganized In 
1917. has now over 1500 students. There are nu- 
merous mission schools, both Protestant and Catho- 
lic, tliroughout China. 

In addition the United States retiUTied to China 
the .siu-plusof the Boxer indemnity, amoimtiilg toovcr 
$8,000,000. and China agreed to spend the income 
of this sum in preparing and sendmg students to 
the United States for education. The number of 
schools has increased: but China is still far beliind 
its needs in education. 

Defense. The army is recruited on the principle 
of modified conscription for terms of tliree years in 
the first line, tlirce in the first reserve, and foiu* in 
the second reserve. In theory the mihtary forces 
are imder the ministry of war and are paid by the 
central govenunent; and theoretically the civil gov- 
ernors have no authority over the army. Since the 
death of Yuan Shih-kai, however, the military gover- 
nors have been practically independent of Peking 
and have raised armies which gravely menace the 
peace of the republic. The Chinese navy consists of 
foiu* old cruisers and some torpedo boats. 

Area and Population. The area of China is 
estimated at 4.277.170 square miles and the popula- 
tion at .320,050.000. No exact census has ever been 
taken, as it would probably cause a revolution. 

Chronology. 

For earlier dates, see Mediev.^l and Early 
Modern Periods, Chronology. 

1614. Ta-Tsing, or "Great Pure," Dynasts' es- 
tablished at Peking by the victorious Manchu 
Tatars: Shun-chi Is proclaimed emperor. Ming 
dynasty is extinguished. 

1653. Russian embassy under Baikov arrives at 
Pekmg, but is rejected because of a refusal to 
perform the ceremony of kotow, or obeisance to the 
emperor. 

1653. Dutch embassy imder Goyer and Keyzer 
arrives m Peking. They seciu-e the privilege of 
sending an embassy once in eight years, and of 
employing fom- ships in the Chtaese trade. They 
are soon followed by the French, English, and 
-Portuguese. 

1661. Slum-chi succeeded by his son, Kang-hi, who 
is instructed In scientific and literary pursuits by 
Jesuits at the emperor's court. 



1666. Albazin. the first Russian settlement on the 
Amiu". founded. 

1670. English open trade in .4moy and Formosa, 
and 19 years later in Canton. 

1689. By the Treaty of Nerclilnsk Cliinese compel 
Russians to witiidraw from the Anuu- \ ulley. 

ITZ'i. Kang-lii dies: diu-ing liis reign the empire is 
extended from Siberia to Cochin China, and from 
the China Sea to Tiu'kestan. 

1J?4. Imperial edict prohibits the propagation of 
Clu-lstianlty in Cliina and expels the mission- 
aries, with the exception of a few whose services 
are required for scientific pm-])oses at Peking. 

1735. Kien Ltmg, .son of Emperor Yimgching, ac- 
cedes to the tlirone. He makes warlike invasions 
into III, Turkestan. Burma, and Cociiin Cliina. 
Uighur Tm-ks establish themselves in Kansu. 

1755. Russian caravan trade with China is rele- 
gated to the frontier town of Kiackta, where it 
remains until 1895. [pressed by Aknei. I 

1781-1784. Tiu"ks m Kansu rebel, and are sup-l 

17»"i. Emperor completes his victorious war against 
the Gurklias and receives the formal submission 
of Nepal and Tiljet. 

1793. Lord Macartney, the first British am- 
bassador to Pekmg, is riceived by Kien Liuig. 

1795. Kien Limg alrficates In fa\or of Kia-khig, 
his fifteenth son, who reigns for twenty-five years, 
diu-ing which Cliina is in a distracted condition 
on accoimt of the weakness of the government, 
successive rebellions, and invasions by pirates. 

1807. Robert Morrison, the flrst Protestant 
missionary, reaches Canton. 

NINTEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1816. Lord Amlierst. ambassador of Cireat Britain, 
arrives at Peking: the mandarms insist that In 
order to secure an interview he must do the tradi- 
tional obeisance (the kotow) . Declming to do .so, 
Lord Amherst is dismissed from the imperial pal- 
ace on fhe day of his arrival. 

18"J0. Kia-king dies and is succeeded by Taou- 
kwang . he begins his reign with promises of reform 
(unfulfilled): rebellions break out in Formosa, 
Kwangsi, Honan, and other provinces. 

18?3. Morrison's translation of the Bible into 
Chinese is published. 

1834. Monopoly of the East India Company ceases, 
and the British government sends Lord Napier to 
Canton as its representative. 

China forbids the importation of opium. In 
the following year tiie Chinese seize the ship At- 
gyle and Its crew: the stores of opium at Canton 
are surrendered and destroyed. 

1840. Emperor issues a decree forbidding all inter- 
course with England forever. With this act the 
so-called Opium War begins. 

1841. The British capture the Bogue forts, on the 
Canton River, also the fortifications of the city, 
and occupy .-Vmoy 

1843. Shanghai and Chinkiang are seized by the 
English. In August, a treaty is made at Nan- 
king, by wliich it is stipulated that the five treaty 
ports of Canton. Amoy. Foochow. Ningpo. and 
Shanghai shall be opened to commercial rela- 
tions with Great Britain; Hongkong is ceded to 
Great Britain. 

1844. July 3. First treaty between China and the 
United States is signed by Caleb Cushing at 
Macao. Other treaties with European nations 
are concluded in this, and foUowmg years, 

1850. The Taiping rebellion begins. 

1851. Hung Siu-tsuen, leader of the Taiping rebels, 
is proclaimed king by them. 

1852. June 19. Reliels are victorious and destroy 
a large part of the imperial army imder Lou- 

1853. Rebels capture Nanking March 20; .\moy is 
taken May 19, and Shanghai faUs September 7. 
The insurgents fail, however, in a siege of Canton. 

1854. Collection of customs duties from foreign 
vessels is put in charge of Europeans at Shanghai: 
the system, proving profitable and satisfactory, is 
made permanent. 

1855. Imperial forces retake Amoy and Shanghai. 

1856. Oct. S. Chinese oflBcials of Canton Ijoard the 
lorcha .Arrow, Carrying freebooters and the British 
flag, and take off fourteen of the crew as pi- 
rates: whereupon the British resort to measures 
of retaliation and Canton is attacked, beginning 
the so-called Arrow War. 

1857. EngUsh. with French allies, bombard Can- 
ton, and it is occupied i>y them. In December. 
China Is torn liy rebellion, being then defenseless. 

1858. English and French troops capture tlie forts 
at the moutli of the Pel River, and the emperor 
consents to a treaty of peace at Tientsin with 
Great Britain, France, Russia, and United States: 
the Amur is ceded to Russia. In all these treaties 
the practice of Christianity is allowed m China 

1859. .4i/(7. 1'^. Commercial treaty with the 
United States is signed at Pcli-tang, after the 
Americans had been conducted to Peking but re- 
fused an audience there because unwilling to per- 
form the kotow. Great Britain and France be- 
come engaged in another war with (^hiua, owing to 
their refusal to go by land to Peking. They insist 



on going tlirough the Pci River, which the Chinese 
have closed. 

1860. A force of English and French advances 
on Peking, wliich is occupied in October. The 
Summer Palace is deatrojed by order of Lord El- 
gin, the British commander, to terrorize the Chi- 
nese government. 

Oct. 2i. Treaty with Great Britain by which 
China cedes part of Kowloon. allows the •establish- 
ment of permanent legations in Peking, and pays 
an mdeumity : treaty is known as the " Conven- 
tions of Peking." 

1861. Emperor Hien-fimg dies at Chengtehfu 
(Jehol), wliither he had lied from the aUics, and 
is succeeded by Timg-chi imder tlie regency of 
Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi An. 

1863. The French and English give aid to the 
government against the Taiping rebels, who have 
made a considerable advance. 

1863. In October, the imperial army under the 
command of Colonel Charles George Gordon 
overwhelms the rebels, and on November 28 
Gordon coptures Soochow. 

1864. Gordon takes Changchowfu on March 23, 
and Tseng Kwo-fan captures Nanking. Hung 
Siu-tsuen, the rebel leader, kills himself Jmie 30. 

18B5. " Nien "" rebels are successful in the north, 
but are suppressed two years later by Li Hung 
Chang. 

1867. China sends her flrst diplomatic mission 
to Western nations imder the American ex-minis- 
ter, Anson Burlinganie. 

1868. Ju'y 'S Burlingame Treaty between 
Cliina and the United StaSes is signed at Wash- 
ington: it allows Immigration. 

1869. Tso Tsimg-tang suppresses the Mohamme- 
dan rebellion in the northwest. 

1870. June ei. French consul and many Cliris- 
tians at Tientsin are massacred by a mob. An 
oflicial apology Is made to France in 1871. 

1872. Thirty Chinese lx)ys are sent to the United 
States by their government to be educated. 

1873. Emperor, coming of age. receives aU the for- 
eign ministers in audience at Peking without de- 
manding the objectionable kotow. 

1874. iLirch i.y. France makes treaty with An- 
nam without consulting China, the suzerain. 

1875. On the death of Tung-chi. Tsai-tien becomes 
emperor, with the title of Kuang-hsii. 

1876. Chefoo convention with the British minister 
opens foiu" new ports for trade, and settles opium, 
transit duty, judicial, and other matters between 
Great Britain and ( 'liiiia. 

First railway, with a Une of 12 miles, is com- 
pleted between Shanghai and Woosung; is after- 
wards destroyed because of popular prejudice. 
Feb. 26. Japan concludes a treaty with Korea 
without consulting Cliina. the suzerain. 

1877. Terrible famine occurs in the pro^vinces of 
Kiangsu. Shantimg, Chilili, and Shansi. Stu- 
dents sent to England and France. Chinese 
troops re-conquer Kashgar from the Usbeg rebel, 
Yakub Beg. 

1878. Famine continues; ten million people re- 
duced to the verge of starvation. Insurrection in 
Kwangsi led by Li Yimg-clioi. 

1879. Hakkas of the island of Hainan rise in re- 
bellion, but are overwhelmed. 

May-June. General Grant, ex-president of the 
United States, visits Peking and other important 
cities, and is received with great distinction. 
Li Himg Chang, grand secretary of the empire, 
rises to distinction, superseding Prince Kimg as 
official representative of China In foreign affairs, 

1880. A'oc. 17. Treaty is concluded between 
China and the United States, permitting restric- 
tions on Chinese immigration. 

1881. Treaty concluded at St. Petersburg between 
China and Russia for the retrocession to the 
former by the latter of the province of Hi. As a 
reciprocal concession, Russia is granted an im- 
portant extension of commercial privileges in the 
Chinese Empire. 

Chinese youths sent to the United States for edu- 
cation are recalled: they are given inferior posi- 
tions in the arsenals and civil service of China. 

1882. The obstacles to intercourse between China 
and the Western nations are hi a measure removed 
through the influence of "Viceroy and Grand Secre- 
tary Li Hung Chang. 

May e. Immigration of Chinese into the 
United States Is forbidden by act of Congress. 

1883. September. Serious riots occur in Canton. 
Criminals take refuge in the foreign consulates. 
A mob fires and plimders warehouses belonging to 
EngUsh, German, French, and American compa- 
nies. A fleet of gunboats, British, French, and 
Cliinese, suppresses the insurrection. 

1884. Cliina becomes involved in a war with 
France: the French destroy the arsenal and fleet 
at Foochow. (See France.) 

1885. Franco-Chinese War continues, and the re- 
sistance of the government to the foreign invasion 
weakens. The national spirit, however, is strong 
and patriotic. After a somewhat ineffective 
invasion of Formosa the French withdraw, and 



86 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA. 



1885-1912. 



1885 (conlinued). 
pf peace is concluded. American Government re- 

turns the balance of 1858 indemnity as excessive. 
1887. September. Most disastrous overflow of 
the Hwang (Yellow) Blver kiioma in modem 
times, inundates a region estimated at 50,000 
square miles ; more than a million lives lost. 
1889. Another famine in northern Cliina affects 
12,000.000 people. 
^\ Serious rebellion in Formosa. 

'^ 1891. Riots against the Cliristians occur in parts of 

China: mobs attack the churches, dri\'e away or 
murder the missionaries, and e.\pel the Cliristians. 

1893. Rebellion in Mongolia and Manchuria. Spe- 
cial decree prohibits antiniissionary movements. 

1894. Aug. 1. Formal declaration of war by Ja- 
pan against China. Counter declaration of the 

_ Chinese government. Treaty of alliance against 

P China is made between Japan and Korea. Japan- 

ese fleet and army begin an uivasion. Pingyang 
is captured, and Manchuria is invaded, 

Sept. 1 7. Decisive naval engagement of the 
war off Haiyang island; Japanese fleet is victori- 
ous. Port Arthur is taken, November 21. Im- 
perial government is obhged to sue for peace. 

1895. Antimissionary riots are renewed. 

QFeb. t2. Japanese take Weihaiwei. 
Further United States " Geary law," against Chi- 
nese immigration: requires registration. 

April 10. Peace negotiations begin. Coimt 
Ito submits maximum concessions, and Li Himg 
Chang is obUged to accept the ultimatum. The 
Russian, French, and German governments pro- 
test against the exacting terms demanded by 
R Japan, and these terms are modified. The cession 

of territory is reduced and the indenmity moder- 
ated to 8280,000,000. Island of Formosa is ceded 
to Japan. This starts a series of foreign demands 
for land. Japan compelled to give up Port Arthur 
by pressure of European powers. [hshed.l 

1896. Modem government post system is estab-[ 
July 21. Commercial treaty signed. Cliina 

grants to Japan all the rights conceded to the most 
O favored nation At Kiangyin an anti-Christian 

riot occurs durmg which the American Protestant 
mission is sacked. 

December. On the strength of an agreement l^e- 
tween the Chinese government and the Russo- 
Chinese Bank, Russia secures the riglit to con- 
struct a system of railways in Manchuria, under 
the name of the Chinese Eastern Railway Com- 

Tpany, connecting the Siberian railroad with Kirin, 
Vladivostok, and the Liaotung peninsula. The 
company is to have the right to guard its stations 
with Russian troops, to exploit industries of the 
region, etc. The effect is substantially the trans- 
fer of all Manchuria to Russian control. 

1897. November. Germany secures a foothold in 
China by the seizure of the town and bay of Kiao- 
chow, in southern Shantung, for the murder of two 

M missionaries. Occupation involves the admin- 

istration of the adjoining territory and is nomi- 
nally limited to a lease of ninety-nine years. 

1898. February. Port Arthiu- and Talienwan 
(Dairen) are leased to Russia for a term of twenty- 
five years, thus giving her an arsenal of great 
strength and strategic value and an ice-free port as 
terminus for her Siberian railway. Great Britain 

V insists on a lease of the fortified harbor of Weihai- 

wei so long as Russia occupies Liaotung penin- 
sula. By a previous negotiation Great Britain 
and Germany together agree to provide Cliina 
with a loan of $78,000,000. In return, the Chi- 
nese promise to leave the control of their maritime 
customs service in charge of a British inspector 
general, never to alienate any portion of the Yang- 
_ tze basin, to open all internal waters of the empire 

1^ to foreign tracle, and presently to open new treaty 

ports. France is granted the right to extend a 
railway from Tonkin into the southern provinces 
of China, and Great Britain that of tapping the 
upper Yangtze trade by a railroad to penetrate 
westem Cliina from Burma. Great Britain also 
obtains (in Jime) a lease for ninety-nine years of 
a considerable tract surrounding Hongkong, thus 
yr greatly strengthening her naval base. LTnder the 

'^ influence of Kang Yu Wei, the emperor initiates 

a series of reforms for one hundred days, June 1 1 
to September 22. September 22, the Dowager 
Empress Tzti Hsi An effects a coup d'etat, assisted 
by Yuan Shlh-kai. The emperor becomes a pris- 
oner. Six reformers are executed. 

1899. Boxer societies are secretly formed to train 
in military and magic arts in various parts of the 

Y country. 

Sept. e. Secretary Hay's proposition for the 
" open door " in China: accepted in principle by 
several of the powers. 

1900. Jan. 2J,. Serious disorders in several prov- 
inces which lead the powers to demand. April 7, 
the suppression of the Antiforeign League, or 
Boiers. Missionaries and native Christians are 

•y murdered near Peking in May. Jime 17, Euro- 

*" pean warships attack Taku. June 18, mob mur- 

ders Baron von Ketteler. German mmister, in 
Peking, and attacks other legations. 



Relief expedition of allied forces imder British 
Admiral Seymour repulsed by Boxers. Allies 
capture Tientsin, July 13-14. They enter 
Peking, August 14, after severe fighting at Pei- 
tsang and Yangtsun. Imperial family flees to 
Lianfu. 

1901. Sept. 7. Peace protocol signed by China 
and the representatives of the L'nited States. 
Great Britain. Germany, France, Russia, Japan, 
Belgium, Spain, Austria, and Italy. October 6, 
the imperial family returns. 

November. Imperial decree establishes state 
education in Westem learning. 
Nov. 7. LI Hung Chang dies. 

1902. Jan. £8. Foreign ambassadors are for the 
first time received as representatives of sovereigns 
equal in rank to the Chinese emperor. 

Feb. 1. Imperial decree abohshes Manchu 
privileges. 

April s. Manchurlan convention between 
Russia and Cliina for the gradual evacuation of 
Manchuria: withdraws demands pre\'iously made 
for exclusive mining, industrial, and bankmg priv- 
ileges. In September and October, the territory 
south of Liao River is evacuated by Russia. 

May 3. Serious revolt occurs m South China, 
due to antiforeign feeling and the heavy taxation 
for the war indemnity. Himdreds of Roman 
Catholic converts are killed. 

December. Foreign garrisons leave Shanghai. 

1903. Diplomatic sparring of the powers over 
Russia's position in Manchuria. April IS. Russia 
makes demands for exclusive political and com- 
mercial rights as a condition of evacuation- July 
16. Russia agrees to open the ports. 

Oct. S. Commercial treaty with the United 
States signed. 

1904. Feb. 13. Proclamation of neutrahty issued 
in the Russo-Japanese War. Russia's claims for 
compensation reserved to the close of the war. 
English army under Yoimghusband invades Tibet 
and concludes a " treaty," September 7, without 
any regard to China's sovereign rights. China 
ratifies the treaty on April 27, 1906. 

1905. Aug. 29. Commission to visit and study 
Western parliaments. 

An American railway concession is cancelled by 
payment of S6.750.000. 

Nov. 1. Five American missionaries of the 
Presbyterian board are killed at Lienchow. 
Boycott against American merchants due to 
Chinese Exclusion Act. 

Since 1902 a large number of Chinese students 
have gone abroad to study Western learning, en- 
couraged by imperial edicts and especially by 
Chang Chih-timg and Chang Po-hsi. 20.000 have 
gone to Japan as the nearest place to get a " West- 
em education." 

1906. Feb. 26. Fom- English Protestant mission- 
aries and six French Roman Catholic priests 
killed at Nanchang in local riots. 

Sept. 2. Emperor issues proclamation that con- 
servative constitution will be granted after details 
cU'e worked out. 

Sept. IS. Typhoon at Hongkong. 

Sept. 21. Emperor's edict for diminution of 
opium growing, traffic, and consumption at the 
rale of ten per cent a year imtil wholly abohshed. 

1907. Jariuary-February. Rising against Mancliu 
rule in central China. 

April 1.5. China resumes rule over Manchuria. 
Russian and Japanese troops having been with- 
drawn. 

Sept. 20. Dowager empress orders the organi- 
zation of an advisory council of state as a step 
toward constitutional government. 

1908. March 22. Agreement with Great Britahi 
restricting Importation of opium. An edict 
prohibits the growth and sale of the drug, but al- 
lows those interested ten years in which to wind 
up their business. 

Nov. 1/,. At Peking the death is announced of 
the Emperor Kuang-hsii. and on the next day of 
the Dowager Empress Tzu Hsi An. Hsiian-tung 
(Pu-yi), the tliree-year-old child of Prince Chim, 
becomes emperor: his father, regent. 

Dec. Jf. An imperial decree reaffirms the prom- 
ise of the late empress dowager for the eventual 
convocation of a parliament and the proclamation 
of a constitution. 

1909. Jan. 22. Hsiian-timg begins formal reign. 
February. International Opium Conference 

meets at Shanghai. 

May 11. Cliina and Russia sign agreement re- 
garding railway in Manchuria. 

September. Chang Chih-timg, the scholar- 
viceroy, dies. [legislative assemblies. I 

October. Imperial decree creates provincial! 

December. Imperial decree promises calling of 
Parliament. 

1910. February. Postal agreement with Japan is 
signed. China recovers mail-carrying monopo- 
lies on its railways. 

Government University of Peking opens; the first 
modem university in China. 

Feb. 23. Chinese occupy Lhasa, Tibet, and 



announce their intention to make administration 
piu-ely Cliinese. Dalai Lama flees to India. 
May. Decimal currency is decreed. 
June. English made the official language for 
scientific and teclinical education. 

.\ugust. Boycott of American goods in Canton 
as protest against the ill-treatment of Chinese in 
San Francisco. 

Oct. 3. National Assembly (Tzu Cheng 
Yuan) meets for the first time: 200 members (100 
appointed by the tlirone and 100 selected by the 
governors from a body of 200 chosen by the pro- 
vincial assembhes). It has power to discuss cer- 
tam public financial questions, new codes, and 
other questions, if submitted by the emperor. 
1911. Jan. 11. National Assembly is dissolved. 
April-May. Loans concluded with bankers of 
United States, Great Britain. France, and Ger- 
many for the reform of currency and railways. 

May S. New opium agreement with Great 
Britain is signed at Peking, for tlie immediate re- 
duction and final extinction, in 1917, of the opium 
exports from India. 

A cabinet, general staff, and privy council 
created at Peking by imperial edict. Prince 
Cliing premier. Manchus secure the preponder- 
ance of power. Friction between them and the 
Cliinese. and the feeling that the Manchus are im- 
favorable to the progress of the reform movement, 
result in the outbreak of a patriotic and radical 
revolt m southern and central China. 

Sept. 4. Flood along the Yangtze River drowns 
many thousands. Great unrest in the districts 
along the river. 

Oct. 1. An organized rebel force in Hupeh 
province is victorious in a battle, October 5-6, 
with the imperial forces October 11, tlie rebels 
occupy Wuchang. October 13, a massacre of 
Manchus at Hankow. October 14. Yuan Shih- 
kai is recalled from retirement and appointed vice- 
roy of Hupeh and Hunan. Many vessels of the 
imperial navy join the revolutionists. October 
28. imperial forces recapture Hankow. 

Oct. 30. The tlirone issues a proclamation apol- 
ogizing for the evil conditions in the empire and 
promising reforms The National Assembly 
meets at Peking, and forces the tlirone to grant 
immediately a complete constitutional gov- 
ernment, amnesty to rebels, and the retirement 
of objectionable officials, 

Nov. 7. Yuan Sblb-kal is elected premier in 
place of Prince Cliing, He accepts. November 
15. and opens negotiations with the revolutionists. 
Nov. 16. Yuan Sliih-kai forms a cabinet. 
Dec. 6. The regent. Prince Chun, retires. 
Dec. IS. A peace conference between the lead- 
ers of the revolution and of the imperial forces 
convenes at Shanghai- December 21, Yuan Shih- 
kai refuses the plan of a repubhc proposed by the 
revolutionists. 

Dec. 29. A provisional republican convention 
at Nanking, representing 17 provinces, elects Sun 
Yat Sen provisional president of the Chinese 
Republic. He accepts and aniioimces a cabinet, 
with Wu Tmg Fang minister of foreign affairs. 
1913. Jan. 2. Sun Yat Sen is inaugurated pro- 
visional president of the Chinese Republic at 
Nanking. His first official act is the adoption of 
the Gregorian calendar (see c.\len-d.<r in the Diet.). 
Jan. S. Republican assembly at Nanking votes 
to introduce a gold standard as in Japan. 
Russia demands withdrawal of all Chinese from 
the seceded Chinese province of Outer Mongolia. 
Jan. 19. United States infantry arrives at 
Chinwangtao to take part in guarding the railway 
from Peking. 

Feb. 4. Empress Dowager Lung-yil instructs 
Yuan Sliih-kai to cooperate with the south in the 
estabhshment of a republic. 

Feb. 12. Manchu dynasty formally abdi- 
cates and accepts the Republic. 

Feb. 14- Smi Yat Sen resigns the provisional 
presidency in favor of Yuan Shih-kai. elected by 
the National Assembly m Nanking. February 15. 
March 3. Mutinous soldiers at Tientsin raid 
the mint, the banks, and other estabUshments, 
and set fire to the city. 

March 10. Yuan Shih-kai Inaugurated pro- 
visional president at Peking. A gcnoral amnesty 
proclaimed. Tang Shao-yi appointed iinniier. 

March 21. Suffrage is granted to women 
who are literate and own property. 

,4pri7 29. Yuan Shlh-kai opens the Advisory 
Council at Peking. [hai.l 

May 13. First trial by jury Ijegins in Shang-I 
Aug. 1. Dr. George E. Morrison. Peking corre- 
spondent of the London Times, is appointed politi- 
cal adviser to the president. 

Aug. 29. Parhamentary law is promulgated. 
Aug. 30. Jackson-Crlsp loan of $50,000,000, 
to l3e secured on the free surplus of the salt tax. is 
agreed to. The "Six-Powers Group" (of finan- 
ciers representing America. England, Germany, 
and France — the original " Four- Powers Group " 
— and Russia and Japan) protests. 
Great Britain forbids Chinese expedition into Tibet. 



1912—1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CHINA — COLOMBIA. 



87 



1913 (continued). 

Oct. 19. Russia recognizes Independence of 
Outer Mongolia, wliich it has instigated. 

November. Russia concludes a secret treaty 
with Outer Mongoha. 

1913. Feb. 21. England concludes a new treaty 
with Tibet ignoring China's rights in the province. 

April S. First parliament of Chinese Repub- 
lic convenes at Peking. 

April 26. Yuan Shih-kai signs agreement with 
the "Five-Powers" (Ureat Britain, France, Ger- 
many. Russia, and Japan — the U. S. having 
withdrawn) banks for a loan of $125,000,000, with- 
out reference to Parliament. 

May 2. Formal recognition by the United 
States of the Cloinese Republic. 

July 9. Treaty with Russia conceding the 
autonomy of Outer Mongolia and granting 
Russia exceptional commercial privileges. 

July-August. Southern provinces revolt 
against the Peking government; backed by Sim 
Yat Sen. Revolt spreads to coastal provinces. 
On September 1 the revolt "" for the punishment 
of Yuan " collapses, and the leaders disappear. 

Oct. 6. Provisional president Yuan Shlh-kal 
Is elected president of the Chinese Republic and 
is inaugurated October 10, the republic being 
simultaneously recognized by the powers. 

Nov. 5. President Yuan Sliih-kai orders the 
dissolution of the Kuo Ming Tang, consisting of 
his most troublesome opponents, and the largest 
party in Parliament, and expels from the legisla- 
ture all members connected with this party. 
Parliament is virtually abolished. 

Nov. 13. Parliament is suspended by presiden- 
tial mandate, and is replaced by an administrative 
conference of 71 members. The collapse of par- 
liamentary government indicates the failure of 
Young China as an effective political force. 

1914. Jan. 11. Parliament is definitely dissolved 
by President Yuan Shih-kai. 

Jan. 29. Bill establishing Confucianism and 
the worship of Heaven as the state religion is 
passed. Kotow ceremony is also reestablished. 

Feb. 12. Standard Oil Company gets impor- 
tant oil concessions in Shansi and Chihli provinces. 

May 1. New Chinese constitution is promul- 
gated, abolishing the premiership and concentrat- 
ing power in the president. Yuan Shih-kai 
virtually becomes dictator. Hsu Shib-chang 
leads new cabinet. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1915. January. Japan presents a series of " 31 
Demands " regarding southern Manchuria, In- 
ner Mongolia, and the cession of German privi- 
leges in China. Bitter anti-Japanese feeling is 
aroused throughout the country. Igoods begim.l 

February. Nation-wide boycott of Japanese I 

Feb. 11. General amnesty to the revolutionary 
leaders and an invitation to them to cooperate 
with the government. 

March 3. China agrees to extend for 99 years 
the Japanese lease of Dairen and Port Arthur. 

March 16. Allied powers caution Japan that 
her demands on China may render it difficult for 
them to continue diplomatic negotiations. 

March 23. China accepts five of Japan's de- 
mands, agreeing to get Japan's consent before mak- 
ing foreign financial, industrial, and political ar- 
rangements in South Manchuria. The Kirin-Kwan- 
chengtze railway transferred to Japan for 99 years. 

April 20. Great Britain and United States de- 
clare for equal rights for all nations (" open door "). 

May 6. Japan presents an ultimatum to 
Chma. from wliich some of her former demands are 
eliminated. Forty-eight hours given for China to 
deliberate. A final appeal to the powers having 
failed, the ultimatum is comphed with. May S. 

May 25. Two treaties and 13 notes are signed 
with Japan. [at Shanghai. I 

June 5. Chinese- American Bank established! 

June 6. Status of Mongolia is determined by 
an agreement concluded between Russia, China, 
and Mongolia. China and Russia guarantee the 
autonomy of Outer Mongolia. The " Living 
Buddha " is recognized as head of Outer Mongo- 
lian government. Inner Mongolia, mider Japa- 
nese jurisdiction, imaffected by the new treaty. 

Dec. 11. President Yuan Shlh-kal accepts 
the throne of China tendered to him by his coun- 
cil of state acting as a parliament. 

Dec. 2S. Revolution against the proposed mon- 
archy breaks out in the province of Yunnan, under 
the leadership of General Tsai Ao. 

1916. January. Coronation of Yuan Shih-kai is 
indefinitely postponed. 

March 22. Yuan Shih-kai proclaims abandon- 
ment of monarchic scheme; March 27 the council 
of state legally restores the republican regime. 

May. Insurrection in the south makes great 
headway : insurgents pursuetheir military campaign 
even after a republican government is restored. 

May 11. Li Yuan-hung is proclaimed president 
of South China by the provisional government 
organized by revolutionary leaders. 



June 6. President Yuan Shlh-kal dies at 

Peking and is succeeded by Vice President Li 
Yuan-himg. 

July. Under agreements witli France and 
Great Britain. China permits the hiring of coolies 
to work in England and behind the front In 
France. Some 2(K),000 are sent: many remain to 
do reconstruction work. 

Aug. 1. Parliament reconvenes at Peking; Li 
Yuan-hung takes oath of office as president. 

Aug. 21. Tuan Clii-jui, leader of the Militarist 
party, is appointed premier. 

Sept. 3. Japan presents demands for a set- 
tlement of the clash betwut-n Cliincse and Japanese 
troops in Manchuria on August 13; demands the 
withdrawal of Chinese troops and the granting to 
Japan of poUce control in eastern Inner Mongolia 
and South Manchuria and certain military rights. 

Oct. 31. Russia builds forts in Manchuria; 
China protests. [Amoy; China protests. I 

Nov. 7. Japan establishes a police station in! 

Nov. 10. Without Cliina's permission Japan 
establishes police stations in several cities in 
Manchuria and demands Cliina's recognition. 

1917. Jan. 10. Russia demands the cancellation 
of MongoUan representation in Chinese Parlia- 
ment; China rejects the demand. 

Feb. 4. President Wilson's appeal to neutral 
nations to join his protest against Germany's sub- 
marine policy is received. 

Feb. 9. China protests Germany's submarine 
blockade pohcy. 

March. According to treaty with Great Brit- 
ain in 1911, opium importation shall be prohibited 
after March 31, 1917. Shanghai and Hongkong 
British merchants demand that Chinese govern- 
ment buy oflf their remaining stock, about 1200 
boxes, for $10,000,000. 

March 10. Both chambers of Parliament in a 
secret session approve the policy of severing diplo- 
matic relations with Germany: the House's vote is 
331 to S7. the Senates, 157 to 37. 

March 14. The severance of diplomatic re- 
lations with Germany is declared. 

March 30. China recognizes the republican 
government of Russia. 

May 23. President Li Yuan-himg dismisses 
the premier Tuan Clii-jui who, supported by the 
Conservatives of northern China, advocated war 
against Germany. 

May 2S-June 1. The military governors of 11 
northern provinces declare secession. 

June 2. General Chang Hsun sets up a pro- 
visional mihtary govenmient at Tientsin and de- 
mands the dissolution of parliament. 

June 12. Parhament is dissolved by the presi- 
dent under the pressure of the military governors. 
The 11 northern provinces having previously se- 
ceded, cancel their secession on June 19. 

June 20. The military governors of two south- 
em provinces, Kwangtung and Kwangsl. declare 
secession and protest dissolution of pariiament as 
" unconstitutional." 

June 21. The provisional military government 
at Tientsin is dissolved. 

July 1-3. General Chang Hstm proclaims the 
restoration of the empire. Li Yuan-himg 
resigns as president. 

July 12. General Feng Kwo-chang, now 
president, and General Tuan Chi-jui. once more 
premier, suppress the monarchial movement. 

Aug. 14. War is declared against Germany 
and Austria. 

Sept. 1. Members of the dissolved parliament 
form an ** Emergency Parliament *' in Canton, 
organize a military government, and elect Sun 
Yat Sen commander in chief. 

Oct. 7. Sim Yat Sen denoimces the imconsti- 
tutional dissolution of parliament, and orders his 
army to proceed to attack the established govern- 
ment in Peking. 

Nov. 2. Under an agreement between the 
United States and Japan the former recognizes 
that the latter has special interests in Cliina: both 
governments declare they will adhere to the prin- 
ciple of the " open door" (" Lansing- Ishii" note). 

Nov. 12. China makes formal protest to the 
L'nited States against the American- Japanese 
agreement, declaring that it will not be bound by 
agreements entered into by other nations. 

Nov. 22. Premier Tuan Chi-jui resigns. 

Dec. 20. Southwestern provinces form an 
" alhance for the protection of the constitution." 

1918. March 1. European War Participation 
Council is formed; Marshal Tuan Chi-jui. former 
premier and minis ter of war, is appointed director 
general. 

March 10. Troops are sent to protect Outer 
Mongolia against Bolshevists. [premier, i 

March 23. Tuan Chi-jui is ag;ain appointed] 

April 22. A motor-car line is established be- 
tween L^rga and Kalgan, bringing capital of Outer 
Mongolia within two days' journey of Peking. 

May 4. Sun Yat Sen resigns, and the military 
government in Canton is reorganized on May IS. 

May 16-19. Two secret agreements are signed 



relative to war-time joint military and naval de- 
fense between China and Japan. Students and 
the South government protest. 

July IS. United States agrees to a $50,- 
000,000 loan, provided that a recent loan of 
$10,000,000 by Japan is cancelled and that the 
new loan be extended by the United States, Great 
Britain, France, and Japan. 

Aug. 12. New parliament convenes. 

Oct. 10. Hsu Shih-chang, a northern Con- 
servative, is Inaugurated as president, having 
been elected to that office on September 6. Tuan 
Chi-jui resigns from premiership. 

Nov. 17. Lu Cheng-shiang is appointed dele- 
gate to the Paris Peace Conference. 

Nov. 22. Armistice between the North and the 
South begins. 

Nov. 23. An alphabet of 39 characters is 
adopted by the Ministry of Education. (See 
Chinese, n. 3., in the Dictionary.) 

Dec. 22. Customs-tarilT revision completed 
and signed by foreign- tariff revision deputies. 

1919. Jan. 11. Cliien Nimg-shun is appointed 
premier and organizes a cabinet. 

Feb. 20. Peace conference between Peking 
and Canton governments (North and youth 
governments) opens in Shanghai. 

May 4. Several thousand students in Peking 
organize as a protest against the Shantung 
** settlement " at Paris. Tiu-ee high officials 
known as sympathizers of Japan are assaulted. 

May 7. Fourth anniversary day of the Japa- 
nese " 21 Demands " is passionately celebrated 
tlu-oughout the coimtry : a " Holiday of National 
Shame." Japanese police fire at Chinese stu- 
dents in Tokj^o during a parade. 

June 10. The three sympathizers with Japan 
in the ministry are dismissed. 

June 11 . President Hsu Shih-chang. on account 
of Paris Peace Treaty, hands his resignation to 
Parhament: not accepted. Premier Cliien Nung- 
shun resigns. 

June 2S. Chinese delegates at Paris refuse to 
sign the Versailles Treaty with Germany, hav- 
ing protested in vain the Shantung clauses. 

July 1. Japanese in Shantmig assert authority 
within the Tsingtau-Tsinan railway zone. Cliinese 
boycott Japanese goods as a retaliatorj' measure. 

Aug. 6. British minister in Peking demands 
the autonomy of Tibet. 

A ug. 7. Sun Yat Sen resigns as Chief Director 
of the mihtarj* government in Canton. 

Aug. 15. Russian General Semenov invades 
Outer MongoUa. 

Sept. 10. China signs Peace Treaty of Saint- 
Germain with Austria. 

Sept. 15. China declares peace with Germany 
and adhesion to Treaty of Versailles, exclusive of 
the three Shantung clauses. 

Sept. 24. Chin Yun-pung is appointed premier. 

Oct. 25. Mihtary go\ernment in Canton de- 
clares peace with Germany and Austria. 

Nov. 16. Japanese armed police, illegally 
stationed at Foochow, fire on a boycott demon- 
stration, killing seven students. 

Nov. 17. Outer Mongolia cancels Us au- 
tonomy, and reincorporates its territory into 
China, for the purpose of protection against Rus- 
sian invasions. 

Dec. 1-10. Merchants and students in Peking, 
Hunan, Kiangsi, Fukien, and Shantimg hold mass 
meetings and demonstrate against the Japanese 
Foochow difficulty. 

Dec. 20. A treaty of friendship and commerce 
between China and Bohvia without exterritorial- 
ity clause. 

1920. JaTi. 21-Feb. 11. Japan informs China that 
she is ready to negotiate directly on the Shan- 
tung settlement. Chmese students and mer- 
chants protest against direct negotiations. 
Japan requests the Chinese government to sup- 
press the " Student movement." 

March 6-9. Military governors of several prov- 
inces form a league, whose pohcy is to dissolv 
both parhaments, in Peking and in Canton. 



COLOMBIA. 
Historical Outline. 

The coasts of Colombia were first visited by 
Alonso de Ojeda in 1499 and 1501, and Columbus- 
visited Veragua and Porto Hello on his last voyage, 
in 1502. Settlements were attempted in 150S and 
1509 and the countrj* was conquered in 1535-36, 
becoming a pro\'ince under the Spanish adminis- 
tration, subordinate to the \iceroyalty of Peru.. 
In 1740 the present Colombia. Ecuador, and Vene- 
zuela were constituted a viceroyalty imder the name- 
of New Granada, which continued imtil the relx-Ilion. 
against Spain. In ISll New Granada rebelled, but 
the first movement for independence was crushed. 
In 1819 a new rebellion broke out under the lead 
of Bolivar, who won a great victory over the Loyalists, 
at Boyacd. and the Republic of Colombia was estab-- 
lished, which in various forms has since continued.. 



88 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: COLOMBIA — CUBA. 



1514 — 1920. 



N 



P 



U 



W 



In 1829 Venezuela set up a separate government 
and a year later Ecuador followed. In 1S31 the 
Republic of Mew Grani.da was organized under tlic 
presidency of Francisco Santander. During a nine 
years' civil war the provinces of Cartagena and 
Panama and Veragua declared themselves independ- 
ent, mider the name ot the State of the Isthmu-s 
of Panama. Granada regained her authority over 
them in 1843, and a period of prosperity followed. 
A large part of the domestic debt was paid off, immi- 
gration was encouraged, trade was fostered, and in 
1852 slavery was entirely abolished. By the treaty 
of lS4e with the United States of America, that 
comitry received special privileges in the Isthmus of 
Panama and in turn guaranteed that tract to Colom- 
bia. In 1853 the constitution was altered so that 
any province might declure itself independent and 
enter into a federal comiection with the central re- 
public, wliich was now known as the Granadine Con- 
federation. In 1856-57 Antioquia and Panama se- 
ceded, but in 1861 a federal constitution was adopted 
imder Mosquera as dictator. From that time tmtil 
18S6 there were numerous revolutions and attempts 
to reestablish the confederation of Colombia, Ecua- 
dor, and Venezuela, complicated by botmdary dis- 
putes between Colombia and Venezuela. 

In 1886 a new constitution was established and the 
federal system abolished, the states becon.ing depart- 
ments with governors appointed by the president of 
tile republic. The president, Guzmdn Bianco, was 
practically an absolute despot aided by militarj' 
force. In 1899 the Liberals organized a revolution 
wliich continued tmtil 1903. Venezuelan troops 
invaded Colombian territory in 1901, but were 
routed after a fierce battle. 

The possession of the Isthmus gave Colombia a 
point of vantage; and in 1878 a French company 
was granted a concession for a canal. By the Clay- 
ton-Bulwer Treaty between the United States and 
Great Britam in ISoO these coimtries as.serted a spe- 
cial interest in a canal. In 1901 Great Britain 
yielded her claims, leaving the United States to ne- 
gotiate a treaty with Colombia. This transferred 
the forfeited concession of the French company, a 
canal strip ten miles wide and the two ports of Colon 
and Panama. The Colombian congress, however, 
refused to ratify this treaty in 1903. 

Thereupon a revolt broke out in Panama, and the 
state seceded from Colombia. American troops pre- 
vented the Colombian troops from suppressing the 
rebellion, and the United States at once recognized 
the independence of Panama, which was thus separ- 
ated from Colombia. In 1904 General Rafael Reyes 
succeeded to the presidency and set about restoring 
Colombia from the shattered condition into which 
she had fallen. The tentire of the presidenc.v was 
extended to ten years from January 1, 1905, with 
no restriction upon reelection and General Keyeswas 
thus in the position of a dictator. He proved his 
ability and integrity, did much to allay the spirit of 
tmrest in the coimtry, and proposed a treaty of com- 
pensation from the United States. 

Organization. 

Government. The present constitution dates 
from 1886 and provides for a Senate of 34 elected for 
four years indirectly by electors chosen for that pur- 
pose; and a House of Representatives of 92 (one for 
every 50,000 of population) chosen for two years. 
The president is elected by direct vote for a term of 
four years, and is not eligible for reelection until 
four years afterwards. 

Beligionand Education. The religion is Roman 
Catholicism, with toleration for all sects. Primary 
education is free although not compulsory and there 
are more than 5,000 primary schools and nearly 400 
secondary and professional schools, 98 trade schools, 
and the University of Bogota, founded in 1572, to- 
gether with several departmental universities and 
numerous private colleges. 

Industry. Colombia is especially rich in miner- 
als — gold, silver, copper, lead, mercury, manga- 
nese, emeralds, and platinum, the last-named being 
found in aljtmdance in the alluvial soils. Nearly all 
the best emeralds mined to-day come from Colom- 
bia. Iron is foimd to some extent. The soil is very 
fertile, but agriculture is backward for lack of public 
transportation. Rubber trees grow wild, and rub- 
ber cultivation has begim. The Panama hat indus- 
try is making great progress. 

Defense. Military service is compulsory for 
about one and a half years. The permanent army 
consists of an effective force of 6,000. In war every 
Colombian is compelled to serve and the strength 
may be inci'eased to 50,000. Colombia has no navy. 

The area is 440,846 square miles. The popula- 
tion is composed of a few people of Spanish blood, 
and an element of Indians and mixed blood. It 
numbered about 5,000,000 in 1912. 

Chronology. 

1514. Territories of Nueva Andalucia and Castella 
de Oro, with willed Spanish settlement of coast be- 
gan in 1510, are imited as province of Tierra 
Firma, later called New Granada. 

1561. New Granada becomes a presidency. 



1718. New Granada, including present Venezuela 
and Ecuador, becomes a victroyalty. 

ISll. Revolt against home government breaks out. 

1819. Uolivar reunites New Granada, Venezuela, 
and Ecuador aS22) as Republic of Colombia. 

1836. June. Panama Congress (see P.\nama). 

1831. A'oii. 21. Venezuela and Ecuador (Quito) 
having seceded, the Ilepublir of New Granada 
is proclaimed. 

1833. Feb. 2D. Federal constitution is adopted; 
but imstable governmental conditions continue for 
many years. 

1841. First of several revolts by province of Pan- 
ama (see Pan.^ma). 

184B. Dec. 12. Treaty with United States on 
Istliiiiian transit (see United States). 

1859-1803. Unusualb' severe revolt imder Mos- 
quera develops into a civil war. 

18C1. Sevl. 2U. United States of Colombia 
formed. Mosquera dictator. 

1863. February. A Convention sets up a pro\i- 
sional government with Mosquera as jjresident. 
]May 8, a new federal constitution is adopted. 

1864. Tore elected president, but coimti'y re- 
turns to a series of instu-rectious; however, from 
1868 on most of the presidents complete their 
terms. (States). I 

1878. French canal concession (see United] 

1885. Liberal revolt; suppressed. 

1886. Avg. J,. New constitution promulgated, 
abolishing the federal system. 

1889. Failme of Frencli Panama Canal Com- 
pany (see United States), 

Oct. 2. Meeting of first Pan-American Con- 
gress at Washington (see United States). 

1891. March 10. Queen regent of Spain arbitrates 
the Venezuelan boundary dispute. 

1895. Another unsuccessful Liberal revolt. 

1899-1903. Third Liberal revolt develops into 
civil war, during which there is conflict with 
Venezuela. (tive. I 

1900. August. Marroquin becomes acting execu-| 

1903. Jan. 22. Draft treaty with United 
States on canal (see United States). 

Nov. 3. Panama Revolution (see Panama 
and United States). 

1904. July 6. Reyes becomes president. Under 
a modification of the constitution his term is 
lengthened and he exercises dictatorial powers. 

1909. Jan. 9. Draft treaties with Panama and 
United States; imsatistactory to Colombia and 
not ratified, 

July 4. Military revolt declares Valencia 
president. Suppressed; but Reyes resigns be- 
cause of unpopularity of draft treaty with United 
States, and Valencia succeeds, August 3. 

1910. July 20. Centenary of independence 
celebrated. 

Aug. 7. Restrepo becomes president. 
1914. April 7. Draft treaty with United 
States (see United .States), 

Aug. 7. Concha becomes president. 

1918. Aug. 7. Suarcz becomes president. 

1919. July 19. Final agreement on Ecuador 
boundary signed, 

A'oii. 10. Colombia adlieres to League of 
Nations. 

1920. April J,. Joint celebration with Ecuador 
of settlement of boundary controversy. 



CONGO. 



See Belgian Congo, under Belgium, page 4S. 
See French Congo, under France, page 96. 



COSTA RICA. 

See imder Central America, page 79. 



CROATIA AND SLAVONIA. 

See under Jugo-Sl.wia, page 122. 



CUBA. 
Historical Outline. 

Cuba was the most important island discovered 
by the early voyagers. Columbus gave to it the 
name of Juana, in honor of the Infante Juan, son of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. Afterwards the name was 
changed to Fernandina, later to Santiago, and then 
to Ave Maria. Finally, liistory accepted the abo- 
riginal name of Cuba. 

The Spaniards quickly realized the importance of 
Cuba, and fomided Baracoa as early as 151 1, Santiago 
and Trinidad by 1515, and Ha\'ana in 1519, Twenty 
years later, after Havana was burned by French ad- 
venturers, Hernando de Soto built the fortress of La 
Fuerza, wliich still stands. The French again de- 
stroyed the capital town in 1555, but it was quickly 
rebuilt. 

The first insular enterprise of the Spaniards was to 
get possession of the mines. The natives were re- 
duced to slavery, driven in relays into the interior, 
and in a few years were almost exterminated. When 



the mines ceased to jield, the raising of cattle be- 
came the principal industry of the colonists. The 
tobacco and sugar industries came next ; and in order 
to prosecute these, Negro slavery was introduced. 
The richness and extent of Cuba made the island a 
coveted prize, and the leading nations of western 
Em'ope sought to possess it. Diu'ing the decline of 
the home kingdom in the seventeenth and eighth 
ceuth centuries (see Spain), Spanish America suf- 
fered and Cuban enterprise and progress were re- 
laxed. Meanwhile both Great Britain and Holland 
secured a firm footing in the West Indies. Thus for 
a long time the status of the islands was not greatly 
distLU'l^ed. 

During the intercolonial wars in North America, a 
combined English fleet and army, commanded by 
Lord Albemarle, came do^^Ti on Havana (1762) and 
captured the city. A large ransom was extorted, but 
in the following year, according to the terms of the 
Treaty of Paris, Spain received Cuba back. Then 
followed revival and progress. In 1790, Luis de las 
Casas was commissioned captain general of Cuba 
and did something for the Negro slaves. After five 
years, the fugitive French from Santo Domingo sought 
refuge in Cuba and the principles of democracy be- 
gan to work in Spanish .'\merica. 

Cuba did not take fire. The people remained 
loyal subjects of the Spanish crown. When, in 1808, 
the Spanish Bourbons were deposed by Napoleon, 
the members of the Cuban government renewed 
their oath, and held the island for the Bourbons. 
When the Bourbons were restored, the captains gen- 
eral who governed the country became almost abso- 
lute. Great offices and sinecural positions were 
farmed out by the ministers at Madrid, and the 
Cuban officials made themselves good by the spolia- 
tion of the people. A system of heavy taxation was 
imposed, and the island had to support a standing 
army and a navy. 

The spirit of freedom thus repressed began to 
struggle against conditions as early as 1819. The 
interests of the United States in Cuba began during 
the Napoleonic wars, when for a time our trade was 
allowed. The fear of the taking over of Cuba by 
France was one of the main causes of the Monroe 
Doctrine of 1823. A secret political society was 
formed in Cuba called "The Black Eagle," having for 
its principal aim the emancipation of the Cubans. 

The United .States made no objection to the Span- 
ish control of Cuba till about 1848, when attempts 
were made to buy the island. The next step was a 
series of filibustering expeditions lasting from 1849 
to 1S54, in which Americans attempted to make 
Cuba independent. In 1S.54 the Ostend Manifesto, 
a semiofficial document, declared that annexation 
was necessary to protect the interests of slavery. 
President Pierce and President Buchanan did their 
best to annex Cuba on any terms. 

After the Spanish revolution of 1867-68 Cuba be- 
came agitated with the spirit of independence and 
an armed insiu-rection began. The war lasted tmtil 
1876, when, though the rebellion was said to be sup- 
pressed, the Spanish armies had never been able to 
put down the guerrilla warfare. One result was the 
abolition of slavery. 

In 1.S95 the second great Cuban revolt began, and 
it so seriously affected the United States that in 1898 
the government demanded that Spain withdraw her 
forces. This involved the United States and Spain 
in war, and by the Treaty of Paris (1898, ratified 
1899), Spain withdrew from Cuba, which was for the 
time administered by an American army under Gen- 
eral Leonard Wood. 

In 1901 the " Piatt Amendment " was adopted by 
Congress on the suggestion of President Roosevelt, 
and incorporated into the treaty with Cuba in 1903. 
Cuba thereby agreed to make no treaty wliich would 
impair independence, or permit any foreign power 
to obtain control over any portion of the island, 
or incur a debt, the interest and sinking ftmd for 
wliich could not be met by the revenues of the 
island. In addition Cuba agreed that the United 
States might intervene for the preservation of Cuban 
independence, maintenance of government, and es- 
tablishment of order. Under this treaty the United 
States was forced to send troops in 1906 and estab- 
lished a provisional government wliich continued for 
three years. 

Organization. 

Government. By the Cuban constitution, 
adopted in 1901, Cuba is a republic with a president 
and vice president, both elected for a term of four 
years, a Senate, and House of Representatives. The 
president is assisted by a cabinet of six members. 
The influence of the United States in Cuba makes 
the coimtry virtually a dependency. 

Industry and Labor. The main interests of 
Cuba are agricultural: tobacco, sugar, coffee, cocoa, 
and cereals being the principal products. The total 
production of sugar, which in 1896 was 225,221 tons, 
and in 1897 was 212,951 tons, in 1918-19 was 4,446,- 
229 tons, or nearly 20 times as much. Beds of as- 
phalt and mines of copper, manganese, and iron are 
worked. The forests are rich in valuable woods, as 
mahogany, cedar, dyewood, and other hard woods. 



14^2-1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CUBA — CYPRUS. 



89 



Beligion and Social Conditions. Almost all 
the people are Roman Catholics. 

The larger part of the Cuban population is wholly 
or partly Negro. Most of the rest are of Spanisli 
descent, but some, also, are from the United States 
and F^urope. 

Education. Education was in a backward condi- 
tion prior to independence. In 1899 only 36 per cent 
of the inhabitants could read. In 1904 there were 
1,936 primary schools and many colleges and insti- 
tutes for higher instruction. ^ he University of Ha- 
vana has faculties of law, medicine, pharmacy, let- 
ters, and science. 

Defense. During the World AVar and for one year 
after peace was signed. miUtary service was obliga- 
tory between the ages of 21 and 28. The army was 
composed of 1700 men in the land forces and 1000 in 
the naval forces. Obligatory mihtary training is 
given to all Cubans between the ages of 19 and 25. 

The area of Cuba is 44,164 square miles and the 
population 2,898,905 (1919). Approximately 75 
per cent of the population are white and 25 per cent 
colored. 

Chronology. 

1492, Oct. 26. Columbus discovers Cuba on his 

first voyage. 

1508. Island circumnavigated by Pinz6u and by 
Ocampo. 

1511. Under Diego Columbus, viceroy of the In- 
dies, Velasquez begins conquest and settle- 
ment of the island. Baracoa first settlement. 

1519. Havana founded on the present site. It 
becomes the key of Spanish America* a way 
port for the treasure ships, and in the end strongly 
fortified. 

1523. African slavery begins or already exists: 
the natives mostly exterminated. Development 
of tobacco and sugar plantations makes slavery 
an important factor in economic conditions. 

153S. Havana sacked by a French corsair. 

1555. City again sacked by French. 

1574. Cuba is part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. 

1624. Island captured by Dutch; subsequently re- 
stored to Spain. 

iy88. Puerto Principe destroyed by buccaneers. 

1700-1750. Period of pe^ce during which industries 
flourish and social conditions improve. 

1717. Royal tobacco monopoly established; lasts 
100 years. 

17G2. Aug. 14. Havana captured by British. 

1763. Feb. 10. Cuba returned to Spain by 
Treaty of Paris in exchange for Florida. 

1777. Cuba made a captaincy general. 

1790. Las Casas becomes captain general: his ad- 
ministration introduces a period of prosperity 
and progress; more lenient commercial laws. 
Diu-ing tiie European confusion the island is vir- 
uially independent. 

1820. Liberal government proclaimed in Cuba, 
but soon relapses. Cuban Independence medi- 
tated and some attempts at msurrection made, 
but little chance to make progress. Island be- 
comes headquarters of Spanish efforts against 
mainland revolts. 

1823. United States fears British acquisition 
of Cuba, or conditions there inimical to United 
Statee tlirough the extension of the Holy Alliance 
to the American continent (see Nineteenth-Cen- 
tury Period and United St.itesi ; phase in the 
development of the Monroe Doctrine. Future 
annexation to United States considered highly 
probable then by American statesmen. 

1825. Joint Mexican-Colombian expedition to free 
Cuba proposed. Abandoned on American advice. 

, Presence of French fleet in West Indies causes 
United States to warn France that transfer of Cu ba 
or Porto Rico by Spam to any other European na- 
tion would not be allowed by United States. 

1826. Panama Congress has for one of its pur- 
poses plans for freeing Cuba. British delegate 
instructed against Spanish American or Anglo- 
Saxon American acquisition of island. 

1829. Tlu-eatened Negro insvurection. 

1834-1839. Miguel Tacon as governor introduces 
many reforms and improvements, but otherwise 
rules tyrannically. 

1837. Deputies of Cuba to Spanish Cortes excluded. 

1844. Negro Insurrection ; suppressed with 
difficiUty. 

1848. President Polk of United States makes 
overtures for purchase of Cuba, which is desired 
by southerners as further slave-holding territory 
and to prevent emancipation. Spain resents all 
suggestions of ceding the " ever faithful isle." 
Lopez, a filibuster, leuds an insurrection in wluch 
many Negroes are killed. , 

1850. Lopez makes a second attempt, landing with 
600 men from the United States; defeated. 

18.51. Aug. 16. L6pez in his third attempt cap- 
tured and garroted. 

1852. April. Great Britain proposes to United 
States and France a tripartite agreement of 
mutual renimciation of purpose to annex Cuba. 
Declined by United States. 

1853. March 4. President Pierce of United States 



in his inaugural address hints strongly at acquisi- 
tion of Cuba. 

1854. Feb. 28. Black Warrior affair: tlireatened 
war with United States (see United St.vtes), 
Oct. IS. Ostend Manifesto (seeUNiTEDSTATEs). 

1859. Debate in United States Senate over pur- 
chase of Cuba (" niggers for the niggerless "), 
President Buchanan in several messages during 
liis administration (1857-1861) recommends 
acquisition, but North determined against any 
further slave territorj-. 

1861-1S65. Diu-ing the American Civil War. Ha- 
vana much used as a port by Confederate block- 
ade runners. 

1868. Revolutionary insurrection begins. Oc- 
tober 10. at Manzanillo patriots make a declara- 
tion of independence. Movement gathers 
head, and most of the Spanish American repubfics 
recognize the Cuban rebels as belhgerents. 
Guerrilla warfare foUows the suppression of 
organized forces and continues for tw'elve years 
imder Cespedes, president of the insurgent govern- 
ment. 

1869. Aug. 19. President Grant of United States 
signs a proclamation recognizing Cuban beUiger- 
ency. Never issued. 

1873. Oct. 31. Spanish capture, on high seas, the 
filibuster ship Virgi/iius improperly under Ameri- 
can flag. Passengers and members of crew, in- 
cluding Americans, executed. War seriously 
threatens, but matter adjusted. 

1875. Nov. 6. Secretary of State Fish of United 
States proposes joint Intervention with Euro- 
pean powere to end insurrection. Not carried out, 
but Spain takes the hint and promises reforms, 
which begin in 187S and insurrection subsides. 

1878. War for independence ends by the tem- 
porary triumph of the government: debt of $85.- 
000,000 entailed by the conflict saddled on Cuba. 

1880. January. Gradual abolition of slavery in 
Cuba decreed by the Spanish Cortes. 

1886. Final abolition of slaverj- effected. 

1893. Promises of reforms not being fulfllled, 
though Cuba has her representative in the Coitcs, 
and old pohcy of exploitation for benefit of Spain 
bemg resumed, preliminary movements for rev- 
olution show, especially in western provinces. 

1895. Feb. Sff. General revolt breaks out in prov- 
inces of Santiago. Santa Clara, and Matanzas. 
Spanish government sends 20.000 men under 
Campos to suppress the rebellion. Independence 
proclaimed, March 25. Provisional govern- 
ment organiz(xi and Maximo Gomez appointed 
commander in chief. September 23, constitution 
adopted by the revolutionists and Cisneros elected 
president. 

1896. Weyler succeeds Campos in command 
against insurgents, and his stem policy degener- 
ates into one of cruelty and persecution. Maceo 
becomes efficient leader of insurgents, but is 
ambushed and slain. 

July SO. American proclamation against viola- 
tion of neutrality laws by aiding insurrection. 
Sympathy of United States strongly aroused in 
favor of insurgents. 

1897. Rebellion mainly as guerrilla warfare con- 
tinues. Weyler adopts poUcy of reconcentra- 
tion of noncombatants to offset insurgent meth- 
ods of warfare; this results in much privation and 
suffering and increa,se in American sj-mpathy 
and concern by American government. Weyler 
recalled; succeeded by Blanco, who adopts a 
milder policy without accomphsliing desired results. 

May SO. Senate of United States passes a res- 
olution recognizing Ctiban beUigerency. Not 
carried further. 

1898. Crisis and war between United States and 
Spain over Cuba (see United States). 

April 20. Resolution of Congress of t'nlted 
States to intervene in Cuba; independence of 
" people " recognized, intention to annex island 
disclaimed. 

Aug. 12. P*rotocol signed. Spain agrees to 
relinquish Cuba. Confirmed in defhiite treaty, 
December 10. Cuba passes under militar>- gov- 
ernment of United States; Wood in charge 
from December 12. Speedy reconstruction 
effected; great sanitarj-, economic, and social im- 
provements made. 

1901. March 2. By the Piatt Amendment im- 
posed by the Congress of the United States a vir- 
tual protectorate estabUshed over Cuba, with 
naval station at Guantanamo. Cuba required 
to incorporate terms of Piatt Amendment in her 
constitution, which is done on June 12. 

Oct. S. Cuban constitution framed. 
Dec. SI. First election: Palma chosen presi- 
dent. 

1902. May 5. First Congress meets. May 20, 
Governor Wood transfers government to Presi- 
dent Palma and civil government Inaugurated. 
May 22. American militar>- occupation of Cuba 
terminates. 

Dec. 11. Reciprocity treaty with tTnited 
States signed. Senate of United States, because 
of sugar provision, declines to ratify imtil after 



passage of an act. December 17, 1903, to prevent 
fiu-ther reduction of sugar duty. 

1905. American inhabitants of Isle of Pines desire 
annexation to United States: not encouraged. 

Sept. 23. Elections result m victoiy for Presi- 
dent Palma and the Moderates; Liberals bring 
charges of fraud. Some relaxation from condi- 
tions reached imder American occupation; but 
general condition of island liiglily satisfactory. 

1906. May 20. Palma begins Ills second term. 
Attg. 20. Liberal rebellion assumes serious 

proportions. August 23, Palma asks American 
intervention. September 18, American Secre- 
tary of State Taft arrives in Cuba to investigate. 
September 24, armistice declared. September 
28, American troops landed and Taft assumes 
control as provisional governor, Palma and the 
vice president havmg resigned and Congress re- 
fasing to fill the offices. October 3. Charles E. 
Magoon succeeds Taft as American provisional 
governor. 

1908. Nov. 14. Presidential election; Liberals win 
Congress and their presidential candidate Jose 
Miguel Gomez elected. 

1909. Jan. 2S. Jose Miguel Gomez inaugu- 
rated. Provisional Governor Magoon withdraws; 
American military occupation again terminates. 

1911. August. Acevedo, a revolutionary veteran, 
creates antiadministration disturbances: they are 
soon .suppressed. 

1912. Jan. 16. Agitation by revolutionary veter- 
ans l>ecomes so threatening that United States 
warns them against disturbance of the peace. 

March 16. Wreck of U. S. battleship Maine, 
destroyed by explosion in Havana harbor in Feb- 
ruary. 189S, raised, towed out to sea and simk in 
deep water T\ith appropriate ceremonies. 

May. Negro risings as protest against politi- 
cal grievances, led by Estenoz. May 25, United 
States sends fleet of observation to Cuban waters, 
and though, in answer to President G6mez's pro- 
test, intervention is disclaimed, marines are 
landed to " protect property." Rebels defeated 
June 13: Estenoz killed June 26; and insurrec- 
tion collapses after defeat of rebels near Santiago, 
July IS. Alarincs witlidrawn July 25. 

Nov. 2. Presidential election takes place with- 
out outbreak, though campaign lias been so heated 
that American marines are landed as a warning to 
the factions. Mario Menocal, Conservative 
candidate, elected. 

1913. March 9. President Gomez yields to pro- 
test of American government and vetoes the Am- 
nesty Bill, wliich would permit prevention of 
expected prosecution of certain "grafters " among 
the Liberals by new administration. Limited bill, 
covering Negro rising, passed April 25. 

May 20. Menocal inaugurated president. 

1914. August. Cuban industry, esperiully cigar- 
making, suffers from outbreak of World War. 

1917. February. Insurrectionary activity of Liber- 
als in Oriente province, following indecisive pres- 
idential election there. Government of Santiago 
seized. American government warns insiu-gents, 
and marines landed. Cuban government gradu- 
ally regains control of region, and American troops 
withdraw. April 2, new election held; after which 
Congress declares Menocal is reelected.' 

April 7. Congress imanimously declares war 
on Germany, following action of United States. 

Aug. 21. Interned German sliips seized on dec- 
laration of war are turned over to United States. 

1918. May 25. Recall of Mexican minister. 
Aug. 13. Obligatory military-service law. 

October 7 registration of all males between 21 and 
28. Food-control laws passed. 

Sept. 11. Contingent of Cuban troops offered 
United States for service overseas. Declined. 

November. United States has loaned Cuba 
$15,000,000 during the war. 

1919. Jan. IS. Cuba has a delegate at the Peace 
Conference at Paris. 

Compulsory mihtarj' -service law repealed. 

May 24- General strike in Havana and else- 
where begins, following in the wake of several simi- 
lar ones of the past year. Government adopts 
severe measures, including arrest and deportation 
of strike leaders. Jtme 11, decree issued, enacted 
by Congress at the request of the president, sus- 
pending constitutional guarantees. 

Aug. 11. Electoral reform law; framed by 
General Crowder of United States army, sent to 
Cuba to advise in the matter. 

Dec. IS. Cuban Senate ratifies Treaty of Ver- 
sailles including the League of Nations. 

1920. January. Strike of dock workers para- 
lyzes Havana shipping. Sympathetic strikes by 
other unions. Constitutional guarantees sus- 
pended. Spanish agitators deported. 

April 8. Official statement that seized German 
vessels would remain Cuban property, leased to pri- 
vate companies. 



CYPRUS. 



See under British Empire, page 62. 



90 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: CZECHO-SLOVAKIA— DENMARK. 



1526 — 1920. 



N 



U 



W 



CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. 
Historical Outline. 

Czechoslovakia is situated in central Europe 
and includes the two historic divisions of Bohemia 
and Moravia, and the mountain mass to the east^ 
ward, including thcTatra ranges. Boliemia is the most 
important of these regions and hes on a great iilateau 
surroimded by moimtains. commanding both tlic liat 
lands in Germany in the north and the Danube valley 
on the south. It has sometimes been called the Cit- 
adel of Europe. Moravia lies east of Bohemia and on 
its northern boimdary is the famous Moravian Gap 
through which the Slavic invaders poiu-ed into cen- 
tral Eiu-ope. Still farther east lies the Tatra region 
of the Carpathian moun tarns. 

The recorded history of these regions begins in the 
si.\th century a. d. At that time the ancestors of the 
Czechs and Slo\aks pushed through the Moravian 
Gap and expelled the Teutonic peoples who occupied 
this region. The Slavs were originally rude barba- 
rians: but acqtiirmg civilization they built up power- 
ful states in both Bohemia and Moravia. The Slo- 
vaks, however, living in the eastern mountains, never 
developed the same political or cultural standards as 
the Czechs in Bohemia and Moravia. 

During the Middle Ages, Bohemia, which had 
absorbed Moravia, was one of the leading kingdoms 
of Europe; but in the i;'{th centiu-y the native djTiasty 
died out and foreign sovereigns came to the tlirone 
who favored Teutonic influences. At tliis time Ger- 
man merchants and workmen began to settle in the 
towns, giving them a decided Teutonic complexion. 

Bohemia was an intellectual center. In the Ref- 
ormation it took the Protestant side, but in the 
Hussite wars gradually returned to the mother 
church. A Czech nationalistic feeling halted the 
progress of Germanism for nearly a century. In the 
17th century the Thirty Years' War (161S-164S) 
was a renewal of the contest. This time the Czechs 
were defeated. Bohemia and Moravia were deci- 
mated and the old Czech nobility was destroyed and 
Austrian Germans took their place. For almost 
three centuries it seemed as if the Czech nationaUty 
had disappeared. 

In the 19th century came a revival of nationahsm. 
which, aided by economic prosperity, caused the 
rapid growth of a Czech middle and educated class 
which furnished leaders. Gradually the Czechs 
gained political control wherever they were in nu- 
merical majority. This infuriated the Germans, 
who threatened secession from Austria to the Ger- 
man Empire. The Czechs demanded autonomy for 
Bohemia and Moravia within the Austrian Empire 
and when refused began to demand independence 
and fixed their hopes upon Russia. 

During the early years of the World War the Al- 
lied Powers did not consider the dismemberment of 
the Austro-Himgarian Empire and Uttle sympathy 
was given to the Czecho-Slovak aspirations for inde- 
pendence. In July, 191S, however, France recog- 
nized the Czecho-Slovaks as an independent nation. 
This action was followed by Great Britain and the 
United States; and on October 28, 1918. the independ- 
ence of the state was proclaimed. Violent controver- 
sies over boundaries ensued with all the neighboring 
states, — Austria, Germany, Poland, and the Ukraine. 

Organization. 

GoTernment. On November 14. 1918, the 
Czecho-Slovak assembly met at Prague and formally 
established a republic. The suffrage is imiversal, 
including men and women on eqtial footing. The 
church is separate from the state and the rights of 
minorities are safeguarded by proportional repre- 
sentation. A system of parliamentary responsible 
government was established and Professor Thomas 
LI. Masaryk was elected president. 

Industry and Labor. Czecho-Slovakia is a 
highly favored region possessing a good climate and 
a fertile land. Before the World War, large crops of 
cereals and potatoes were raised and the cultivation 
of the sugar beet was very successfid. The most 
famous agricultural product of Bohemia is hops. 
The mountains are rich in minerals, particularly coal 
and lignite, and in the north are valuable iron 
mines. Other minerals are silver, lead, tin, anti- 
mony, graphite, and radium. 

Since the country is well supplied with water 
power as well as coal, there has always been a varied 
industrial life. During the last half century have 
arisen textile industries, the refining of beet sugar, 
the brewing of beer, and the manufactiu'e of chemi- 
cals and glass (see Bohe.mian glass, in the Diet.). 

Education. Before the war, education was com- 
pulsory between the ages of 6 and 14 and the illiter- 
ates inimbered only 2% of the population. In 1914, 
13,600 primary schools cotmted an attendance of 
2,032,000 pupils; and 1.021 higher primary schools 
had more than 170.000 pupils. Secondary education 
was furnished by 216 Gymnasiums and modem 
schools. Of the many technical schools and four 
imiversities, the most celebrated is the oldest at 
Prague with 7,000 students. 

Until the final determination of the boundaries, it 



is impossible to give acciu'ate statistics but it is esti- 
mated that the area is about 56,316 square miles, 
and the population about 14,000,000. 



Chronology. 



IS'iG. Oct. 23. Estates of kingdom of Bohemia 
elect as king Ferdinand of Hapsburg, brother to 
Charles V. and. also, king of Himgary. Beginning 
of the Hapsburg dynasty over Czechs (Bohe- 
mians.! . first by election, later by hereditary right. 
Slovaks, a kindred race to the Czechs and Mora- 
vians, are mider Iltingarian ride. 

1619. Jidi/ 31. Czechs, largely Protestant and 
antagonized by absolutist, dynastic, and reUgious 
policy of the Hapsburgs, depose their Hapsburg 
king, Ferdinand, and elect Frederick, already 
Elector Palatine. Begiiming of Thirty Years' 
War, during which Bohemia is devastated. 

1620. Aoi. S. Battle of White Hill. Austria 
crushes the Czechs; executions, confiscations, 
and banishment of Protestants soon reduce Bo- 
hemians to impotence; absolutism, foreign aris- 
tocracy, and return to Catholicism result, with 
suppression of Czech language and polity. Legally, 
the kingdom of Bohemia and the Diet continue 
imtil the time of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. 

1848. Bohemians support the revolutionary 
movement, but oppose the pan-Gernianie prin- 
cipie of the Frankfurt Parliament. Also oppose 
a separate Himgary, l^ecause the Slavs would be in 
minority m separate German and Magyar states. 

1861. February. Austrian constitution is framed 
so as to give the German minority a majority in 
Parliament and even in the Bohemian Diet. 

1863. June 1 7. As a protest against the centraliz- 
ing policy, the Bohemian members of Parhament 
absent themselves; none sit for 16 years. 

1867. In the formation of the Dual Monarchy 
(see Austria) the Slavs are treated as inferior 
people; separate Bohemia, the third kingdom, is 
ignored; Bohemia and Moravia reduced to 
crownlands m Austria; and Slovakia comes again 
imder Himgary. 

1871. Sept. ^1. Imperial rescript recognizing the 
rights of the kingdom of Bohemia Effort to put 
fundamental articles for home rule in operation 
are frustrated by CentraUsts, aided by Bismarck 
and Hungary. 

1879. Bohemians return to Austrian Parhament 
and become obstructionists. 

1897. April 6. Ministerial decree recognizes Czech 
as an ofBcial language. Germans obstruct. 

1900. July -20. Language ordinance repealed and 
Bohemians resort to obstruction in Parliament. 

1914. Bohemian troops obliged to serve in World 
War. Himdreds of thousands prefer capture to 
support of Austrian policy against .SIa^"s. 

1915. Noveviher. A Czecho-Slo\'ak National Com- 
mittee (Council) is organized at Paris; Masaryk 
heads it. 

1917. Jan. 10. Allies' note in reply to Wilson's re- 
quest on peace terms specifies liberation of Czecho- 
slovaks as one of war aims. 

Dec. 10. Clemenceau announces the formation 
of a Czecho-Slovak contingent m French army. 

1918. Jan. G. Declaration m favor of independ- 
ence for Bohemia, ^Moravia, and Silesia as 
(zrcho-Slovakia adopted by a convention at 
Prague. 

March s. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk pro- 
vides for exchange of Czecho-Slo^aks in Rus- 
sian army; but these (mostly deserters from Aus- 
trian army) are suspicious. France offers to take 
them to the western fronts; Bolsheviki agree to 
furnish transportation to Vladivostok, on way to 
Europe. Delays and fear of treachery result. 

April 10. Congress of the Oppressed Austrian 
Nationalities meets at Rome ; Poles, Czecho- 
slovaks, and Jugo-Slavs. Pact of Rome is 
signed with Italy, including plans for a Czecho- 
slovak legion in Italian army and imphed recog- 
nition of (/(■ /aeto government. 

May. Czecho-Slovaks in Russia capture 
Kazan, control the Siberian Railroad from the 
European border eastward, and aid in formation 
of Siberian government at Omsk. Some reach Vla- 
divostok and hold it until Allies arri\*e (August). 

Mai/ 20. Martial law declared in Prague, 
following Czechic national demonstrations. 
Mutinies of Czech troops in Austrian army. 

May 20. United States note sympathizing 
with the national aspirations of Czecho-Slovakia 
and Jugo-Slavia. 

July 1. France recognizes independence of 
Czecho-Slovakia and the National Committee as 
a provisional go^'emment. On August 13. Great 
Bri tain recognizes Czecho-Slovakia as an aUied and 
beUigerent unit. On September 2, United States 
also recognizes the de facto l>elligerent government. 

Oct. 18. National Council at Paris issues a 
declaration of independence. Prague occu- 
pied and a general strike ordered October 28, 
Austrians, after little resistance, surrender control 
to National Coimcil. 

Nov. 2. Constitution is drafted at Geneva. 
Masaryk elected president. 



Kov. 14- First session of the National As- 
sembly ratifies the election. 

Dec. 20. President Masaryk arrives at Prague. 

1919. Jan. IS. Czecho-Slovaicia is represented at 
Paris Peace Conference by two delegates. 

February. Clashes with Poles at Teschen, 
which is desired by both for its mineral wealth. 

June. Himgarian invasion, assisted by socialist 
propaganda (see Hungary); driven out. 

June SS. By Treaty of Versailles Germany 
cedes a small portion of Silesia to Czecho-Slovakia. 

Jrily 6. Fall of the Kramer conservative gov- 
ernment; new mmistry is one of Social Democrats 
and Agrarian Socialists. 

Sept. 10. Treaty of Saint-Germain; Austria 
recognizes independence of Czecho-Slovakia. in- 
cluding the autonomous territory of the Ruthe- 
mans south of the Carpathians; boundaries estab- 
lished 

Sept. 11. Poles and Czechs agree to refer the 
Teschen dispute to a plebiscite. 

1920. Jan. 16. Hungarian peace treaty is handed 
to her delegates; by it Hungary agrees to accept 
whatever boimdaries of Czecho-Slovakia are de- 
cided upon. 

Jan. SO. Announcement is made that Poland 
cedes Teschen region to Czeclio-Slovakia with- 
out waiting for the plebiscite, receiving territory 
elsewhere in exchange. Internal conditions indi- 
cate economic recovery and political stabihty in 
the new nation. 



DENMARK. 

Historical Outline. 

Danish history, first clearly recorded in the ninth 
century, includes the disco^eries and settlements 
made by the Norsemen in England, Iceland, Cireen- 
land, and America. In 1648 Denmark was impor- 
tant enough to be recognized as an independent, al- 
though secondary, kingdom by the Peace of West- 
phaha. 

During the rest of the seventeenth century Den- 
mark was at war with Sweden from time to time. 
At home, the nobles at last accepted a hereditary 
sovereign. Charles XII of Sweden, who was able to 
force the Danes to neutrality; but after his death 
(1718) the coimtry was freed from outside pressm-e. 
In the reigns of Frederick V. and Christian VII.. in 
the latter part of the eighteenth century. Denmark 
reformed her social condition, improved her eco- 
nomic position, and attempted to remain neutral in 
the struggle between France and England. With 
Russia. Prussia, and Sweden she formed the Second 
Armed Neutrality League for the protection of her 
commerce and the freedom of the seas (1800). 

England retaliated, and in 1801 Nelson destroyed 
the Danish fleet and in 1807 the British bom- 
barded the Danish capital. This threw Denmark 
into the arms of Napoleon. By the Congress of 
Vienna Denmark, as liis ally, was punished by the 
loss of Norway, which was ceded to Sweden. The 
retention of the duchy of Holstein brought Denmark 
into close relations with the Germanic Confedera- 
tion. The relation of Schleswig and Holstein to the 
central government became so strained that in IS-IS 
they broke into a revolt and appealed to Prtissia. In 
1863 Sclileswig was incorporated in the kingdom of 
Denmark. "When Denmark refused to repeal this 
action, an Austro- Prussian army invaded Sciileswig, 
and in 1864 Denmark was compelled to make peace 
and renounce ail rights to the duchies of Schleswig- 
Holstein and Lauenburg. 

From 1863 to 1906 Christian IX. was king of 
Denmark. Although his reign began with a humili- 
ation, the coimtry de\'eloped both politically and 
economically and was prosperous. Between 1SS3 and 
ISOO there was a severe; constitutional crisis over the 
power of the king to appoint liis ministers irrespec- 
tive of the majority in the Diet. The lower house 
refused to accept the budget prepared by the minis- 
try and the king issued a provisional financial decree 
for the collection of the taxes. In 1804 some con- 
cessions were made and the prime minister, Estnip, 
retired. Since then, although no such crisis has oc- 
curred, there have been frequent confhcts between 
the two houses of the Diet. In the meantime the 
Conservative party had gradually been losing power, 
imtil in 1913 a radical cabinet was formed. 

In 1906 Frederick VIII. was proclaimed king and 
one of his first acts was to visit the insular posses- 
sions of Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland. 
Christian X. succeeded in 1912. In 1915 the suf- 
frage was extended to women taxpayers. 

Like the other Scan(Iina\ian coimtries. Denmark 
was neutral during the World War, but suffered 
greatly for want of the food she ordinarilj' imported, 
owing to the trade restrictions of the Allies. In 
1914 exportation of food to Germany was made a 
penal offense, and in 191S the LTnited States con- 
cluded a shipping agreement with Denmark which 
assured thatcoimtrj' a supply of the necessary* food- 
stuffs, metals, machinery, and chemicals, on the 
promise that Denmark would not export them to the 
Central Powers, or to other neutral countries. 



1648 - 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: DENMARK — DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 



91 



Organization. 

Government. The present constitution of Den- 
mark is based on the charter of June 15, 1915. wlilch 
is a development of the original constitution of 1S49. 
The e.\ccuti\e power is vested in a king and his re- 
sponsible ministers, who have access to both houses 
of the Diet, but may vote only in the chamber of 
which they are members. The Diet consists of a 
lower house, the Folketliing of 140 members, elected 
by direct luiiversal suffrage, male and female, by 
proportional representation, and an upper house, the 
Landstliiiig. or senate, of 72 members, elected by 
the electors of the Folkething who are 35 j-ears of 
age, by indirect election and proportional represen- 
tation. All laws must be passed by both houses and 
the Landsthing has the duty of appointing the judges 
and the tr>-ing of impeachments. 

Industry and Labor. The situation of Den- 
mark is favoraijle for commerce. The hiunidity of 
the climate and the modification of the tempera- 
ture by the sea make possible the production of 
abimdant crops in a region lying far north. The 
long occupation of the peninsula has resulted in tlie 
destruction of the forests and a fair development 
of the soil. The principal crops are oats, potatoes, 
barley, rye, and wheat. Excellent pasturage makes 
dairying and cattle raising one of the important in- 
dustries. Denmark is divided into small farms, the 
law prohibiting consolidation into great estates. 

The Danish fisheries are among the most produc- 
tive of Europe, the most important being the her- 
ring, cod, and salmon. Within recent years manu- 
factures have increased, and in 1914 there were 
82.000 industrial factories and shops, employing 
346,000 laborers and producing silk, linen, cotton 
and woolen goods; also leather, lace, gloves, thread, 
glassware, earthenware, plate wares, weapons, and 
cutlery. Denmark possesses a large merchant ma- 
rine for a nation of her size, having in 1917 3,397 
vessels, of which more than 500 were steamers. 

Beligion. The state religion of the kingdom is 
Lutheran and the national chiu-ch is imder the super- 
intendence of seven bishops. These, however, have 
no political status. All other sects and divisions are 
tolerated, and there are no civil disabilities on ac- 
coimt of religion. 

Education. Education in Deimiark has been 
compulsory since 1814. the school age being from 7 
to 14. The public schools, with the exception of a 
few middle-class schools, are free. More than 3.400 
elementary schools and 81 middle-class schools pro- 
vide for over 400.000 pupils (1917). For higher 
education there is an agriciUtural college at Copen- 
hagen, 189 teclmical schools. 21 training colleges 
for teachers, and numerous special schools, among 
which may be mentioned 70 popular liigh schools 
(adult schools) . The University of Copenhagen was 
founded in 1479; the attendance is about 3,000, 
women being admitted on equal terms with men. 

Defense. All able-bodied Danish subjects are 
obhged to ser\'e in the army. Mihtary service com- 
mences at 20 and lasts for 16 years, though only for 
the first eight years are men enrolled in the active 
army. At the time of joining, the recruits are con- 
tinuously trained for more than five montlis in the 
Infantry, nine months in the first artillery, and one 
year in the garrison artillerj-. About a fourth of the 
men prolong their initial training. Subseciuent 
training takes place only once or twice diu'ing the re- 
maining years of the active service. 13.(X)0 recruits 
are trained annuallj'. The peace strength of the ac- 
tive army is about 120 officers and 12.900 men. 

The Danish fleet is maintained for the purpose of 
coast defense and consists of four monitors, two small 
cruisers, besides torpedo boats and submarines. 

The area of Denmark is 16.585 square miles and 
the estimated population (1919) 3,170.979. 

Chronology. 

16*8. Denmark, adjacent to German territorj-. has 
be«n engaged in the early stages of the Thirty 
Years' War, but remains outside most of the wars 
and complications of Central Em-ope. As posses- 
sor of the entrance to the Baltic Sea, it lays soimd 
dues on commerce. 

1657. Denmark in warwitb Sweden (see Sweden). 

1660. By the Peace of Copenhagen, Denmark 
cedes to Sweden territories in the Swedish part of 
the Scandinavian peninstila (see Sweden). 
With support of the populace. Frederick III. pro- 
claims monarchy hereditary instead of elective. 

1665. " Z/fx regia " signed, defining succession to 
crown and declaring the monarchy absolute. 

1667. Denmark joins in the Treaty of Breda with 
Great Britain, Holland, and France. Oldenburg 
is acquired. 

1679. Peace of Nimwegen (Nijmegen) is signed 
by Denmark. France, Brandenburg, and Sweden 
(see E.iRLY Modern Period). 

1700. Denmark joins with Russia and Poland in a 
war against Sweden, but is forced to make a 
disadvantageous peace. 

1709. Danes invade Sweden (see Sweden). 

1713. Danes with Riussian and Saxon allies are 
victorious at Totmingen (see Sweden). 



1721. Great Britain, France, and, later, Russia, 
guarantee the possession of Schleswlg to Den- 
mark. Estates of Schleswig accept the " Lexreyia." 

1770. Coimt Bemstorff, prime minister of Christian 
VII.. is dismissed, and succeeded by Coimt Stru- 
en.see. who. two years later, dies on the scaffold. 

1773. Denmark relinquishes Oldenburg to the House 
of Holstein-Gottorp. 

1780. Denmark jouis first " Armed Neutrality." 

1784. Prince Frederick becomes regent for Ills 
father. Christian VII. [NeutraUty." I 

1800. Df'cemhtr. Denmark joins " Second Armed 1 

1801. April 3. British fleet imder Nelson bom- 
bards Copenhagen. 

1807. Sept. 2-6. Copenhagen again bombarded 
by British, to prevent seizure of fleet by France. 

OH. SI. Denmark makes aUiance with Na- 
poleon, [throne. I 

1808. March 13. Frederick VI. succeeds to the I 
1814. Jan. 14. By the Treaty of Kiel. Denmark 

cedes Norway to Sweden, and receives Swedish 
Pomerania, wiiich is ceded to Prussia in exchange 
for Lauenbiu-g. Helgoland is given up to the 
English, who cede it to Germany in 1890. 
1839. Dec. 13. Frederick VI. is succeeded by his 
son Christian VIII. [son, Frederick VII. I 

1848. Jan. 20. Clu-istian VIII, is succeeded by his I 
A revolutionarj- movement in Copenliagen forces 
Frederick to proclaim the anneiation of Schles- 
wig to Denmark ; insurrection in the territorj', and 
a provisional government. Troops of the Ger- 
man Confederation come to the aid of the 
duchies. By the Truce of Malmo a common 
government is established for the duchies, 

1849. March. War breaks out again in the duch- 
ies. July 10, a truce is made, followed by a peace 
in which Germany joins. [dom of Denmark. I 

June 5. Constitution granted to the king-l 

1850. A third wariswaged by thearmyofSchleswig- 
Holstein alone against Denmark. By the interven- 
tion of .-\ustria and Prussia hostihties are suspended. 

1853. Holstein assigned to Denmark, on condi- 
tion that the rights of the duchies be respected. 

Matj S. Five great powers and Sweden make a 
treaty at London, by which Christian of Sonder- 
burg-Glucksburg is made heir to the Danish 
crown, and also to the sovereignty of the ducliies. 

1863. March 30. Royal proclamation establishes 
separate administration for Holstein. 

Nov. 1.5. Frederick VII. dies and is succeeded 
by Christian IX. Frederick of Augustenburg 
proclaims himself Duke of Schleswig-Holstein. 

A'oi. IS. Christian IX. signs new constitution 
for Denmark and Schleswig. Prussia protests. 

1864. Jan. 1. New constitution goes into effect. 
Jmi. 16. Austria and Prussia send ultimatum 

demanding withdrawal of constitution; refused. 

Feb. 1. Austrian and Prussian troops enter 
.Schleswig. April IS. Prussians storm intrench- 
ments of Duppel and occupy part of Jutland. 

May IS. Peace conference meets at London, 
but breaks up on June 26 and war resumed. Aus- 
tria and Prussia declare themselves no longer 
bound by the treaty of 1852, and crush the Danes. 

Oct. 30. Treaty of Vienna. King Christian 
cedes his rights o^er Schleswig-Holstein and 
Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia (see Nine- 
teenth-Century Period). 
1870. March 24. US. Senate fails to ratify treaty 
for cession of Danish Islands in the West Indies. 

1883. Constitutional crisis over the power of the 
king to appoint the members of the ministry irre- 
spective of the majority in the Diet. 

1884. Elections show large gains for the Liberal 
party: crisis becomes acute, 

1886. King and the ministers, with only 19 votes in 
the lower house, tmdertake to conduct the govern- 
ment without regard to the legislative majority. 

1888. Deadlock between the executive and legisla- 
tive departments. 

1890. Conflict between the ministry and the 
people regarding the powers of the Folkething. 

1892. Liberal party gains the ascendancy. 

1894. In order to presen-e the tradeof Copenhagen 
from being diverted by the Kiel Canal, a free port 
is opened in that city. 

Estrup ministry resigns. Conservative ministry 
under Reedtz-Thott succeeds. 

1896. Law to protect the shore fisheries of Ice- 
land from British poachers. Great Britain pro- 
tests, and the difficulty is compromised by a 
treaty in Augtist. 

1902. Oct. 22. Landsthing rejects the second treaty 
negotiated with the United States autliorizing the 
sale of Danish West Indies (A^irgin Islands). 

1906. Jan. 29. Christian IX. dies; succeeded by 
son Frederick VIII. 

1908. April 14. Parliament adopts a resolution 
conferring on women taxpayers the right to vote 
on all matters of local taxation. 

1912. May H. Frederick VIII. dies; his son suc- 
ceeds as Christian X. 

1913. June 21. Radical cabinet formed with 
Zahle as premier; members decide to refuse titles. 

1914. June 9. Chamber passes woman-suffrage 
bill removing property qualifications. 



Oct. 29. Exportation of food to Germany is 
made a penal offense. 

Dec. IS. King Cliristian, with King Haakon of 
Norway and King Gustavus of Sweden, meet at 
Malmo to discuss the World War. 

1915. Jaw. IS. Government takes over all flour, 
thus in effect prohibiting its further' export. 

April 23. Rigsdag approves constitutional 
amendments extending the right of suffrage to 
women and abolisliing the special qualifications 
for membership in the Landsthing. New con- 
stitution signed by the king June 5. 

September. Eighth Scandinavian Peace Con- 
gress meets in Copenhagen; also the Northern 
Interparliamentary In ion reconvenes. Scandi- 
naHa's position diu-ing the war. the security of 
neutral shipping, and the complete coordmation 
of the three kingdoms are subjects of discussion. 

1916. March 9. Conference at Copenliagen be- 
tween the premiers of Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden discusses Scandinavian political relations, 
and decides upon close cooperation in upholding 
neutral rights. 

Dec. 14. Plebiscite held on the question of the 
sale of the Danish West Indies to the United 
States results in favor of the sale. 

1917. A'oii. IS. Minister of Interior declares that 
the embargo placed by United States on shipments 
to Denmark threatens the cotmtry with ruin. 

1918. May 2S. Denmark's ParUament assembles, 
with nine women members, the first elected under 
equal suffrage. 

Sept. 1 9. United States War Trade Board con- 
cludes a shipping agreement with Denmark, 
assuring to that cotmtry a supply of foodstuffs, 
metals, machmery, chemicals, etc, with the prom- 
ise that Denmark shall not export them to the 
Central Powers or to neutral coimtries. [sia.l 

Dec. 9. Denmark severs relations with Bus- 1 

1920. Feb. 10. Plebiscite in first (northeni) zone in 

Schleswig imdcr Treaty of Versailles favors union 

with Denmark. [Nations. I 

March i. Dcimiark votes to join League of | 

March 14. Plebi.scite in second (southern) zone 
in Schleswig. including Flensburg, results fortmion 
with Germany. Folkething decides to accept. 
King dismisses Zahle ministry; new ministry re- 
signs on April 4. and a ministry satisfactory to the 
Radicals appointed. 

April 28. Elections give Conservative major- 
ity (combination of peasants with city Conserva- 
tives) agamst Radicals and Socialists. 

GREENLAND. 

It was proved in 1S92 by Lieutenant Robert K. 
Peary that Greenland is an island. Its area is 
about 850, (MO square miles, making it the largest 
island in the world. The area of the Danish colony 
of Greenland is 46.740 square miles and the inhabit- 
ants, mostly civilized Eskimos, are supposed to num- 
ber about 13,000. 

The first Europeans to touch Greenland were 
Eric the Red and his band in the tenth century. 
These people called it Greenland, hoping that an at- 
tractive name would draw colonists. A respectable 
immigration from Iceland followed. After the dis- 
covery of -America by Columbus and others Green- 
land was visited by Davis, Hudson, and Baffin, 
whose names have remained attached to the waters 
they explored. The Danes landed on the west coast 
in 1721 and established missions. The more recent 
explorers have been many, among them Norden- 
skjold, Greely, Nansen, and Peary. 

Most of the cotmtry is buried under eternal snow 
and ice. It is almost everywhere moimtainous, but 
the motmtains have been blotted out as the vaUeys 
have been filled through the centuries by accumu- 
lated masses of snow. Pctcrmann Peak, reckoned 
as 9,000 feet in height, is tlic loftiest elevation. Ot 
the thousands of enormous glaciers in Greenland, 
the Humboldt is the vastest, with an imbroken 
front on the sea of from forty to fifty miles. 

Nevertheless, along the coast during the summer 
months there is a profusion of vegetation, and gar- 
den vegetables grow in the south. The Royal Dan- 
ish Greenland Company has a monopoly of trade, 
imder a system designed rather for the protection of 
the natives than for profit. 



DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (SANTO 
DOMINGO). 

The Dominican Republic occupies the middle 
and eastern part of the island of Santo Domingo or 
Haiti. (See Haiti.) Since 1884 it has existed as 
a more or less independent republic with frequent 
revolutions and periods of anarchy. In 1899 the 
repubhc was practically bankrupt and certain Euro- 
pean powers in 1904 intimated that tmless the 
United States took charge of the Dominican cus- 
toms and would guarantee an equitable distribution 
to satisfy their claims they would land forces. In 
1905 President Roose^■elt negotiated a treaty by 
which an American commissioner should collect and 
hold 55% of the revenues for foreign creditors. 



92 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: DOMINICAN REPUBLIC — ECUADOR. 



N 



U 



w 



With certain amendments this was ratified by the 
United States Senate in 1907. In 1916 United 
States forces occupied tiie republic and proclaimed a 
military government similar to that in Haiti. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution, which is in 
abeyance, provides for a president chosen by an 
electoral college for six years, a national Congress 
consisting of 12 senators, and a Chamber of Depu- 
ties of 24. Tiie government is actually carried on by 
military and financial oflicials from the United States. 

Industry. Agricultiu-c is the principal source of 
wealth and the chief products are tobacco, sugar, 
coconuts, cocoa, and coffee. Cattle raising is also a 
promising industry. 

Religion and Social Conditions. Ail faiths 
are tolerated, but the state religion is Roman Catho- 
lic. The population is practically all of African Ne^ 
gro descent. 

Education. Primary education is free and 
nominally compulsory. In 1916 there were 402 
schools with 14,000 pupils. Since the establishment 
of the military government attempts have been 
made to reform the .sj-stcm of education by introduc- 
ing manual training and agricultural mstruction. 

Defense. Native constabulary, officered by 
Americans, is the only defense apart from the Ameri- 
can marines. 

The area is estimated at 19.332 square miles and 
it had a population (191S) of about 955,150. 

Chronology. 

1493. Die. 6. Columbus lands on the island, nam- 
ing it Espanola (Hispaniola). 

1496. Santo Domingo (city) foimded by Bartholo- 
mew Columbus. [crop. I 

1506. Sugar cultivation introduced : becomes staple I 

151'^. African slaves come to take the place of the 
exterminated natives as laborers. 

1697. Sept, SO, By Treaty of Ryswick Spain cedes 
western part of island to France (see Haiti). 

1795. July 22. By Treaty of Basel Spain cedes 
rest of the island to France (see Haiti). 

1806. Spain regains control of her portion of the 
island: colony named Santo Domingo. 

1831. Independence established imder Colombian 
auspices; Spanish withdraw. 

1823. Conquest of Santo Domingo by Haiti. 

1844. Feb. 21. Independence from Haiti declared: 
made good by battle on IVIarch 14. Contest one 
of Spanish wiiites and mulattoes against French 
Negro rule. Dominican Republic established; 
Santana first president. Santana favors annexa- 
tion to United States. President Tyler of United 
States favors recognition, if not closer relations; 
agent sent to investigate, but matter dropped. 

1848. War renewed by Haiti. Santana, no longer 
president, commands defense. 

1849. Baez, mulatto, becomes president. For 
24 years, in the cliair or in exile, he is an outstand- 
ing figiu^. He favors aimcxation to France. 

1850. Feb. 22. Baez solicits intervention of 
United States, Great Britain, and France to stop 
Haitian war. 

1851. American special agent sent to Haiti who, 
in conjmiotion with British and French agents, 
attempts peace: but Haitian government rejects 
overtures, though war is not resumed. No at^ 
tempt at coercion made. 

1856. Haiti renews the war; defeated by Santana. 

1861. March IS. Incorporation of Santo Do- 
mingo with Spain proclaimed; Santana. again 
president, has invited it. United States protests. 

1864. Revolt against Spanish rule, led by Cabral, 
makes headway. 

1865. April 30. Spanish Cortes passes a law 
formally abandoning Santo Domingo, from 
which Spanish have virtually been driven out. 

1866. Sept. 17. Formal recognition of Domini- 
can Repubhc by United States. 

1867. July 20. Preiiminary.treaty of peace, amity, 
and commerce with Haiti. Definitive treaty 
November 9, 1874. 

1869. Nov, 39. Draft treaty of annexation 
fvith United States. Baez, again precariously 
president, hopes to absorb some of the $1,500 .(XX) 
to be paid by the United States for the territory. 
Also treaty for lease of Samana Bay. United 
States Senate fails to ratify treaties. 

1873. Final overthrow of Baez. Civil disorder 
with various rulers continues for a decade. 

188?. Ueureaux, a Negro, becomes president. 
He continues, in and out of office, absolute ruler 
lor 17 years. Peace, but no progress. Public 
debt and foreign claims mount rapidly and foreign 
complications follow. 

1899. Jidy 2f>. Heureaux assassinated. Another 
period of confusion ensues. 

1904. June. Morales liecomes president. Debt 
has rxm to $32.(K)0.000 and interest regularly de- 
faulted. Foreign goveiTiments press for payment 
and protection of the interests of their subjects in 
the republic. 

July. First installment of an adjudged Ameri- 
can claim against Dominican government not be- 



ing paidi possession is taken by United States of 
customhouse at Puerto Plata. Other creditor na- 
tions protest. 
1905. January. Morales appeals to United States 
to save his countrj' from European intervention. 
Feb. 7. Protocol signed with United States, 
estabhshing a flnanoial protectorate; United 
States to adjust all obligations of Santo Domingo, 
foreign and domestic: take charge of custom- 
houses, paying adjusted claims out of percentage 
of proceeds; and grant such other assistance as 
Santo Domingo shall deem proper to restore 
credit, promote order, and aid material progress. 
Pubhc debt not to be increased without permis- 
sion of United States. United States Senate 
fails to ratify it; substance of it put in operation as 
a modvs Vivendi. Works well and brings quiet. 

1907. Feb. s. New convention with United 
States, which American Senate ratifies. Foreign 
debts and claims have been adjusted, but con- 
ditioned on United States assuming control of the 
customs for payment of such adjustments. No 
increase in public debt without American perm.is- 
sion. [Cdceres. I 

1908. Morales fills out his term; succeeded by| 
1911. Nov. 19. C^ceres assassinated. New period 

of revolutionary disturbances in spite of warnings 
from United States. 

1914. JuJie 26. American warship compels rebels 
to cease bombarding Puerto Plata. President 
"Wilson of United States sends a personal commis- 
sion to the island and a compromise is made by 
which Baez becomes provisional president. 

October. Congress elected under supei'iision of 
American marines. Jimenez chosen president: 
inaugiu-ated December 3. 

1915. April. New revolutionary outbreak causes 
reappearance of American cruisers. 

1916. May. Jimenez impeached for budget irregu- 
larities. A revolt follows, but American marines 
land and Admiral Caperton. U.S.N., orders rebels 
to leave the capital. Jimenez resigns May 7. 

May 17. With American marines on hand to 
insure quiet, Congress elects Henrlquez y Carva- 
ja! provisional president. Inaugurated July 31. 
American occupation continues. 

Nov. 29. American commander proclaims a 
military government, which has shice contin- 
ued. Occasional clashes between natives and 
marines, but increasing order and internal im- 
provements. Native officials carry on the ad- 
ministration, being responsible to the American 
commander. Dominican national guard, similar 
to the native constabulary of Haiti, organized. 
1919. June 2S. Dominican Republic {Santo Do- 
mingo) omitted in Treaty of Versailles from list of 
neutral nations invited to join League of Nations. 



DUTCH EAST INDIES. 

See under Netherlands, page 129. 



DUTCH GUIANA. 

See under Netherlands, page 129. 



EAST AFRICA. 



See under British Empire, page 65; and under 
Germ.\ny, page 105. 



ECUADOR. 

Historical Outline. 

The country now included in the republic of Ecua- 
dor has been known from the early daj's of Spanish 
discovery. The ancient name of the coimtry was 
Quito, so called from the Quitus. These people held 
the country from time immemorial until they were 
overcome by the Caras in the tenth century. At 
a later time the Peruvians conquered Quito and 
made it a part of their empire. In 1533 Quito was 
conquered by the Spaniards. The country was 
made a dependency of Peru, and was ruled by an un- 
derpre^ident appointed by the viceroy. 

The subversion of the royal government in Spain 
by Napoleon (1S07) led to a series of insurrections 
among the Spanish American colonies, one of wliich 
broke out in Ecuador in 1809. Three years after- 
wards there was a general insurrection, but the Span- 
ish forces from Peru put it down. In 1S20 a revolu- 
tion again gathered head at Guayaquil, and to this 
Genera! Bolivar gave a cordial support. The patri- 
ots with forces from Colombia ui 1822 gained a great 
victory on Mount Pichincha and immediately en- 
tered into union with New Granada and Venezuela, 
which states had already adopted the republican 
form of government. This imion formed the consti- 
tutional basis of the United States of Colombia. 

In 1830 Ecuador seceded from the union. T'lie 
new state took the name of Republica del Ecuador, 
that is, Republic of the Equator. General J. J. 
Flores was president until 1845. He administered 
as virtual dictator. Revolutions compelled General 
Flores to retire from ofiBce on a lai'ge pension. One 



administration followed another, with revolution al- 
wajs in the wake. Scarcelj' any president was per- 
mitted to ser\'e out his official term. In 1S66 came 
the league of Ecuador with Peru and Chile in a war 
with Spain. General Antonio Flores commanded 
the Ecuadorian army and was elected to the presi- 
dency in 1S8S. The country has been distracted 
with terrible earthquakes. There were revolutions 
in 1906 and in 1913, the latter lasting for two years. 

Organization. 

Government. The present constitution (1900) 
vests the executive power hi a president, elected for 
four years and the legislative power in a Senate of 32 
senators, two for each province, chosen for four years 
and a House of 48 deputies chosen for two yeare on 
the basis of one deputy for ever>- 30,000 inhabitants. 
All adults who can read and write can vote. 

ReligiuD and Education. The state recognizes 
no religion, but the greater part of the population 
are Roman Cathohcs. Primarj- education is free and 
compulsorj' and higher education is conducted by 
the central imiversity at Quito, professional schools, 
and by two other imivei-sities. There are 12 schools 
of higher education imd 1,266 primarj- schools. 

Industry and Labor. On the coast regions 
tropical farming is carried on and the staple products 
are cocoa, coffee, and rubber. In the foothills graz- 
ing, dairying.andthe production of hay, grain, fruits, 
and vegetables are the chief industries. The coun- 
try is rich in minerals and limber. 

The area of Ecuador is about 116.000 square 
miles and its estimated population in 1915 was 
2.000,000, the bulk of wliich is Indian. 

Chronology. 

1533. Quito conquered by the Spaniards and be- 
comes a presidency of viceroyalty of Peru. Later 
imder New Granada (Santa Fei. 

1809, 1S13, Attempts to revolt from Spain fail. 

1833. May 22. Independence finally won at 
battle of Moimt Pichincha. Ecuador unites with 
Venezuela and New Granada in Republic of Co- 
Bombia. 

1830. Republic of Colombia breaks up: Ecuador a 
separate republic. Constitution adopted. 
Juan Jose Flores becomes president and remains, 
in and out of office and in exile, the chief figure of 
the coimtr>- imtil 1864. 

1840. Feb. 16. Treaty of friendship with Spain; 
Independence recognized. 

1861-1865. Gabriel Garcia Moreno, Conservative 
leader, president. His religious and educational 
reaction finally causes his retirement. 

1865-1867. Carrion president. Alliance with Peru 
and Cliile agamst Spain (see Peru). 

1868. January. Espinosa elected president. 
August. Great earthquake in Ecuador. 

1869. Garcia Moreno leads a revolt and again be- 
comes president. 

1875. August. Garcia Moreno assassinated. 

1876. Veintemilla, Radical leader, heads a revolt 
against Garcia Moreno's successor. Borrero, and 
is proclaimed president. 

1877. Veintemilla elected president: later he as- 
sumes dictatorship and represses the church. 

1883. Veintemilla driven into exile. 

1884. Caamaiio elected president. [ideucj'. [ 

1888. Antonio Flores regularly succeeds to pres-j 

1889. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress 
meets at Washington (see United States). 

1893. Cordero becomes president. 

1894. Alt'aro heads a revolt and on driving Cor- 
dero hito exile becomes anticlerical dictator. 

1897. Alfaro elected president. 

1901. Aug. 31. Plaza Gutierrez succeeds consti- 
tutionally as president. He continues the anti- 
clerical policy, estabhshes religious eonality before 
the law and promotes nationalization of church 
property. [president. I 

1905. Aug, 31. Garcia, a Clerical, inaugurated! 

1966. Jan. 6. Alfaro leads another revolt and de- 
poses the president, Januar>- 20. 

Dec. 23. New constitution adopted. 

1907. Jan. 1. Alfaro inaugurated constitutional 
president. 

1908. June IS, Railroad between Quito and 
Guayaquil opened. Does not pay: foreign ovMier- 
ship and bonds cause international complications. 

1909. National Exposition commemorates cen- 
tenary of independence. 

1911. Jan. 2.9. Proposed lease of Galapagos Is- 
lands to United States as a nav^al station refused. 
Avg. 31. Estrada becomes president. He dies 
December 21; Freile Zaldumbide serves as active 
president. Alfaro starts a revolt and army pro- 
claims IVIontero president. 

1913. Alfaro and Montero murdered. 

July. Under pressure from United States. 

Ecuador agrees to pay part and arbitrate rest of 

debt to Quito- Guayaquil railway. [president.! 

Aug. 31, Plaza Gutierrez again inaugurated! 

1913. October. Concha revolts. He takes the 
port of Esmeraldas, which changes hands several 
times in following months. 

1915. Feb. 26. Concha captured; revolt collapses. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ECUADOR— FRANCE. 



93 



1916. Aug. 31. BaQuerizo Moreno inaugurated 
as president: disorderly election. 

1917. Dtc. 7. Diplomatic intercoiurse with Ger- 
many severed. 

191S. July, United States Sanitary Commission 

begins extinction of yellow fever at Guayaquil. 
1919. Jan. IS. Kcuador lias a delegate at the 

Peace Conference at Paris. 

July 19. Final agreement on Colombian 

boundary signed. 
\920. Jan. tl. Dr. Jose Luis Tamayo, Liberal, 

elected president. 

April 4. Joint celebration of settlement of 

Colombian boundary controversy. 



EGYPT. 



See under Bkitish Empire, page 68. 



ENGLAND. 

See British Empire, page 50. 



ESTHONIA. 

EsTHONiA, or the region inhabited by the Estho- 
nians, claims substantially the northern third of the 
former Russian province of Livonia, and resisted the 
troops of Soviet Russia tuitil December 31. 1919, 
when an armistice was signed. By tliis armistice 
Russia recognized the right of self-determination for 
the Esthonian nationality, and. apparently, the in- 
dependence of Esthonia. 

Government. Esthonia is governed by a pro- 
visional constitution, adopted by a constituent 
assembly on June 4, 1919. The power is vested in 
the Constituent Assembly of 120 members. The 
chief executive is the president of the Assembly, who 
is assisted by a cahinet of 1 1 ministers. 

Industry and Labor. The cliief occupation of 
Esthonia is agricultiu'e, the important products be- 
ing rye, barley, oats, and hay. In 1910 there were 
363,263 head of cattle. 436,259 sheep, 213,002 pigs, 
and 155,262 horses. Twenty per cent of the siu'face 
is forest land. The chief exports are flax, lumoer, 
and meat. 

Kellgion and Education. Five sLxths of the 
population are Lutherans. Elementary education 
is obligatory. 

According to the boundaries fixed by the armi- 
stice agreement with Russia, December 31, 1919, 
and later with Latvia, the area is about 23,160 
square miles. The population is 1 ,750,000, of whom 
nineteen twentieths are Estlionians. 



Chronology. 



See also Baltic Provinces, imder Russia: Lithu- 

A.viA, Poland, Russia, and World War. 
1591. Esthonia becomes Swedish. 
1731. Annexed by Russia. 

1905. Eevolt. as a protest against Russiflcation. 
1917. March 30. Russians set up an elective 
Council for Esthonia. 

May. The Esthonian army makes a drive on 
Petrograd. 

1917. .Vol'. 3S. Independence of Esthonia is 
proclaimed Ijy a national coimcil, following the 
revolution in Russia. 

1918. Feb. 2i. Esthonian Republic is pro- 
claimed and a provisional government set up, 
wliich retires to Stockliolm when the Germans 
occupy the cotmtry. 

March S. By the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 
Esthonia is to be occupied by a German poUce 
force " xmtil their security is restored." 

May. Allies recognize the exiled Esthonian 
Assembly as de facto independent. 

1919. January. Bolsheviki capture Riga and 
invade Esthonia. 

.Von. w. Conference of Baltic states at Yurev 
(see Lithuania). 

Dec. 31. Esthpnian-Bolshevist armistice is 
signed; Esthonian independence recognized. 
1929. Jan. SO. Peace of Yurev (Dorpat) be- 
tween Esthonia and Bolsheviki. 



FALKLAND ISLANDS. 

See inider British Empire, page 74. 



FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 

See under British ExMpire. page 65. 



FIJI ISLANDS. 

See imder British Empire, page 77. 



FINLAND. 
Historical Outline. 



Finland is a coimtry lyinp 'between Sweden and 
Russia and extending from the Gulf of Finland on 
the south almost to the Arctic Ocean, from which it 
is separated by Norway. On the west it is boimded 



by the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the east by the water- 
shed between the Arctic Ocean and Baltic Sea. The 
original inhabitants of Finland were people of a 
Mongolian stock, and the Fiimisii language is L.ral- 
Altaic. In the 12th century the coimtry was in- 
vaded by the Swedes, and Finland became an in- 
tegral part rather than a dependency of Sweden. 
Swedish became the language of the liigher classes. 

In 1809 Sweden was forced to cede Finland, to 
Russia, though the upper classes have remained 
Swedish. To avoid a long struggle Alexander I. 
granted the Finns complete autonomy, and Finland 
existed as a separate country with the Czar of Russia 
as Grand Duke of l^'uiland. In 1S99 Russia de- 
termined upon the Kussiflcation of F'mland. This 
aroused the Finns, who met the Russian poUcy with 
passive resistance, and a period of Russian oppres- 
sion and Finnish retaliation followed. The Russian 
revolution of 1905 gave the Finns the opportiuiity to 
obtain their old liberties. But when the czardom 
had recovered, it again undertook the Russiflcation 
of Finland. Such was the condition in 1914. 

In 1917 the Keienski government restored the 
constitution to Finliind. The Bolshevist party in 
Russia attempted to spread its doctrines to the sur- 
roimding countrj' and that led to civil war between 
the Finnish " Red " and " White " Guards. In 
December, 1917, Finland declared its independence 
and from that time on there was civil war between 
the Radicals and Reactionaries. In the begiiming 
the Radicals were successful, but by Jime, 1918, 
through German aid, the Conservatives obtamed the 
power and proposed to estabUsh a monarcliy with 
a German prince as king, and even elected Prince 
Frederick Charles of Hesse. 

With the collapse of Germany a peaceful revolu- 
tion occurred (Dec. 13, 1918) and General Mamier- 
heim freed the coimtry from aU Bolshevist activities. 
The Repubhc of Finland was recognized by the 
British and .American governments, in 1919, and 
the Diet elected Professor K. J. Stalilberg president. 

Organization. 

Government. Fuiland is a repubhc with a legis- 
lative power veste<l in a diet of a single chamber of 
200 members chosen by direct and proportional elec- 
tion. The suffrage is given to every Finnish citizen, 
man or woman, of twenty-four years of age. There 
is a cabinet of 13 members, who, with the Regent of 
Finland, exercise the executive power. 

Industry and Labor. Finland is predominantly 
an agricultural countrj', the chief crops being oats, 
potatoes, rye, and barley. There is a large amoimt 
of live stock in the coimtry and butter ranks as the 
second of Finland's exports. More than half the 
country is covered with forests, which furnish the 
chief natural wealth of the country: and the main 
industry' is the production of lumber and wood pulp, 
which are the chief exports. The forests also gave 
Finland her flrst industries in woodworking and 
paper-making. During the last generation, how- 
ever, mechanical works and textile industries have 
been introduced, utilizing the cheap electric power 
derived from Finland's numerous waterfalls. 

Religion and Education. The majority of the 
Finns are Lutherans, there being only a small num- 
ber of members of the Greek Orthodox Church and 
a few himdred Roman CathoUcs. Education is free 
and compulsory, the school age being from seven to 
fifteen years. In the coimtry there are over 3,000 
primary schools, with more than 150,000 pupUs, and 
in 38 towns there are primarj- schools with more 
than 42.000 pupils. A large number of high schools 
are supplemented by continuation schools and spe- 
cial schools. There is one university, coimting over 
3,000 students, of whom more than 800 are women. 

Defense. The regular army consists of about 
30,000 men and the volimteer army of 17,000. 

The area is 125,689 square miles, of which about 
a tenth per cent is lake surface. Tlie population 
in 1918 was 3,329,146. 

Chronology. 

1157. The Finns, a rral-.4ltaic race, first con- 
quered and converted by Sweden; a process 
repeated several times. 

1528. ReUgion becomes Lutheran. 

1721. Aug. SO. Treaty of Nystad by which, after 
repeated devastation in wars between Sweden and 
Russia, Sweden cedes eastern portion of Finland 
to Russia. 

1772. Swedish king grants Finland aconstitutlon. 

1809. Sept. 17. By Treaty of Fredrikshamn rest 
of Finland is ceded to Czar of Russia as Grand 
Duke of Finland. Union is a personal one: grand 
duchy continues as practically a separate state 
under former constitution. 

1899. Feb. 14. Following a contest for many years 
against the pan-Slavic policy of the Russian bu- 
reaucracy, the legislative power of the Diet is ab- 
rogated. This is followed by other measures of 
Russification , and the grand duchy is practically 
absorbed. 

1905. .\'oremher. Fiimish opposition culminates 
in a national strike. November 7, the czar re- 
stores the constitution. 



1906. May 29. New Diet remodels the consti- 
tution; universal suffrage (including women), 
freedom of speech and assembly. Russiflcation 
begins again, however. 

1910. June SO. Law of Russian Duma gives Rus- 
sian government sole power over matters affect- 
ing Finland and Kus.^ia jointly; practical destruc- 
tion of liniiish autonomy. 

1917. March 21. Revolutionary government in 
Russia completely restores Finnish constitution. 
Finnish Diet is convened. Question continues 
whether Russian government or Finland inherits 
grand duke's supreme authority. Swedish land 
aristocracy promotes pro-German intrigue. 

July 19. Finnish Diet passes an autonomy 
bill; a formal denial of Russian suzerain rights. 
Russian government dissolves Diet, declai-es act 
unconstitutional, and prepares to use force. Fin- 
land yields. 

Dec. 7. Following the Bolshevist revolution in 
Russia, Finland proclaims independence, to 
which her existing go\emment is easily adapted; 
Diet assumes sovereign power. Senate is executive. 
New republic speedily recognized by Sweden, 
Germany, and France. 

1918. Jan. 0. Bolshevist government recognizes 
independence of Finland. Soon after, civil war 
begins between the " Reds " and "Whites " (latter 
led bj- government and propertied classes) ; " Reds " 
assisted by Russia, "Wliites" appeal for aid to 
Sweden and Germany. 

Feb. 19. Sweden occupies Aland Islands; 
March 2. German troops do likewise. 

March 3. By Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Russia 
agrees that her navy and the Red Guards ^hall 
evacuate Finland; fortiflcations on Aland 
Islands to be removed. 

March 7. Treaty of peace between Germany 
and "White " government. 

April S. German troops land on Finnish 
maiiiland: Helsingtors occupied on April 13, and 
Red government overthrown at Viborg by 
" Whites " and Germans on April 30. 

May 30. Von der Goltz, commander of Ger- 
man troops, becomes supreme commander of 
Fiimish army. lis made in Diet. I 

June 12. Proposal for a hereditary monarchy! 

Oct. 11. German troops evacuate Finland. 

1919. May. Great Britain and United States rec- 
ognize de facto (" Wliite ") government of Finland. 

July. Stablberg elected president. 



FRANCE. 
Historical Outline. 

•France, at the middle of the seventeenth century, 
held the first rank among the powers of Europe. 
' England remained an insular kingdom. Spain de- 
clined after the age of Charles V. and Philip II. 
Germany was still a chaotic collection of kingdoms 
and principaUties. For a time France alone was a 
consolidated imit of race and institutions, showing 
forth the sph'it of nationahty and employing the 
agencies and methods of a great modem state. 

When Louis XIV. was ten years of age France was 
represented at the Congress of Westphalia (1648) by 
Cardmal Mazarin. In 1661 Louis XIV. began his 
personal autocratic rule, which lasted until 1715. 
He was called the " Grand Monarch," and liis reign 
of 72 years was one of the most interesting ui history. 
In the foreign and religious wars France obtained 
only minor advantages. The acquisition of Alsace 
was the really valuable gain from a liistorical point 
of view. 

The age of Louis XIV. was one of astonishing ac- 
tivity and glorj-, but of little substantial advantage 
to France. The manner of the king in administra.- 
tion and war resembled a royal parade and spectacle. 
Near the conclusion of the reign it was seen that the 
military power and prestige of the monarchy were 
waning. As for the literary splendor and artistic 
fame of the period, these cannot be claimed as re- 
sults of the hifluence of the kmg. 

Louis XIV. was proud and arrogant. He had 
great abiUties when he chose to use them and an in- 
stinct for choosing subordinates. Thus Colbert, the 
banker statesman, was placed at the liead of the De- 
partment of Finance. Turenne and Conde were 
chosen as commanders of the French armies. Lou- 
vois. Noailles, Villars, and TaUard came afterwards. 
On the other hand, he made many serious mistakes 
in state pohcy, especially the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes in 1685, the scheme for placmg his grand- 
son on the throne of Spain, and the correspondence 
with the EngUsh Jacobites. Battles were fought and 
some victories won by tiie king's armies, but the age 
was on the whole an era of proclamations and pageant- 
ry rather than of great deeds and marked progress. 

The consequences of this false prosperity were 
quickly shown. During the first half of the eight- 
eenth century, both the monarchy and the nation 
looked backward rather than forward. The English 
power in combmation with the Netherlands gamed 
at the expense of France. Louis XV., great-grand- 
son of the Grand Monarch, came to the throne in 



94: 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



1715 So far from overriding tlie Frencli people by 
his personal will, under Louis XV. the government 
of France became weak and contemptible, while at 
the same time the French nation began to manifest 
its power and genius. All that is significant m the 
reign of Louis XV. was a flowering of the French 
mind and its brUliant ascendancy in Europe. While 
the state was inert, French minds assailed the po- 
litical, social, and religious structure of the age. A 
new learning came, a new science, and a new pm- 
losophy. Free thought clashed with despotism. 
The customs and traditions of a thousand years 
were set at naught. New opinions sought expres- 
sion in literature. The Encyclopedists were awake 
with a new system of learning, a new categoryof the 
achievements of mankind. Meanwhile, the EYench 
lost their colonial empire in India and m JNortn 
America. While the country was the most mteui- 
gent and the richest in Europe, the government was 
on the verge of bankruptcy. 

Louis XVI came to the tlirone on the death of his 
graaidfather in 1774. Neither he nor the French 
aristocracy saw that a new era was about to begm^ 
For thirteen years the old methods of government 
and society were accepted as though they were 
eternal. In reality they had been destroyed by the 
flo^moving forces of lilstory. The French mon- 
archy could never recognize nor accept this fact and 
thus feU before the attack of modem ideas 

The French Revolution began as a struggle agamst 
political privilege; it quickly developed mto a strug- 
Kle for ■■nberte. egalile. /r./«-«.!e " -personal free- 
dom legal equality, brotherliood. Feudal nghts 
were destroyed; then the monarchy was put on a 
constitutional basis (1791). Then came an uP-ns- 
ing from the depths — a repubUc was established, 
tte king and queen were executed, gradually the 
rabble of Paris got control of the Convention and the 
Management of the government. The result was 
ttie Reign of Terror (1794), which led U> anarchy. 
The only way out was to form a Directory, a dicta- 
torsliin of a group. Military support was necessary. 
In 1795 tbe^vouSg Napoleon protected the Conven- 
tion agamst "a Royalist uprising and presently be- 
came the victorious leader of the French armi^.re- 
peUing invasion and spreading the ideas of the Revo- 
lution in conquered lands. 

In 1803 Napoleon declared himself Emperor of the 
French In a series of wars he defeated Austria 
crushed Prussia, occupied Holland, destroyed 
Spain, and threatened Russia. In 1809 Austria at^ 
tempted to throw oB the French yoke, but was de- 
f^SSl at Wagram; and m 1812 Napoleon declared 
war upon Russia, invaded it, and occupied Moscow 
in triumph The Russians, however, destroyed the 
city and the French were forced to a disastrous and 
frightful defeat. In 1813 the German nations ralhed 
^d at the great battle of Leipzig the French were 
defeated and Napoleon retreated to the Rhme. 



NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
U The alhes invaded France's territory entering 

Paris March 30, 1814, and Napoleon abdicated 
and was exiled to Elba. In March, 1815, Napoleon 
landed in France and began his wonderful Hundred 
Days •■ The alUanee was renewed agamst bim; on 
June 'is he was overwhelmingly defeated at Water- 
loo and the empire was abolished for the second tune 
The House of Bouriwn was restored, but without 
V enthusiasm or hope on the part of the French people. 

The reigns of Louis XVIII. and his brother 
Charles X were but interludes between the past and 
the future Then came the Revolution of 1830 and 
the substitution of the Orleans monarchy of Loms 
Philippe modeled on the English basis. The C itizen 
King was tolerated by the nation imti! the Revolution 
of 1848 when the short-lived Second RepubUc served 

Was a stepping-stone for Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 
on which he mounted to the empire in 1851. 

The temper of France showed itself to be imperial 

and the coup d' elal of Napoleon III. was ratified 

with enthusiasm. For 19 years he ruled France, 

partly by diplomacy and partly by military power. 

His court was the most glittering in Europe. After 

the Crimean War, the opening of the Suez Canal, 

X* and the International Exposition of 1867, his prestige 

X ■ was greater than that of any other i-uler of lus time. 

From 1852 to 1860 this riUe was autocratic and 

repressive; from 1860 to 1870 it was forced into a 

form which paid some attention to the rights of the 

people Napoleon III. was an intensely modem 

man, mterested in works of utility and improvement 

and humanity. Hospitals and asylums and rehef 

agencies were founded, laborers were given the nght 

Yto strike, banks were organized so that the farmers 
might improve their holdmgs, railways were built 
and canals begtm. In the midst of tliis prosperity 
the court was openly and tmblushmgly corrapt^ 
The Empire was losing thousands of the troops and 
mihtary credit in the effort to make Mexico a de- 
pendency. 

The rise of Prussia, partictUarly after the success- 

•v ful war with Austria in 1866, seemed to the French 

2 to upset the balance of power. " Revenge for Sa- 

dowa '■ — the critical battle m that war — was the 

cry of the French press. This meant that France 



must increase in area and power to counterbalance 
the growth of Prussia. The diplomats and the press 
harbored the idea that ultimately a war must come 
between France and Prussia. Not so the people. 
The pretext was found in 1870 in a controversy over 
the Spanish throne, skillfully aggravated by the 
Ems dispatch which Bismarck so edited as to arouse 
German popular opinion. The emperor took the 
bait OUivier, the French minister, announced that 
he accepted war '■ with a light heart." The em- 
press declared that " tliis is my war." 

A few days of actual war brought down this house 
of cards The scandalous lack of preparation of the 
French was revealed before the efficiency of the 
Prussians. Fightmg began August 2, 1870, aiid on 
September 1 at Sedan a whole French army of 120,- 
000 men was destroyed or captured, includmg the 
surrender of Emperor Napoleon III. The empu-e 
at once coUapsed and a republic was proclaimed. 
Fighting contmued untU February. 1871, and m- 
cluded the siege and final capitulation of Metz and 
of the capital city of Paris. 

For this war Germany exacted from France the 
then unprecedented money indenmity of five billion 
francs (about $1,000,000,000) and tore away the two 
French provmces of Alsace and Lorraine, mcludmg 
the unportant military fortress of Metz^ Alsace 
was German in origm and speech, but had been 
French for two centuries, and in 1870 was French m 
spirit and nationaUty. The possession of Lorraine 
bv Germany gave control of rich coal and iron de- 
posits as weU as a point of departure for future mva- 
sion of France. To France the loss of these prov- 
mces was an affront and an injury which never coiUd 
be forgotten and which someday must be redi-essed. 
The Third French Repubhc was proclaimed Sep- 
tember 4, 1870, and its first act was to renew the war. 
When victory proved impossible it had to bear the 
odium of the hard terms of the German peace. 
Even greater difHculties faced it. In Pans the an- 
archistic Commune in 1871 seized the city Civil 
war was waged for six weeks, during which Pans 
suffered even more than durmg the German bom- 
bardment. The Republic regained the city and 
overthrew the Conmume amid frightful bloodshed. 
Thousands of the Commmiists were deported. 

Although the republican govemment of France 
was thus restored, it had no constitution. The sole 
power was in the hands of the National Assembly, 
which exercised aU legfelative and executive powers. 
It was also the only body capable of niakmg a con- 
stitution The Assembly was not in favor of a re- 
nublic- and the old Bom-bon line would have been 
restored but for the refusal of the heir to the t_lirone 
to accept the tricolor flag. Bon apartists also hoped 
and plotted. In 1875 the constitution of the Tlurd 
ReoiibUc was formed, which stiU left the way open 
for a monarchy. In 1879 the repubUc was accepted 
as permanent and Jules GrevT was elected president. 
This republic has lasted for neariy fifty years, and 
m spite of dangerous crises has proved acceptable to 
France and has fought tlirough the World War. 
There seems Uttle likeUhood of a change m the form 
of government. The history and development of 
the repubUc may conveniently be grouped around 
six important movements; (1) church and state; 
(9) the amiy ; (3) colonial empire; (4) civd control of 
the miUtary; (5) sociaUsm and labor; (6) relations 

with Germany. , 

In the long stmggle between repubhcans and 
monarchists the Roman CathoUc Church supported 
the monarchists, which caused Gambetta to ex- 
claun " ClericaUsm, that is our enemy. In 1880 
the Jesuits were expeUed from France and the new 
free and compulsory educational system, estab- 
Ushed 1881-1882, attempted to free the schools from 
clerical control. In the struggles over the Drej-fus 
case the Clerical party sided with the army, wluch 
caused the formation in the Chamber of Deputies of 
the coalition called the "bloc," composed of Radi- 
cals and Socialists, wliich attacked the church. 

Under the leadership of Waldeck -Rousseau, laws 
were passed stippressing aU reUgious orders except 
those authorized Ijy the govemment, and no religioiis 
order was aUowed to teach. In 1905 the Concordat, 
or treaty with the Pope, dating from 1801 , was abro- 
gated and thenceforth cluu-ch and state m France 
were separate. LegaUy organized " associations of 
worship " were given the privilege of occupymg the 
chtu-ch buildings. Bishops and priests were deprived 
of state aid; but, on the other hand, the church was 
free from state interference in ecclesiastical affairs. 

The army has twice iwen the cause of political 
crises From 1886 to 1889 General Boulanger, a 
high officer m the amiy, attempted by securmg elec- 
tion to the Chamber from different constituencies to 
prove his popiUarity; and he watched the opportu- 
nity for a military coup d'etat. He failed to raise the 
necessary foUowing and ignominiously broke doi,™^ 
The Dreyfus case, wluch lasted from 1894 to 1906, 
began in the conviction and degradation of an ob- 
scure artillery captain. He insisted that he w-as 
the victim of a combination of enemies. Gradually 
evidence accmmUated that the traitor was not Drey- 
fus at aU. but a protege of the cliiefs of the army a^d 
perhaps a minister. Dreyfus was a Hebrew and the 



anti-Semites in France charged that his race a.=;soci- 
ates were controUing the poUticians and the army by 
their money. The monarchists jomed in the hunt, 
eager to discredit the repubUc. The Clerical party 
was against Dreyfus. On the other side the bloc of 
radical republicans insisted that the army should be 
subordinate to civil authority, that clerical infiuence 
should be kept out of politics, and that the republic 
should be preserved. A series of investigations 
showed that Dre^'fus was an mnocent man, his ene- 
mies were held up to public scorn, and the attacks on 
the army were checked. . 

Dmlng the eariy years of the repubhc a distmct 
movement was made to carry trade-imiomsm over 
to sociaUsm. During the eighties the sociaUsts lost 
groimd and disintegrated into groups. About 1900, 
however, the various socialist elements milted and m 
the mmistrv of Waldeck -Rousseau an " independent 
socialist " received a portfoUo. In 1905 a formal 
Socialist party was formed, on the platform of trans- 
forming the capitaUstic organization of society into 
a coUectivist or communistic organization, through 
the political organization of the working classes 
(proletariat). In the elections of 1910 the popular 
vote polled by the SociaUsts was 1,200,000 and 105 
Socialist deputies were elected. The election of 
1919, the first after the Worid War, showed a reac- 
tion 'and the Socialists and Radicals lost 126 seats 
in tlie Chamber of Deputies, wliile the Republicans 
of the Left and the Progressives gained 122 and the 
Liberal Action party (CathoUc), 42. 

From 1871 until 1892 France stood almost alone 
in Europe. Through the defeat by Germany, she 
sank for a tune to the position of a second-rate 
power The loss of Alsace-Lorrame was not seri- 
ous in a territorial sense, but the policy of revanche 
(revenge) was never abandoned. The French al- 
ways hoped that the lost provinces might some day 
be restored Nevertheless, France accepted the loss 
as an accomplished fact for the tune being, and 
tiuTied her energies to buildmg up a colomal enipu-e. 
As far back as 1830 France had sent a fleet to 
threaten Algiers; war foUowed, and by 1847 France 
controUed the whole of Algeria. Under Napoleon 
III the Senegal vaUey in Africa was annexed, and 
in Asia Cochin Cliina was acquired (1 862). Durmg 
the Tliird Republic, Tunis was made a " protector- 
ate " (1881), and the French possessions m West 
Africa were expanded tmtil France controUed most 
of the westem coast of Africa from the Mediterra- 
nean to the Congo. The region thus brought under 
French influence is nearly eight tunes as large as 
France and has a population of over 14,000,000. In 
Asia the kuigdom of Annam became a protectorate 
in 1883 and Tonkin was annexed m 1885. In 1896 
Madagascar was declared a French colony. 

The French long looked with desire toward Mo- 
rocco but Germany was a rival contestant for terri- 
tory both m the Ulterior of Africa and on the north- 
em coast In 1906 the emperor asserted the inter- 
est of Germany. Tliis was contested by France and 
Great Britain! and by the Conference of Algecu-as 
French primacy In Morocco was acknowledged — a 
settlement proposed by the representative of the 
United States. Again, in 1911, Germany sent the 
Panther to Agadir, an act which almost caused war. 
Once more Germany was forced to yield and to recog- 
nize the French interests; in retum France ceded 
extensive territories in Kamerun and the French 

These incidents showed that France had powerful 
friends m Eiu-ope; the long isolation was broken. 
The change goes back to 1892, when an aUiance was 
made with Russia. Thenceforward the two powers 
were united, if need be, agamst the Triple AUiance of 
Germany. Austria, and Italy. France's position in 
Europe "was made more seciu-e. The rivahy with 
Great Britam contmued and became senous in 1898 
over conflicting colonial claims m Afnca (the Fa- 
shoda incident). Neither party desired war, and 
the matter was settled by compromise. 

In 1901 Edward VII. became Kmg of Great Bnt- 
ain and used aU his mfluence to brmg about a miU- 
tarv understanduig between France and England — 
the" Entente Cordiale of 1904. France recognized 
England's special interests in Egypt, and England 
the special interests of France in Morocco. Tlie ad- 
justment of colonial questions was the smaller part 
of the result Without any formal pubUc aUiance, 
England became the fimi friend of France; then set- 
tled old differences with the ally of France, Russia; 
and thus the germ of a rival Triple Entente was 
formed to offset the famous Triple AUiance. 

The eariy years of the twentieth centiuy saw Eu- 
rope divided" mto two camps. Germany's universal 
military service compeUed her neighbors to adopt 
the same poUcy in self-defense. In spite of propos_- 
als made at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 190/ 
to disarm or to Umit the mihtary estabUshments, a 
contest in miUtary preparedness went on. In this 
Germany set the pace and France perforce had to 
foUow There is no evidence that France had m 
her aUiances and the increase of her armies any ag- 
gressive design ; she aimed to protect herseU. Nor 
is there evidence that France planned attacking 
Germany or her alUes. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



95 



WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

Nevertheless, when m 1914 Germany, asserting 
that she was surrounded by an "iron ring" of 
enemies, seized the Austrian demands on Serbia after 
the murder of the Austrian Crown Prince as the 
occasion for war on Kussia, France was deeply in- 
volved. She was bound to defend lier ally against a 
two-power war: and she could readily see that Ger- 
many would seek her destruction. Hence on August 
3. 1914, German troops being already in French terri- 
tory, war was declanxl on Germany. 

Germany recognized tiiat France, well armed and 
close to German centers, was the most immediately 
dangerous opponent. Therefore, leaving tlie eastern 
frontier weakly defended, Germany struck through 
Belgium directly at France. By the end of August 
Germany had almost reached Paris; but by the battle 
of the Marne she was tlirowai back on lines wliicli 
still included a large part of the industrial section 
of France, threatening the Channel and the capital. 

During the war France suffered as almost no other 
coimtry. She was deprived of a large portion of her 
most valuable industrial resources, a large part of 
the male population was mobilized in the army, and 
industry was paralyzed. In the territory occupied 
the Germans were guilty of frightful devastation and 
destruction beyond wliat was necessarj- for mihtary 
purposes. Their clear and avowed purpose was so to 
cripple the economic resources and organization of 
France that she should cease to be a trade rival after 
the war. 

In the early yeare of the war there were frequent 
changes of ministry; but just as in military affairs the 
war produced one supreme leader, Foch. so in politi- 
cal affairs, Clemenceau became the most powerful 
influence in France. With no thought of surrender, 
in spite of reverses and in the face of a defeatist party, 
Clemenceau maintained his steady course and up- 
held the policy of Foch. 

At the close of the war France demanded com- 
pensation, not only for the " crime of 1S70 " and for 
the enormous mihtary losses, but also for the devas- 
tation which the Germans had wrought. The treaty 
restored Alsace-Lorraine to France, gave to her an 
midetermined sum by way of reparation, and in par- 
ticular assigned the occupation of the valuable coal 
mines in the Saar region as a compensation for the 
willful devastation of the Lens and other French coal 
fields. Thus, after bemg deprived of her provinces 
for nearly half a century, France was able to redress 
the wrong of 1870 and to receive partial compensa- 
tion for her losses. 

Organization. 

Government. The Constitution of France does 
not consist of a single document submitted for ap- 
proval to the electorate, but of a series of statutes 
passed by tlie Assembly. The foimdations are five 
laws, sometimes referred to as the Constitution of 
1875, which provide for the organization of the pubhc 
powers, the relations of the public powers, the elec- 
tion of senators, and the election of deputies. To 
these have been added the Laws of 1879, fixuig Paris 
as theseatof government; of 1884, for the abohtionof 
life senators; of 1885, 1889, and 1913, for the election 
of deputies. The power to amend and alter this con- 
stitution is vested in the National Assembly, which 
consists of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies sit- 
ting in joint session. 

The executive power is vested in a president 
chosen by the National Assembly for a term of seven 
years. Nominally the president has wide and im- 
portant powers; practically, like the king of England, 
he personally exercises few of these powers, all real 
executive acts being performed by ministers. The 
ministry in France, while nominally appointed by the 
president, is directly responsible to the Chamber of 
Deputies, and thus a cabinet system of government 
is established, similar to that in England. 

In actual practice the French parliamentary sys- 
tem is quite different, since the Chamber of Deputies 
is divided mto numerous groups, no one of which 
generally possesses a clear majority; hence, every 
mmistry is responsible not to one organized party, 
but to a temporary coalition. Since the election of 
1898, which result-ed in the formation of the bloc, or 
coalition of the Radical and Socialist parties, some- 
what more consistent support has been given to the 
various ministries. Yet, as compared with England 
the ministries in France are short-lived and shifting. 

The legislative power is vested in a bicameral 
legislature. The Chamber of Deputies is appor- 
tioned, one for every hundred thousand inhabitants. 
After various experiments between the election of 
each member from one district (scrutin d'arron- 
dissement) and of all the deputies from a department 
upon a common ticket {scrutin dc li^te) or general 
ticket, the latter was accepted in 1919, combined 
with proportional representation. It was hoped 
thus to check the control which the local politicians 
and the prefects of the departments exercised, and 
by proportional representation to give to minorities 
more adequate representation. 

The Senate is at present composed of 300 members 
elected by an indirect method for terms of nine 



years, one third retiring everj- three years. By the 
original constitution some seats were allotted to hfe 
members; but by the amendment of 1884 vacancies 
in life memberships were filled as they occur by elec- 
tion in the ordinary manner for the nine-year term. 
It was hoped that tlie Senate would serve as a bal- 
ance wheel to the Chaml^er of Deputies, and to some 
extent that has been accomphshed. Although tiie 
ministers are not responsible to the Senate, it has not 
simk to the position of the British House of Lords, 
and still exercises considerable influence on legisla- 
tion and administration. 

The Assembly has full legislative power and when 
in joint session as the National Assembly may amend 
the constitution, without reference to the electorate. 

The imit of local government in France is the com- 
mune, which varies in size. In the whole country 
there are 36,241 communes, each electing a mimici- 
pal comicil. which council elects a mayor. A num- 
ber of commimes, twelve on an average, are grouped 
in a canton: several cantons make up a district, or 
arrojidissement (Paris, however, is divided into 20 
arrondissements); a group of arrondissements consti- 
tutes a department; and of these departments there 
were 87 before the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine. 

Through al! this gradation the strong hand of the 
central go\'emment is felt. Even the local mayor is 
its agent, and the prefect at the head of each depart- 
j ment and the subprefect over every arrondissement 
I are the powerful representatives of the executive 
I branch. Paris itself has a mayor for each of its 20 
1 arrondisseme/its, while the place of mayor of the city 
I is taken by the prefects of the Seine and of pohce. 
I This centralization of governmental power in a 
I single national organization has prevafled in France, 
^ alike under monarchy, empire, and repubhc. The 
power of the people manifests itself in a frequent 
change of the head, whether by revolution or imder 
constitutional forms, rather than by a distribution of 
authority among many individuals and bodies, as in 
the English-speaking nations. 

Industry and Labor. France is an important 
agricultural country. Out of an area of 132,000.000 
acres, 98,000.000 acres are cultivated, 24,000,000 are 
in forests, and only 9,500,000 are classed as moorland 
or uncultivated land. As in most other countries 
in modem times the ratio of agriculturists to those 
engaged in other industries is decreasing. In 1910 
more than 5,000,000 people were engaged in manu- 
factiu-es, 375,000 in mining and metal work, and 
500,000 m fisheries. 

The soO of France is rich and of varied quaUty and 
produces readily all the vegetables, grains, and fruits 
of the north temperate zone. Tlie more important 
crops as returned in 1913 were potatoes, wheat, oats, 
sugar beets, rye, and barley. The vineyards of 
France have always been famous and nearly 4,000,- 
000 acres are devoted to the cultivation of the vine, 
wliich m 1914 produced 1,316,849,000 gallons of 
wine. Cider is also produced in large quantities. 
In addition the production of nuts, fruits, and par- 
ticularly of oUves is very important. Silk culture is 
encouraged by the goverament and is carried on in 
24 departments. In 1913 there were 90.000 pro- 
ducers and the total value of the product was over 
15.000,000 francs (about .?3,C00.000). 

France possesses valual)le metal deposits, and in 
1913 produced 40,000.000 tons of coal and lignite 
and 21.000,000 tons of iron ore. In addition lead, 
silver, zinc, antimony, arsenic, and gold were pro- 
duced in smaller amomits; and in 19i3 the value of 
the output of the quarries amounted to 358.000,000. 
The French manufactures are among the finest 
and most profitable in the world. The handiwork 
of the French has always been celebrated, and their 
skill and taste are shown in the manufactiu-e of deli- 
cate machinery- and beautiful articles. The indus- 
tries of France are varied. Measured by the num- 
bers of persons employed, the more important (apart 
from agriculture, mining, commerce, and transport) 
are the manufacture of clothing; the textile indus- 
tries (manufacture of cotton, wool, lace, and silk 
goods, etc.); woodworking; manufacture of iron, 
metal, and leather goods; building; and baking. 

The most important exports of the coimtrj- are 
woolen, silk, and cotton goods, raw wool, raw silk, 
wine, Parisian goods, automobiles, skins, and furs. 
The industrial condition of France is a matter of 
constant concern to the government. The fact 
that four mmistries of the government out of four- 
teen have to do with industrial questions shows the 
preeminent importance of mdustr>' in the consider- 
ation of the repubhc. 

The general condition of the laborer in France has 
long been above that in any other country- of Eiu'ope. 
Hence there was no exodus of French workingmen 
from their o^vll coimtry. The French laborer, though 
a peasant, is generally a small landowner. One of 
the beneficent results of the French Kevolution was 
the breaking up of vast estates and the creation of 
more than 4,000,000 -small holdmgs. The French 
laborer is generally contented and happy. If he be 
prosperous he has his o^\ti house and vineyard. He 
retains to a passionate degree liis attachment to his 
own land and his devotion to France and his obstinate 
determination not to emigrate. 



i Religion. For ages France has usually stood by 
a policy of regarding the church as a national rather 
than an international institution. Kings of France 
maintained a Galhcan church as against the claims 
of Rome to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The church 
imder the old regime was closely aUied with the no- 
bility and its privileges. Hence the Revolution 
attacked it, and for a time proscribed it. AVhen 
France returned to a settled government, the chtu-ch 
was restored. Even Napoleon found it expedient to 
make terms with the pope, by the Concordat of 1801 . 
One of the watchwords of the restoration and reac- 
tion in 1815 was " to strengthen the altar and the 
throne."' 

After various fiuctuations, the poUcy of France 
under the republic was to secularize the state, but to 
make a grant of fimds to any sect numbering 100.- 
000 adherents. The Roman Cathohc Church, the 
Protestants both of the Reformed, or Calvmist. 
Church and of the Lutheran or Augsburg Confes- 
sion, and the Jewish Religious Commimity all re- 
ceived these grants. By the law of 1905 all the com- 
mimions were put upon the voluntary or self-sup- 
porting basis, the state paying no more stipends, 
except that clergy over 45 years of age, or who had 
served over 25 years, were to receive a grant for a 
time. Of late years the government has come into 
friendly relations with the papacy. 

Education. The most important laws concern- 
ing education were those of 1881. when primarj' edu- 
cation was made free; and of 1882. when it was made 
compulsory- between the ages of sLx and thirteen. 
Later laws have made it entirely secular; no religious 
instruction is given in the state schools, and all the 
teachers are appointed from the laity. Even private 
schools and tutors must be certified by the state. 
There were, in 1913, in France and Algeria more than 
69.000 primary and higher schools, of which 57.000 
were pubhc and 12.000 private, with a total attend- 
ance of 5,669,000 pupils. The effect has been re- 
markable. lUiteracy has dropped from 25% to 4 9^, 
and in 1913 only 2Cc, of the conscripts could neither 
read nor write. The annual cost of tliis primarj- 
education in 1913 was about 225,000,000 francs 
(S45.000,000). 

Secondary- education for boys is supphed in two 
' tj-pes of schools, by the state in lycies and by the 
! commimes in coUeges, both corresponding nearly to 
American high schools. The coiu^e extends for 
; seven years. In 1913 there were 112 lycees, with 
[over 62,000 pupils and 231 communal colleges, with 
jover 37,000 pupils. For girls there were in 1914 
1 52 lycees, with 14.000 pupils and 70 colUges, with 
I 7,000 pupils. Higher education is provided for by 
■ the state in universities and special schools. A de- 
cree of 1885 created a general coimcil of faculties and 
I the creation of universities was accomplished in 1897. 
i There are 14 faculties of law, 8 of medicine, 16 of sci- 
I ences, 16 of letters. The state faculties confer the 
.degrees. In addition professional and teclmical in- 
I struction is given in special courses, including ad- 
mirable normal schools, and institutions for training 
j teachers. 

Defense. France has a coast line of 1,304 miles 
I on the Atlantic and 456 on the Mediterranean. Be- 
|fore the World War its land frontier of 1,575 miles 
' touched the borders of Belgium, Germany, Switzer- 
land, Italy, and Spain. An army and na\T and in- 
' temal fortifications are a prime necessity to France. 
' Paris is the center of defense, and along the boun- 
daries is a belt of fortifications wliich up to 1914 
were supposed to be formidable barriers, the most 
important line being A'erdun. Toul, jfipinai, and 
I Belfort. This line was held against the Germans in 
J the World War, Verdun being subjected to repeated 
attacks. 

j Militarj' service in France is compulsor>' and imi- 
versal, no exemptions bemg aUowed except for physi- 
cal disability. Liability for service extends from the 
twentieth to the forty-eighth year and involves ac- 
', tive service in the army for tliree years, eleven years 
. in the reserv^e, seven j'ears in the territorial army and 
' seven years in the territorial reser\-e. The active 
I army is mobilized for training and maneuvers twice 
! in the period of reserve service, for four weeks on 
each occasion. The peace establishment of the 
army m 1914 was 846,188. During the World War, 
however, more than 128.372 officers and 5,064,000 
men were mobilized. The casualties were 1.385,300 
dead, 2,675.000 wounded, and 446,000 prisoners or 
missing. No great army in history has ever made 
such a sacrifice of man power in the defense of its land. 
The minister of marine has the supreme com- 
mand of the navj'. In 1919 the na\T consisted of 
seven dreadnoughts, 13 predreadnoughts, numerous 
cruisers and gunboats. 80 destroyers, 153 torpedo 
boats, and over 100 sbmarines. The navy was 
not equal to the British in quality of ships. In the 
World War its service was almost wholly in the 
Mediterranean. 

Area and Population. The area of continental 
France is 212,659 square miles and the population 
(1911) 41,475,523. These figures include the re- 
covered provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which have an 
area of 5,605 square miles and which in 1910 had a 
population of 1,874,014. 



96 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



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FRENCH COLONIES AND 
DEPENDENCIES. 

France in the eighteenth century possessed a vast 
colonial empire. Almost tile whole was transferred 
to Great Britain in 1763. Napoleon Ijuilt up a great 
complex empire of subject and protected lands in 
Europe, and attempted to take over the Spanish 
American empire. All that was forfeited in 1814. 
In 1S30 France began a third and successful drive 
for external territory ; and in 1920 possesses 4.660,000 
square miles with an estimated population of about 
50,000,000. Alperia is not regarded as a colony, but 
as a part of France. Most of the colonies enjoy 
some measure of self-government and have elective 
coimcils to assist tlie government. The older colo- 
nies also have direct representation in the French i population (1917) of about 12,000.000. Tlie histori- 
legislature, usually liy functionaries. The colonial 1 cal nucleus of this region is the French colony of 
empire is not seIf-su|)porting, and 



Beligion and Education. The natives are Mos- 
lem; the foreigners, Koman Cathohcs and Jews. 
There are 287 pubhc schools, 8 lacies and collides. 
and 23 private schools, all together harboring 30,000 
pupils. A Mohammedan imiversity exists in the 
Great Mosque at Tunis, and there are numerous 
Moslem schools. 

The area is about ,50,000 square miles and the 
population (1914) is estimated at 1,940,000. 

MOROCCO. 

See Morocco, as a separate country, page 128. 

FRENCH WEST AFRICA. 

South of the western Sahara is a region belonging 
to France of about 1,682,000 square miles with a 



France in 1917 
expended on itovcr 200,000,000 francs (S40,000,000|, 
of which 190,000,000 francs was for military services. 

FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. 
ALGERIA. 

Algeria, lilce all northern Africa, was conquered 
by the Arabic Moslems in the seventh centiu-y. In 



the sixteenth century Khaireddin Pasha, the great 
admiral of Sultan Solyman I., imposed for a time the 
authorit^■ of the Ottoman Empire. This control 
was never more than nominal and was repudiated in 
1705. Piracy was the chief occupation of the Al- 
gerines, as of their neighbors. Great Brnain and 
other states paid protection money. The United 
States in 1S01-1S05 made war on the Algerines, who, 
however, soon returned t« their evil practices. In 
1815 Commodore Decatur with an American squad- 
ron ptmished them; and a joint British and Dutch 
squadron then destroyed the Algerine navy and a 
great part of the capital. 

This ended the freebooting era. A little later 
came tlie French conquest by war lasting till 1847. 
Resistance continued until 1870, when France es- 
tablished a civil administration of the coimtry 

Government. Algeria is considered a part of 
France, and each of the tliree departments into 
which it is divided sends one senator and two depu- 
ties t« the National Assembly. A governor-general 
at Algiers represents the French government and 
exercises large authority. He is assisted by an ad- 
visory council. There is no other legislative author- 
ity for Algiers than the Assembly in Paris. 

Industry and Labor. A small area of highly 
fertile land near the coast is cultivat«d scientifically, 
but the greater part of the coimtry is of little value 
for agriculttu-e. The northern portion is moimtain- 
ous and better adapted to grazing and forestry. 
Some tropical fruits grow abimdantly and the pro- 
duction of olive oil is an important industry. The 
cork oak is cultivated and, in 1916, 4,000 tons of 
cork were obtained. The chief exports are wine, 
sheep, wheat, wool, fruit, and tobacco. 

Education. There are over a thousand primary 
schools, with 146,000 pupils, 16 secondary schools, 
and a imiversity in the city of Algiers, besides numer- 
ous Moslem schools. 

Beligion. The native population is entirely 
Moslem. The French population is Roman Catho- 
lic, with the exception of about 60,000 Jews. 

Defense. Before the World War the military 
force consisted of one army corps. French residents 
are imder the same obligation to serve as in France, 
and natives are required to give three years' service 
imder the colors and seven in the reserve. 

The area of Algeria is about 222,180 square miles 
and its population (1911) 5,563,828. 

TUNIS. 

Tunis was long a vassal state of Turkey. As 
with Algiers, its main industry was piracy. In 1871 
the Turkish sultan released the bey from payment 
of tribute. The French had long coveted the coun- 
try, and in ISSl it was forcibly made a protectorate. 

Government. The former reigning family still 
nominally occupies the throne, but the government 
is carried" on by a special department of the French 
foreign office. The French minister resident is also 
the Tunisian minister of foreign affairs. For ad- 
ministrative purposes Timis is divided into 19 ci\il 
and military districts, each imder a French governor. 
The subordinate ofBcials, however, are natives. An 
army of occupation of about 17,000 men is made up 
of a nucleus of French troops supported by native 
regiments. During the World War, 35,000 native 
troops served in Europe under the French colors. 

Industry and Labor. In the north the moim- 
tains shelter fertile valleys, suitable for intensive 
cultivation and the raising of citrous fruits and olive 
trees. In the center the high table-lands aflcrd pas- 
tures, while the south is famous for its oases and gar- 
dens and dates. The chief agricultural products are 
■wheat, barley, and oats. In 1918 the wine yield was 
14,000,000 gallons; olive oil, 3,000,000 gallons. The 
date crop for 1918 was estimated at 88,000,000 
pounds. The important mines are of lead, zmc, 
iron, and manganese. The fisheries are valuable. 



Senegal, wliich dates back nearly tliree centuries. 
The French occujiation of tliis region was bitterly 
resisted by the natives. In 1904 French West Africa 
was reorganized and divided into Senegal, French 
Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, the territories of 
Senegambia (now Upper Senegal-Niger) , the Military 
Territory of the Niger, and the " Civilian Territory " 
of Mauretania. 

Government. A governor-general, assisted by 
a council, has authority over all French West Africa 
In each of the colonies there is a lieutenant governor 
imder the direction of the governor-general. 

Industry and Labor. In all the colonies tins is 
of a similar character; — primitive agriculture in a 
rich region of spontaneous tropical products. 

Religion. Tliroughout French West Africa Mo- 
hammedanism and the Negro faiths predominate, 
although there are many Cliristian missionaries. 

Education. Schools are founded in large num- 
bers by Catholic and Protestant missions under the 
French government. Everywhere the French have 
attempted to civilize and benefit the country by 
force while reaping the material advantages. Some 
progress has been made hi the introduction of rail- 
roads, telegraphs and telephones, and highways. 



Senegal is the most western part of Africa. For 
administrative purposes it is divided into four mu- 
nicipal communes, whose inhabitants are regarded 
as Frenchmen and elect one deputy to the French 
National Assembly, and about a score of districts m 
which the government exercises absolute authority 
and whose natives are not French citizens. The 
soil is generally sandy and the natives cultivate 
groundnuts, corn, and some rice. Other products 
are castor beans, gum, and rubber. The area is 74,- 
000 square miles and the population 1,444,621. 

French Guinea lies on the Atlantic coast be- 
tween Portuguese Guinea and the British colony of 
Sierra Leone. The chief product is rubber. The area 
is 93,000 square miles and the population 1,812,000, 

The Ivory Coast extends between Liberia and 
the British Gold Coast and reaches inland to the 
colony of Upper Senegal-Niger. There is an ex- 
cellent harbor. The natives cultivate com, plan- 
tarns, and other fruits. In the uiiands the mahog- 
any forests are worked, and gold is foimd near Grand 
Bassam. Rubber is a valuable export. The area is 
about 125,000 sq. miles and the population 1,562,000. 

Dahomey lies on the coast between Togoland and 
Nigeria. France obtained a footing in 1S51 and an- 
nexed tlie kingdom in 1894. The colony has only 
seventy miles of coast, but spreads out as it extends 
inland. The natives are of pure Negro stock and are 
mdustrious agriculturists in the coast regions. The 
forests abound in coconut and oil palms which fur- 
nish the chief exports. The area is 39,000 squn.re 
miles and the population 911,000. 

The colony of Upper Senegal-Niger was founded 
in 1904. It includes more than two thirds of the 
course of the Niger and a large part of the Sahara. 
The chief exports are groimdnuts, cattle, and rubber. 
The area is 473,273 square miles. 

The colony of the Upper Volta wasformed by a de- 
cree of March, 1919, from the southern section of Up- 
per Senegal-Niger. It lies within tlio bend of tlie 
Niger and has an area of 95,000 square miles. The 
total population of the Upper Senegal-Niger and Up- 
per Volta colonies is about 5,600,000. 

The !tlilitary Territory of the Niger comprises 
that part of the Sahara to the east of tlie Niger and 
was established in 1904. It has an area of 533,000 
square miles and a population of 850,000. 

Mauretania, the western end of the Sahara, was 
formed into a protectorate m 1903, and in the fol- 
lowing year established as a " Civilian Territory." 
It has an area of 344,967 square miles and a popu- 
lation of 256,0(K), mostly Moslem. 



For administrative purposes nearly all of the region 
is divided between Algeria and throe of the colonies 
of French West Africa — Upper Senegal-Niger. 
Mihtary Territory of the Niger, and Mauretania. 

FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA 
(FRENCH CONGO). 

French Equatorial .\frica lies on the Atlantic 
coast, south of what was formerly the German Kam- 
erun and of the territory of the Belgian Congo, 
French occupation be«an m 1841. This possession 
is divided into three colonies, each imder a lieutenant 
governor, who in turn fs under the governor-general 
for French Equatorial Africa. 

Little has been done to develop the natural re- 
sources of forests and mines, but whale fisheries were 
started in 1912. 

The area is about 672,000 square niUes and the: 
estimated population (1915) 9,000,000. 

FRENCH SOMALI COAST. 

French Somali Coast lies on the east coast or 
Africa between the Italian colony of Eritrea and 
British Somaliland. The country has scarcely any 
industries, but the coast flslieries and inland trade 
are important. In 1912, 11,000 tons of salt were 
exported. Many of the exports from Abyssmia pass 
tlirough the colony. It has an area of about 5,790 
square miles and an estimated population of 206,000. 

MADAGASCAR. 

Madagascar was claimed by the French on the 
basis of a grant of Louis XIII. to a French trading 
company, which the nati^•es refused to recognize, 
Protestant missions had good success in the early 
nineteenth century. The French secm-ed conces- 
sions from the different native chiefs; and at length, 
m 1885, after severe fighting, obtained control of the 
island. A formal protectorate was established m 
1890; and in 1896 Madaga,car was recognized as a 
French possession and the Island and its dependen- 
cies declared a French colony. 

Government. Madagascar is ruled by a French 
governor-general, assisted by a council of adminis- 
tration, but has no elective assembly, nor is it repre- 
sented in the French National Assembly. Natives 
are employed to a large extent hi subordinate posi- 
tions, in both civil and military administration. 

Industry and Labor. Madagascar is largely 
agricultural. The chief vegetable products are rice, 
sugar, coffee, vanilla, and rubber. The forests 
abound in valuable woods and there are profitable 
mines of graphite. Silk and cotton weaving and the 
manufacture of Panama hats are carried on. The 
chief exports are hides, rice, gold dust, and wax. 

Religion and Education. The Christian popu- 
lation, imder numerous missionar.\' societies, is esti- 
mated at 450,000 Protestants and 60,000 Roman 
Cathohcs. The outlying tribes are still heathen. Ed- 
ucation is nominally compulsory from 8 to 14 years 
of age and there are 745 official schools, w ith 76,000 
pupils, and 432 private schools, with 43,000 pupils. 
The children areobliged to learn the French language. 

Defense. In time of peace the troops in Mada- 
gascar consist of 2,41 1 Europeans and 0,376 natives. . 
Durmg the World War Madagascar sent to France a 
large contingent of native officers and men. 

The area is estimated at 228,000 square miles and 
the population (1917) at 3,545,000. 



THE SAHARA. 

This name is given to the enormous region ex- 
tending from the Nile basin west to the Atlantic and [ pounds 
south from the Mediterranean colonies. In 1.S9S 
Great Britain recognized this vast territory of over 
1,500,000 square miles — half the size of the United 
States — as French. It contains numerous oases and 
some grazing country, but immense areas are sterile. 
The population of nomads has never been counted. 



Mayotta and the Comoro Islands are north of 
Madagascar, and are admmistered under the gov- 
ernment of tliat island. Sugar cane and vanilla, 
spices and perfume plants are cultivated. The area 
is 790 sq. miles; the population (1914) about 96,000. 

REUNION. 
Reunion, or Bourbon, discovered by the Portu- 
guese in 1545, occupied by the French in 1049, and 
conceded a French possession since 1767, is an island 
420 miles east of Madagascar, contrqlled by a gov- 
ernor-general, with the assistance of a privy council 
and an elective comicil-generai; it is represented in 
the French Assembly by two deputies and one sena- 
tor; The amiual rainfall is very high — 150 inches. 
Sugar, rum, coffee, tapioca, and vanilla and spices 
are the chief exports. The area is 970 square miles 
and the population (1912) 173,822. 

FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. 
French India is made up of the pettj' fragment 
of the \ast colonial empire which was attempted by 
Dupleix and broken to pieces by Clive in 1757. It 
comprises widely .separated to\™s on the coast of 
India and is represented in the French Assembly by 
one senator and one deputy. Pondicherry is the 
most important of these towns and has a population 
of 47,000. The principal crops are paddy, groimd- 
nuts, and raggee. In 1917 there were over 50,000 
acres of rubber trees, which produced over a million 
The total area is about 196 square miles 
and the estimated population (1918) 266,000. 

FRENCH INDO-CHINA. 

French Indo-China consistsof five states. Cochin 
China, Cambodia, Annani, Tonkin, Laos, and ihc 
port of Kwangchow. The entire territory is midet 



Development of the Merchant Marine from the Earhest 

Phoenician Time. 



[In part this picture is supplementary to the picture showing the 
development of the Navy, as the captain of the early Merchantman 
was compelled at times to defend his ship and goods from attack.] 

1. The Pharos. Lighthouse at Alexanch-ia, Egypt. 

2. Egyptian River Boat. Source of reconstruction same as Egyptian 

Alan-of-War. 

3. Modern Chinese Junk. 

4. Phoenician Fifty-Oared Boat. Oars at rest. Vase painting. 

5. Greek Merchantman. Open in the middle, showing cabin at bow 

and stern. 

6. Viking Trader. Covered cabin around mast. Decoration on sail 

Odin's cight-leggetl horse. 

7. The Colossus of Rhodes. (Statue of Apollo) in the distance. Used 

as a lighthouse. Inserted here to correct the common error, for which 
there is no authority, that the figure was placed astride the entrance to 
the harbor. It was beside the harbor and was one hundred and five feet 
high, above a lofty pedestal. 

8. French Merchantman. Fourteenth century. 

9. Hanseatic Merchantman (Kogge). Fourteenth Century. Basket 

beacon on headland. 

10. Venetian Galley. 

11. The "Santa Maria." Flagship of Admiral Christopher Columbus. 

Decoration on sail F(erdinand) Y(sabell), with the crown and coat f)f arms 
of Castile and Leon between the letters. 

12. The "Mayflower." Conveyed Pilgrim Fathers to Plymouth, Mass. 

13. American Clipper Ship. 

14. The "Clermont." Built by Fulton and used on the Hudson River. 

15. The "Savannah." First steamship to cross the Atlantic ocean. The 

paddle wheels were so arranged as to enable the captain to unship them 
when the wind was fair. 

16. An Ohio or Mississippi River Steamboat. Flat bottom and stern 

wheel. 

17. Modern Five-Masted Steel-Built Sailing Vessel. Sails hoisted by 

steam. 

18. A Long Island Sound Boat. 

19. Grain Elevator. Loading a whaleback. 

20. A Whaleback. Latest type of freight carrying steamboat. 

21. An Ocean Greyhound. Latest type of ocean passenger and freight 

steamship. 



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FROM THE EARLIEST PHOENICIAN TIME. 



v.op'i HK.HT by G. A C. MkhhiaM !..<». 
Registered at Stationers' Hall. London. England' 



1648 - 1714. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



97 



a go\ ernor-gen©i!^l, assisted by a secretary-general. 
Each of the states has a resident-superior, except 
Cochin China, which, being a French colony, has a 
governor. The area is about 256,000 square miles 
and the population (1914) was nearly 17,000,000. 

Cochin China. The chief occupation is rice cul- 
ture. River and coast fishii^ is also extensively 
carried on. As a French colony it sends one deputy 
to the French Assembly. The capital is Saigon, 
which possesses wharves, repair and dry docks, and 
a navy yard which makes it one of the important 
ports in Asia. The estimated area is 20,000 square 
milas and the population 3. 000, 0(H). 

Cambodia is north of Cochin China. The chief 
products are rice, betel, tobacco, and indigo. Pep- 
per is an important article of export, and the grow- 
ing of cotton is increasing. - The province contains 
amazing ruins of vast temple-cities built by an un- 
known race. The area is 45,000 square miles and the 
population 1,634,000. 

Annam lies nortiieastof Cochui China and Cam- 
bodia. The French occupation began in 17S7 and 
the protectorate was established m 1SS4. Mines 
of iron, copper, zinc, gold, and coal are worked. 
Sugar, rice, spices, cotton, and sillv are produced and 
exported. The area is 52,100 square miles and the 
population 5,200.000, 

Tonkin was annexed to France in 1S84. It is 
situated south of the Chinese Empire and north of 
Siam and Annam. Since 1902 its chief town, Hanoi. 
has been the capital of French Indo-China instead of 
Saigon. There is a school of medicine for natives, 
wliich united in 1917 with the European college into 
the University of Indo-China. The cliief crop is rice, 
but much siUi is raised, wliich is woven by the natives. 
Maize, animal products, sugar, cardamoms, cotton, 
cofTee, and tobacco are also exported. The area is 
46.-100 square miles pnd the population 6,119,720. 

Laos has been a French protectorate since 1893. 
The soil is very fertile, producing rice, cotton, indigo, 
tobacco, and fruits, and vast teak forests from which 
the logs are floated down to Saigon. Gold, tin. lead, 
and precious stones are also found. The natives, 
however, are so opposed to foreigners that for com- 
mercial purposes the coimtry is almost inaccessible. 
The area is 98,000 square miles and the population 
640.877. 

Kwangchow was leased from China in 1S9S as an 
offset to the Russian. German, and English annexa- 
tions in the north. It is a valuable seaport. lying on 
the China Sea, but is little used at present. It is 
under the authority of the governor-general of Indo- 
China. The area is 190 square miles and the popu- 
lation 168.000. 

FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA. 

French Guiana lies between Dutch Guiana and 
Brazil. It is the only French possession on the 
mainland in the Western Hemisphere, and was first 
occupied by the French in 1604. Since 1855 
Guiana has been a penal settlement for habitual 
criminals, and the penal population 'lumbers o\er 
4,000. On the lie du Diable. Captain Dreyfus was 
confhied from 1895 to 1899. There is little agricul- 
ture in the colony, and the most important industr>' 
is gold mining. Silver, iron, and phosphates are also 
found. The area is about 32. 000 square miles and the 
population (1911) about 49.000. 

Martinique is one of the West Indies. It was 
settled in 1635 by the French, who soon extermi- 
nated the natives. It has twice been taken by the 
British during wars, but restored at the conclusion 
of peace. It is represented in the French Assem- 
bly by one senator and two deputies. Sugar, rum, 
and cocoa are the chief productions, after wliich come 
tobacco, coffee, and cotton. The island has suf- 
fered terribly from tornadoes and eartlKjuakes, not- 
ably twice in 1902 from eruptions of Mont Pelee. 
Tlie area is 385 square miles and the population 
(1916) 193,087. 

Guadeloupe is the name commonly given to two 
closely adjacent islands (Guadeloupe proper and 
Grande-Terre) in the West Indies. Dependent on 
it are the five smaller islands of Marie-Galante. Les 
Saintes, Desirade, Saint-Barth^lemy. and Saint- 
Martin. Guadeloupe was occupied by the French 
in 1635; they lost it several times in war. but always 
r^ained it when peace was made. It is represented 
in the French Assembly by one senator and two 
deputies. The chief products are sugar. cofTee. and 
cacao. The total area is 722 square miles and the 
population (1912) 212.430. 

Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, each the largest of 
a small group of islands, with an area altogether of 
93 square miles and a population of 4.652, are the 
last remnant of the once magnificent colbny of New 
France. They lie in the north Atlantic, south of 
and near the coast of Newfoundland. The islands 
are hardly more than bare rocks. The catching and 
drying of fish is the sole occupation. 

FRENCH POSSESSIONS IN THE PACIFIC. 

New Caledonia is an island lying east of Aus- 
tralia with an area of 7,650 square miles and a popu- 
lation (1911) of 50.000, 5,671 of whom were of con- 



vict origin and 28,0(X) black. The transportation of 
con\icts to New Caledonia wa^ discontinued in 1898. 
The chief agricultural products are coffee, copra, and 
cotton. Attention is being giv'en to local industries, 
such as grain storage and meat-presefving works : and 
furnaces for smelting nickel ore have been erected. 
Valuable minqp exist of nickel and chromium ores. 

Five" groups of islands are dependent upon New 
Caledonia, with a total area of about 898 square 
miles and a population of less than 7.000. Of these 
the Loyalty Islands are perhaps the most important. 

The New Hebrides, situated northeast of New 
Caledonia, are imder a joint Anglo-French com- 
mission of naval officers. The area is about 5,000 
square miles and the population about 50,000. 
]\Iost of the natives are Papuans, formerly cannibals, 
but converted by the missionaries. Com. copra, 
coffee, and kauri wood are exported. 

FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN OCEANIA. 
Sc.\TTERED in the eastern Pacific are a number of 
island groups belonging to France; Society Islands, 
Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotu Archipelago, 
the Leeward Islands, the Ganibier, Tubuai, and 
Rapa Islands. The entire area is about 1.544 
square miles and the popidation was supposed to 
number (1911) 30.600. In 1903 these various is- 
lands were united to form a single colonj under a 
governor. 

The Society Islands were discovered in 1606 by 
Spanish navigators, were several times visited by 
Captain Cook, but were claimed by no one till 
France annexed them in ISSO. Tahiti is the largest 
and most important of the group. AU the natives 
are Christians, and practically all can read and write'. 
Tropical fruits are raised in abundance, and the chief 
exports are copra, mother-of-pearl, vanilla, coco- 
nuts, and oranges. 

Chronology — France and French Possessions. 

For earlier events, see Mediev,\l Period and 

Eahly Modern Period, Chronology. 
For French in America and India, see Canada 
and India. 
i64S> France takes part in the proceedings leading 
to the Peace of Westphalia. The kingdom is still 
imperfectly organized. The Huguenots have a legal 
status as a privileged religious community. The 
comito' is drawn into conflicts in Germany by 
rivalry with Austria; and in Italy by rivah'y with 
Spain. A child is on the throne. 
Civil wars of the Fronde distract France; an 
insurrection occurs in Paris agaiiist Mazarln, 
and the faction of the people and of the Parliament 
constructs barricades, August 27, Normandy and 
Provence revolt. 

1649. March. Peace of Bueil ends first war of the 
Fronde and quiets Paris. 

1650. Leaders of the opposition to the French com-t , 
Conde and Conti, and the Diike of Longueville. 
are seized and imprisoned by the direction of 
Mazarin. Revolt hi south, Spaniards approach 
Paris from the north. 

1650-1680. Exploration of the upper waters of the 
St. Lawrence and enlargement of settlements in 
Aca<ha and Canada isee Canada). 

165?. The Fronde makes another campaign, but 
the faction, overcome by the forces of Turenne, 
collapses; Conde goes over to the service of Spain. 

1653. End of the Fronde: nobles discredited. 

1659. Peace of the Pyrenees ends the war with 
Spain, wliich began in 1635 (England having joined 
France in 1657 receives Dunkirk. See Great 
Britain). France receives a portion of the Span- 
ish Netherlands and Roussilion. 

1660. Louis XIV. marries Maria Theresa, daugh- 
ter of Philip rv. of Spain. 

1661. March 9. Cardinal Mazarin dies. 
Louis XIV takes control of tiie government. 

1662. Colbert is controller-general of finances. 
1664. French East India Company is established. 

1666. French Academy of Sciences is founded. 

1667. War begins m Spain for Netherlands. Louis 
,XIV. claims sovereignty of Spain through his wife. 

though contrary to Salic law, and begins series of 
wars which ruin France. 

1668. Triple Alliance formed by England, Hol- 
land, and Sweden against France. Louis cjccu- 
pies Frauche-Comte. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
endfi the struggle: France yields Franche-Coint^ 
to Spain; concessions are made in the Netherlands 
to France. ^ , 

1670. Louis XIV. makes a secwt treaty with 
Charles II. of England, and then occupies Lor- 
raine. 

1672. England joins France in a declaration of war 
against Holland. Brandenburg and Spain come 
to the aid of HoSand. Brand en f:?i!.irg withdraws 
(1673-, but France loses in Holland. 

1674. French once more occupy Franche-Comte. 
whereupon German Empire declares war. An 
army imder Turenne lays^vaste the Palatinate and 
triumphs over the German forces sent to meet it. 

1675. Turenne gains the decisive battle of Turk- 
helm. 



1676. April. Dutch and Spani.'^h fleet is over- 
come by Duquesne off coast of Sicily. 

1677. April. William of Orange is defeated in 
Flanders aad Freiburg is captm-ed by the French. 

1678^1679. Treaties'^of peace signed at Nimwe^en 
(Nijmegen) by which France obtains Franche- 
Qoxnit' and a part of Flanders. Right of France 
to Alsace is confirmed. (See Eaklv Modern 
Period.) 

1681. Louis occupies Strassburg and attempts to 
take Luxemburg. 

1682. Declaration of the French clergy, drawn by 
Bossuet, and signed by the king, makes a bold 
affirmation of the liberties of the Gallican 
Church. Itack is repeated.] 
French fleet bombards Algiers, and in 1683 the at- 1 
Discovery of the lower Mississippi (Louisiana) by 
La Salle; foundation of claim to the whole Missis- 
sippi Basin (see United St.\tes). 

1683. Louis makes an invasion of the Spanish 
Netherlands, and hi the following year obtains 
the mastery of Luxemburg. 

1684. Extraordinary efl'orts to convert Huguenots: 
persecution (" the dragomiades ") follows, due 
mainly to the influence of the kmg's bigoted mis- 
tress. Madame de Maintenon. 

1685. The kmg revokes the Edict of Nantes; 
300.000 Huguenots leave France to escape the 
violence of their enemies, going to Holland. Eng- 
land. Brandenburg, and America. 

1688. Louis XIV. claims the Palatinate, which in 
October is devastated by his troops. Cruelties 
arouse the Germans. 

1689. Louis declares war against England and 
the Grand Alliance of Germany. Swwien, Spain, 
Savoy, and Holland. (See GVa/id Alliance, imder 
GRAND, a., in the Dictionary.) 

1690. July 13. A body of French troops, sent with 
James to Ireland, is routed at the Boyne. 

1692. AUied Dutch and Enghsh defeat French off 
the fort of La Hogue, thus taking control of sea 
from the French. 

1697. Sept. 20. Louis is compelled to sign the 
Treaty of Ryswlck (Rijswijk). He yields the 
larger part of his conquests, and officially recog- 
nizes \ViUiam of Orange as the English sovereign. 
Oct. 30. Peace with the Empire, by which Louis 
retains Alsace, including Strassburg. 

1699. Settlement of Louisiana begins at Biloxt. 

1700. Charles 11. of Spain dies on November 1, 
having named as his heir Philip of Anjou, grand- 
son of Louis XIV. The other powers object to 
the sovereignty of Philip. 

1701. England, Holland, Germany, and Austria 
form the Grand Alliance against France (see 
Grand Alliance, under grand, <i.. in the Diction- 
ary); France declares in favor of James, the Pre- 
tender, son of James II., for the English throne. 
War of the Spanish Succession follows; in 
America called Queen Anne's War (see Unitei> 
States). 

Prince Eugene, imperial commander, at first 
successful over the French, but his victorious 
career is soon checked. 

1703. An insurrection among the Protestants of 
the Cfevennes, kno\%Ti as tlie War of the Caml- 
sards; suppressed by 1705 after much fighting. 

1704. Aug. 13. English imder Marlborough with 
the forces of Prince Eugene defeat the French at 
Blenheim. Louis loses Bavaria. 

1706. May 23. Marlborough defeats Villeroi at 
Ramillies; the Spanish Netherlands are lost to 
France. Allies invade France and lay siege to 
Toulon. Conquests of France in Italy given up. 

1707. March. French fleet dispatched to enforce 
the claims of the Pretender James; it is cut off by 
the English. 

1708. July 11. Allied armies of Marlborough and 
Prince Eugene overcome the French at Oude- 
narde; Lille is captmed. 

1709. Sept. 11. Villars leads the French to a bat- 
tle with the allies at Malplaquet; French retreat. 

1710. In Spain, Charles of Austria has been placed 
on the throne by the allies; the Duke of ^'endome 
defeats Charles and restores the crowTi to Philip of 
Anjou. grandson of Louis. 

1711. April 11. Emperor Joseph dies. Charles 
now heir of all Hapsburg possessions. Grand 
Alliance dissolves, and allies favor Philip as 
against Charles in Spain. 

August. Fall of Whig ministry in Great Brit- 
ain brings in the peace party, enemies of Marlbo- 
|ough. - , 

1713. April 11. (aeneral treaty of peace is signed 
at t'Irecht. Louis renoimces all claims to the 
<!frown of Spain, and declares that he will no longer 
aid the Pretender in his claims to the British 
throne; he closes the harbor of Dmikirk, and 
signs a treaty for the regulation of commerce with 
Great Britain and Holland. 

France cedes Acadia (Nova Scotia) and claims 
to Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay region to 
Great Britain. Beginning of loss by the French 
of their American colonial empire. 

1714. Germany continues war: but Eugene loses and 
the Emperor makes peace at Bastatt, March 7. 



98 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



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1715. Srpt. I. Louis XIV. dies; Louis XV., his 

great-grandson, succeeds to the tlirone, with 
Philip, diilie of Orleans, as regent. 

1716. Jolin Law establishes his bank in Paris im- 
der the protection of the regent, by which the na- 
tional debt is to be paid off. The shares rise to 
a value twenty times that of aU the specie current 
in France in 1719; the scheme collapses in 1.20 
and causes general bankruptcy. (See Mississippi 
ScHE.ME or Bubble, in the Dictionary.) 

1717. Tripie Ailiance is formed by France, Great 
Britain, and Holland against the mtrigues of Peter 
of Russia, Charles XII. of Sweden, and Spam. 

1718. Spain invades SicUy: as a residt, France, 
Great Britain, Holland, and Austria form a Quad- 
ruple Alliance, and the fleet of Spain is defeated 
off Cape Passaro. ., , , 
Now Orleans founded; it becomes the capital or 
Louisiana. 

1719. French tmder Berwick make an attack on 
Spain (see Spain). 

1733. Duke of Orleans, the regent, dies, and the 
Duke of Bourbon becomes prime minister. 

1735. Louis angers Pliilip of Spain by marrymg a 
daughter of the king of Poland. 

1736. Fleury takes the conduct of affairs and mtro- 
du'ces a poUcv of caution, by which, in 1729. the 
Treaty of Seville is made with Spain and England. 

1733. Loins engages in the War of the Polish 
Succession agamst Russia and Austria, to re- 
store his father-in-law in Poland. 

1735. Spain and Sardmia join France: the theater 
of war is Germany and Italy. 
By a prehminary treaty signed at Vienna Au- 
gustus III. is recognized as kmg of Poland, but 
Stanislas is granted the duchy of Lorraine; Lor- 
raine is to pass to France on his death. 

1738. November. By the Treaty of Vienna, the 
provisions of the preliminary treaty are confirmed, 
France guarantees the pragmatic sanction. 

1741 France joins other powers, in violation of 
pragmatic sanction, to wrest territory from iSIaria 
Theresa of Austria. „ , j 

War of the Austrian Succession. French and 
Saxons take Bavaria and Bohemia for a time. 
1743. Army under BeUe-Isle forced to withdraw 
from Prague. „ ,. j 

1743. June 27. British defeat the French under 
Noailles at Dettingen. 

1744. Prussians renew war in Austria. 

1745 May 11. Saxe defeats the allied British, 
Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians at Fontenoy. 

1746 Oct 11. After conquering the chief towns 
of the Austrian Netherlands, Saxe again routs the 
allies at Rocourt (RaucoiLX). 

1747. British twice triumph over tlie French fleet 
off Cape Finisterre, and off Belle-Ile-en-Mer. 

1748. May 7. Maastricht captured by Saxe and 
the war ends with the Peace of Aix-la-Chai- 
pcile. October 18, all conquests restored_ 
General result of the war to France is loss of 
prestige without territorial advantage. 

1754. Formal outbreak of French and Indian War 
caused by rival claims of France and Great Britam 
to the Ohio country. (See United States.) 

1756. May. As the result of a diplomatic revolu- 
tion France forms an ailiance with Austria 
against Frederick the Great of Prussia, at \ er- 
sailles Seven Years' War begins, with Prussia, 
Great Britain, and some of the smaUer German 
states arrayed against France. Saxony, Russia, 
Sweden, and at a later date. Spain. 

June French capture island of Minorca. 

1757. J une 23. Downfall of French power in India 
assured by CUve's victory at the battle of Plas- 1 
sey (see India, under British Empipe). 

Nov. S. Frederick II. routs French and Im- 
perialists at Rossbach. ,^ „ ,. j , 

1758. French driven from Hanover by Ferdmand of 
Br'imswick. and beaten by him at Krefeld. Jime 23. 

1759 French again routed by Ferdinand, at 
Minden, August 1. British take Guadeloupe 
from France. In America, the French yield. 
Wolfe invades Canada, and Quebec is taken 
September 12. „ . 

1760 British under Clive destroy French power 
in India. Conquest of Canada completed by 
the British. „ , , ^, t, ^ 

1761. August. Belle-Ile-en-Mer taken by the Brit- 
ish August 15. family compact between the Bour- 
bon princes of France and Spain negotiated by 
Choiseul. (See family compact, m the Dictionary.) 

1763. Nov. S. Conquest of Martinique by the 
British. , , ^ t 

1763. Feb. 10. Peace of Paris signed by Great 
Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal. Canada, 
territory east of the Mississippi, and islands of 
Dommica, St. Vincent, and Tobago are ceded to 
Great Britain; and western Louisiana to Spam. 
France receives Martinique, Guadeloupe, Santa 
Lucia, Pondicherry, and Goree. while yielding to 
England Minorca and the Senegal settlement. 

1764. By the suggestion of Choissul. and after a 
decision agamst it by the Parliament of Paris in 
1762, the kmg orders the suppression of the order 
of tlie Jesuits m France. 



1766. By the death of Stanislas Leszczynskl Lor- 
raine reverts to France. (Cf. 1735, above.) 

1768. Corsica is ceded to France by Genoa. 

1770. Dauphin of France, later Louis XVI., mar- 
ries Marie Antoinette of Austria. 

1774. May 10. Louis XV. dies; succeeded by his 
grandson, Louis XVI. Maurepas becomes mm- 
ister of state and Tiu-got minister of finance. 

1777. The king appoints Necker minister of fiuance. 
France in flnancial straits. 

1778. Feb e. France recognizes the independ- 
ence of the United States, and concludes treaties 
of alliance and commerce. , , 

July 10. War is declared against Great Britam 
{see United States). 

1779. French fleet, aided by the Spanish, under- 
takes a blockade of Gibraltar. 

1781. Necker resigns, and publishes the facts about 
the desperate state of the puljlic finances. 

1783. Sept. IS. Great bombardment of Gibraltar 
fails to force a surrender. 

1783. Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris by 
France. Great Britam, the United States, and 
Spain- Great Britam recognizes the mdependence 
of the United States and cedes Tobago and Sene- 
gal to France. 

1787. Assembly ot notables and Parliament of 
Paris demand the callmg of the States-General. 
Caloime, favorite of the queen, minister of flnance, 
shows reckless extravagance. 

1788. Necker restored to office. 

1789. Crisis in history ot France — social eco- 
nomic, and poUtical. Ancien regime is worn out. 
France, a rich and mtelligent coimtry. is crushed 
by clumsy and imequal taxation and by feudal ob- 
ligations." Privileges no longer correspond to con- 
ditions Much of tlie peasantry and town popu- 
lation is in misery. Ideas of republican virtue and 
democratic government spread through study of 
weak Roman republics and ideas of the social con- 
tract (see in Diet.) as a basis of government. Suc- 
cess ol the American Revolution increases the 
pressure. ^ ,, 

May B. The States-General meets at Ver- 
sailles. Deputies of the Third Estate, or the peo- 
ple, in distinction from the nobility and the 
clergy, constitute themselves the National As- 
sembly. , .,. , , 

June 17. Numbers of the nobility and clergy 
become identified with tliis body. Jime 20, 
" Oath of the Tennis Court " not to separate 
without reform. Kmg orders the dissolution of 
the body, but the Assembly, imder the gmdance 
of MiralJeau. refuses obedience Jime 23. Jime 27. 
the two upper orders jom the Tliird Estate l5y 
command of King Louis. July 11. Necker is dis- 
missed; the national guard is formed. 
These measures fail to check the revolution; July 
14. the mobs storm the Bastille and destroy it. 
July 15 Lafayette is made commander of the 
national guard. The nobles begm to flee from 
the dangers of the msurrection. The king recalls 
Necker to office. Uprisings of peasants in the 
provmces destroy feudal system. 

Aug 4. Assembly abolishes all the rights and 
privileges known as feudal. August 27. Declara- 
tion of the Rights of Man is adopted. Sep- 
temlwr. Assembly decrees that the legislative 
power shall be vested m a single chamber of depu- 
ties; m tlie foUowtng month Louis accepts the de- 
cree of the Assembly, 

Oct 5 People of Paris, in insiu-rection. march 
to Versailles. Assembly, with the kmg, forced to 
remove to Paris. 

November. It is decreed that church property 
be confiscated for the uses of the state. 

1790. January. France is divided into depart- 
ments, tlius breaking up the old provmces and 
unifying government. In February, the law of 
primogeniture in connection with inlieritance is 
repealed. In Jime, all titles and other formal 
usages ot the aristocracy are abolished. July 12, 
the constitution of the clergy is made secular and. 
JiUy 14. a festival in celebration of the federation 
occurs m Paris. September, Necker is dismissed. 
An issue of assignats, or paper money based on the 
land confiscated from the chm-ch, follows. 

1791. June 20. Kmg and Ills family make an at- 
tempt to escape from France; they are inter- 
cepted at Varennes. and forced to return. 

August. Declaration of Pilhutz by Austria and 
Prussia. , ... 

Sept. S. Assembly completes the constitu- 
tion. September 14, the kmg makes oath of loy- 
alty to its provisions. In this month the Assem- 
bly also decrees the incorporation of Avignon and 
Venaissin with France. . 

Sept. SO. National Assembly ends; none of its 
members eligible for the new Legislative Assembly, 
wliich convenes on October 1. 
Insiurection occm-s m Haiti; the Negro slaves and 
mulattoes arm against the wliites. followmg the 
revocation of the decree of May 15 grantmg citi- 
zenship. . . 
1793. February. Property of the emigrants 
(emigres) confiscated. In March, Louis XVI. 



1715-1795. 

forms a Girondist ministry. April 20. the king is 
compeUed to make a declaration of war against 
Austria, and the forces of France and Austria 
engage in Flanders. Austria joined by Prussia, 
other German states, and Sardinia; the Dulve of 
Brimswick issues a threatening manifesto, July 25. 
Aug. 10. Municipal government of Paris forms 
an insurrectionary commune; the mobs attack the 
Tuileriesand massacre the Swiss Guard. Tliree 
days later the royal family is imprisoned. 

Aug. 17. A Revolutionary Tribunal established 
by the Jacobins, who are now m control of the 
Assembly. 

August. Army of Prussians and Austrians m- 
vades France. A Royalist rising takes place in the 
western part of France; it soon fails. In Septem- 
ber, the French take possession of Chambery and 
Nice. September 20, Kellermann, at the head of 
the French army, gains a victory at Valmy. Cus- 
tme leads a triumphant advance mto Germany in 
September and October. November 6, Austrians 
are beaten by Dumouriez at Jemappes, and the 
French occupy Belgium. Nice and Savoy are 
annexed in November. 

Sept. 2. Prison massacres in Paris begu-.. 
Sept. 21. National Convention replaces the 
Legislative Assembly, and the next day the Year 
One of the new French Kepublican era begins. 
Dec. 11. King Louis XVI. placed on trial by 
the revolutionists; he is convicted. 
1793. Blacks of Haiti are declared free by the 
French commissioners. 

Jan. 21. The king is put to death. Great 
Britam, Austria, Prussia, the German Empire, 
Spam. Naples, and Holland, with other lesser 
states, at once form a coalition against France. 
March. Revolutionists establish a new Tri- 
bunal of Justice; Danton. Marat, and Robespierre 
institute the Reign of Terror. A powerful Royal- 
ist rising occurs in the Vendee. 

March 1 8. Dumouriez routed by the Austrians. 
Hedeserts to the enemy, and France loses Belgium. 
April, a force from Spain makes a campaign in 
Roussillon. [tuted.l 

April 6. Committee of Public Safety msti-| 
April S. Genest arrives in the United States 
as French minister, expecting sympathy and aid. 
He is confronted by President Washington's declar- 
ation of neutrality and fails in his purpose (see 
United States). Naval war with England in- 
volves neutrality of the United States and causes 
anti-French feeling. 

May Revolt breaks out in Corsica. 
June 2. Girondists fall from power. June 
9-10, Rovalists in the Vendee win victories at 
Saumur. " July 13, Marat assassinated by 
Charlotte Corday. 

Aug. 27. British force Toulon to capitulate. 
Sept. 27. Convention enacts the law of the 
suspected. October 5, Revolutionary calen- 
dar (see in Did.) prepared by Romme instituted. 
Convention forces defeat the Royalists m the 
south. October, Carrier commits the atrocities 
at Nantes called the noyades (see m the Diet.). 

Oct. IS-ie. Austrians routed by Joiu-dan at 
Wattignies. 

Oct. IS. Marie Antoinette eiecuted; on 
October 31 the Girondists, and on November 6, 
PhUippe figalite (Orieans), of the royal house, suf- 
fer the same fate. November 10, worship of 
Reason mstituted by a decree of the Convention. 
December, Rovalists of the Vendee are overcome. 
Dec 19 Toulon taken from the British. In 
tliis engagement Napoleon Bonaparte com- 
mands the artillery. 
1794 ipril 6 Danton, Camille Desmoulms, and 
associates are put to death by the extremists, 
headed by Robespierre. [second time. I 

June Belgium conquered by the French a| 
July 27 Robespierre falls from power and 
Reign of Terror ends. July 28, he and his com- 
panions are executed. , „. . 

August Jourdan wins on the Rhine and Pi che- 
gni mvades Holland. IConvention.l 

1795. April 1. Insurrection in Paris agamst the I 
April 5 Peace of Basel with Prussia. Ger- 
man territories on the west side of the Rhine left 
in the possession of France. 

May 20. Second rismg against the Convention 
occurs in Paris. October 5. Royalists arouse the 
mob of Paris (" Day of the Sections "); but the 
Convention is protected, by Napoleon Bona- 
parte, who restores order. 

July 22. Spain and France make peace at 
Basel; Santo Dommgo ceded to France. 

Aug 22 Constitution of the Year III. 
for'maliv adopted. It pro^^des for a directorate 
of five members; practically an absolute govern- 
ment based on miUtary support, although havmg 
a nominal Parliament of two houses, 

September. Invasion of Germany by Jourdan 
and Pichegru. . . ^ 

Oct. 26. Convention closes its sessions. Oct. 
''8 Council of Ancients and Coimcil of Five Hun- 
dred hold their first session. Nov. 1. Directory 
established. Institute of France founded. 



1796-1815. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



99 



1J96. Napoleon Bonaparte is put in command of 
the Army of Italy; repeated defeats of tlie Aus- 
trians and Sardinians, especially at Lodl. May 
,1S, Milan occupied. Jourdau and Moreau con- 
quer soutlieastem Germany; but Archduke 
Charles of Austria drives looth Ijack to the Rliine 
in August and September. Bonaparte continues 
his triumplis over the Austrians at Lonato (Au- 
gust 3) and Castiglione dclle Stivlere (August 
5) and Rovercto (September 3-4). 

October. Spain declares war with England, 
while Ferdinand IV. of Naples makes peace with 
France. In November, aioreau makes a skillful 
retreat from tfie Rhine, and Bonaparte over- 
whelms the Austrians at Arcole (November 15- 
17). In December, France sends an expedition to 
Ireland without effect. 

1797. Jan. 14. Bonaparte beats Austrians at 
Bivoli Veronese; in February, he takes Mantua 
and makes agreement witli the pope; forces Aus- 
trians to accept preliminaries of Leotjen. April 18. 

Sept. 4. Majority of the Directory execute a 
coup d'etat over tlie EoyaUst section of that body. 

Oct. 17. Peace of Canipoforniido signed be- 
tween France and Austria, by wliich Austria gives 
up her possessions in Belgium and Lombardy, but 
receives a large part of the Venetian dominions. 
France receives the Ionian Islands. 

Decemher. Bonaparte returns to Paris. 
1797-1798. XYZ Mission and a naval war with 
United States (see United States). 

1798. February. French occupy Rome, and the 
Bonian Bepubllc is proclaimed. 

April. Switzerland is revolutionized and the 
Helvetic Republic constituted, Geneva bemg 
added to France. 

Mail. Bonaparte sets out on an expedition to 
Egypt. In Jmie, he dispossesses the Ivnights of 
St. John and occupies Malta. Reaching Egypt, 
he overcomes the Mamelukes in the battle of the 
Pyramids, July 21. August 1-2, French fleet de- 
stroyed by Nelson, m battle of the Nile (see Brit- 
ish Empihe; zXso Egypt, under British Empire). 

December. Second coalition formed against 
France by Russia, Austria. Great Britain, Portu- 
gal, Naples, and Turkey. 

1799. January. Naples reduced by the French. 
In March, Russians and Turks seize the Ionian 
Islands. In April, Russians and Austrians over- 
whelm Moreau in northern Italy. Ferdinand of 
Naples is restored. 

Aug. 22. Bonaparte, after an unsuccessful 
campaign in SjTia, returns alone to France. 

Nov. 9. A coup d'etat against the Directory- 
undertaken by Bonaparte. 

Nov. 10. Coimcil of Five Hundred dispersed 
by force. December 24, Consulate proclaimed. 
the tliree members being Napoleon, Cambac^res, 
and Lebrim; Bonaparte First Consul. 



1800. May. Bonaparte leads his forces over the 1807. Feb 



Louisiana to the United States for Sl.5,000,000, 
cau.sed by Bonaparte's failure to reoccupy Haiti 
and tlie renewal of naval war (see United St.\tes). 

1804. Napoleon plants an army at Boulogne and 
prepares to cross the Chamiel if his fleet can hold 
off the British fleet. 

February-March. Conspiracy against Bona- 
parte discovered m France. 

March 21. Civil code of the French (Code 
Napoleon) published. 

Napoleon executes the Duke of Enghien, a Bour- 
bon prince, seized in German territory. 

May IS. Napoleon proclaimed hereditary 
emperor of the French. December 2, Pope 
Pius VII. officiates at the coronation of Napoleon 
and Josephine in Paris. lofltaly. I 

1805. March. Napoleon proclaims himself king I 
Great Britam, Austria, Sweden, and Russia make 
an alliance against France, but the states of 
southern Ciermany take the side of Napoleon. In 
Jime, France annexes the Ligurian Repubhc. 
September. Bavaria invaded by the Austrians, and 
the French cross the Rliine. October 17, Austrian 
army of Mack surrenders at Ulm. 

Oct. 21. Combined French and Spanish fleet 
decisively beaten at Trafalgar by Nelson, who is 
killed in action. Tliis victory ends all danger of 
an invasion of Great Britain. 

Nov. 13. Vienna occupied by Murat. Decem- 
ber 2. Napoleon at Austerlitz defeats the com- 
bined armies of Austria and Ru.ssia, commanded 
by the two sovereigns, Francis and Alexander. 

Dec. 15. Convention with Prussia at Schon- 
bruim by which that nation cedes Ansbach, Bay- 
reuth, Cleves, and Neuchatel, but is promised 
Hanover. 

Dec. 26. Peace of Pressburg signed by 
France and Austria. Austria yields up her Vene- 
tian territories to the Italian kingdom; Bavaria 
receives the Tyrol, Augsburg, and part of Swabia; 
Baden and WUrttemberg are enlarged: Austria 
receives Salzbiu-g. 
1806. Napoleon agrees to the Confederation of the 
Rhine, mcluding much of western Germany, thus 
practically destroying the Holy Roman Em- 
pire. Emperor Francis alxlicates title of Holy 
Roman Emperor. Ma.ximilian I. of Bavaria and 
Frederick I. of Wiirttemberg are made kmgs. 
Napoleon makes war on Prussia, wliich relies on 
the military system of Frederick the Great. 
October 14. decisive defeat of Prussian army at 
Jena. Western part of kingdom collapses and 
Napoleon enters Berlin. 

Not. 21. Berlin decree against neutral com- 
merce; very unfavorable to the United States. 
Part of the Continental system of defeating 
Great Britam by boycottmg British trade. Na- 
poleon msists that his dependencies and aUies 
shall accept the system (see United States). 



Great St. Bernard. Jime 14, Austrians defeated 
by him at Marengo. In September, Malta falls 
into the hands of the British. 

Oct. 1. Spain secretly retrocedes Louisiana to 
France as a part of a vast preject for renewing the 
French colonial empire. 

Dec. S. Austrians mider Archduke John de- 
feated by Moreau at Hohenliuden. 

1801. Feb. 9. Austria makes peace at Lune- 
Tille. All of Germany west of the Rhine yielded 
to France. German princes are promised indem- 
nification east of the Rhine (see tiERMANv). 

March 21. Treaty of Madrid with Spain. 
Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla apportioned to 
France, in return Tuscany to become the kingdom 
of Etruria imder son of Duke of Parma. July 15, 
Bonaparte concludes a concordat with Pope Pius 
VII.; Catholic worship restored in Prance, under 
the control of the state. 

Sepiembcr. France is forced to withdraw 
from Egypt, and a prelimmary treaty of^eace 
with Great Britain is promulgated in October, 
when, also, a treaty with Russia is made. Bona- 
parte sends an expedition imder Leclerc to sub- 
due Toussaint rOuverturc. leader of the re- 
volted blacks in Haiti, who is captiu-ed and im- 
prisoned in France. 

1802. Legion of Honor mstituted by Bonaparte. 
Cisalpine Repubhc reconstituted: Bonaparte 
becomes president of the Italian Republic. 

March 27. Peace of Amiens between France, 
Spain, and the Batavian Repulilic on the one part j 
and Great Britam on the other. Great Britain 
recognizes the changes m the governmental stnic- 
ture of Europe that have been wrought by France. 
In Jime, a treaty of peace is made with Tiu-key. 

A ug. 2. Napoleon is declared Consul for life. 
In September, Piedmont is miited to France. 

1803. Jan. 1. Bonaparte tlu-eatens war on Great 
Britain because of retention of Malta. 

Feb. 19. Bonaparte reorganizes the Swiss con- 
federacy. In May, Great Britain again declares 
war. Hanover is occupied by the French a month 
later. In Haiti the blacks succeed in driving 
out the French from the island. 

April 30. Treaty for cession of the whole of 



Allied Prussians and Russians 



meet the French in battle of Eyiau; indecisive 
May 26, French captme Danzig. Jime 14, Na- 
poleon triumphs over tlie Russians at Friedland. 
Naiioleon and Alexander tliereupon meet for a 
conference on a raft on the Niemen, and the out- 
come is the Treaty of Tilsit, July 7. Prussia, July 
9, agrees to the terms of peace, gives up her terri- 
tories west of the Elbe and dominions m Poland, 
from which Napoleon forms the duchy of War- 
saw, wliich he confers on Frederick Augustus of 
Saxony. August, Napoleon creates the kingdom 
of Westphalia, of which his brother, Jerome, is 
declared king. Napoleon now seizes the posses- 
sions of the Swedes in Germany. 

Sept. 2-5. Second bombardment of Copen- 
hagen by the British. 

November. Jimot mvades Portugal; Portu- 
guese coiu-t leaves the kingdom (see Brazil). 
December, Napoleon takes possession of the king- 
dom of Etruria. and, December 17, issues the Mi- 
lan decree, still further pushing illegal seizures of 
neutral trade. 

1808. February. French occupy Rome. March 25, 
Murat marches into Madrid. April, Napoleon 
adds tlie Papal States to his Italian kingdom. 

May. Ferdmand VII. and liis recently abdi- 
cated father, Charles IV. of Spain, meet Napoleon 
at Bayorme and are forced to renomice theu- 
claims to the Spanish tlirone. June 6, Napoleon's 
brother. Joseph, iiroclainied king of Spain. In 
July the Spaniards cut oft and capture French 
army at Bailen. British army under Wellesley, 
later Duke of Wellington, begins a campaign 
against tlie French in Portugal, and compels Junot 
to evacuate that coimtry. 

Aug. 1. Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, 
proclaimed king of Naples, as Joachim I. 

September, October. Napoleon has conferences 
at Erfurt with Alexander I. 

1809. Austria once more takes up the conaict 
with Napoleon. In April, her armies are over- 
come by Napoleon at Abensberg, Landshut, Egg- 
miilil. and Regensburg (Ratisbon). May 13, 
French emperor enters Vienna. May 21 and 22, 
battles of Aspem and Essling; the army of the 
Archduke Charles gains an advantage. July 6, 



Napoleon is victorious over the Austrians at Wa- 
gram. July 12, armistice signed. October 14, 
Peace of Schiinbrunn follows. Dalmatia and 
region north to Carhitliia surrendered to France, 
and are constituted the Illyrian Provinces (see 
Jugo-Slavia). 

May. Bonaparte decrees the formal annexa- 
tion of the Papal States to the French Empire. 
Jime, excommunication of the emperor by Pius 
VII. Napoleon arrests the pope and imprisons 
him in France. (Napoleon, divorced. I 

December. Empress Josephine, childless by| 
1809-1812. Diplomatic controversy with United 
States over neutral trade (see United States). 

1810. April. Napoleon espouses Marie Louise, 
daughter of the emperor of Austria. In Jidy he 
aimexes Holland. At Busaco, Massena is" re- 
pulsed by Wellington, who, however, in October, 
retires beyond the Imes of Torres Vedras. lii 
October the French annex Bremen, Hamburg, and 
Lubeck. Mauritius taken by the British. 

1811. March. Massena forced to retreat from 
Portugal: but Badajoz captured by the French. 

1812. January. Valencia is captured by Suchet. 
Wellington besieges Ciudad-Rodrigo. In April, 
he storms Badajoz. July 22, he defeats Mar- 
mont. In August, British enter Madrid. South- 
em Spain lost to the French. 

June 22. Napoleon declares war against 
Russia, and tlie Grand Army of 400,(K)0 men. 
includmg Italians. Poles, and Germans, moves to 
mvade the czar's territories. In August the Rus- 
sians are beaten at Smolensk. September 7, 
force of Kutuzov routed by the French at Boro- 
dino (the Moskva), and, September 14, the 
French enter Moscow m triumph. City is set 
on fire, and Frencli begm, October 19, the fright- 
ful retreat from Russia, overtaken by early whi- 
ter and piusued by the Russian army. Novem- 
ber 26-28, dreadful passage of the Berezina River; 
great part of the army destroyed or captured ' 
First terrific defeat in Napoleon's history. 
Bonaparte leaves army and hastens to Paris 
where he arrives m December. 

1813. German nations now rally and take up 
arms agauist France. February. Russians form 
an alliance with the Prussians at Kahsh. The 
Swedish army is sent agamst Napoleon by Ber- 
nadotte, liis former marshal, now crown prince 
of Sweden. In May. the French emperor beats 
the allied Russians and Prussians at Lutzen and 
Bautzen. 

June 21. French are overcome at Vitoria by 
Wellington, who pursues the French into their 
own territory. 

A ug. 12. Austria declares war agamst France. 
Various French defeats follow, culmmating, Oc- 
tober 16-lS, in the battle of Leipzig (" battle 
of the Nations "); Napoleon routed. Defeat of 
the French leads to the dissolution of the Confeder- 
ation of the Rhine and the kingdom of Westphalia. 
Napoleon moves back of the Rhine, and his army 
m Holland withdraws. 

1814. France Is invaded by the allies. In Jan- 
uary Murat deserts the French cause. A congress 
is held at Chatillon in February -March to sound 
the French, but no settlement is reached. 

March 9. Bliicher drives back the French at 
Laon. French troops withdraw from the Papal 
States. In March, Ferdmand VII. of Spam set at 
liberty and resumes throne. 

March 20. Allies besiege Paris; March 31, 
they make their entry into the French capital. 
April 1, French Senate under the direction of Tal- 
leyrand establishes a provisional government. 
April 11, Napoleon abdicates at Fontainebleau. 
April 10, in Italy, Beauliamais, totally defeated, 
makes a covenant with liis conquerors. May 3] 
Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., recalled \.o 
be king of France by the action of the Senate and 
the allies, enters Paris with all solemnity. This 
is the First Restoration. May 4. Napoleon 
banished by the allies to the island of Elba. 
June 4, Louis XVIII. issues the Charte Octmyie, 
a conservative constitution including provision for 
a limited parliament. 

September. Congress of all Eiu-opean powers 
assembles at Vienna to reorganize the Continent. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1815. Feb. 26. Napoleon escapes from Elba and 

lands m France, M arch 1 . Ney passes over to liim 
and carries over the army. March 20, Louis 
XVIII. flees from Paris: Napoleon enters the 
capital in triumph. (See Hundred Days in 
the Diet.) AUiance of the powers agamst him is 
at once renewed. Murat joms Napoleon, but is 
defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino. May 2-3. . 

June 9. General acts of the Congress "at Vi- 
enna signed. (.See Nineteenth-Centuhy Pe- 
riod.) France permitted to retain the Umits pos- 
sessed by her in 1792. 

June 16. Napoleon defeats Bliicher at Ligny, 
but Ney is worsted at Quatre Bras, and, June 18, 
Napoleon is overwhelmed at Waterloo bv the 
forces of Wellmgton and Blucher. The ernpire 



100 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



1815—1892. 



1815 (continued). 
J^ is extinguisbed and the emperor abdicates for 

'' the second time, at Fontainebleau, June 22. 

July 7, the aiiies enter Paris. 

July S. Louis XVm. makes a second entrj' 
into the capital and the Second Restoration 
occurs. July 15, Napoleon tlirows liiniself on the 
generosity of the British nation: he is sent to St, 
Helena, October 16. Murat attempts to gain 
-^ possession of the kingdom of Naples, but is taken 

O and shot by order of a court-martial, Oct. 13. 

A'ov. 20. Second Peace of Paris signed. 
Boundaries of 1790 restored to France. 
1818. Congress of the great powers is held at Aix- 
la-Ciiapellc (for France and Holy Alhance. see 
Nineteenth-Centukv Period), and soon after- 
wards the armies of the allies are withdrawn from 
France. • In December, the king dismisses the 
P Richelieu ministry, and the administration is in- 

trusted to the Duke Decazes. 
182D. Februnry. Assassination of tlie Duke de 
Berry, the king's nephew, on whom the succe*;- 
sion depends. Decazes dismissed, and Villele 
made premier. 
1821. May 5. Napoleon dies at St. Helena. 
1833. French army sent to Spain to restore the 

Q authority of Ferdinand (see Ninlteenth-Cexturv 

Period). In May, the king of Spain is reestab- 
lished on the tlirone. (his brother, Charles X. I 
1824. Sept. 16. Louis XVIII. dies; succeeded byl 
183.5. Government of France decrees an indemnity 
of $200,000,000 to the imigris, and recognizes the 
independence of Haiti. 
1837. July 6. Treaty of London on Greece (see 
Nixeteenth-Century Period). 
J^ 1838. Villele succeeded by Martignac and PoUgnac. 

18.30. French begin conquest of Algeria; July 5, 
Bourmont captures Algiers, but lighting with Abd- 
el-Kadir and other tribesmen continues imtil 1S47. 
July S6. King proclaims a series of miconsti- 
tutional ordinances, dissolving the cliamber and 
suppressing the pubUc journals. Revolution in 
Paris, July 27-29, overthrows the Bourbons, 

S Charles X. abdicates, August 2. and escapes. 

August 7, the chambers declare for Louis Phi- 
lippe, duke of Orleans: two days later he is 
crowned as l<ing of the French. 
1831. Constitution made more liberal. Casi- 
mir Perier premier. Legislature abolishes heredi- 
tary peerage. 
1831-1833. France and Belgium (see Belgium). 
1833. Oeiober. Soult forms a coahtion ministry 
^ including among its members Tliiers and Guizot. 

183G. Ffibruary. Cabinet formed by Thiers. In 
August, Thiers resigns and the premiership is 
given to Mole. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 
nephew of Napoleon I., makes a futile attempt to 
start a revolution. 
1839. March. Mole ministry goes out, and two 

months later Soult becomes premier. 
1810. Fortiflcations of Paris begun. In March, 
Thiers ministry is formed. 

July. France in alliance against Jlehemet -All 
(see Egypt, tmder British Empire, and Nine- 
tee-Nth-Century Period). 

August. Louis Napoleon tries a second rising: 
Imprisoned at Ham. 

October. Cabinet resigns: Soult again premier 
with Guizot as minister of foreign affairs. 

Y Dec. 15. Remains of Napoleon brought to 
Paris and interred in the Hotel des InvaUde.'i, 

1814. Oct. 14. Treaty with China. [Guizot. I 

1817. September. Soult resigns; succeeded byl 

1848. February. Rioting in Paris, occasioned by 
widespread hostihty to the government. Guizot 
dismissed and a new ministry formed by Thiers. 

Feb. S4. Revolutionary insurgents force Louis 

\*/ Philippe to abdicate the tlironc. Provisional 

''' government is established under Lamartine and 

others. Second Repubhc is formally proclaimed. 

March. A workingman's convention assembles 

in Paris, over wliich Blanc presides. April 27, 

slavery in French colonies abolished. May 4, 

National Assembly sits. May 1.5, rioting in Paris. 

June. Cavaignac chosen as chief of thee.\ecu- 

^ tive, and a republican constitution is adopted on 

yv November 4. December 20, Louis Napoleon 

Bonaparte is elected president of the ropulilic, 

1849. Original Jissembly dissolved, and a new legis- 
lative assembly meets in Maj": a Bonapartist min- 
istry appointed, October 13. French expedition ' 
is sent to the aid of Pope Pius IX- (see Italy). I 

1851. Dec. g. President Louis Napoleon executes ' 
a coup d'itat, \ioleiitly breaks up the legislative' 

Y assembly, and establishes himself as dictator in 
France. December21,heseciu-eshiseiection tothe 
presidency for a term of ten years by a plebiscite. | 

1853. The question of an Empire is approved by 
a popular vote. December 2, Louis Napoleon , 
is proclaimed as emperor of the French, with 
the style of Napoleon III. 

1854. France joins Great Britain in the contest 

Z against Russia known as the Crimean War (see 

Russia). 

Napoleon III. marries the Spanish cotmtess 
Eugenie de Monti>o. 



u 



1855. The first French International exhibition 

is held in Paris. 

1856. Paris center of the diplomatic world: Peace 
of Paris (see Nixeteenth-Centcry Period). 

1357. Anglo-French expedition against China 
(see Chixa). 

1858. Jan. 14. Orsini makes an attempt to assassin- 
ate Napoleon III. as recreant toearly vowsasone of 
the C irboniri. .Shakes the emperor's absolutism. 

1858-1860. Napoleon HI. and Italy (see Italy and 
Ni.neteexth-Cexturv Period). 

1860. Privileges of the legislative body are much 
increased. 

1861-1865. French imperial government unfriendly 
to Union government of the United States durmg 
the Civil War. 

1861-1867. French forces in Mexico, nominally 
to collect debts, actually to foi-m a colony (see 
Mexico). (France by Annam.l 

1863. June 5. Lower Cochin China ceded tol 

1866. Napoleon neutral in war between Prussia and 
Austria (see Nixeteenth-Century Period). 

1867. Frencli extend dominion in Cochin China. 
An expedition sent against Garibaldi at Civita- 
veccliia in October (see Italy). 

1869. Emperor grants seme of the demands of the 
Liberals, 

1870. Ministry of OUivier begins, January 2. Na- 
poleon HI. submits new laws of importance. 
May 8, a plebiscite expresses confldence in the 
Empire by a great majority. May 15, Gramont 
made minister of foreign affairs. 

July 2. Spain decides to offer the crown to 
Prince Leopold of Hohenzoliern. France protests, 
and Bismarck (" Ems dispatch ") fans French 
excitement into the war for which he has prepared 
Prussia. 

July 19. France declares war on Prussia. 
August 2, advanced forces of the two cotmtries 
meet at Saarbriicken (Speicheni). August 6, 
Mac.Mahon is defeated by Frederick William, 
cro\\Ti prince of Prussia, at Worth. Another 
battle, disastrous to the French, is fought at Cour- 
celles, August 14, and tlie French under Bazaine 
encounter the Germans tmder Prince Frederick 
Charles at Mars-la-Tour, August 16, Bazame 
defeated at Gravelotte, August IS. September 
1, MacMahon and the emperor in person van- 
quished at Sedan. MacMahon's army surren- 
ders and Napoleon III. is made a prisoner. 

Sept. 4. In Paris the catastrophe results in the 
proclamation of a republic; a temporary gov- 
ernment for the defense of the nation is estab- 
lished. September 19, Paris is surroimded by 
hostile forces and a siege begins. Toui surren- 
ders, September 23, and Strassburg, September 

27. Gambetta gets out of the city and makes a 
proclamation from Tours. October 11, von der 
Taim occupies Orleans, October 27, Bazaine siu"- 
renders Metz and a large army to Prince Freder- 
ick Charles. Revolutionary outbreaks occur in 
Paris. Through November and December vain 
efforts are made by France to head off the Ger- 
mans in the west. 

1871. January. Renewal of desperate attempts to 
hold the Germans in the south and cast : all in vain. 
January 28, Paris capitulates, and a temporary 
armistice is signed. 

Feb. S. A National Assembly is elected and be- 
gins its sessions at Bordeaux. February 12. Feb- 
ruary 17, Thiers cho.sen as chief of the executive. 

Feb. 26. Prehminary Treaty of Versailles is 
signed by France and Germany, and on March 1 
it is ratified by the French Assembly', Alsace, 
German Lorraine, and Metz are ceded to Ger- 
many. France to pay a billion dollars: German 
occupation tmtil the money is paid, March 1. the 
Germans make a triumphal entry into the French 
capital. May 10, definitive treaty of peace is 
signed at Fraiikfurt. 

March IS. Two days before the meeting of the 
Assembly at Versailles, the War of the Com- 
mune breaks out. The Red Republicans make 
themselves masters of Paris, and another epoch 
of confusion and slaughter ensues, MacMalion 
made commander of the military forces of the gov- 
ernment. Forces of the repubhcan government 
enter Paris, May 21. Montmartre jields. May 
23, and on the following day the Commtmists bum 
the pubhc buildings of the city: Archbishop Dar- 
boy and other hostages are slaughtered. May 

28, civil war ends with execution or deportation 
of the radicals. [pubhc, I 

Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the re-l 
1873-1875. Efforts to restore the Bourbon mon- 
archy: Coimt de Chambord, heir to that line, re- 
fuses to accept the tricolor flag. 
1873. May 24. Thiers resigns the presidency: 
succeeded by MacKlahon. September 16, evac- 
uation of France by the German troops com- 
pleted. November 19, term of MacRIahon's 
presidency fixed by the Assembly at seven 
years. Bazaine tried on a charge of treason, and 
found guiltj'. 
1875. National legislative bddy composed of a 
Senate and a Chamber of Deputies created by 



vote of the Assembly, thus establishing a republi- 
can constitution. 

1875-1883. France and Egypt (see Egypt, mider 
British Empire). 

1878. International exhibition of arts and in- 
dustries lield at Paris. 

1880. March 19. Ferry educational bill be- 
comes a law. March 30, Freycinet cabinet pul> 
lishes an ordinance against the Jesuits. July 10, 
amnesty is granted to the Communists. In Sep- 
tember. Ferry, on the resignation of the Freycinet 
ministry, forms a cabinet. 

Society Islands amiexed to France. 

1881. May 12. Protectorate over Tunis estab- 
lished by treaty, wliich- Tiu-key reluctantly ac- 
knowledges. Italy, estranged, forms Triple 
Alliance (1882) with Germany and .\ustria. 
France isolated. [Ferry. 1 

October. Gambetta njinlstrysucceedsthatofl 
1883. Gambetta resigns; Freycinet succeeds as 
premier. In July, Freycinet gives place to Du- 
cierc. ■ Gambetta dies, December 31. 
Tonkin War begms. French storm Hanoi, 
April, in attempt to secure delta of the Songka, 
but encoimter the " Black Flags, " pu-atical Clii- 
nese rebels. Annam assists the " Black Flags " 
and seeks Chinese aid. 

1883. January. Duclerc resigns: Fallieres pre- 
mier. In February, Ferry succeeds FaUieres, 

May 19. French defeated by " Black Flags," 
In August, the French storm Hue, capital of An- 
nam, and, August 25, Annam by treaty becomes 
a French protectorate. December 17, capture 
of Sontai b.v French brings Cliina mto the war. 
War begins in Madagascar: Jime 13, Tamatave 
bombarded. 

1884. June. Defeat of French by Chinese at 
Langson. August 23, French fleets destroy fleet 
and arsenal at Foochow. Formosa blockaded. 

Augu.^t. Revision of French constitution; 
princes no longer eligible for the presidency. 

1885. March 23. French again defeated at Lang- 
son, which causes fall of Ferry ministry: Brisson 
minlstrysucceeds. In Jime, treaty of peace with 
China; French protectorate over Tonkin and 
Annam recognized. 

June 8. Scrutin de liste adopted, 

Dec. 17. Treaty with Madagascar; French 
protectorate. 

Dec. 2S. Grevy elected president. Brisson 
cabinet resigns. 

1886. January. Freycinet again premier. Ex- 
ile of Orleans and Bonapurto princes decreed. In 
December, Goblet succeeds Freycinet as premier. 

1887. April 21. Germans arrest Schnabele, a 
French police officer accused of spying, after 
having invited him to a conference across the 
border. French aroused, but war is averted, 

.May. Goblet resigns and Rouvier forms a 
cabmet, November. Rouvier goes out. Decem- 
ber 2, resignation of President Grevy. Decem- 
ber 3, Carnot elected president, and Tirard 
becomes premier. 

1888. Attempts to form a party on basis of a revi- 
sion of the constitution, supposed to be a Bonapart- 
ist plot: headed by General Boulanger. Tirard 
resigns in March, and a month later FIOQuet is 
named as premier. 

1889. February. Tirard again premier. At- 
tempt to malie Boulanger cliicf power in the 
state: an order for his prosecution by the Senate, 
and he flees from France, 

International exhibition of the industrial and- 
fine arts is held at Paris, Eiffel Tower erected. 

1890. Elections result in victory for the Repub- 
licans, 325 members of the Chamber against 246- 
in opposition. Boulangists reduced to ridicule. 
Alinistry of Tirard resigns in !March. and Frey- 
cinet again becomes premier. 

1891. France enters into relations of friendship with 
Russia : French fleet received with enthusiasm at 
Kronstadt. 

.iugust 22. Secret defensive alliance signed 
between Russia and France, thus restoringr 
France to the position of a great power whose 
friendship is sought. 

Anti-German demonstration in Paris on the per- 
formance of Wagner's Lohengrin, September 16. 
Order is issued by the government for stoppmg 
pilgrimages to Rome: French pilgrims in Italy 
are attacked by the Itahan populace for alleged 
insidts to the tomb of Victor Emmanuel. 
1893. Excitementover anarchist outrages. Fel> 
ruary, ministry of Freycinet overttiro\sTi: Loubct 
becomes premier. Cholera reaches Paris. 

Seplember-Octolier. French troops make a vic- 
torious campaign in Dahomey. 

November. Frauds in connection with the 
finances of the Panama Canal Company are 
discovered. De Lesseps and his associates are 
arrested. In the year following, a^ trial results in 
their conviction and the revelation that many s-en- 
ators, deputies, and ex-ministers have been per- 
sonally and poUtically dishonest. In December, 
Loubet ministry is overthrown and sticceeded by 
that of Ribot. 



1893 — 1914. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE. 



101 



1893. Conflict and treaty with Slam (see Siam). 
January. Government reconstructed under 

Ribot witli a view to eradicate Panama scandal. 

1894. May. iMinistry overtiirown; Dupuy minis- 
try succeeds. 

June 2Jt. President Carnot assassinated at 
Lyon. June 27. Casimir-Perier elected his suc- 
cessor. 

October. Agitation begins over arrest, trial, 
and condemnation of Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish 
officer in the French army, charged with selling 
secret information regarding the army and tiie mil- 
itary service to the agent of a foreign government; 
Drej-fus sentenced to transportation for life, Jan- 
uar>' 5. 1S95. 

1895. J<in. 14. Resignation of Dupuy ministry 
because of financial scandals, followed, January 
15, by resignation of President C'asimir-Perier. 
January 17, Faure elected president, January 
26. Ribot ministry formed. October 28, Ribot 
resigns because of railway scandals; Bourgeois 
forms a Radical ministry. 

May. Interference in Japanese-Chinese peace 
terras tsee China). 

1896. April 23. Bourgeois ministry retires; April 
28, Rleline forms a new ministry of Moderates 
and Republicans. 

Aug. 6. Madagascar declared a French colony. 

Sept. 30. Commercial treaty between France 
and Italy. 

Oct. 0. Czar and czarina of Russia arrive in 
France and are received with great enthusiasm. 

1897. March SO. Trial of the deputies accused of 
participation in the Panama scandals; several 
are convicted. 

1898. '■ Dreyfus Scandal "" of 1894 revived. Public 
agitation fed by Zola, the novelist, who publishes 
" J'accuse! ", denouncing the government and the 
coiU"t-martial which convicted Drej-fus, on the 
ground that Dreyfus is a victim of military domi- 
nation and producing evidence of his imiocence. 
Opposition to militarism aroused, but Zola con- 
demned to fine and imprisonment, February 23. 

April 10. In the grab for Chinese territory 
France secures the lease of Kwangchow. 

1899. Feb. 16. President Faure dies of apoplexy; 
February IS, Loubet elected his successor. 

Sept. 9. Dreyfus, brought back to France for 
second trial by comt-martial, is again fomid 
guilty ; pardoned. Sept. 19, wliich is virtually an ex- 
oneration for him and a defeat for the militarists. 

1900. Boundary dispute between Brazil and French 
Guiana settled by arbitration. 

Boxer Rising (see China). 

April 14-Sept. 16. Paris Universal Interna- 
tional Exposition. 

1901. For trouble with Turkey, see Turkey. 
Long-standing difficulties with the pope and 
church in France, development of Socialism", 
growth of religious communities and their vast 
holdings of real estate, considered a menace to the 
state, cause lengthy controversy in Parliament. 
July 1. Act of Associations for the strict regula- 
tion of religious orders, especially for the restric- 
tion of property. Many Jesuits and Benedictines 
withdraw from France. All imauthorized reli- 
gious orders to be abolished. October 1. Educa^ 
tion to be regulated by the state. 

Oct. 19. Santos-Dumont makes a successful 
trip in his dirigible balloon, and wins the Deutsch 
prize of S20.000. 

1902. January. Census returns show increase in 
population of only 444.613 in five years. Total 
38,961.945. 

May 9. Humbert swindle exposed. On pre- 
tended securities sealed and deposited in a safe. 
Mme. Humbert borrowed several miUion francs. 

May 15. President Loubet visits St. Peters- 
burg; his cordial reception strengthens the Franco- 
Russian alliance. 

June 3. Waldeck-Roufiseau resigns; Combes, 
Radical leader, becomes premier, June 7. 

June 27. Decree closing many religious 
Institutions that have not complied with the 
Law of Associations. This causes disturbances in 
Paris and Brittany, and wins support for the gov- 
ernment from the Socialists. 

1903. Continued trouble as to the religious associ- 
ations; stringent enforcement of the law; authori- 
zation refused to preactiing fathers. March 26. 
Carthusian monks refused permission to remain 
in France. In April, measures are taken to expel 
unauthorized orders from the coimtry. 

July 6. President Loubet visits England, thus 
returning King Edward VII. "s visit of May. 

Oct. 14- Agreement made with Great Britain 
to submit judicial questions in the interpretation 
of treaties to tiie Hague Tribunal. 

1904. The government, because of relations with 
Russia, is now concerned with the Russo-Japan- 
ese War. During the >ear French investors take 
up a Russian loan of S160.000.000. February 20. 
rumors of a general European war. 

March 6. Court of Cassation grants a new trial 
to Dreyfus. 

March 2S. Bill prohibiting all teaching by the 



monks and nuns except in private passed by a vote 
of 318 to 230. 

April S, October 3. British and Spanish agree- 
ments tsee Nineteenth-Century Period). 

April 24. President Loubet visits the king of 
Italy at Rome; a defiance of the pope who has for- 
bidden Catholic rulers to do so. July 29, diplo- 
matic relations with the Vatican cease. October 
22, Chamber of Deputies supports Combes min- 
istry against the Vatican by a vote of 318 to 230 

Xov. 16. War Minister Andre resigns after a 
bitter debate on the espionage of army officials 
(reflex of Drej'fus affair). 

1905. Jan. IS. Combes ministry resigns; Rou- 
vier becomes premier, January 24. 

March 1 7. Chamber votes to reduce the active 
term of military service to two years. 

March 29. Difficulty with Germany over the 
Moroccan question becomes acute (see Mo- 
rocco). German chancellor insists on mamtenance 
of German commercial interests in Morocco, in di- 
rect commimication with the sultan. March 31. 
German emperor lands at Tangier, and pubhcly 
criticizes the French policy. Jime 3. Foreign Min- 
ister Delcasse resigns under German pressure. 
Rouvier taking the office. Sultan, imder German 
inspiration, and against the wishes of France, in- 
vites the powers to an international conference. 
July 8. the French and German governments come 
to an agreement to hold the conference. 

July 3. Chamber of Deputies iiasses the gov- 
ernment bill for the separation of church and 
state by a vote of 181 to 102. 

1906. January-April. Moroccan Conference at 
Algeciras. United States represented, and sug- 
gests a settlement which is adopted (see Nine- 
teenth-Centubt Period). 

Feb. 1-3. Rioting occurs in many Paris 
churches over separation law providing that 
churches and other religious establishments may 
be owned and used only by associations formed 
according to the civil law. 

Feb. 17. Fallieres elected president. 
Pope issues encyclical against the sei)aration law. 

March 7. Rouvier ministry resigns, having 
been defeated over taking of churcli inventories 
imder separation law. IVIarch 12. new ministry 
with Sarrien as premier. 

July 13. Supreme Court reverses convic- 
tion of Dreyfus and exonerates hmi completely. 
He is restored to the army with advanced rank, 
and on July 21 is decorated with the Legion of 
Honor. — a triumph for law and justice against 
military arrogance. 

A ug. 10. Pope issues encyclical instructing 
French Roman Catholics to offer passive resist- 
ance to the separation law. 

Oct. 17. Sarrien ministry resigns. October 21, 
Clemenceau becomes premier; Picquart. de- 
fender of Drej-fus, minister of war. 

Dec. 11. Separation law goes into effect, with 
almost no disorder. Pope orders clergy not to . 
make declarations under the law. During remain- 1 
der of the year a few churches are closed ; others 
are kept open through declarations filed by lay- 
men. Government ousts Cardinal Richard from 
his palace, and arrests and deports the secretary j 
of the papal nunciature at Paris, but acts slowly in 
enforcing the new law. 

1907. March 2-5~2S. In exacthig reparation for 
the murder of Mauchamp by Moors, France oc- 
cupies Oudjda. August, Casablanca is occupied 
(see Morocco). 

June 9. Vast demonstrations demanding gov- 
ernment action to relieve situation caused by low 
price of wine. A strike of civil employees, mutiny 
of a few troops, and a promise by the government 
to check adulteration result. 

1908. June 13. Parliament almost unanimously 
adopts tiie secret ballot system. 

June 25. War balloon. La Ripublique, makes 
successful ascent at Nantes. 

June 26. Parliament passes a bill for the pur- 
chase and operation of the Chemin dc Fer de I'Ouest 
(Western Railway). 

International Woman's Suffrage and Equal 
Rights Congress opens at Paris. 

Aug. S. Wilbur Wright, of Ohio, flies three 
kilometers in one minute and forty-six seconds at 
Le Mans in a heavier-than-air machine. 

Sept. 25. Casablanca incident; German 
ships and authorities undertake to protect certain 
Germans in French military service (see Morocco). 

1909. Feb. 9. Agreement with Germany as to 
administration of Moroccan affairs (see Nine- 
teenth-Century Period). 

March 15. General strike of government 
postal and telegraph employees. Government 
employs soldiers to fill strikers" places and refuses 
concessions. Its attitude is sustained in the 
Chamber of Deputies by 368 to 211. Strike 
gradually collapses, but is later revived and again 
suppressed vigorously. May 13, Deputies again 
sustain tlie course of the government by 4.>4 to 59. 

June 7. Cabinet approves a naval program 
mvolving expenditure of $600,(XX),000 in ten years. 



July 20. Clemenceau ministry is defeated 

and resigns; new cabinet formed under Briand. 

July 23. Louis Bleriot, in a monoplane, first 
to cross the English Cliannel. 

1910. Feb. 20-29. Southem-central France suffers 
from floods; Paris suffers, also. 

March. Old Age Pension Bill passed; in ef- 
fect January 1. 1911. Pension to wage earners 
after 30 years of service. [for the government. I 

April 24- General election results in a victorj'l 
Oct. 11. Strike on the state railroads be- 
comes so serious that Premier Briand calls the 
striking employees back as,arnjy reserves. His 
action is sustained by the Deputies. 

1911. Serious riots in the champagne districts. 
Feb. 27. Briand cabinet resigns. Monis 

forms a new ministry. 

March 10. Meridian of Greenwich is adopted 
as the prime meridian of France. 

April 12. Prier flies in monoplane from London 
to Pai'is without a stop. 

April-May. Renewed outbreak of Moroccan 
tribesmen. French troops scatter them and oc- 
cupy Fez. [forms new ministry. l 

June 23. Monis ministry resigns; Caillauxl 

July 1. German gunboat Panther anchors at 
Agadir, Morocco, signifying Germany's imwilling- 
ness to give France a free hand in that country. 
Indignation in France; Great Britain lends moral 
support. France's claim to a protectorate in Mo- 
rocco is recognized on November 3. Germany re- 
ceiving as compensation 96.520 square miles in 
northern French Equatorial Africa (see Nine- 
teenth-Centcry Period), [inces.l 

September. Food riots in the northern prov-l 

Sept. 25. Battleship La Liberti is destroyed in 
Toulon harbor by the explosion of one of her 
magazines. 

1912. Jan. 13. French ministerial crisis ends in 
the formation of a strong cabinet under Poincare. 

March 19. About half the coal miners of north- 
em France are reported on strike. Settlement 
reached March 24. 

April. The French troops in ^Morocco quell 
a Moorish uprising, and overtlirow the southern 
pretender El Hiba. Fez is recaptured. The city 
is fiercely attacked May 26. 

May. Aiuiounced that France will concentrate 
her naval strength in the Mediterranean (see 
British Empire). 

May 2S. Birth rate for 1911 (742.114) is 
lowest on record in recent times. 

Sept. 10. Teachers' unions are dissolved by 
government, on accoimt of antimilitary and syndi- 
calist tendencies. 

Sept. 27. First review of an airplane ar- 
mada, held at Villacoublay, 72 military air- 
planes passing before the minister of war. 

Nov. 27. Franco-Spanish treaty regarding Mo- 
rocco is signed (see Morocco). Tribesmen con- 
tinue interminable war against foreign control, 

1913. Jan. 17. Poincare elected president; in- 
augurated February' IS. January 21, new cab- 
inet, headed by Briand, takes office. 

March IS. Briand cabinet is defeated in Sen- 
ate on electoral reform bill and resigns. New 
ministry formed by Bartbou, ISIarch 21, adopts 
a vigorous defense policy and increased appropri- 
ations. Army bill with provisions for a three- 
year term of militarj' service is bitterly opposed 
by Socialists. By May the antlmllltarist agi- 
tation l>ecomes formidable, and finds expression 
in a twenty-four horn- general strike, threats of 
mutiny in the army, and widespread disorders. 

June 24. President Poincare visits England as 
the guest of the nation. 

Aug. 7. Army bill is adopted by Senate, pro» 
viding for three-year service and increasing the 
peace strength of the army to 673.000 at an in- 
creased cost of S35.(X)0.000 annually. Families 
whose sole supporter is in the army to receive sub- 
ventions. The passage of the law arouses fresh 
opposition. 

Sept.\23. Garros. French aviator, flies across 
the Mediterranean from France to Tunis (558 
miles) in 7 hours. 53 minutes. 

Nov. IS. Electoral reform bill adopted by the 
Deputies, restoring in modified form the clause 
providing proportional representation. 

Dec. 2. Fallowing die government's defeat in 
^le Chamber of Deputies on the question of ex- 
empting the new rentes from taxation, Barthou 
ministrj' resigns. ^ 

Dec. S. Doumergue forms ministry, made 
up of Socialists. Radicals, and Radical SociaUsts. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. ' 

1914. For military and diplomatic events during 
the year, see World W.^r. 

Jan. 15. Aviator Legagneux breaks world's 
altitude record by ascending to height of 6,150 
meters (20.177 feet). 

March 16. Madame Caillaux, wife of the 
minister of finance, kills Calmette, editor of Fi- 
garo, because of his caustic criMcism of her hus- 
band. She is acquitted of murder on July 28. 



/y 



102 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: FRANCE — GEORGIA. 



1914 — 1920. 



u 



w 



1914 (coniinued). 

April 21. ICing George and Queen Mary of 
England enthusiasticaUy welcomed in Pans, on 
the tenth anniversary of the estabUshment of the 

Entente Cordiale. 

May 9. French column occupies Taza, in 
Morocco (see Morocco). 

June 1 Cabinet under Douraergue resigns. 
Ribot accepts the premiership, Jime 8, but four 
days later resigns on being defeated in the Cham- 
ber Viviani (Socialist) forms cabinet, Jime 13. 
July SS'Aug. 1. Crisis between Austria-Him- 
gary and Russia. France desires peaceful settle- 
ment, but acknowledges engagement to aid Rus- 
sia (see World War). lassassmated.l 
July SI. Jaurfe, leader of the Socialists, isl 
Aug 3. State of war acknowledged to exist 
between Germany and France; ambassadors 
arc withdrawn and each nation accuses the other 
of hostile acts (see World W.\r). . ^ -,,. . 
Aug. 26. Cabinet is reconstructed with A'lvi- 
ani still premier; Delcasse, who was dismissed at 
Germany's desire in 1906, foreign minister; Mille- 
rand, war minister; Briand, minister of justice; 
Ribot, minister of finance; Doumergue, colomal 
minister. Cabinet is considered the strongest in 
the history of the Third Republic. 

Sept S. Government withdraws tempora- 
rily from Paris to Bordeaux. Germans witliin 
a few miles of Paris. 

Sept. .5. France, England, and Russia agree not 
to make peace separately. 

Dec. 9. Government returns to Pans, 
Germans having been defeated on the Mame. 

Dec. IS. French protectorate over Morocco 
formally recognized by Great Britain. 

Dec. 22. National Assembly votes SI, 700,000,- 

000 for the war, the greatest sum pledged up to 

that time by any legislative body in the history of 

the world. . 

1915. For military and diplomatic events dtiring 

the year, see World War. (prohibited, I 

Jan. 7. Sale and transportation of absinthe is I 

February. Stringent regulations governing the 

sale of all alcoholic liquors. 

A pril 22. Cabinet decides that children made 

orphans by the war shall be cared for by the state. 

June 25. Deputies, by vote of 492 to 1, adopt 

an appropriation of $1,120,000,000 to cover war 

expenses durmg the ensuing three months. 

July S. Decree is published prohibitmg the ex- 
port of gold except by Bank of France. 

Aug. 21. Following England's example, cotton 
is declared contraband. 

.4119. 27. Every traveler leavtag the country is 
now required to declare the amount of com in his 
possession. 

Oct. 13. Delcass^, minister of foreign affairs, 
resigns. Premier Viviani assumes the portfolio. 
Oct. 2S. Viviani coalition ministry, formed 
shortly after the outbreak of the war. resigns. 
Briand (Socialist) forms new cabinet, with liim- 
self as foreign minister; GalUeni, minister of war; 
Viviani, minister of justice; Ribot, minister of 
finance; Doumergue, colonial minister. Briand 
aimounces (Nov, 3) that France is determined to 
carry the war to victory and diu-able peace. 

Dec. 31. War expenditures amount approxi- 
mately to $6,089,760,000. 

War loan of 15,000,000,000 francs (.S3,000,000,- 
000), "the loan of victory," is raised by over 
3,000,000 subscribers. The country thus far has 
not resorted to taxation in order to finance war. 
1916. For military and diplomatic events during 
the year, see World War. 

March 27-28. War conference held in Paris 
by the premiers of Great Britain, France, Italy, 
Belgium, and Serbia, and the foreign minister of 
Russia, together with military leaders. 

May 7. Rove Tunnel on the Marseilles- 
Rhone Canal completed, opening a way for the 
canal through a ridge into the Bay of Marseilles. 
Greatest tunnel in the world. 

June S. Daylight-saving bill is passed, legal 
time being advanced one hour from Jime 14 to 
September 30. 

June H. Economic conference of the Allies 
in Paris. Plans for economic solidarity after war. 
June 22. Chamber of Deputies reiterates its 
conadence in the Briand ministry, and agrees to 
refrain from mterlering with the direction of mili- 
tary operations; but will supervise industrial and 
military preparation. 

June SO. Total expenditures from August, 
1914, amount to $9,400,000,000, including $7,400,- 
000.000 for purely military purposes. 

Noe. 9. Appropriation bill for the first quarter 
of 1917 is introduced, carrying a total of $1,894,- 
600,000 (.$21,000,000 a day): the second national 
war loan amounts to $2,300,000,000, with 3,000,- 
000 subscribers. 

Nov. 20. Post of director-general of transports 
and importations is created, with control over all 
traffic by rail or water. 

Dec. 12. Parliamentary crisis ends with the 
formation of a smaller ministry, headed by Premier 



Briand war council of six is established, con- 
sistmg of Briand (premier and foreign affairs), 
Ribot (finance), Lyautey (war). Lacaze (marme), 
Pamleve (labor), Thomas (national industry — 
including munitions and transportation). 

Dec. IS. Joffrc hands over command of the 
French armies of the north and nortlieast to Ni- 
velle, the commander at Verdim, newly appomted 
commander m chief. Joffre becomes consultative 
technical adviser to the war coimcil of the cabinet, 
and president of the Allied mUitary councU. 

Dec. 29. For reply to German peace proposal, 
see World War. . 

1917. For military and diplomatic events durmg 
the year, see World War. 

Jan 11. For reply to President Wilson's' peace 
note," see World War. Itive tactics. I 

March 17. Briand retires because of obstruc-l 
March 19. Ribot forms a new cabinet, some- 
what more conservative than its predecessor. 

May IB. Pctain replaces NivcUe as com- 
mander in cliief. ^ 

June S. By a vote of 453 to 55 the Deputies 
declare that peace terms must mclude the restora- 
tion of Alsace-Lorraine and reparation for the 
damage done in occupied territory. „.u * 

Sept. 10. Painleve (minister of war m the Ribot 
cabinet) becomes prime minister. 

Sept IS. Painleve declares that France will 
require guarantees against future aggression. 

Sept 19 Deputies vote confidence In the Pain- 
leve cabinet, 378 to 1 ; Unified Socialists abstain 
from votmg. 

Sept. 29. Arrest of Bolo Pasha as a German 
spy and propagandist; information from the 
United States shows liim to have had control of 
enormous sums of money. 

Nov. IS. Painleve resigns as premier, havmg 
been beaten in the Deputies by 277 to 186. 

Nov. 15. Clemeneeau at the age of 76 forms 
a new cabinet, preponderantly Radical-Socialist, 
but composed of younger men who have not been 
actively associated in the conduct of the war. 

Nov '20 Deputies sustain the new Clemeneeau 

cabinet by a vote of 418 to 65. [1918 to 1920.1 

Nov. 22. General elections are postponed from I 

Nov. 29. Fifteen nations are represented in a 

conference of the Allies at Paris. 

Dec. 22. The Chamber of Deputies withdraw- 
ing parliamentary privilege authorizes the trial of 
Caillaux, former premier, for treasonable dealmgs 
with the enemy (" defeatist " propaganda). Final 
trial does not take place until 1920; convicted, 
April 21, 1920. ^ . 

1918. For military and diplomatic events durmg 
the year, see World War. 

Jan. IS. War minister puts postal, telephone, 

and telegraph services under military control. 

Jan 14. Caillaux arrested on the strength of 

new evidence; fiu-ther evidence m Intercepted 

dispatches of Ambassador BernstorfT. 

Jan. SO. German air raid over Paris. Many 

such follow, with destruction of life and property. 

Feb 15 Bolo Pasha convicted by comt-mar- 

tial of treason against the French government, and 

sentenced to death. 1 mile guii. I 

March 23. Germans Bist shell Paris with 76-1 

March 26. Foch, chief of staff of the war mm- 

istry. becomes commander in chief of the Allied 

armies in France. Hess days a week, 1 

April 27. Government proclaims tliree meat- 1 

April 2S Ouval, director of the newspaper 

Bonnet Rouge, brought to trial by coiu-t^martial 

on charges of treason in connection with Bolo 

Pasha and is sentenced to death, Jlay 15, and 

executed, July 17. . 

May 19. The government threatens to with- 
hold shipments of coal should Switzerland main- 
tain her recent commercial agreement with Ger- 
many imder which Swiss cattle are to be exchanged 
for German coal, iron, and steel. 

July 15. Maivy, minister of the interior unaer 
three war premiers, is brought to trial before the 
Senate sitting as a high coiu-t of justice. Found 
guilty of communicating with the enemy, Aug. 5. 
Foch awarded a marshal's baton. 

Nov. a. Armistice and victorj- m the war. 
Dec S French "Liberation Loan " cam- 
paign, extending from October 20 to November 
24, realizes S3. 950.000.000. 

Dec. 9. President Poincare receives an official 
welcome at Strassburg, capital of Alsace-Lorraine. 
Dec. 14. President WUson enters Paris attended 
by Poincare. Clemeneeau, and others. 

Dec 16 President Wilson presented with the 

gold medal of the city of Paris. [Academy. I 

Dec. 19. JoHre made a member of the French I 

Dec 30 Clemeneeau indicates his adherence to 

the ■• old system of alliances, called the ' balance 

of power.' " J • ,1, 

1919. For international negotiations durmg the 

year, see World War. 

Jan. 14. Henceforth German prisoners to be em- 
ployed in reconstruction work in liberated districts. 
Jan IS Peace Congress opens in the Salle 
de la Paix (Hall of Peace) in Paris. Clemeneeau 



chosen permanent chairman; address of welcome 
by Poincare. and brief speeches by Wilson, Lloyd 
George, and Sonnlno. For subsequent proceed- 
ings, see World War. 

Jan. 22. Paris reports a " wave of crime ; 
thought to be due to the activities of former pris- 
oners recently freed from the army. 

Jan. 25. General strike on the transporta- 
tion lines of Paris ended only by tlireat of the gov- 
ernment to take over and operate aU lines. 

Feb. IS. Clemeneeau, wounded by a youth- 
ful anarchist. Recovers quickly. 

March 21. Commission on Reparation states 
that Germans left 7,000,000 acres of France un- 
productive; work of reparation being carried on, 
soldiers and prisoners of war assistuig. 

April 23. .\n eight-hour-day law enacted. 
In effect July 2; carries mcrease of 25% in wages. 
May 1. May Day demonstration passes with- 
out serious disorder, troops being prepared for 
emergencies. , ,„ 

June. Strikes are numerous; due largely to 
adjustments under new eight-hoiu- law. 

June 26. Electoral Reform Act; restores 
scrutin de lisle, or general ticket; also compromise 
on proportional representation. 

June 2S. Treaty of Versailles with Germany 
signed (see World War). 

Franco-Anglo-American treaty of alliance; 
Great Britain and United States to go immedi- 
ately to assistance of France in case of an impro- 
voked attack by Germany. Signed by^President 
WUson but not ratified by United States Senate. 
July H. Bastille Day and victorious peace 
celebrated bv a great parade In Paris. 

July 21 Damage by German occupation of 
France placed at $40,000,000,000. 

Oct. 13. France ratifies Treaty of Versailles, 
including League of Nations covenant. 
Censorship is terminated. 

Nov 11-30. Newspapers of Paris durmg a 
strike combine to publish a single paper caUed 
La Presse de Paris. 

Nov 16. Elections of Deputies result m over- 
whelming defeat of Socialists; government upheld. 
Dec. SI. National debt announced as $40, 772,- 
000 000, gold; about SIOOO per capita. 
1920.' Jan. 17. Deschanel elected president; 
Clemeneeau defeated as candidate at a prelimi- 
nary caucus. Clemeneeau ministry retires, 
January 18. Millerand becomes premier. 
Deschanel inaugurated, February 18. 

Jan. 27. Supreme Council of Natality created 
to encourage increase in birth rate. 

Feb. 4. Francs quoted in New York at 15.15 
to a doUar (normal rate of exchange, about 5.18 
to a dollar). 



GEORGIA. 

Georgia is the region extending from the eastern 
end of the Black Sea eastward into the Caucasus, 
includmg the city of Tifiis. It has been a part of 
many different territorial organizations and is re- 
noNvned tor the piu-ity of the race and the beauty of 
its women, many of whom have become the wives 
of Turkish princes. For more than two thousand 
years (from 300 b. c.) the Georgians had a kingdom 
if their own; but in 1801 they were annexed to 
Russia though the Russians were obliged for years 
to make their claim good by fighting. They at- 
tempted to Russianize the population and the Geor- 
gian Chiu-ch, and they included the region in their 
provinces (governments) of Tiflis and Kutais. 

In 1917 when the Russian Empire broke down, 
the Georgians set up a temporarj- government, and 
a rear later, 1918, declared themselves a republic 
imder President Noah Zhordania. The coimtry m- 
cludes many race elements each strongly maintain- 
ing its language and national spirit. 

Georgia has well-developed educational institu- 
tions, comprising about 4,000 elementary schools, 
150 secondary and professional schools, and the 
University of Tiflis, with 1,500 students. 

The agricultural resources of the coimtry con- 
sist of wheat, barley, maize, cotton, tobacco, and 
tea The production of grapes for wine is a leadmg 
industry and. the coimtry is rich in other fruits. 
Many minerals are found, the most important be- 
ing manganese. 

The area is 35.500 square miles and the popula- 
tion about 3,176,000. 

1917. November. Transcaucasian Republic formed; 
made up of Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbai- 
janians. ., . „ . , 1 J 

Nov. 22. National Council of Georgia elected 
bv Georgian National Assembly. 

1918. February. Diet, Or Seim, of Transcaucasia 
convoked at Tiflis. 

May 26. Republic dissolved, owing to diver- 
gent political tendencies of the three nationalities. 
Georgia forms a separate, independent state. 

1919. March 12. Act of Independence of Georgia 
ratified by the Constituent Assembly. [Allies. I 

1920. Jan. 16. Georgia receives recognition from I 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 



103 



GERMANY. 
Historical Outline. 

The German Republic was proclaimed Novem- 
ber 9. 1918. In order to imderstand its peculiar 
constitution and the events which led to the World 
War, it is necessary to trace the successive st«ps 
wliicii transformed the empire of Charlemagne into 
the Holy Roman Empire and that m tiUTi into the 
German Empire under the hegemony of Prussia, 
and finally resulted in the present republic. 

Of the later Teutonic invaders, the Franlts were 
the first to establish a kingdom with the attributes of 
a modem state. Under Charlemagne, this kingdom 
became an empire and in gratitude for his assistance 
against the Lombards, the Pope, I^eo III., on Christ- 
mas Day. 800, crowned Charlemagne Roman em- 
peror. His empire extended from the Elbe across 
the PjTcnees, and from the Baltic to the states of the 
Church in Italy. Although in name a Roman em- 
pire, ill fact it was Teutonic in race and ui culture. 

The successors of Charlemagne foimd it impossible 
to preserve intact the territory of the empire he had 
created, and by the close of the ninth century the dis- 
integration was complete. 

In the early years of the tenth centurj-, Henrj- I., 
a Sa.\on, founded a German monarchy. He was 
succeeded by his son. Otto I-, who went to the aid of 
the pope and, in 962, was crowned emperor of the 
" Holy Empire of the German Nation. " Thus be- 
gan the iU-fated influence of Germany in Italy which 
was continued by Austria imtfi the World War. Un- 
til the begimiiiig of the nineteenth century, when 
the imperial dignity was finally abolished, the em- 
peror was almost the sole unifying element in the 
rivalry of the petty kmgdoms, duchies, states, and 
cities which went to make up Germany. 

-Although the imperial dignity was elective in form 
it tended to become hereditary. The election was 
made by seven great princes of the empire kno\^Ti 
as electors. They were, before the Peace of West- 
phalia (1648), the archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and 
Cologne, king of Bohemia, coimt palatine of the 
Rhine, duke of Saxony, and margraveof Brandenburg. 

In theory, any Christian prince was eligible to the 
imperial dignity, but aU the emperors belonged to 
reigning German houses, except the two contesting 
claimants: Richard, Earl of Cornwall (son of King 
Jolin of England), who was elected in 1257 by a part 
of the electors; and Alfonso of Castile, elected at 
the same time by the rest of the electors. This in- 
ternational character of the emperor accoimts for the 
hopes of election cherished by Francis I. of France 
and Henry YIII. of England. 

MODERN PERIOD. 

In 1.519 Charles I. of Spain became emperor imder 
the title of Charles V.. and there ensued not merely 
the struggle with France but the far more terrible 
religious wars, which closed in 1048 with the Peace 
of Westphalia. By the terms of this treaty the em- 
pire was thorouglily reorganized, but still presented 
many anomalies. For example, during the eight- 
eenth century the archduke of .\ustria was usually 
emperor. At the same time, as king of Bohemia he 
was an imperial elector, and inside the empire he was 
ruler of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). Out- 
side the empire he was king of Hungary and duke of 
Milan. Again, the margrave of Brandenbiu-g was 
an electoral prince in the empire, while outside of 
it he was king of Prussia and later duke of Silesia. 
The duke of Brtmswick-Llineliiu-g was made an 
imiierial elector in 1692, being commonly called the 
Elector of Hanover; and in 1714 the Elector of 
Hanover liecame king of England. 

This empire, a political abnormality, at one time 
about 300 sovereign states, was powerless tO resist 
the onslaught of Napoleon. By the Treaty of Lime- 
\1Ue (1801), the states on the left bank of the Rhine 
were ceded to France. Ttiis dispossessed many 
princes who were promised compensation elsewhere. 
At the dictation of Napoleon, in 1803, the process of 
consolidation was carried still further and the terri- 
tories of the ecclesiastical states (those ruled by 
bishops and abbots) and aU but six of the free cities 
were added to the possessions of the more important 
princes. Napoleon also allowed Austria and Prussia 
to take over portions of the empire. 

In 1805 .\ustria was crushed at the battle of Aus- 
terUtz, and m the foUowing year Napoleon organized 
the Confederation of the Rhine. This Confedera- 
tion included practically aU the Holy Roman Em- 
pire except Austria, Prussia, Bnmswick. and Hesse. 
The Coiifederation entered into an alliance with 
France. This was the death blow to the old empire, 
and Francis II., the last emperor of the Holy Roman 
Empire, resigned the office of Roman emperor and 
was thenceforth known by the title of hereditarj- 
emperor of Austria, which he had assumed in 1S04. 
Although resigning the title, Austria still hoped to 
exercise leadersliip in the German states. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
The Congress of Vienna (1815) estabhshed a con- 
federation of German states. This new body con- 



sisted of 38 sovereign states, including one empire 
(.\ustria), Ave kingdoms, of which Prussia was the 
largest, one electorate, seven grand duchies, and foiu- 
free cities. By the territorial settlement of the Con- 
gress, Austria lost in German lands and gained in 
Italy. The ciuestion of the future was to be whether 
a new and stronger imion of German states should 
grow up aroimd Prussia or aroimd Austria as the 
leadmg and central power. 

An important stage in the development of the Ger- 
man Empire imder Prussian leadership was the 
formation of customs imions among groups of states 
which estabhshed free trade and, consequently, close 
commercial relations inside the group. The first 
group, including Prussia and several smaller states, 
took shape in the years 1819-1830. In 1824 a second 
customs imion was formed by Bavaria and certain of 
the smaller states. In 1833 members of both these 
groups united, forming the basis of the Zollverein 
(customs imion), which was fully organized in 1837 
and comprised the Prussian group and eight other 
states (among them Bdvaria, Saxony, Wiirttem- 
berg), with a total population of 26,000,000. It was 
significant and prophetic that Austria was not in 
this nucleus of the later German Empu'e. 

In 184S the Liberals of Germany held an assembly 
at Frankfm-t and offered the title of German emperor 
to Frederick Wilham IV. of Prussia, who declined 
the honor miless all the prhices of Germany should 
give then- assent. In 1862 Count von Bismarck be- 
came president of the Prussian ministry, and the 
process of the imiflcation of Germany began to move 
more rapidly. In 1866 Prussia proposed a Ger- 
manic confederation which should exclude Austria 
and when the Diet rejected tliis plan, Bismarck per- 
suaded William I. to proclaim that the old German 
confederation was dis.solved. This brought on war 
between Austria and Prussia, in which Prussia was 
overwhelmingly successful. As a result the North 
German Confederation (Bund) was established, in 
which Prussia was all-powerful. Although the 
southern states of Germany were not included, they 
soon formed customs unions with the new Bund, and 
after Prussia's successful war with France (1870-71) 
joined the new empire which was then created. 

The struggle of 1870-71 between the Gaid and the 
Teuton, in which Prussia took the leadmg part, 
brought the Germans together as the machinations 
of statesmen and years of peace could not have done. 
It was a flttmg cUmax when, on January 18. 1871, in 
the palace of VersaiUes, built by Louis XIV.. the 
archenemy of Germany, the German Empire was 
constituted and King William of Prussia proclaimed 
German emperor. 

From its foundation imtil his resignation as chan- 
cellor in 1890, the history of the German Empire cen- 
ters around the activity of Bismarck. It was his 
mind which put in form the imusual federal institu- 
tions of the empire and it was his manipulation that 
gate them their development. As soon as the em- 
pire was fairly estabhshed, Bismarck was involved 
in two constitutional conflicts, m neither of wliicli he 
was successful. 

In the new German Empire a small majority was 
Protestant and the large Catholic population had 
long looked to Catholic Austria rather than to Pro- 
testant Prussia for leadership. In the first elections 
of the empire the Catholic party, called the Center, 
won 63 seats. Apparently the Chiuch meant to in- 
terfere m politics. This aroused Bismarck, who in- 
augurated the struggle known as the Kulturlcampf. 
The Reichstag forbade the rehgious orders to en- 
gage m teachmg; in 1872 the Jesuits were expelled 
from Germany, and by the " May Laws " of 1873 to 
1875, the Roman Catholic clergy were forbidden to 
interfere in civil affairs, were required to study their 
theology at a state imiversity and to pass state ex- 
aminations; the state took over the power of inspec- 
tion of all CathoUc seminaries, and suppressed the 
religious orders. Bismarck sunmied up his policy in 
the .saying; " I shall not go toCanossa." PohticaUy 
the pohcy was a failure, for m 1877 the Center grew to 
92 votes, the largest fraction in the Reichstag. Con- 
vinced that the policy of suppression was useless, 
Bismarck tried conciliation. The anticlerical legis- 
lation was little by little repealed; and the Center, 
from being the irreconcilable party, became one of 
the supporters of Bismarck's measures. 

A second and lasting domestic problem was social- 
ism. The Socialist party, foimded by LassaUe in 
1848, was broken up: but it reappeared in 1863 in 
two groups which united in 1875. In its original 
platform the party demanded the abolition of capi- 
tahstic society and the foundation of a socialist state 
I wliich should control the instrtmients of production. 
It also demanded a free state in which there shotild 
be universal suffrage for men and women of the age 
of 20, the secret baUot, free speech, free association, 
and a free press. The growth of the party was phe- 
nomenal. In 1871 it cast a popidar vote of 142,000; 
in 1874 it more than doubled: and in 1877 it grew to 
nearly 500,000. Owing to the artificial distribution 
in the Reichstag, by wiiich the great cities were 'im- 
derrepresented, the Socialists obtained only nine 
seats: but outside among the people the party was 
the growing and popular one. 



Bismarck determined to crush the Socialists by a 
two-fold poUcy — repression and " inoculation." 
By a law of October. 1878, associations, meetings, 
and publications having for their object " the sub- 
version of the social order " were forbidden. Police 
officers received large powers of arrest and the right 
to expel Sociahsts from the country. If martial law 
were proclaimed — an easy matter — the ordinary 
courts ceased to protect the hberties of the Social- 
ists. This law was vigorously applied; over 14,000 
publications were suppressed. 1,500 Socialists were 
imprisoned, and 900 were banished. The first effect 
of the law seemed to justify its passage, for in the 
election of 1881 the Socialist vote decreased by about 
190,000; but m 1884 it rose to nearly 500,000, m 1887 
to over 760,000, and in 1890 to 1,427,000. Suppres- 
sion of the Socialists, like that of the Catholics, meant 
only a larger number of more active opponents. 

Bismarck's policy of inociUation consisted in try- 
ing to break the force of the movement by improving 
the coftdition of the working class. He drafted and 
secured a comprehensive system of insurance against 
accident, sickness, old age. and uicapacity. He 
aimed to prevent pauperism by pensions to the de- 
pendent. This was virtuaUy a kind of state social- 
ism. The Socialists stiU refused to support the gov- 
ernment. .They were democrats, while Bismarck 
was an absolutist. 

Tliree other features of Bismarck's policy shotdd 
be mentioned. .The first was his system of protec- 
tive duties. He" believed that Germany to be strong 
must be rich and prosperous, and. therefore, framed 
tariffs which assiu-ed to the Germans greater control 
of German markets : thus he encouraged the agrarian 
party of agricult lu-al Prussia and the industrial party 
of the rapidly developing manufacturing centers. 

The second great state policy was that of foreign 
alliances. After a period of the Dreikaiserbund, 
Three Emperors' League (Germany, Russia, and 
Austria), m 1879 he definitely adopted the policy of 
a close alliance with Austria, which provided that if 
either power were attacked by Russia both countries 
woifld cooperate with the whole of their military 
power and conclude no peace except conjointly. If 
either Germany or Austria should be attacked by 
any other power, the ally might remain neutral, un- 
less Russia should take part, when both would act 
together. In 1882 Italy, irritated at the French 
seizure of Timis. joined Austria and Germany, thus 
forming the Triple .Alliance which imtil 1914 was one 
of the dominating features in European diplomacy. 

A third policy of Bismarck's was the acquisition of 
colonies. Long after 1871 he was opposed to coloni- 
zation or colonial conquests, but energetic merchants 
began to trade in Africa and the Pacific, and German 
settlements were made in the tropics. In 1880 the 
Colonial Society was founded: and in 1884 Bismarck 
himself adopted a vigorous colonial policy, which 
after liis retirement resulted in the establishment of 
a colonial empire in Africa and the Pacific. The 
spirit of German colonization differed from that of 
England. With little regard for the rights or wel- 
fare of the natives, the Germans concentrated their 
attention upon the development of the material re- 
sources and the making of the colonies as profitable 
to Germany as possible. 

Emperor William I. died March 9, 1888, and was 
succeeded by his son, Frederick III., who reigned 
only imtil Jime 15. Had Frederick hved, it is sup- 
posed that more hberal ideas might have been 
adopted. He was succeeded (Jime 15, 1888) by his 
son, William II., a young man of twenty-nine years, 
as Emperor and King of Prussia. The German con- 
stitutional system gave to the sovereign of Prussia 
tremendous power and influence; the federal consti- 
tution gave the kingdom of Prussia predominance, 
and the personality of the ruler was significant. 
William II. was a man of active mind and fertile im- 
agination, self-confident, ambitious, versatile, and 
vigorous. He attempted to excel in everything; in 
war, in music, in art, and in literature; and he con- 
centrated in his own hands the vast political power 
which William I. had exercised tlirough his chan- 
cellor. In 1890 Bismarck was dismissed, and from 
that time on, although there were seven chancellors, 
there was but one ruling personality — the emperor. 

The reign of William II. is remarkable for the 
wonderful economic development of Germany. 
The high protective tariff gave German merchants 
the advantage in the domestic market, and state 
aids and subsidies helped to build up a vast export 
and sliipping trade. Germany prospered ia a ma- 
terial way, and began to rival England in commerce. 
The colonial empire founded by Bismarck was de- 
veloped and exploited for the benefit^of the Gerpian 
merchants. The army, the strongest in Europe in 
1870, became even stronger and was the most per- 
fectly eciuipped, driUed, and prepared military force 
which the world had seen. Not content with posses- 
sing the strongest, land force in the world, the em- 
peror attempted to rival England's naval power, in 
particular by the law of 1897, wiiich instead of sim- 
ply providing for the building of a certain number of 
ships adopted a comprehensive naval program that 
was designed to be oermanent and which was later 
greatly increased. 



101 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 



N 



Q 



U 



w 



The prosperity of Germany and her desire (or " a 
place in the sim." lalien in connection with tliis over- 
whelming military and naval force, made her arro- 
gant in dealing with other states. Thus she joined 
in the protest whicli deprived Japan of the fruits of 
her victory in the war with Cliina. while in China she 
was the most ruthless in exacting the reparation that 
resulted in the virtual annexation of Kiaochow. 
Witli ]'"rance in 1906 and again in lOil relations were 
strainef.l because of Germany's attitude over French 
influence in Morocco. Secure in her own strength 
and in that of her allies, Italy and Austria, Germany 
felt able to defy the rest of Europe. 

On Bismarck's retirement (1890) Emperor Wil- 
liam II. refused to renew the oppressive laws; and the 
Socialists rapidly gained both in popular vote and 
in representation in the Reichstag. In 1893 they 
polled 1,800,000 votes and elected 44 members; in 
1890 over 2,000,000 votes and elected .57 members; 
in 1903 the party polle<l over 3,000,000 votes and 
gained 79 seats in the Reichstag. In 1912 it re- 
ceived 4,250,000 votes and elected 110 members, 
even from the Potsdam district, in which the em- 
peror resided. This vote was much greater than 
the strength of the Socialist party, for it offered the 
only effective means of opposing the government. 

The Socialist organization instead of opposing all 
reforms undertaken by the government and at- 
tempting at once to totablish a socialistic state, co- 
operated with the government in humanitarian leg- 
islation. When the World War broke out, the so- 
called majority Socialists would not face the odimn 
of being the only party to oppose a nationalistic war. 
A small group, however, the minority Socialists, ad- 
hered to their original doctrines and refused to co- 
operate with the government either in war or peace. 

Germany not only prospered in a material way, 
but in education she was in the lead of other coim- 
tries. Her schools and universities were considered 
models. Her cities were tlie i^est governed in the 



17, Bavaria 6, Saxony 4, Wiirttemljerg 4, Baden 3, 
HesseS.Alaace-LorrameS (since 1911),Mecklenbiu-g- 
Schwerin 2, Brimswick 2, and seventeen other states 
1 apiece. Tlirough internal an'angements, with three 
of the smaller states, Prussia controlled their votes. 
I'nder aU circumstances, Prussia was able to con- 
trol enough votes to make a majority. The dele- 
gates to the Bimdesrath were not chosen by the peo- 
ple, but appointed by the governments of the states, 
usually the prime minister and other high officials. 
Thus the emperor, as king of Pritssia, appointed the 
delegates who cast the 17 votes of Prussia according 
to his instructions. As emperor he also controlled 
the tliree votes of Alsace-Lorraine, and as king of 
Prussia, those of Waldeck and Brimswick. The 
additional vote to make a majority could always be 
had from the weak northern states, which were really 
dependencies of Prussia. 

The Bimdesrath was the active power in the gov- 
ernment, both legislative and e.xectitive. It pre- 
pared and introduced bills, which were discussed and 
voted on m the Bundesrath before submission to the 
Reichstag, and any amendment which the Reichstag 
made must be ratified by the Bimdesrath as final. 
The executive authority of the Bundesrath con- 
sisted in the power to issue ordinances and, in con- 
jimction with the emperor, to declare war, conclude 
treaties, and pimisli delinquent states. In addition, 
with the assent of the emperor, the Bimdesrath 
might dissolve the Reichstag; and, with the emperor, 
it shared certain appointing powers. 

The Reiclistag consisted of 397 members, chosen 
by direct secret ballot from single-member districts 
which were constituted in 1871, The imprece- 
denled growth of cities and the shifting of the popu- 
lation to industrial centers made the distribution 
of seats more and more tmfair. In the Reiclistag, 
Prussia had 236 members, a number less than she 
was entitled to I^y population. Laws w'ere ordi- 
narily initiated in the Bimdesrath, where they -were 



world. Mucii was done to alleviate the condition of framed by the imperial chancellor, and where under 



the poor and the working class. Her people seemed 
contented and prosperous. But her government 
was neither free nor democratic. The state con- 
trolled all activities, and by means of skillfully con- 
ducted propaganda swayed public opinion as de- 
sired. Hence, when Germany supported Austria 
in the dispute witli Serbia and involved all Europe 
in the World War, the German subjects supported 
the emperor with little hesitation or objection. 

WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 

On the declaration of war m 1914 the Gennan 
military machine fimctioned perfectly. The troops 
were mobilized, and the vast preparations made 
years in advance came into use. The initial victo- 
ries brought great encouragement to the people. 
Even when the pressure of the blockade was feJt. the 
victories m Russia and Italy and even in France 
were used to sustain the spirits of the people. 
Years of drill and state control had their effect in 
preventing risings against lack of fuel, food, and 
clothing. Not tmtil the army m France was driven 
back and defeated and the military machine was in- 
capable of pushing forward did the revolution come. 

Although the emperor changed Ills chancellors 
twice between August, 1914, and October, 1918, in 
the effort to avoid parliamentary crises, there is no 
evidence that the course of the government was .seri- 
ously affected by popular sentiment. In 1918. how- 
ever. Prince Maximilian of Batlen became chancel- 
lor, with the avowed intention of rehabilitating the 
government, whicli had suffered in prestige as the 
result of the miUtary defeats. Reforms were prom- 
ised, but it was too late; and on November 9 it was 
announced that the emperor had alxiicated. On 
the same day a popular government was set up under 
Ebert and the emperor fled to Holland. 

After several months of disorder, a national as- 
sembly was held at Weimar in February, 1919, at 
wliich Friedrich Ebert was elected president of the 
German Repubhc and a constitution was adopted 
July 31, 1919. The most humiliating act which the 
new government had to perform was the ratification 
of the treaty imposed upon Germany by the Allies 
on July 9. By this treaty Germany lost Alsace- 
Lorraine, the use of the mines in the Saar Valley, 
large belts of eastern Germany which were ceded to 
Poland, and all her colonial empire. In addition an 
indefinite war indemnity was imposed, the surrender 
of much of her mercantile fleet was demanded, her 
army was reduced to an internal police force and her 
navy to a fleet of the smallest dimensions. 

Organization. 

Government. The government of the modem 
German Empire established in 1871 was federal in 
form. However, unlike other federal states, im- 
equal powers were given to the component members. 
The executive authority was invested m an emperor, 
who was entitled to it as king of Prussia; and also 
in the Bundesrath, an assembly of instructed dele- 
gates representing the states which composed the 
empire. The Bundesrath was the most typically 
Germanic institution established by the constitu- 
tion. Of the 61 votes in this assembly, Prussia held 



the constitution Prussia, besides its normal infill' 
ence, had a specific veto on any change in legislation 
concerning the army, navy, or taxes. 

The emperor was commander in chief of the army 
and navy, represented the empire in foreign affairs, 
and negotiated treaties. As king of Prussia, he in- 
structed the chancellor as to what legislation should 
be introduced in the Bimdesi'ath and controlled the 
votes of Prussia in that body, votes which would 
prevent the change of the constitution or the altera- 
tion of any law conceniing the army or na%-y or ta.xes. 
He was thus both constitutionally and actually the 
most powerful constitutional monarch in the world. 

To assist him the unperial chancellor was ap- 
pointed, who generally was head of the Prussian dele- 
gation to the Bimdesrath and minister president of 
Prussia. It was this curious and complicated inter- 
lacing of imperial and royal powers which made Bis- 
marck willing to consent to Prussia's apparent tm- 
derrepresentation in the Reiclistag and Bimdesrath. 
It was this, also, that made Prussia and its king the 
almost absolute arbiter of German affairs. 

The constitution of the present German Republic, 
adopted July 31, 1919, while nominally creating a 
federal state, actuaUy provides for a imitary state. 
The powers which the national government exercise 
are wider both in legislation and execution than those 
of the former German Empire. The tendency 
toward centralization is emphasized in the new re- 
public. The legislative power is vested in a Reichs- 
tag and National Council, The Reichstag is chosen 
for four years on the basis of uni\ersal equal suffrage, 
direct and secret votes, by all men and v/omen over 
the age of 20, in accordance with the principles of 
proportional representation, but may be dissolved 
by the president of the republic. The National 
Coimcil consists of one delegate from each state and 
one delegate for every million inhabitants which any 
state may possess in excess of the population of the 
smallest state. No state, however, shall be enti- 
tled to more than two fifths of all the members, and 
half of the Prussian delegates must be chosen by the 
provincial administrations of Prussia. 

The president of the republic is elected by the 
voters for a term of seven years, but may be deposed 
by a recall vote if requested by the Reichstag. His 
executive power is exercised by a chancellor and 
ministers, who must retain the confidence of the 
Reichstag; thus, a government responsible to tlie 
people is at last introduced. Legislation requires 
the assent of the Reichstag and the National Coim- 
cil, but if the president decrees a law approved by 
the Reichstag, it may be referred to the people; and 
if the National Coimcil shall twice refuse to accept a 
legislative proposal of the Reiclistag, the president 
may refer it to the people ; or if the Reichstag rejects 
the protest of the National Council by a majority of 
two thirds, the proposal becomes a law without thfe 
assent of the National Coimcil. The constitution in 
great detail enumerates the rights and duties of citi- 
zens, their social, religious, and economic hfe, and 
provides for education. In many respects it re- 
sembles some of the state constitutions in the United 
States in that it seems to establish a code of laws in 
addition to a frame of government. 



Industry and Labor. Before the war, Germany 
was botli an agricidtural and industrial country. In 
western Germany small holdings were the rule, while 
in the eastern part, vast estates with tenant farmers 
were customary. The chiet agricultural products, in 
order of yield, were potatoes, hay, rye, oats, and 
wheat, but Germany was forced to import foodstuffs. 
Forestry was condhcted on scientific principles and 
was of great importance. The mineral products 
were varied, the most important being coal, lignite, 
iron ore, and potassic salt. The coal and iron fields 
in German Lorraine were rich and important,- and in 
1911 Germany produced over $200,000,000 worth of 
pig iron. German manufactures include iron and 
steel, textiles of all sorts, beet sugar, glass, porce- 
lain, earthenware, optical instruments, dyestuifs, 
beer, and machinery. Of her exports, in 1913, the 
most important were metals and manufactures 
thereof, agricultural products, textiles, and machin- 
ery. Her export trade went to all countries in the 
world, but m 1913 Great Britain was her largest cus- 
tomer, after which came Austria, Russia, France, 
and the United States. 

Religion. Under the former empire there was 
entire liberty of conscience and no imperial state 
church though both the Catholic and the Protestant 
clergy were supported by taxation or the states. Un- 
der the republic the same lil)erty exists nor is there a 
state church. Sixty-one per cent of the population 
is Protestant and thirty-six per cent Catholic, while 
one per cent jire Jews. In 1905 the Roman Catho- 
lics were in the majority in Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria, 
Baden, and tlie Rhine provinces and Polisli districts 
of Prussia ; and in four other states they formed more 
than twenty per cent of the population. 

Education. In the former empire, education 
was compulsory and general tliroughout the Empire; 
and in 1911 there were more than 61,(X)0 elementary 
public schools, with more than 180,000 teachers and 
more than 10,0(X),000 pupils. Secondary education 
was highly organized, severe, and thorough and in- 
cluded technical schools. There -were 23 universi- 
ties, with a total of more than 53,(X)0 students; the 
oldest was Heidelberg, founded in 13.'- 6. 

The constitution of the new republic provides for 
compulsory education in the popidar schools for at 
least eight years, to be followed by continuation 
schools until the eighteenth year. Instruction, 
books, and apparatus m all schools are free, and aid 
is provided for students in poor circumstances. 
State supervision of private schools is established. 
The former distinction between schools for the lower 
classes and the higher classes is abolished. 

Defense. As a result of the treaty of 1919, Ger- 
many, from being the most militaristic of states, has 
become one of the weakest mihtary states. Her 
army is fixed by the treaty at 100,000 and must be 
reciiiited on the voluntary basis by enhstment for 12 
consecutive years, oft cers .serving lor 25 years. The 
activities of the general staff are reduced, military- 
schools are to be suppressed, no reserves are allowed, 
and the amoimt of mimitions and armaments is lim- 
ited. The naval force is limited to 6 battleships, 6 
light cruisers, 12 destroyers, and 12 torpedo boats; 
and the personnel of the navy must not exceed 
15,000, recruited entirely from volimteers for periods 
of 25 years for officers and 12 for the men. Ger- 
many is allowed to retam a himdred unarmed sea- 
planes and an air force of 1 ,000 men. 

In 1910 the date of the last census, the area of 
Germany was 208,780 squaie miles and the popula- 
tion 64,925,993. As a result of the treaty, Germany 
has lost Alsace-Lorraine on the west and on the east 
large portions of German Poland, Danzig, and part 
of southeastern Silesia. It is estimated that the pres- 
ent area (1919) is about 171,910 square miles and the 
population about 55,086,000. 

FORMER GERMAN COLONIAL 
EMPIRE. 

The German colonial empire, before the World 
War, had an area of 1.023,400 square miles contain- 
ing an estimated native population of nearly 
13,000,000. The wliite population, however, was 
only a little over 20,000. Tliis territorj^ was chiefly 
in Africa, where Germany was an aggressive partici- 
pant in the partition of the continent. In addition, 
she held the very valuable naval base at Kiaochow 
in Cliina and lumierous islands in the Pacific. 

These colonies were all imder practicallj- the same 
form of government. Each was administered by an 
imperial commissioner, who in almost every case was 
assisted by a council. Scant attention was paid to 
the needs of the natives, and the purpose of the colo- 
nies was to develop and expand German trade and to 
increase the prestige of the empire, with an unfounded 
expectation that part of tlie rapidly increasing home 
population would settle in these tropical possessions. 

By the treaty of 1919. Germany ceded all her 
over-sea possessions to the AlUcd and Associated 
Powers to be disposed of as they should see fit. In 
the sections of the Peace Treaty dealing with the 
League of Nations, a system of mandatory powers 
was established. By this system, nations not able 
to maintain their independence, such as those be- 



1648-1745. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 



105 



longing to the Turkish Empire and those in central 
Africa, southwest Africa, and the southern Pacific 
islands, are to be administered ijy a mandatory 
power imder conditions prescribed by the League. 
The mandatao' would have no right of exploitation, 
but would administer the coiuitry for its own benefit. 
A few such mandataries were estabhshed in 1920. 



FORMER GERMAN POSSESSIONS 
AFRICA. 
TOGO. 



IN 



Togoland with its dependencies is on the Gulf of 
Guinea, tjetween the Gold Coast colony and French 
Dahomey. It has an area of 33,700 square miles, 
and an estimated colored population (1913) of over a 
million. In 1918 the Eiu-opean population was 110. 
of whom one was German. The climate is cool for 
the tropics and the coimtry is hiUy. Tropical prod- 
ucts aboimd. and there is a considerable amoimt of 
live stock. Tlie principal exports are cocoa, palm 
kernels, palm oil. cotton, and rubber which in the 
year before the World War were valued at more than 
82,000.000. By the treaty of 1919 Togo was divided 
between the British and French, the former obtaining 
about one third of the territory but no seacoast. 

KAMERUN. 
Kamerun protecti^rate lies between British Ni- 
geria and the French Congo. In 1911 it was in- 
creased by cessions from the French Congo, and had 
an area of 191,130 square miles, with a population 
of 2,540.000. of whom 1.871 were whites. The soil 
on the coast region is fertile, and numerous valuable 
tropical vegetable products, particularly cocoa, grow 
in profusion, and the rubber tree and oil palms floiu-- 
ish. Experiments have been made in the cultivation 
of spices, and there is an active trade in ivory. Val- 
uable hard woods, notably ebony, are foimd. The 
German government maintained four schools, which 
868 pupils attended. There is a railroad 149 miles 
long. By the treaty of 1919. Kamerun pas.sed under 
the joint administration of Great Britain and France. 

PROTECTORATE OF SOUTHWEST 
AFRICA. 

German Southwest Africa lies south of Angola 
(Portuguese West .\frica) . west of Bechuanaland, and 
north of the Cape of Good Hope Province. The area 
is 322,200 square miles and the native population 
was estimated (1913) at 150.000. The whole south- 
ern region and much of the east is desert. It was 
formerly occupied by six native races; the Bushmen. 
Hottentots, Damaras. Hereros. Ovampos. and Gri- 
quas (Bastaards) . The Hereros were originally a no- 
mad and pastoral people, but as a result of the war 
with Germany were reduced from 100,000 to less 
than 20,000, The Ovampos. living in the northern 
part, are the most numerous native race in the pro- 
tectorate. They are an agricultural people and mi- 
derstand the working of iron. 

The colony has been chiefly agricultural and pas- 
toral, raising enormous herds of cattle, sheep, goats, 
and horses. Copper, lead, and diamonds have been 
found, the latter small in size, but of good quality. 
In 1912 the exports were nearly 310,000.000. The 
colony was conquered by the South African forces 
imder General Botha in 1915. and is now (1920) ad- 
ministered by the Union of South Africa under a 
mandate. 

GERMAN EAST AFRICA. 

What was formerly German East Africa is a pro- 
tectorate on the Indian Ocean, with an area of about 
384,180 square miles and a population (1913) of 
7,659.898. Although by German law every native 
born after 1905 was declared free, there were 185,000 
serfs under German rule. In 1913 there were 109 
government schools, with 6,000 pupils, and schools 
of S missionary societies, with over 100,000 pupils. 

On the coast grow forests of mangroves, coco palms. 
and other tropical trees. Many plantations of coco 
palms, coffee, vanilla, tobacco, cacao, rubber, tea. 
sugar, and cotton have been set out. In 1912 the 
herds of cattle and sheep ntmibered over 10.000,(X)0 
head. The chief exports are rubber, copra, ivory, 
coffee, and vegetable fiber. German East Africa was 
invaded by General Smuts and conquered in 1918. 
By the treaty of 1919 it was placed under an English 
mandate and is now known as Tanganyika Territory. 

FORMER GERMAN POSSESSION IN 

ASIA. 

KIAOCHOW. 

Klaochow, in the province of Shantimg. China, 
was seized by Clermany in 1897 as a recompense for 
the lives of two missionaries. By the treaty of 1898 
the town, harbor, and district were " leased " to 
Germany for 99 years. — practically a cession. The 
area is about 2C)0 square miles and the population 
192.000. The German district is surroimded by 
a " neutral zone." having an area of 2.500 square 
miles and a population of 1,200.000. The develop- 
ment of coal mines of the interior, the right to build 
a railroad to them, and the right to extend it to the 



west in Shantung provmce. were parts of the agree- 
ment. Germany thus acquired a favored and almost 
unassailable position in the tradeot the rich province 
of Shantung, with 26.000.000 inhabitants. The ex- 
ports are straw goods, silk, and coal. 

The Japanese government called upon Germany 
to surrender tliis protectorate, August 15, 1914. and 
receiving no reply, declared war. The capital and 
fortified naval base, Tsingtau, was besieged and cap- 
tured. November?, and the control of the protecto- 
rate surrendered tlu-ee days later, since which time 
it has been administered by the Japanese. By the 
treaty of 1919 Japan succeeds to Kiaochow and all 
Germany's " rights and privileges." This so offended 
the Chinese that they refused to sign the treaty. 

FORMER GERMAN POSSESSIONS 
IN THE PACIFIC. 

NEW GUINEA (FORMER GERMAN NEW 
GUINEA). 

German New Guinea included the possessions 
which Germany formerly occupied in the western 
Pacific: Kaiser-Wilhelmsland. Bismarck Archipel- 
ago, the German Solomon Islands, Caroline Islands, 
Marshall Islands, Mariana (Ladrone) Islands. Kai- 
ser-Wilhelmsland. Bismarck Archipelago, and the 
Solomon Islands were occupied by the Australian 
forces in September. 1914, and by the treaty of 1919 
were assigned to the Commonwealth of Australia. 
By October, 1914. the Japanese had capttired the 
island groups — Caroline, Pelew, Mariana, and Mar- 
shall — in the North Pacific and in 1919 the admin- 
istration of them was assigned to Japan Jjy the treaty. 
Kaiser- Wilhelmsland was made a German pro- 
tectorate in 1884. It has an area of 70,000 square 
miles and hes 2° south of the equator. The native 
population has been estimated at between 110.000 
and 530.000. Tropical fruits grow abimdantly. 
particularly coconuts ; and the land is rich in mineral 
wealth, wliich is very slightly developed. 

Bismarck Archipelago is the name given to 
several groups of islands east of New Guinea, having 
an area of approximately 15,570 square miles and a 
wliite population of less than 1.0JO. The products 
are copra, cotton, coffee, and rubber. The largest 
island is New Britain, on wliicli is the seat of the 
government, Rabaul, with a population of 800. 

The Solomon Islands, lying southeast of Bis- 
marck Arcliipelago, were acquired by Germany in 
18S6. The natives raise tropical products and are 
skillful fishermen, but there is practically Uttle Euro- 
pean trade. The European population nimibered 60. 
The Caroline, Pelew, and IVIarlana (orLadrone) 
Islands, with the exception of Guam, which was 
ceded to the United States, passed from .Spain to 
Germany in 1899 by purchase. American missiona- 
ries entered the Carolines in 1852. The population is 
mostly of Malay origin and the chief export is copra 
Yap is an island in the western subdivision of the 
Caroline Islands. It was held by Germany at the 
beginning of the World War. Yap was transferred 
to Germany by Spain with the rest of the Carolines 
on June 30. 1899. It was occupied by the Japanese 
October 21, 1914. It was claimed for the United 
States during the conference in Paris in 1919. but 
was not transferred. Its value to the United States 
would be as a cable and coaling station on the trans- 
pacific route. The area is 79 square miles and the 
population 7.000 

The Marshall Islands came imder German rule 
in 1SS5. They have an area of 150 square miles and 
a popiUation of 15,000. There are extensive planta- 
tions of coco palms and the chief export is phosphate. 

SAMOA ISLANDS. 

The Samoa Islands, formerly called Navigators 
Islands, he in Polj-nesia, south of the equator. Ger- 
many, Great Britain, and the United States all 
claimed rights in this group; but in 1899 Great Bri- 
tain ceded her claims to Germany in retimi for sev- 
eral of the Solomon Islands, By agreement, in 
19(X). between Germany and the United States, the 
meridian 171° east of Greenwich was made a de- 
limitation, lea\'ing to Germany all to the west and to 
the United States all to the east. The area of Ger- 
man Samoa is about 1,000 square miles. The popu- 
lation (census 1917) was 41,128. Copra and cocoa 
beans are the principal exports. In addition to the 
government, the American, English, and French 
missionaries maintain schools, and have brought the 
natives into nominal acceptance of Christianity. 

At the end of August, 1914, the British occupied 
German Samoa and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 
gave New Zealand a mandate over the islands. 

Chronology 
Germany and Foiiner Possessions. 

For events earlier in the history of Germany, see 
Medieval Period, Chronology , and Earlt Modern 
Period. Chronology. 

1648. Ocf. Ji. Peace of Westphalia adjusts the 
political relations of Germany. Recognition of 
right of Protestant sovereigns to estabUsh that 
religion in their domains. Holy Roman Empire 



continues in weak form. Large states, small states, 
free cities, and ecclesiastical sovereigns represented 
in the Diet. Eight electoral princes (later nine). 
Influence of France, Spain, and Sweden in Ger- 
many admitted. Austria recognized leader in Ger- 
man affairs, but Prussia begins to rise. 

16.57. Poland by the Treaty of Wehlau gives up 
suzerainty over duchy of Prussia to Branden- 
burg, imder the leadershipof Frederick William, 
the Great Elector. 

1658. July IS. Leopold I. elected emperor, a year 
after the death of Ferdinand III. 

1661. War with the Turks begins. 

1664. Aug. 1. Coimt Raimimd de Montecuccoli, 
leader of the imperial forces, defeats the Turks 
in the battle of St. Ciothard. Truce of twenty 
years concluded in favor of the Turks. German 
powers become involved in a war with France 
(see France). Ksee France).! 

1675. French under Coude defeat Montecuccoli I 

1679. Feb. 6. Peace of NImwegen (Nijmegen) 
signed by France and Germany. 

1681 French occupy Strassbiu-g; hold it till 1871. 

1682. Second war with the Turks begins (see 
Austria-Hungary). 

1687. Leopold compels the Hungarians to recog- 
nize the Bapsburgs as their hereditary riding 
house. Imany.l 

1688. French renew the campaign against Ger-I 

1689. The Palatinate is harried by the French, but 
the Germans are victorious on the Rhine. Some 
of the dispossessed people find their way to the 
EngUsh colonies of Pennsylvania and New York. 

1692. Hanover becomes an electorate. 

1697. Sept. 11. Prince Eugene of Savoy defeats 
the Turks at Zenta. 

1699. Jan. 20. Peace of Karlowltz with Tur- 
key; end of the Tiu-ldsh danger to Europe. 

1700-1789. Germany, except some of the free cit- 
ies, falls into the hands of petty rulers who set up 
absolute governments on the model of Louis XIV. 
Triumph of "Kleinstaalerei" (system of small 
states) ; at the same time a period of great Intel- 
lectual activity; age of Schiller, Lessing, and 
Goethe. German universities become places of 
scientific research and teaching. Awful witch- 
craft delusion and persecutions cease. Judicial 
torture loses groimd. Many Germans emigrate to 
Hungary, Bohemia, Russia, and the Baltic Prov- 
inces; others to America (Pennsylvania Germans 
or "Dutch." Moravians, Mennonites, Salzburgers) . 
System of standing armies Introduced, espe- 
cially in Prussia, and used in four great European 
wars tetween 1689 and 1763, besides many local 
wars. Frederick the Great builds up the best 
army of the century and is the most renowned 
commander. 

1701. Jan. IS. Frederick III. of Brandenburg, by 
the consent of the emperor, crowns himself king 
of Prussia, as Frederick I. 

1705. May. 5. Joseph I. becomes emperor on 
death of his father, Leopold I. 

1711. Aprill7. Josepli dies; succeeded as emperor 
by his brother. Charles VI., October 12. 

171.3. Feb. 2-5. Frederick William I. succeeds 
his father. Frederick I., as king of Prussia. 

April 11. Peace of Utrecht ends W^r of the 
Spanish Succession. Neuchatel ceded to Prussia. 

1724. Emperor Charles VI., having no sons, pro- 
claims the pragmatic sanction (framed in 1713) 
in order to secure the succession of his Austrian 
dominions to the female line, after having negoti- 
ated for its acceptance with the other powers. 

1725. Austria and Spain having formed an alliance 
to support the pragmatic sanction. Great Britain. 
France, and Prussia miite to oppose it. 

1726. Austria and Prussia conclude the Treaty of 
Wusterhausen. 

1731. Protestants are driven out of Salzburg by the 
prince bishop ; some of the refugees make their way 
to America to become colonists in Georgia. 

1733. Feb.l. Augustus II., elector of Saxony and 
king of Poland, dies: succeeded in Saxony by his 
son Frederick Augustus II. In September, the 
Poles elect their former king, Stanislas Leszczyn- 
sld, chiefly through the influence of Louis XV. of 
France. Thereupon the War of the Polish Suc- 
cession begins. (See France and Russia.) 

1738. Nov. 18. War ends with the Treaty of 
Vienna between Charles VI. and Louis XV. 

1740. May 31. Frederick William I., king of Prus- 
sia, dies: succeeded by Frederick II. (the Great). 
Ocl. 20. Emperor Charles VI. dies; according 
to the pragmatic sanction, he is succeeded in Aus- 
tria by his daughter, Maria Theresa, but this 
succession is disputed (see Austria). Freder- 
ick II. of Prussia demands the siurender of Silesia 
and makes a campaign into that province in De- 
cember, begiiming War of Austrian Succession. 

1742. Jan. 24. Cliarles Albert, elector of Bavaria, 
is chosen emperor of Germany as Charles VII. 

1745. Jan. SO. Charles VII. dies. Maximilian 
Joseph, who succeeds him in Bavaria, makes 
peace with Maria Theresa of Austria. Francis 
Stephen, grand duke of Tuscany and husband 
of Maria Theresa, is elected emperor of Germany 



106 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 



1745-1867. 



1745 {con/intied). 
M as Francis I., September 13. Treaty at Dras- 

den, between Prussia. Austria, an(i Saxony, ends 
the war in Silesia, wliich is ceded (1748) to Prussia. 

1748. Oct. IS. War of the Austrian Succession 
ends with Peace of Ai,\-Ia-Chapelle (see Austria). 

1756. Seven Years' War begins. Fredericlf in- 
vades Sa.xony. and captures Dresden (see Austria). 

1757. Frederick tlie Great tlu-eatened with the ban 

Oof the empire, but Brunswick, Hesse, Gotha, and 
Hanover remain in alliance with Prussia. Russia 
and Austria form a treaty for the division of 
Prussia, January, and in May Austria makes a 
treaty with France of the same piu-port. Great 
Britain, on the other hand, allies lierself with 
Prussia. Pnissians invade Bohemia. August 
30. Russians defeat the Prussians at Gross-Jiigers- 
dorf . November 5, Frederick defeats the imperial 
P army and the French allies at Rossbach ; Freder- 

ick then leads his army into Silesia. 

1758. June ^3. Ferdinand of BnuLswick is victori- 
ous over the French at Krefeld. 

Aug. S5. Frederick defeats the Russians at 
Zorndorf. Austrians are victorious at Hoch- 
klrch, October 14. 

1759. Aug. Ig. Allies Overwhelm Frederick at Ku- 

Qncrsdorf, and imperial army captiu'cs Dresden. 
1780. .Aug. IS. Frederick defeats the Austrians at 
Liegnitz. In October, Russians surprise Ber- 
lin. November 3, Austrians. under Daim, are 
routed at Torgau. lat Bunzelwitz. I 

17fil. Frederick opposes Austrians and RussiansI 

17(!3. March IS. Russia makes a truce with Prus- 
sia, and this is followed, on May 5, by the Peace of 
St. Petersburg, Russia restoring her conquests. 
R The Peace of Hambm'g with Sweden is concluded 

on May 22. Frederick defeats the Austrians at 
Berkersdorf, July 21; the Austrians are routed at 
Freiberg, October 29. 

1763. Feb. 15. Peace of Hubertsburg is signed 
by Prussia and Austria; Silesia finally ceded to 
Prussia; thus ends the Seven Years" War. 

1765. Aug. IS. Joseph II. elected emperor, suc- 

Sceeding his father, Francis I. 
1772. In the first partition of Poland, Prussia 

receives West Prussia except Danzig. 
1778. Death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Ba- 
varia, in December. 1777, witiiout direct heirs, 
leads to tlie War of the Bavarian Sueression. 
By the Treaty of Vienna, Joseph II. secures from 
Charles Theodore, elector palatine (the legal heir 
^ of Bavaria), a recognition of Austrian claims to 

I Lower Bavaria and part of the Upper Palatinate. 

Prussia and Saxony oppose and an almost blood- 
less war results in Treaty of Teschen, in May, 1779. 

1785. In order to oppose the designs of Austria in 
relation to Bavaria, Frederick the Great, in July, 
forms a league of German princes, including 
those of Prussia, Sa.xony, and Hanover: the league 
is afterwards joined by several other states. 

1786. Aug. n. Frederick William II. succeeds 
to the throne of Prussia on the death of his imcle, 
Frederick the Great. [(see Netherlands).! 

1787. Prussia Interferes in tlie affairs of Holland! 

1789. French Revolution greatly affects Ger- 
many, inasmuch as various German princes and 
lords hold feudal estates in France; and the 
movement to restrict royalty strikes at German 

• . absolutism. Danger to the French royal family 

V rouses Austria and Prussia. French abrogation of 
all feudal rights aflects the agricultural latorers, 
who in many parts are German and are serfs of the 
crown or of the owners of tlie estates. 

1790. Feb. 20. Joseph II. dies. His brother, 
Leopold II.. elected emperor, September 30. 

1791. A ug. 27. Leopold II. and Frederick William 
II. meet at Pillnitz and proclaim their support of 

^R/ the Loyalists of France against revolution there. 

1793. March 1. Leopold II. dies: his son, Francis, 
elected emperor as Francis II., July 5. 

1793. Grand coalition against France is formed 
by Austria, Prussia, and the German Empire, 
with England, Holland, Spain, and Naples (see 
France). Austria acts independently of the em- 
pire at first, but on March 22, 1793, the Diet for 

Xtlie Empire declares war against France. 
In the second Partition of Poland, Prussia ac- 
quires the western portion and Danzig. 

1794. Prussia with Austria aids the Russians 
against the Poles (see Russia). 

1795. In the third Partition of Poland Prussia 
gains Warsaw. 

1797. A'oii. 16. Frederick WilUam II. dies; suc- 
cceded by his son, Frederick William III., as 

Y king of Prussia. 

1801. Francis II. and Napoleon conclude the Peace 
of Luneville, by which France receives all the ter- 
ritory west of the Rhine, February 9 (see France). 

1803. Feb. 25. ReichsdcputalionshiiupCschluss (main 
report of the imperial committee) , for the indemni- 
fication of princes losing the territory ceded to 
France with territories made up from the imperial 

Zfree cities and ecclesiastical states, which become 
" mediatized." These changes secularize the 
Holy Roman Empire. In the Diet of the old 
empire the Catholics had 56 votes to 44 of the Prot- 



u 



estants. In the reorganized empire the Protest- 
ants have about 52 votes to 30 of the Catholics. 
1804. Aug. 14. Emperor Francis II. assumes the 
new title of " Hereditary Emperor of Austria." 

1806. Aug. 1. Formation of the Confederation 
of the Rhine by sLxteen states of the empire and 
their consequent secession and allegiance with 
France announced. 

Aug. 6. Francis II. tmder the dictation of Na- 
poleon, dissolves the Holy Roman Empire, and 
announces that he will rule as Hereditary Emperor 
of Austria. 

1807. July 9. Treaty of Tilsit with France 
signed by Prussia ; Prussia cedes to France her ter- 
ritories west of the Elbe and her recently acquired 
dominions in Poland (see France). Kingdom of 
"Westphalia created by Napoleon out of German 
states which have been part of the empire. 
Reforms of Stein, the great Prussian Liberal 
minister, include the aboUtion of serfdom and ju- 
dicial torture, foimding of tree schools for popular 
education, and the Schamhorst military system. 

1809. January. Stein forced to flee because of 
Napoleon "s antagonism; he has also gone too far 
in reforms to suit the king. Hardenberg be- 
comes premier. [many.] 

1810. French annex a large part of north Ger-I 
1813. Confedei"ation of the Rhine and kingdom of 

Westphalia abolished; French driven back to 
the lihine (see France for fall of Napoleon's 
power over central Europe). 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1815. Jun^ 9. General act of the Congress of 
Vienna (see Nineteenth-Century Period), A 
small part of the former Polish territory, also 
Pomerania. Danzig, and other German territories, 
including the right bank of the Rhine, go to Prus- 
sia, whose territory is thus di\ided into discon- 
nected areas; the design, wliich is to weaken Prus- 
sia, in the end makes it a leading power. Ansbach 
and Bayreuth go to Bavaria. Brunswick, Hesse- 
Cassel, and Oldenburg estabUshed as independent 
states, and Hanover made a kingdom. Hamburg, 
Bremen. Frankfurt am Main, and Liibeck regain 
their autonomy. Most of the Lower Palatinate 
reunited to Bavaria. Baden confirmed in the pos- 
session of Heidelberg and Mannhemi. Wiirzburg 
joined to Bavaria. The reorganized states unite 
in a German Confederation (Bund). 

September. Monarchs of Prussia, Austria, and 
Russia unite in the Holy Alliance (see Nine- 
teenth Century Period). 

1816. Representative government established In 
Saxe- Weimar by the grand duke, Charles Augus- 
tus. Diet of the German Confederation, 
composed of delegates appointed by the rulers of 
the various states, opens its sessions, November 5. 

1817. Lutheran and Calvinist Churches of Prussia 
unite to form the United Evangelical Church. 
The three-himdredth anniversary* of Reformation 
in Germany is celebrated. Student festival at the 
Wartburg gives great offense to the absolutists. 

1818. Tariff reform in Prussia inaugurates the 
policy which is to lead to the Customs Union 
iZollverein). 

1819. Congress at Karlsbad, in which the influ- 
ence of Metfernieh predominates; resolutions to 
establish a censorship of the press adopted. 

1830. May. Final act. signed at Vienna, com- 
pletes constitution of German Confederation. 

1823-1839. Period of stagnation in Germany. 

1830.. September. Duke Charles expelled by revo- 
lution in Brunswick; at the same tune radical 
agitations disturb Saxony and Hesse-Cassel. , 

1831. William II., elector of Hesse-Cassel, com- 
pelled to issue a new constitution: government 
of Saxony changed to a more democratic form. 

1832. Liberals of Germany hold a congress at Ham- 
bach. Many persecutions follow. 

1833. April. Attempts to foment a reTolution 
occur at Frankfurt am Main: followed by reac- 
tionary legislation. In Hanover, however, a lib- 
eral constitution is granted by the viceroy, the 
Duke of Cambridge. 

1834. Jan. I. German Customs Union, or Zoll- 
verein, founded as result of the policy of Pnissia. 

1840. June 7. Frederick William III. dies; 
succeeded as king of Prussia by his son Frederick 
William IV. 

1844. A Catholic movement begim. Multitudes 
of persons make pilgrimages to Treves to view the 
" holy coat."' 

1848. Revolutionary movements of magnitude 
begin in Germany, as result of the French Revolu- 
tion. February 27, a popular assembly gathers at 
Mannlieira imder the leadership of Itzstein, and 
insists on a German parhament. trial by jury, a 
free press, and the right of assembly and organiza- 
tion. March 11, these changes are adopted in 
Hesse. March 18. conflicts occur in the streets of 
Berlin; the king orders the troops to withdraw 
from the city, March 19, and anarchy reigns in 
the capital. The king declares that pressure will 
unite Germany. March 20, Louis I. of Bavaria 
abdicates in favor of his son, Maximilian II. In- 



surrections also occur in Saxony, Hanover, Nas- 
sau, Mecldenburg. and Baden. 

March SI. A preluiiinarj- parliament opened in 
Frankfurt under Mittermaier as president. Ulti- 
mately resolved to convene a constituent assembly 
for the purpose of preparing a constitution for a 
German empire. A German National Assem- 
bly, or Parhament. meets in Frankfurt, May IS, 
to prepare a constitution for a hberal and united 
Germany. John, archduke of Austria, elected 
administrator of the empire by the Assembly, and 
on June 1 1 . he enters Frankfurt. The confederate 
coiuicil dissolves and the flrst federal ministry is 
formed, with Sclxmerling of Austria minister of 
foreign affairs. 

A'oiembcr. Tide of reaction sets In, and in 
Prussia the troops enter Berlin without resistance, 
November 10, Prussian National Assembly re- 
moves the place of its session to Brandenburg. 
In this year, war with Denmark breaks out over 
Schleswig-Holstein (see Denmark). 

1849. Constitution of the German Empire 
completed, providing a Diet, made up bf a cham- 
ber of state, one half appointed by the govern- 
ments, the other by popular representatives of the 
states, but retaining a monarchical head with only 
a suspensive veto. April 3. the crown is offered 
to the king of Prussia, but he declmes the offer, 
nominally because it comes from the people and 
not from the sovereign princes, really l>ecause 
Prussia has not the necessary prestige. In May, 
the office of executive is abolished, and a central 
power is established, its execution going to Prussia 
and to Austria alternately. 

1850. Jan. SI. King of Prussia grants a constitu- 
tion to the kingdom. Suffrage so ari*anged as to 
give the superior power to landed nobility. Con- 
stitution lasts till 1918. 

March 20. Parliament assembles at Erfurt, 
and on April 27 a new German union is formed. 
A congress of the princes of the states is held at 
Berlin In May. In Hesse strife arises over the con- 
stitution, and country Is declared In a state of war. 

A'oii. 29. After an open rupture. Prussia and 
Austria meet in Conference of Olmiitz. Prus- 
sia yields to Austria, agreeing not to strive for the 
headship — a great himilllation to Prussia. 

1851. May IS. German Confederation, with the 
Diet, restored. 

1858. Prince William of Prussia made regent for 
his brother. Frederick William IV. 

1861. Jan. 2. Prince William becomes king of 
Prussia as William I. [ister in Prussia. I 

1862. September. Bismarck becomes prime mln- 1 

1864. Prussia united 'with Austria in another war 
over Schleswig-Holstein with Denmark (see Den- 
mark) ; by Treaty of Vierma, Oct. 30, Denmark re- 
nounces Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg. 

1865. Sclileswlg-Holsteln Is divided by the two 
powers, Prussia controlling Schleswig and Austria 
iiiling Holsteln. wliile Lauenburg goes to Prussia. 

1866. Crisis and war between Austria and Prus- 
sia for control over the confederation brought 
about by Bismarck. June 14. confederation de- 
clares Prussia to be In opposition to the union and 
designates Austria to force It to obedience. Prus- 
sia maintains that this vote Is imconstltutlonal, 
and she secedes from the confederation and in- 
vades Hanover and Hesse; Dresden is occupied 
on Jime IS. Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover. Baden, 
Hesse, and Wiirttemberg side with Austria. Italy 
forms military alliance with Prussia (see Italy). 

June 2S. Prussian troops having invaded Bo- 
hemia at Miinchengratz. the army of allied Aus- 
trians and Saxons Is routed. July 3. battle of 
Kiiniggratz results In a complete victory for the 
Prussians; Prague is occupied and an advance 
made on Vienna. 

July 26. Through French mediation the 
Truce of Nikolsburg is signed. August 23, 
Prussia and Austria sign the Peace of Prague. 
Austria recognizes the dissolution of the German 
Confederation ; consents to the formation of a new 
North German Confederation north of the 
river Main. Schleswig-Holstein. Hanover. Hesse, 
Nassau, and the free city of Frankfurt are Incor- 
porated with Prussia, thus building the territorial 
bridge needed to connect Brandenburg with the 
Rhine Province, completing a solid Prussia. 

1867. Feb. 2j. First Diet of the North German 
Confederation assembles, and a constitution Is 
adopted; the presidency of the confederation 
is united with the crown of Prussia, and Prussia 
represents the confederation In all International 
relations. In the Bimdesrath Prussia has 17 
votes, the total of the other votes being 26. An 
imperial Diet, or Reichstag, Is constituted by man- 
hood suffrage. The centralized military system 
is mider the command of the king of Prussia, and 
universal military service is made compulsory. 
Bismarck made chancellor of the confederation. 

March. Diplomatic difficulty with France ; she 
Is about to annex Luxemburg when the German 
Diet Interferes. Luxemburg remains practically 
a commercial dependency of Germany, but its 
neutraUty is guaranteed by the powers, May 11. 



1870-1914. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 



107 



1870. July 19. War between France and Ger- 
many (Franco-Prussian War) begins by a French 
declaration. The occasion is the. election of a 
Hohenzollern to the throne of Spain. A confer- 
ence of tlie French ambassador with King William 
is made by Bismarck's manipulation to appear an 
insult to France. Real cause of war is the con- 
viction that Napoleon III. is the obstacle to the 
acceptance of the German Union by the south 
German states. Most of the frontier fortresses 
and the city of Paris are taken. The Second 
Empire falls and the Emperor Napoleon III. is 
macie a gtate prisoner (see France). 

November. Treaties are made by the North 
German Confederation with the states of south 
Germany. December 10, the unification of 
Germany ha\'ing been thus secured, the Diet de- 
crees the restoration of the empire. 

1871. Jan. IS. All the sovereign princes and the 
tliree free cities having offered the crown to Wil- 
liam I. of Prussia, he is proclaimed at Versailles 
German Emperor. 

Feb. -26. Preliminaries of peace signed with 
France at VersaiUc^. France cedes to Ger- 
many, Alsace (with the exception of Belfort) and 
part of Lorraine, witli Metz and Diedeiiliofen, 
besides agreeing to pay an indemnity of a billion 
dollars, the pa>Tnent to be secured by German 
occupation of French territory. 

March SI. First session of the Reichstag of the 
^ new German Empire opens. 

^ May 10. Definitive Peace of Frankfurt am 

' IVIain signed by France and Germany., 
- 1872. Juiu. Reichstag passes an act abolishing 
all houses of the Jesuits and of aflBliated religious 
bodies m Germany. A rupture of relations 
with the Vatican foUows this legislation, and it 
is not until 1S7S that modifications of anti-Catho- 
lic legislation are secured. 

August. Dreikaiscrhund, Or Tliree Emperors' 
League (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 
1873. May 15. Prussian government proclaims 
laws against the Catholics ("May Laws"): the 
resistance of the clergy to these enactments leads 
to the passing of tlio civil- marriage law and the 
civil registration of births and deatlis. These laws 
are confirmed by the empire. January 1, 1876. 

Sept. 16. Last of the German troops withdraw 
from France. 

1878. May 4. An attempt is made upon the Hfe of 
Emperor William by one Hodel, a German working 
lad. and on June 2, Karl Nobiling, an educated 
man, succeeds in inflicting a womid on the sover- 
eign. These attacks are followed, in October, by 
legislation against the Socialists. 

June 13. After the Turco-Russian War (see 
Turkey and Ritssia) a congress of the powers 
assembles at Berlin, under the presidency of Bis- 
marck and a general treaty is signetl. July 13. 

1879. Oct. 7. Defensive alliance signed between 
Germany and Austria-Hungary aimed at Rus- 
sia and France. iin Germany. I 

1880. An anti-Semitic movement is set on foot I 
1880-1910. Unceasing efforts by the German gov- 
ernment to Germanize Alsace-Lorraine, which is 
treated as a dependency and for years has no local 
legislature. 

1883. May 20. Treaty of tlie Triple Alliance — 
Germany, Anstria-Himgary, and Italy — signed 
at Vienna. 

1883. May 31. Law providing for insiu-ance of 
workingmen against illness passed by Reichstag. 

1884. German colonization In Africa begins. 
March 21. Revival of Dreikaiserbund (Three 

Emperors' League). [against accident passed. I 
June 27. Law for the insurance of workingmen I 
Sept. 15-17. William I. confers with the em- 
peror of Austria-Hm^gary and the czar of Russia 
at Skiemiewice. 

1886. Landtag of Prussia enacts measures for 
Germanizing the Prussian territories in Poland. 

1887. After fourteen years of conflict with the 
Vatican, the Prussian government is compelled to 
abandon the severest of its measures against 
the Catholic Church. 

Alliance with Austria-Himgary and Italy re- 
newed, the first of several renewals continuing the 
alliance down to the World War. Baltic ship canal 
from Kiel to Brimsbiittel is begun by the imperial 
government. Increase in German armaments. 
1887-1890. Alienation of Russia (see Nineteenth- 
Century Period). 

1888. March 9. William 1. dies, is succeeded by 
his son, Frederick III. After a reign of ninety- 
nine days, Frederick dies, and his son William 
II. becomes German emperor. 

1889. May 24. Reiclistag enacts a law compelling 
the insurance of workingmen from disabilities 
caused by old age or accidents. 

June 14. Treaty on Samoa signed by Ger- 
many. Great Britain, and United States, for inde- 
pendence and neutrality of the islands and autono- 
mous government imder joint control. Check to 
German aggression, but does not work satisfac- 
torily. pSlEsopoTAM I A ) . I 

Nov. 27. Bagdad railway concession (seel 



1890. March 15-19. International conference 

in Berlin to consider questions a0"ectLug the 
working classes. 

March IS. Disagreement with the emperor 
leads to the resignation and retirement of 
Bismarck; Caprivi becomes his successor. Great 
gain is made by the Radicals and Social Demo- 
crats in the elections; also an increase in the rep- 
resentation of the Clericals, or Church party. 

July 1. Anglo-German treaty; Africa and 
Helgoland (see Africa and Great Britain). 
1893. Government makes strenuous endeavors to 
pass a severe army bill against the Liberals and 
Parliamentary Center, backed by the influence of 
Bismarck. Agitation known as the Anti-Sem- 
itic War revived on account of the supplying of 
arms to tiie army by the Jewish Loewe Company. 
The emperor defends the government. 

Augu.^t. Asiatic cholera becomes epidemic in 
Hamburg and Antwerp. 

1893. German Socialism emerges with great 
vigor and asserts itself in the Reichstag. Reichs- 
tag rejects the army bill and is dissolved by 
the emperor, May 6. Labor troubles abound 
throughout the empire, and the anarchists riot 
in Breslau, Jime 20. July 15 new Reichstag 
passes the army Ifill. 

1894. Jan. 26. Formal reconciliation effected be- 
tween emperor and Bismarck; the latter by special 
request visits the Kaiser. 

Feb. 10. Commercial treaty with Russia re- 
duces duties on German mantif^ctures and Rus- 
sian grain. 

Oct. 26. Emperor's autocratic temper leads to 
a break with Chancellor \-on Caprivi, who resigns 
to be succeeded by Hohenlohe-Schillingsftirst. 

1895. May. Interference in Chinese- Japanese 
Treaty (see China). 

June 29. Baltic ship canal (Kiel Canal) 
formally opened with an international pageant. 

1896. Jan. 3. Emperor William congratulates 
President Kruger of the South African RepubUc 
on his victory- over Jameson's force; the message 
is interpreted as hostile to Great Britain. 

.4 pril 14. The emperor welcomed in Vienna by 
the emperor of Austria. October 20, he receives a 
visit from the czar of Russia. 

Dec. 7. Prosecution of the German newspaper 
editors for libeling the minister of foreign affairs. 
Bieberstein, and others results in the conviction of 
aU the accused except one. 

1897. Feb. 9. Strikers in thedockyards at Hamburg 
riot, two men killed and nineteen seriously injured. 

Nov. 14. Seizure of Kiaochow (see China). 

1898. October- November. Emperor WiUiam visits 
Constantinople and the Holy Land. 

1899. Dec. 2. Second Samoan treaty. Ger- 
many and United States divide the islands. 
Great Britain compensated elsewhere. 

1900. Boxer uprising in China (see China). 
Jan. 1 . New German legal code goes into effect. 
Oct. 17. Von Billow succeeds Hohenlohe as 

chancellor. 

1901. June. Failure of the Leipziger Bank, fol- 
lowed by a series of failures and severe financial 
depression. Bad harvests add to the trouble. 

1902. February-March. Prince Henry of Prussia, 
emperor's brother, visits United States. 

Dec. 14. New tariff bill passed. It places 
higher duties on farm products, and is in many 
ways favorable to agrarian interests. 

1903. February. Government decides to readmit 
the Jesuits, who have been excluded since 1872. 
In the Reichstag elections of Jime the Socialists 
gain 25 seats. 

March 5. Further Bagdad railway convention 
signed at Constantinople. 

July 28. Conunercial treaty with Russia. 
E\idence of official sjTnpathy with Russia causes 
sharp debates m the Reichstag. 
1904-1911. Moroccan difficulty with France (see 
Nineteenth-Century Period and Morocco). 

1905. Government takes advantage of war in the 
Far East to strengthen friendly relations with 
Russia. Colonial affairs cause anxiety, especially 
in connection with the revolts of the natives in 
East and Southwest Africa. 

January-February. Strike of 200,000 miners 
in Westphalia; finally settled by the promise of 
remedial legislation. 

1906. Feb. 23. Reichstag votes to extend existing 
tariff arrangements with the United States tem- 
porarily. 

April 7. Algeciras Convention (see Nine- 
teenth-Centubt Period). 

Dec. IS. Emperor dissolves the Reichstag be- 
cause it refuses to appropriate S7,500,000 addi- 
tional for the war in German African colonies. 

1907. Jan. 25. Elections for the Reichstag result 
in large gains for the supporters of the emperor's 
colonial, mihtarj', and naval policy. 

1908. Jan. 4. Alaximihan Harden, Socialist, con- 
victed of hbeling von RIoltke ("Eulenburg scan- 
dal "). vSupreme Court orders new trial. Januarj- 
10, Socialist crowds in Berlin demand universal 
suffrage; are suppressed by the pohce. January 



! 21. parade of 50.000 unemployed in streets of 
Berlin. Jime 3. five Socialists elected to the 
Prussian Chamber of Deputies for the first time. 

July 1. Zeppelin remains in the air twelve 
hours in his dirigible balloon, carrj-ing fourteen 
men and maintaining an average speed of about 
thirty-four miles an hour. A national subscrip- 
tion enables Zeppelin to continue his experiments. 

Oct. 2S. Accoimt appears of an interview 
with Emperor William, which arouses intense 
indignation througliout the empire. He sets 
forth his friendship for Great Britain, and his 
mihtarj' suggestions for carrj'ing on a war against 
the Boers. Chancellor von Bulow tenders his 
resignation, which is declined. November 10, for 
the first time a German emperor is made person- 
ally the subject of debate in the Reichstag. No- 
vember 17, emperor formally promises that he will 
not henceforth act or speak on matters affecting 
the foreign relations of the empire except through 
the chancellor and his associate ministers. 
19Q9. Feb. 9. Agreement with France regarding ad- 
ministration of affairs in Morocco; impracticable. 

May Sl~June 1. The Zeppelin dirigible 
balloon makes a flight of more than 600 miles, re- 
maining in the air about thirty-foiu" hours. 

July 14. Bethmann-Hollweg appointed 
chancellor to succeed Btilow. 

1910. Jan. 27. Severe rioting in Bnmswick during 
a Sociah.st demonstration in fa\or of electoral re- 
form. Similar troubles occur elsewhere. 

Aug. 25. The emperor in a speech at Konigs- 
berg declares his belief in the rule of the Hohen- 
zollems over Prussia by " divine right." 

August-October. Great shipyard strlke;22,000 
men idle. 

1911. May 16. Prussian Diet passes a Greater 
Berlin bill; extended city to have about 3,500,000 
inhabitants. 

May. Alsace-Lorraine made a member of 
the Federation; practically still remains mider 
Prussian influence. 

September. Socialist Congress at Jena imani- 
mously protests against any attempt to pro- 
voke a war between Germany, Great Britain, and 
France. 

1912. January. General election. Success of the 
Socialists increases; they elect about a third of the 
members of the Reichstag, one from the Potsdam 
district, the residence of the emperor. Mainte- 
nance of position of the Clerical (Center) party. 

Jan. 28. National Defense League {Wehrver- 
ein) inaugurated in Berlin for promoting the in- 
terests of the army. 

March 11. Coal strike begins in Westphalia. 
Ends March 24. 

May 21. Reichstag passes naval bill providing 
$28,500,000 annuaUy till 1920. 

November. INlecklenburg Diet imposes a tax 
on bachelors of 30 years of age and upwards. 

1913. April 21. Charges that mantffacturers of 
arms and ammimition stimulate milit-arism with a 
view to selling war material. This leads to the 
Krupp trial in Beriiii, July 31; several militarj' 
officials and two high officials of the Krupp Com- 
pany foimd, guilty. 

May 24- Marriage of emperor's only 
daughter, Victoria Louise, to Prince Ernst August 
of Cumberland (England), son of exiled Hanove- 
rian claimant, ends ad^Tiastic feud. 

J une SO. By passage of army bill, peace foot- 
ing increased to 661,176, claimed to be forced by 
adoption of 3-year service in France. 

Augu&t. Centenary of the War of Liberation 
celebrated. 

Oct. 27. Federal Council votes imanimousily. 
in spite of the crown prince's opposition, to place 
Prince Ernst August of Cimiberland on the throne 
of the duchy of Brunswick. 

Oct. 31. Bavarian Diet passes a bill for replac- 
ing the insane King Otto by the regent. Latter 
ascends the throne as Ludwig III., November 5. 

Dec. 1. Controversy in the Reichstag caused 
by brutalities practiced on civilian population of 
Zabern (Saveme) m Alsace-Lorraine by army 
officers, who, commended by the crown prince and 
backed up by the emperor, go unpimished. De- 
cember 4, vote of " no confidence " in the govern- 
ment adopted in the Reichstag by 293 to 54 to 
mark disapproval of the action taken in regard to 
Zabern affair. 

Dec. 14. Crown prince recalled to Berlin from 
Danzig to join the general staff of the army, thus 
ending his exile from the capital since 1911. 
1914. March. Socialists hold a " red week " 
throughout Germany, the aggressive campaign 
bringing in thousands of new members. 

March 22. Emperor leaves for Vienna on a 
visit to Francis Joseph, afterwards proceeding to 
Venice to meet the king of Italy. 

April. Consequent to the Zabern episode, new 
army regulations are promulgated forbidding the 
miUtary to intervene in civil disorders except 
" when in cases of urgent danger for public safety." 
June 24. Reconstructed Kiel Canal formally 
opened by the emperor. 



108 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GERMANY. 



1914 — 1918. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 
M 1914 (continued). 

July-August. For outbreak and progress of 
World War, see that title. 

August. Paper eurreney is made legal ten- 
der, thus relieving the Reichsbank of obligation 
to redeem its notes in gold. 

September. Fir.st War loan of $250,000,000: 
more than four times oversubscrilwd. 

191S. January. Second war loan of $1,125,000,- 

000; almost 100% oversubscribed. 

Feb. 1 Government seizes all private stocks of 
com, wheat, and flour, and municipalities ordered 
to lay up stores of preserved meats. Limited 
bread ration, applicable to the entire population 
of the empire, fi.xed. Official order issued that all 
stocks of copper and other metals used for war 
purposes be reserved for miUtary use. 
P March no. Budget of $3,250,000,000, four 

times greater than any estimates ever before pre- 
sented, adopted. 

May. Many Americans leave the country 
owing to the imfrieudly attitude of the nation at 
large and the fear of an actual nipture Ijetweeu the 
United States and Germany. 

Sept. 2Ji. Subscriptions to third war fund 

Qamoimt to almost $3,000,000,000. 
Oct. 10. Estimated that the cost of necessi- 
ties for a workingman's family has increased 75 to 
100 per cent. 

191C. Jan. 1.5. Direct passenger service between 
Berlin and Constantinople resmncd. 

February. Food difficulties in Berlin and else- 
where in Germany. 
_ February. Bulgaria turns over to Germany the 

H copper mines in Serbia to exploit diu-ing the war. 

Feb. 26. New taxation methods armoimced, 
including imposts on war profits and increases ui 
the rates on tobacco, in stamp taxes, and postal, 
telegraph, and telephone tolls. [gal. I 

March s. Germany declares War OQ Portu-I 
March 1.5. Tirpitz resigns as minister of ma- 
rine; succeeded by C^apelle. 

S March 24. Subscriptions to the fourth war 

loan amoimt to $2,650,000,000. 

April 7. Commercial treaty concluded with 
Roumania, to facilitate the purchase of Rou- 
manian grain by the Central Powers. 

May 1. AH timepieces in Germany are set for- 
ward one hour as a daylight-saving measiu'e. 
Au!t. 27. Ualyformally declares herself at war 
^ with Germany from August 28. 

I ' Aug. 29. Hindenburg succeeds FaJkenhajTi 

as chief of staff of the German armies. [000. 1 
September. Fifth war loan realizes $2,650,000,- 1 
Oct. 28. Reichstag authorizes a new war credit 
of $2,856,000,000, with only the Radical-Socialist 
vote in opposition. 

Nov. 5. New kingdom of Poland is proclaimed 
by Germany and Austria-Ilimgary (see Poland). 
U Nov. 21. Von Jagow resigns office of minister 

^^ of foreign affairs : succeeded by Zimmermann. 

Dec. 12. Germany and her allies (Austria, 
BiUgaria, and Turkey) propose to enter into 
peace negotiations witii the Entente powers. 

Dec. 29. Joint reply of the Allies (Belgium, 
France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Montenegro, 
Portugal, Roumania, Russia, and Serbia) to Ger- 

Vmany's peace note of December 12 rejects the 
offer as " a sham proposal lacking all substance 
and precision. "_ 
191J. Feb. 27. Chancellor declares that the 
United States has forced Germany into isolation, 
while favoring the Allies and permitting illegali- 
ties on the part of Germany's enemies. 

A pril. Sixth war loan brings in $3,280,000,000. 

April 3. By a vote of 277 to 33, the Reichstag 

^M appoints a committee to recommend changes in 

the imperial constitution, with enlargement of the 

powers of the lower house. 

April 7. The emperor issues a rescript promis- 
ing changes in the electoral system of Prussia, to 
become operative after the war. 

July 6. Erzberger, a leader of the Catholic 
Center in the Reichstag, attacks the Pan-German 

Xand antidemocratic factions, declaring himself for 
a ** peace without annexations.*' 

July 11. The emperor instructs the Prussian 
ministry to submit a bill, before the next elections, 
revising the electoral law " on the basis of equal 
franchise." 

July 14. As a result of tlie political crisis which 
follows the Erzberger speech, von Betlimann- 
Hollweg retires from the oflBce of chancellor. 
Y Foreign Secretary Zimmermaim also resigns. 

July 19. Reichstag, by a vote of 214 to 116, 
declares that, while repudiating forced annexa- 
tions of territory, Germany will fight " as one 
man " against the .Miles' tlireats of conquest. 
New chancellor, Michaelis, tells the Reichstag 
that Germany will not continue the war for con- 
quests and that she desires an honorable peace. 

Z September. Seventh war loan amounts to 

$3,156,000,000. 

Sept. 21. For the reply to the pope's peace 
message, see under Italy. 



Oct. s. Chancellor Michaelis declares that so 
long as the enemy seeks German territory or ar- 
tempts to separate the people from their emperor, 
Germany will not make peace. No concessions 
can be made in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, but 
other controversies could be settled bj- negotiation. 
Oct. 10. Details given in the Reichstag regard- 
ing a naval mutiny which occurred at Wilhelms- 
haven several weeks earUer. 

Oct. 30. Hertling, premier of Bavaria, succeeds 
Michaelis as imperial chancellor. 

Nov. 29. The chancellor expresses to the 
Reichstag his hope that peace will result from 
negotiations with the Russian goverimaent. 

Dec. 6. Govermuent bill introduced in the 
Prussian Diet for the reform of the antiquated 
electoral system. 
1918. Jan. 7. Mutiny among submarine crews 
at the Kiel naval base; 38 officers are reported to 
have been killed. 

Jan. 24. Chancellor von Hertling, considering 
the peace terms suggested by President Wilson's 
recent address to Congress (see United States, 
Jan. 8, 1918), rejects some of the most vital points. 
Cession of Alsace-Lorraine camiot be considered. 

Jan. 26. Peace demonstrations reported 
from various parts of Germany. Scheidemann 
leader of the Majority (less radical) Socialists, 
warns the military party that it will be hiu-led from 
power if it fails to make peace with Russia. 

Jan. so. Strike in essential war Industries 
in Berlin, Hamburg, Essen, and Kiel. Workmen 
demand peace without indemnities or annexa- 
tions, labor representation at the Peace Confer- 
ence, electoral reforms, and full right of public 
meeting. February 4, strong action by the miU- 
tary authorities in putting an end to the strikes 
in various parts of the coimtry. 

Feb. 2o. Chancellor von Hertling, in the 
Reichstag, declares that he " can agree fimda- 
nientally " with the principles laid down by Presi- 
dent AVilson in his speech before Congress on 
February 11 (see United States). 

March 3. Treaty of Brest-Lltovsk with 
Russia (see Russia). 

April 10. At Limbm'g, Prussia, mutinous sol- 
diers kill tliree officers. 

April 15. Reichstag majority accepts the chan- 
cellor's new proposed peace terms, which sub- 
stitute a war indenmity and annexation of parts 
of Belgium and France. 

May 2. In Prussian Diet Reactionists defeat 
adoption of equal manhood suffrage 235 to 183. 
Meeting at German army headquarters, the em- 
perors of Germany and Austria-Hungary 
revise the terms of alliance between their coim- 
tries; provision for closer economic relations and 
for miUtary cooperation for a period of 25 years. 

June 12. Annotmced that the eighth German 
war loan produced $3,750,000,000. 

June 22. Ludendorff. quartermaster-general, 
amioimces that no more food may be sent to 
.4ustria-Himgary in view of the shortage of army 
rations. Proposal that the clothing of dead per- 
sons should be taken over liy the government. 

June 24. Dysentery and Spanish influenza 
have spread rapidly m various parts of Germany, 
especially among the undernourished classes. 
Von Kulilmaim, foreign secretary, admits that 
peace caimot be expected by " miUtary decisions 
alone." 

June 25. The chanceUor pledges himself to a 
firm prosecution of the war, thus rebuking von 
Kiililmann. [toral reform bill. I 

July 5. Prussian lower house passes the elec-l 

July 9. Von Kiihlmann resigns because of 
continued criticism; succceeded by Admiral von 
Hintzc. (vote the budget. | 

July 10. Socialists in the Reichstag refuse to I 

July 11. C^hanceUor von Hertling denoimces 
the recent utterances of President Wilson and the 
British foreign secretary, who apparently demand 
the destruction of Germany. Peace must secure 
German territory, economic expansion, and secur- 
ity. Russian treaty must stand; but Germany- 
has no intention of keepuig Belgium. 

Aug. 7. Fresh mutinies reported among Ger- 
man sailors at Wilhelmshaven. 

Aug. 16. Belmcke becomes minister of marine, 
succeeding Admiral von CapeUe. 

Sept. 3. At Plauen in Saxony only 12 of 6,S0O 
women employees escape when a powder factory 
is destroyed by explosion. 

Sept. 24. The chanceUor, addressing the main 
committee of the Reichstag, declares that " the 
deep discontent wliieh has seized wide circles of 
the population . . . far exceeds justifiable limits," 

Sept. 28. ChanceUor von Hertling and Foreign 
Secretary von Hintze resign. 

October. Nmth war loan realizes $2,608,000.- 
000; total war loans, $24,519,000,000. Later, war 
debt is offlciaUy aimoimced at 157,700,000,000 
marks (nominally $39,400,000,000). 

Oct. 2. Prince Maximilian of Baden takes of- 
fice as imperial chancellor. 
Prussian upper house passes electoral reform bill. 



Oct. B. Solf, colonial secretary, appointed 
secretary for foreign affairs; Erzberger, Catholic 
leader, and several Socialists enter the cabinet, 

Oct. 5-Nov. 11. For the di|>loinatic exchanges 
between Germany and other beUigerents which 
preceded the close of hostUities, see World War. 

Oct. 21. Socialist newspapers demand the 
abdication of the emperor. 

Oct. 26. Quartermaster-General Ludendorff, 
the real directing genius of the German forces in 
the later years of the war, resigns; succeeded by 
Goetner. 

Oct. 28. Emperor William, in a letter to the 
ChanceUor, approves of transfer of " the fimdamen- 
tal rights of the Kaiser's person " to the people. 

Nov. 3-5. Mutiny spreads throughout Ger- 
man naval bases, begimiing at Kiel; there they 
organize " cotmcils " (Soviets), after the Russian 
plan, and refuse to obey orders. 

Nov. 7. Almost the whole fleet has passed 
into the hands of revolutionists. The first 
detachments of soldiers sent to restore order at 
Kiel join the revolutionists; later detachments are 
driven back by machine-gim fire. In Berlin many 
deserters from the army march through the streets. 
In Bavaria, after the Diet has deposed King Lud- 
wig, a republic is proclaimed. 

Nov. S. Emperor William refuses to give way 
to the demands for his abdication made by the 
Socialists. ClianccUor Maximilian, miable to 
maintain himself against the SociaUst opposition, 
resigns. 

Revolutionary movement in the great industrial 
district atout Essen. 

Nov. 9. Revolutionary movement among the 
sailors, soldiers, and workmen, which began at 
Kiel, spreads over nearly the whole northern por- 
tion of the empire. 

A Workmen's and Soldiers' Cotmcil, establishing 
itself in Berlin, orders a general strike. Berli 11 
banks, i:)ecause of general panic, stop payment. 
ChanceUor Maximilian aimomices that Emperor 
William has decided to abdicate and that Fried- 
rich Ebert. the leader of the Majority Socialists, 
has been appointed chancellor, pending the con- 
vocation of a National Assembly. Having formed 
a cabinet composed mainly of Majority Social- 
ists, Chancellor Ebert states that he proposes to 
form a popular government, confirm the liberty 
which has just been gained, and bring about peace 
as soon as possible. 

Nov. 9-14. Establishment of the republic 
In Bavaria; foUowed by similar action in Bruns- 
wick, Wiirttemberg, Sa.xony, Oldenburg, Mecklen- 
burg, Reuss, Saxe-Weimar, Lippe, Waldeck, .'\n- 
halt. and Baden. 

Nov. 10. Emperor William flees to Holland, 
becoming the guest of Count von Bentinck, twelve 
miles from the frontier. 

Nor. 11. Armistice declared. End of active 
fighting on the western front and at sea. Trouble 
develops with Poles in Posen and Silesia (see 
Poland). 

Field Marshal von Hindenburg places himself and 
the German army at the disposition of the new 
German government. 

Nor. 12. Socialist government in BerUn 
exercises authority. 

A'or. 13. Ebert government appeals to 
President WUson to send foodstuffs to Germany. 
Nov. 15. Berlin government asks peasants to form 
local coimcUs and regxUate distribution of food. 
Ebert reconstnicts Ills cabinet and imder the in- 
fluence of Liebknecht, admits Independent (Mi- 
nority) Socialist. 

Nov. 20. Former crown prince makes his resi- 
dence on the island of Wieringen, in the Zuider Zee. 

Nov. 22. Spartacldes, as the extremists fol- 
lowing Liebknecht are called, attempt to seize 
police headquarters at Berlin. 

Nov. 24. Conference of Workmen's and Sol- 
diers' Councils proclaims Oldenburg, Oestfries- 
land, Bremen, Hamburg, and Schleswig-Holstein 
a republic, with its capital at Hamburg. Does 
not continue. 

Ebert, after negotiating with the Spartacldes, re- 
fuses to give way to them and reaffirms his deter- 
mination to summon a national assembly. 

Nov. 25. Ebert cabmet, making an agreement 
with the Workmen's and Soldiers' Council, ad- 
mits it to a share of |)olitical power. 

A'oi). 28. Luden(l(}rtl' takes refuge in Sweden. 

A'oii. 27. AU Cermaii soldiers, except the 1898 
and 1899 classes, are being discharged. 

Nov. 29. Government makes pubUc the text 
of a document m which the former Emperor Wil- 
liam renounces his rights as king of Prussia and 
German emperor. 

Nov. SO. German government proposes to the 
AUies that responsibility for the war shaU be 
fixed by a neutral commission. 

Dec. 1. Hindenburg, by proclamation, forbids 
conflicts with the Workmen's and Soldiers' Coun- 
cUs. He requests the central government to re- 
quest the councils not to interfere with army com- 
manders. 



1918- 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES^ GERMANY — GREECE. 



109 



1918 (continued). 

Dec. 2. In Berlin, a plot is discovered for the 
restoration of the Imperial regime after demo- 
bilization had been completed. Markriisrn among 
those implicated. [food riotlni; in Cuiotinc I 

Dec. 5. Machine guns are employed to check 1 
Dec. 6. Turbulence of the Spartaeides leads 
to great disorder in Berlin, where a considerable 
nimiber of persons are killed. 

Dec. 16. Delegates from Workmen's and Sol- 
diers' Coimcils tlii-oughout Germany assemble in 
Berlin, the extremists being outnumbered. 
General strike, fomented by Liebkiieclit and the 
advanced Socialists, or Spartaeides, assumes seri- 
ous proportions. 

Dec. 17. Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' 
Coimcils shows itself hostile to radical attacks on 
the Ebert government and declines to bar the 
bourgeoisie from pohtical recognition. 

Dec. 19. By a vote of 400 to 70, the congress 
resolves to have a national assembly called for 
January 19. 1919. 

Dec. S3. Radical sailor groups, called to Berlin 
by Liebknecht, after guarding the government 
buildings, resist soldiers sent to replace them and 
are besieged in the palace and royal stables. 

Dec. 30. Moderate elements added to the 
Ebert cabinet after the resignation of Haase {for- 
eign minister), Barth, and Dittmann, Minority 
SociaUsts. 

Dec. 31. In Posen (German Poland) the Poles 
gain the ascendancy. Workmen's and Soldiers' 
Coimcils at various places proclaim imion with 
the Pohsh nation. [eastern Germany. I 

Bolshevist republic estabhshed in Silesia, south- 1 
1919. Jan. 1. German authorities in German Po- 
land declare Posen imder martial law. 
Chancellor Ebert and Foreign Secretary- Scheide- 
mann annoimce the program of the newly con- 
structed ministry. 

Jan. 5. Cabinet deposes Eichhom, the Berlin 
chief of police, the only Independent Socialist re- 
maining in an important post. Eicliliom defies 
the authorities. 

Jan. 7. Spartaclde revolt breaks out In Ber- 
lin. Many are killed and woimded in street fight- 
ing: public buildings seized by the revolutionaries. 

Jan. 10. The Spartacide revolt spreads in 
German cities. 

Jan. 11. Spartaeides are defeated in Berlin. 
This is mainly due to a steady increase in the 
number of the government forces. 

Jan. 12. Fighting resumed in Berlin, but the 
revolutionary leaders are duly arrested and their 
followers made prisoners. Hindenburg arrives in 
Berlin , 

Jan. 13. In elections to the Bavarian National 
Council, the extremists {Independent Socialists 
and Spartaeides) meet with defeat. In the elec- 
tions to the WiJrttemberg Diet the Independent 
Socialists poll less than one tenth as many votes as 
the Majority Socialists. 

Spartacide forces are temporarily in control of 
the govenmient of Bremen. In all other cities 
outside Berlin revolt has been suppressed. 

Jan. 15. Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, 
leaders of the Spartaeides. killed in Berlin. This 
loss of leaders helps stop more serious disturbances. 

Jan. 16. Bolshevists In full control in Bre- 
men, Cuxhaven, and Diisseldorf. 

Jan. 19. Elections for National Assembly. 
Out of 403 members Majority Socialists get 166, 
Centrists (Clericals) 93. Democrats (Liberals) 75, 
Conservatives (^lonarchists) 34, Miuority Social- 
ists (Radicals) 24. 34 women delegates. [otic. I 

February. Labor and political conditictns cha-1 

Feb. 6. National Assembly nii-cts at Weimar. 

Feb. 11. Ebert, chancellor since the overtlirow 
of the empire, elected president of German Re- 
public. Coalition cabinet, with Scheldeniann as 
premier,, and composed of Majority Socialists, 
Centrists, and Democrats, formed February 13. 
Spartacide rising in Bremen put down. 

Feb. 15. Officially aimounced that war cost 
Germany $40,000,000,000. 

Feb. 21. Eisner, SociaUst premier of Bavaria, 
assassinated by a reactionary officer. Auer, 
minister of the interior, and Rosshaupter, minister 
of war, killed in a mtlee in House of Deputies 
at Munich. Both Reactionaries and Spartaeides 
start revolts there. 

Feb. 25. Spartacide rising in Saxony. 

March 2. Government appeals to the people 
for support. in repressing the radical agitation. 

March 3. General strike in Berlin, wliich 
spreads to other cities and becomes a revolt. 
Noske, government minister of defense in 
charge, declares a state of siege at Berlin. 
March 5, fighting between troops and Spartaeides, 
who have been joined by some marines; continues 
for several days, with much destruction of proper- 
erty. March 10, strike called off. Spartaeides 
not suppressed until March 13. Acute imrest 
and disorder reported from all over Germany. 

April 7. In Munich a soviet government is 
proclaimed for Bavaria, which the national gov- 



ernment refuses to recognize. Rival communist 
government also start<xl. Spartacide activities 
elsewhere continue to be a menace. 

April S. Soviet congress meets at Berlin. 

April 12. Dresden declared in state of siege. 

April IS. So\iet government in Brunswick, in 
power since November, overthrown. 

May If. Red government at Munich after 
a month of terror and fighting overthrown by 
national government troops. Damage done by 
conmiimists reported as $63,000,000. 

Jiint: 1. D^x-laration of independence and pro- 
\isional government for Rliino Provinces at Wies- 
baden, where French have charge. Soon dies out. 

June 21. New cabinet, headed by Bauer and 
willing to sign peace treaty, formed. It tries first., 
though, to make reservations, especially as to re- 
sponsibihty for the war and pimislmient of viola- 
tors of the rules of war. 

Ships of the German navj' interned at Scapa 
Flow sunk by their officers. French battle flags 
of war of 1870-1871, subject to return imder 
treaty, burned at Berlin. [World War).! 

June 2S. Treaty of Versailles signed (see| 

Jjdy 5. Scheme of Minist-er of Defense Noske 
for home guards regarded as violation of treaty 
requirement of maximmn force of 100.000. 

July 11 . Blockade of Germany formally raised. 

July 21. Another general strike in Berlin for 
one day. Due to Sociahst factions. Clashes 
with troops. 

July 31. National Assembly adopts a repub- 
lican constitution. Proclaimed. August 13. 
(See Historical Outline, above.) 

Aug. 21. Inauguration of Ebert as president 
imder new constitution. National Assembly ad- 
journs, to reassemble at Berlin. [tender. I 

Sept. 10. Reichsbank notes cease to be legal! 

October. Investigation of responsibility for 
the war be-gun by a committee appointed by the 
National Assembly. Hindenburg coming to Ber- 
lin to testify, November 14, is cause of a royahst 
demonstration. [War). I 

Nov. 6. Scapa Flow protocol (see World | 
19?0. Jan. 10. Peace of Versailles becomes 
operative. 

Jan. IS. Radical mob attacks National As- 
sembly at Berlin. Dispersed by troops: many 
killed and wounded. [nals (see World War).] 

Feb. 3. Demand on Germany for war crinii-l 

Feb. 10. First (northern) zone of Schleswig 
votes under peace treaty to unite with Denmark 

March IS. Junker troyaiist) counter-revo- 
lutionists take possession of Berlin. President 
Ebert proclaims a general strike, March 14. Re^ 
volt collapses, March 17. Reds take advantage 
of opportunity to rise, especially in the Ruhr 
mining district and Essen, and the government 
sends troops there, although it is within the neu- 
tral zone. 

March 14. Plebiscite in second (southern) zone 
in Schleswig: decides to remain in Germany. In- 
cludes Flensburg. 

March 22. Bauer ministrj- resigns because of 
Socialist-Labor opposition. Miiiler ministry 
succeeds. 

April 6. French troops occupy Frankfurt and 
Darmstadt, because of German troops in the neu- 
tral zone. 



GIBRALTAR. 

See under British Empire, page 62. 



GREECE. 
Historical Outline. 

From the conquest of Greece by the Romans in 
146 B. 0. until the acknowledgment of Greek inde- 
pendence in 1S30, Greece existed as a part of the 
Roman Empire, the Eastern or Byzantine Empire, 
or the Tiirkish Empire. Notwithstanding these 
eighteen centuries of dependence and often cruel op- 
pression, and in spite of frequent invasions and large 
admixtures of foreign population, the Greek spirit 
and the Greek language have been preserved. The 
center of Greek life, however, was long ago trans- 
ferred to Constantinople, and the Greek influence 
was exerted not so much at Athens as in Asia Minor 
and Eg>pt. and even India, by Greek conquerors, 
merchants, and traders. 

From 1483 to 1830 Greece was an integral part of 
the Turkish Empire, and like the other Turkish pos- 
sessions in Europe, suffered from the extortion of 
the pashas and the misrule of the Turkish officials. 
During tliis period Greece was frequently raided by 
Christian fleets. During the ISth centm-y the con- 
dition of the Greeks improved. Personal service 
was commuted into money pajTnents and the 
tribute of children wliich the Turks exacted for the 
Janizaries was allowed to fall into abeyance. To- 
ward the end of the 18th century, Greek commerce 
Increased rapidly and spreading tlirougliout the 
Mediterranean developed a sense of Greek imity. 
The Turks, moreover, employed Greek officials in 



the civil ser\ice and granted special privileges to 
the Greek clergy. Finally, education improved, new 
schools and academies were founded, and Greek na- 
tionality began to re\ive. , 

The Greek struggle for mdepcndence began with 
several insurrections which broke out tlu'oughout the 
coimtry without plan or connection. The real revo- 
lution dates from Annimciation Sunday, April 6, 
1821, when all the Peloponnesus burst into flames. 
The Turks, unaided, were imable to put down the 
revolution and caUed in the tributary Egji)tians. 
who committed aU manner of atrocities. This 
aroused Europe, which had begun to take an interest 
in the re%nval of Greece; and Great Britain, France, 
and Russia ordered an immediate armistice. Tur- 
key refused to obey, and the battle of Navarino was 
fought October 20, 1S27, in which tlie Turkish 
and Egj-ptian ships were destroyed by the British, 
French, and Russians. In 1830, Greece was de- 
clared an independent kingdom, but with only half 
the territory the patriots had fought for. The 
European powers, moreover, refused to aUow Greece 
to choose her own sovereign and ((1832) designated 
Prince Otto of Bavaria as king (Otho I.)- 

Otlio began in an arbitrary' manner, but in 1843 by 
a peaceful revolution the people obtained a consti- 
tution: a national assembly was called in 1844 and 
a constitutional monarchy was estabhshed. Self- 
government did not bring quiet. Society was in a 
disturbed condition, and pohtics kept Athens in a 
turmoil, while the European powers frequently inter- 
vened, often to the detriment of the Greeks. In 1862 
Otho was deposed by a revolution, and the crowTi 
was ofl'ered to Christian William of Sonderbtu-g- 
Gliicksburg, who ascended the throne as George I. 

During the reign of George I. (1863-1913) Greece 
saw material prosperity and development, generally 
peaceable. Politics often caused local disorders in 
Athens, and there were frequent changes of the cabi- 
nets and accusations of corruption. The significant 
events were the extension of the boundaries in Epirus 
and Thessaly (1881), and the long insurrection in 
Crete which began in 1889. As a part of tliis Cretan 
movement, the Greeks declared war against Txu-key 
in 1897. but were disastrously defeated. Prince 
George, however, was appomted by the powers high 
commissioner for Crete. In 1910 Venizelos, the 
Cretan leader, was called to Athens to form a cabi- 
net, and in 1911 a re^ised constitution was adopted 
which provided for judicial and administrative re- 
forms and increased the military' and naval efficiency. 

Tlirough tlie activities of Venizelos, the Balkan 
League, consisting of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, 
and Greece, was formed in 1912, and war was de- 
clared upon Tiu'key (see Turkey). In this war the 
Greeks Invaded Macedonia and occupied Saloniki 
and Janina. As a result of the second Balkan War 
(July, 1913) and the Treaty of Bucharest, Greece 
gained Doiran, Demir-Hissar, Seres, Drama, and 
Kavala, as well as Vodena and Fiorina. 

The outbreak of the World War foimd Greece al- 
hed with Serbia but occupying a precarious position. 
King Constantine, who succeeded at the death of Ills 
father, was the brother-in-law of the German em- 
peror and beheved that it would be disastrous for 
Greece to throw her lot in with Serbia The leading 
character in Greece, however, was the Cretan pa- 
triot, Venizelos, who accompUshed the union of 
Crete with Greece and was the real foimder of the 
Balkan League. Venizelos, as prime mmister, with 
a strong popular following, commanded the confi- 
dence of tlie Parhament and urged support of Serbia 
and alliance with Great Britain and France. In 
1915 (March 6) Venizelos resigned, as a protest 
against the king's foreign poUcy, and forced the 
resignation of his successor, whom tlie kmg hoped to 
find more compUant. The king dissolved parlia- 
ment, but the election again showed a majority for 
Venizelos, and he assumed power, only to resign a 
second time in protest against the pohcy of the king. 

October 5, 1915. the AUiedforces occupied Saloniki. 
Through the connivance of Kmg Constantme, Ger- 
man influence increased, and Venizelos established a 
provisional government at Saloniki. On June 12, 
1917, King Constantine was forced to alxiicate and 
was succeeded by his second son, Alexander; on 
July 26 Venizelos reconvened the parliament dis- 
solved m 1915, and Greece entered the war on the side 
of the AUies. 

Organization. 

Government. Greece, properly the Kingdom 
of the Hellenes, is a constitutional monarchy based 
upon tlie constitution of 1864, revised in 1911. The 
legislative power is in the Boule, which consists of 184 
representatives elected by manliood suffrage for 4 
years in the proportion of one to every 16,000 in- 
habitants. This chamber must meet annually for 
not less than three months. A Council of State was 
established in 1911 for the purpose of examining 
legislative propositions and annulling decisions and 
acts which may be contrary to law. The executive 
branch of the government consists of the king, assisted 
by 14 ministers, who are responsible to the BouJe, 

Industry and Labor. Greece is an agricultural 
country, but only one fifth of the soil is cultivable. 



110 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GREECE. 



1821-1917. 



The land is largely in the bands of peasant proprie- 
tors and is divided into small holdings. On the 
whole agriculture is in a backward state. The most 
important crop is the currant; after which come 
olives, figs, and cereals. Greece contains a variety 
of mineral deposits such as iron, copper, zinc, lead, 
manganese, aluniiuiimi, and antimony, mostly in 
small quantities. 

The general condition of labor in Greece is more 
prosperous than that of the surroimding regions. 
The variety of the industrial life and the promo- 
tion of education by the government, as well as the 
natural character of the Greeks, make tor a high 
degree of intelligence. From antiquity the long 
seacoast and numerous harbors have encouraged 
commerce: and now, as then, Greek merchants and 
traders have spread tliroughout the MediteiTanean 
region, bringing wealth to their coimtry. 

Religion. Most of the inhabitants l^elong to the 
Greek Orthodox Church, which is declared the state 
chiu'cli, though complete toleration and liberty of 
worship is assured. 

Education. Education is compulsory between 
the ages of 6 and 12, but the law is not well en- 
forced in the country districts. In 1910-11,3.551 
primary schools had 250,000 pupils, and besides 
these there were 41 high schools, 248 middle schools, 
and various special schools. There are two univer- 
sities at Athens. 

Defense. Mihtary service is imiversal and 
compulsory and few exemptions are granted. The 
service begins in the 20th year and lasts for 31 
years, only tliree of which are in the active army. 
The annual contingent of recruits is about 25.000. 
The Greek army was reorganized in 1917, and nine 
divisions took part in the offensive of September. 
1918. Before the World War the Greek navy con- 
sisted of three old cruisers, two battleships, pur- 
chased from the United States, and one cntiser, pur- 
chased from Japan, together with 13 torpedo-boat 
destroyers. WTien the war broke out the Greek 
navy was in a state of transition and two cruisers 
were being built in England. In 1917 a British 
commission was appointed to reorganize the navy. 

The total area of Greece is 41,933 sq. miles 
and the estimated population (1914) 4.821,300, 

Chronology. 

For Modem Greece before 1820, see Turkey 
and BuLi;.\Ri.\, 
18S1. Revolution against the Ottoman rule Ije- 
gins in Greece. In March insiu-rection is headed 
by Aleksandros Ypsilanti at Jassy in Moldavia. 
Georgakis rebeUion in the North is quelled. Rev- 
olution also begins in the Morea, where the patri- 
ots are successful under Germanos. Kolokotronis, 
Demetrios Ypsilanti, Mauromichalis. Bozzaris. 
Odysseus, and Maurokordatos. A rising in the 
Archipelago is successful. 

1823. A national assembly is convened by the 
patriots, and in January the independence of 
Greece is proclaimed at Epidaurus. Ttu"ks mas- 
sacre the inliabitants of *Scio. In Jtme the Greek 
revolutionists storm the Acropolis at Athens. 
Turks are vanquished in the Morea. 

1833. In August, Markos Bozzaris, the Suliote 
leader, makes an attack on the Tm-kish camp at 
Karpenisi, but is slain. 

1824. Lord Byron, who has embraced the cause of 
the Greeks, dies at Missolonghi, April 19. An 
Egyptian force tmder Ibrahim Pasha sails to aid 
the Sultan, but Miaulis thwarts the movement. 

1835. Ibrahim Pasha makes a victorious cam- 
paign in the Morea. 

1826. Missolonghi falls hi April, and the Turks 
besiege the Acropolis in August. The patriot 
goverimient thereupon withdraws to .-Egina. 
WeUington and Nicholas I. urge the powers to 
intervene. [capitulate. I 

1827. June. Greek defenders of the AcropolisI 
July G. England, France, and Russia make a 

treaty at London for the pacification of Cireece. 

Oct. 20. The fleets of the powers destroy the 
Turkish and Egyptian ships at Navarino. 

1828. Capo d'Istria assuipes the administration of 
the Greek government. 

French troops enter the Morea and Ibrahim Pasha 
retires. Russia begins a war against Turkey (see 
Russi-A.), [of the patriots. I 

1829. The revolution in Greece ends with success I 

1830. In February, the London protocol of the 
powers declares Greece an independent king- 
dom. The decree is accepted by Tiu'key. Poor 
botmdaries given the new kingdom. 

1832. Powers imite in electing Otto, a son of Lotiis 
I. of Bavaria, to the throne of Greece, as Otho I. 

1835. Otto (Otho) attains his majority and the re- 
gency is dissolved. 

1813. People of Athens rise, and Otho promises to 
promulgate a eonstitution. This promise is ful- 
filled in the following year. 

1850. Government of Greece agrees to pay mdem- 
nity for losses sustained by subjects of Great 
Britain, kno^vn as the Don Pacifleo claims. 

1862. Ocloher. Revolution; Otho is deposed. 

1B83. March. Thecrown is offered to Christian Wil- 



liam, son of Prince Ctoistian of Sonderburg-G liicks- 
burg. He accepts the sovereignty and ascends the 
throne as George I. New constitution granted. 

1864. Treaty is concluded with Great Britain, on 
October 31, by which the Ionian Islands are 
aimexed to Greece. 

1866. Relations with Turkey are strained to the 
point of ruptiu*e on accoimt of the assistance 
given by the Greeks to the Cretans, in revolt 
against the Ottoman authority. 

1877. The outbreak of the Tureo-Russian War 
creates intense excitement tliroughout Greece. 
The government maintains its neutral attitude. 

1878. Greece is encouraged by the Congress of Ber- 
lin to hope for a boundary readjustment. These 
hopes, however, are disappointed by the action of 
the congress, and the Sultan's circular denying the 
reported project produces a feeling of anger. 

1870. January. Turco-Greek Commission, ap- 
pointed by the Congress of Berlin to rectify the 
boundary between Turkey and Greece, assem- 
bles. Sittings contmue mitil November. 

1881. May. Tiu'key formally consents to the an- 
nexation of a large tract in Epirus and Thessaly 
to Greece. 

1883. Financial condition of the government m- 
volved. Roimieljan revolution; mobilization of 
the army and navy- 

1886. Difflculties between Turkey and Greece be- 
come acute; Greece threatens to declare war; the 
powers mediate. 

1888. Macedonian disturbances, tlireatening a 
rebeUion in Bulgaria, lead to strained relations 
between Greece and Turkey. 

1889. Revolution in Crete drives an army of 
Christian fugitives mto Greece. 

1890. Cretan rebellion leads to a pohtical crisis ; the 
ministry of Tricoupis is overthrown, and that of 
Delyannis substituted. 

1891. Anti-Semitic riots in Corfu. 

1892. Outbreak of religious fanaticism against the 
Protestants in the Piraeus. Delyaimis ministry 
overtlirown and Tricoupis again becomes premier. 

1893. .iugust 6. Canal across the Isthmus of 
Corinth, begtm in 1882, Is opened. 

1895. Delyaimis mmistry Ls formed, foUowinghis 
triumph at the elections. 

1896. Aimiversary of Greek independence is cele- 
brated on April 6, by the reinstitution of the 
Olympian games; one htmdred atliletes from 
foreign coimtries. including twenty-one ^\merican 
competitors, participate in the contests in the 
manner of antiquity. 

1897. Cretan insurrection of the preceding year 
leads the powers to interfere in behalf of Turkey. 
Greeks espouse the cause of the Cretans against 
Turkey and become involved in a brief war with 
that power in which they are disastrously defeated. 

1898. Prince George of Greece is appomted high 
commissioner of the powers in Crete. Nov. 26. 

1905. Proposal from Greece to annex Crete is 
refused by the European nations. On June 13. 
Delyaimis. the premier, is assassinated. 

1906. .ipril 27. Olympian games at Athens. 
The American team wins large pliu'ality of events. 

1908. May 12. France, Great Britam, Italy, and 
Russia agree to withdraw their troops from Crete. 

.4 119. IS. Greece and Persia resume diplo- 
matic relations after intermission of 2,399 years. 

Oct. 7. Union of Crete to Greece is proclaimed 
by popular assemblies. The Cretan Chamber, or 
Boule, ofHcially ratifies this action on October 14. 

1909. July 17. New cabinet formed with Rhallis 
as premier. 

Powers in concert, compel Crete to lower the Greek 
flag and resume its former status. 

1910. February. New ministry tmder Dragoumis 
formed; ascendancy of Military League. 

March 3D. The king decrees the revision of 
the constitution, thus terminating the regime 
of the Military Leagtie. 

Hepl. 14. 'The king opens the new National 
As.scmbly. October 23, Venlzelos, the Cretan 
leader, is requested to form a cabinet. 

1911. June. Revision of the constitution is 
completed and adopted by the Chamber. 

The changes make for judicial and administrative 
reform, and increased military and naval efficiency. 

1911-1912. War between Italy and Turkey. 
Italians occupy Dodecanese, inhabited by Greeli. 

1912-1913. For Balkan Wars, see Turkey. 

1913. Feb. IS. Island of Crete Is handed over to 
Greece by the protecting powers (Great Britain, 
France, Russia, Italy). Captured by Turks 1669; 
semi-independent government set up 189S; de- 
clared part of Hellenic kingdom October, 1912. 

March IS. King George is assassinated at 
Saloniki. and is succeeded by Crown Prince Con- 
stantine, popular on accoimt of his victorious lead- 
ership dui'ing tlie Balkan War. [Bulgaria.! 

June~.\uyust. For second Balkan War, see| 

N'ud. is. Treaty of peace is signed at Athens, 
ending the war with Turkey. 

Dec. 14. Island of Crete is annexed to Greece. 

1914. June 13. Annexation of Scio (Chios) and 
MytUene is aimoiuiced. 



July 8. United States battleships Idaho and 
Mississippi are purchased. 

August. Outbreak of war in Serbia, ally of 
Greece, compels decision as to status of Greece. 

1915. March 6. Venlzelos and cabinet resign, 
because of the king's disapproval of their foreign 
policy, which fa\ors the immediate entrance of 
Greece into the war on the side of the Alhes. New 
cabinet is formed by Gounarls, March 9.- 

April 4. Bulgarian raid on Doiran is repulsed. 

June 13. Elections: Venlzelos gains a decided 
majority. 

Aug. 18. Assembling of Parliament. 

Sept. 2.5. General mobilization of the army is 
ordered in reply to Bulgaria's mobilization. 

Oct. 5. Allied forces land at Saloniki with ' 
the consent of Greek government, to aid the Ser- 
bians. (See World War and Germany.) 

Oct. 6. Premier Venlzelos again resigns because 
the king, a iDrother-in-law of the German emperor, 
cannot support his pro-Ally policy. New cabi- 
net is formed with Zaimis as premier. 

Oct. 12. Government declines to help Serbia, 
holding that the treaty (a defensive alUance) with 
Serbia does not call for Greek intervention. 

Oct. 20. Government declines Great Britain's 
offer to cede the island of Cyprus as an inducement 
to enter the war on the side of the Alhes. 

Noc. 4. Zaimis forced to resign after a dispute 
with Venlzelos. November 7, Skoulondls ac- 
cepts the premiership, retaining the members of 
the Zaimis cabinet. King Constantine dissolves 
the parhament. German propaganda increases. 
" Peaceful blockade " of Greek ports is threat- 
ened by Allies. 

1916. Jan. 18. King Constantine protests infor- 
mally to United States against " the imheard-of 
high-handedness of the Allies toward Greece." 

March. Controversy with the Allies is caused 
by annoimcement of the virtual annexation of 
Upper Epirus by Greece. 

May 26. Bulgarian troops enter Greek 
territory and occupy several Greek forts north 
of Demir-Hlssar. 

June 1. Allies take over the control of Saloniki. 
replacing the Greek police and establishing mar- 
tial law. 

June S. Commercial blockade of Greek ports 
is adopted by the Allies; the cabinet decides upon 
partial demobilization. 

June 21. Great Britam. France, and Russia, 
as protecting powers of Greece by the treaties 
of 1863. present a collective note. Skouloudls 
declines to meet the demands and resigns the 
premiership. 

June 22. Government yields to the demands 
of the Allies. Former Premier Zaimis is in- 
vited to form new cabinet. New elections are 
ordered. Deniobillzation ordered on Jime 27. 

Aug. SO. Greek revolutionists at Saloniki seize 
the infantry barracks and proclaim a provisional 
govenmient. 

Sept. 13. Zaimis mmistry resigns; new cabinet 
is formed by Kalogeropoulos .September 16. The 
Allies refuse to recognize the new cabinet. 

September. Venlzelos establishes provi- 
sional government at Saloniki with the object 
of defending Greek Macedonia from the Bulgarian 
invaders and of intervenuig on the side of Allies. 

Oct. S. New cabinet formed by Lambros. 

Oct. 11. Greek fleet and seacoast forts are 
turned over to Allies or dismantled, m accord- 
ance with demand of Great Britain and France. 

Oct. 16. Allied fleet. " to insure its safety," 
takes over the tliree warships remaining under 
Greek control; demonstrations against the AUies 
take place in Athens, and Allied sailors are landed 
to preserve order. The provisional government 
set up by the Venlzelos revolutionists is recog- 
nized by the Allies. 

Nov. 17. Commander of the Allied fleet orders 
the German, Austrian, Bulgarian, and Turkish 
ministers and their staffs to leave for their respec- 
tive coimtries. 

Nov. 23. Provisional government headed by 
Venlzelos formally declares war on Germany 
and Bulgaria. 

Dec. l.j. Demands of the Allies are agreed to by 
the government, at the expiration of a 24-hour 
ultimatum. 

Dec. 31. Allies present collective note, de- 
manding guarantees. 

1917. Jan. 9. Alhes present ultimatum, giving 
Greece 48 hours to comply with the demands 
made on December 31. (!iOvemment accepts ul- 
timatum with certain reservations Januarj^ 11. 

May 24. Zaimis assumes office of premier 
once more and adopts a conciliatory attitude. 

June 12. King Constantine abdicates; suc- 
ceeded by his second son. Alexander, who is well 
disposed toward the Allies. 

June 2B. King Alexander asks Venizelos to 
form a new ministry. 

June SO. Diplomatic relations between Greece 
and the Central Powers are broken oflf. 
For the World War, see that title. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: GREECE — HAITI. 



Ill 



1917 (conlinued) . 

July 2e. Venizelos convokes the Parliament of 
1915. illegally dissolved by Constantine. 

Aua- is. Venizelos lays evidence before Parlia- 
ment to show that Greece might easily have occu- 
pied Constantinople in February, 1915. but for the 
opposition of King Constantine. [Slavia signed. I 
1919. April IS. Treaty of alliance with Jugo-| 
1930. April 26. San Bemo Conference of the 
Allied iiremiers assigns the portion of Tlu-ace 
taken from Bulgaria by the Treaty of Neuilly 
(November 27, 1919), and also Smyrna, to Greece. 
May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to the Turk- 
ish delegates (see Turkey for terms). [Ijelowi.l 
May 20. Treaty signed (see muler Smybn.4,1 

SMYRNA, OR AIDIN. 

AiDiN has for a long time been a name of the 
southern Turkish provmce of Asia Minor, to wliich 
the name Smj-ma is also applied, from the prin- 
cipal city in the provmce. The comitry is fnutful 
and tlie coast abounds in excellent harbors, wliich 
caused the early settlement of such great cities as 
Smj-ma and Ephesus. It was subsequently a part 
of the Persian Empire, and has passed through the 
hands of Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks and. 
Anally, the Ottoman Turks, who held it for nearly 
five hundred years. 

From ancient times Smyrna has had a predominant 
Greek population, particularly in the city of Smyrna. 
During the World War the Turks attempted to ex- 
tirpate the Greeks, who organized to defend them- 
selves. At the end of active hostilities Greek troops 
occupied the province, and by the Turkish treaty 
with the Allies (May 20, 1920) it was provided that 
the province should be put imder the control of the 
Greek government for a period of five years, after 
which the people should vote upon their future. 
Smyrna has therefore practically ceased to be a part 
of tlie Turkish Empire and is a dependency of Greece. 
The area is about 2,600 square miles and the popula- 
tion m 1911 was estimated at 2,500,000. 



191?. Ocl. 15. Turco-Italian peace terms leave 
Italy in occupation of a nujuber of the .^gean 
islands (Dodecanese) pending certain conditions, 
which are not fulfilled by Tiu-key (see It.\lv). 

1913. Mrty SO. By the Treaty of London, follow- 
ing the Balkan War, Turkey cedes the .Egean is- 
lands to Greece (see Turkey). 

1914. World War breaking out, Greece and Italy 
remain in occupation of the islands pending its 
decision. 

1915. April 28. By secret Treaty of London Great 
Britain and Franceproraise the Dodecanese toltaly. 

1917. August. Secret agreements twtween 
Great Britain, France, and Italy on partition of 
Turkey assign Aidin (Smyrna) to Italy. 

1919. May. Greece, with concurrence of Supreme 
Council at Paris, occupies city of Smyrna, and 
pushes inland. Conflict with the Turks; devas- 
tation around Smyrna. Italians occupy Adalia, 
east of Smj-ma, and Konia, controlling the Bagdad 
Railroad at this point. 

November. Report of commissioners sent to 
investigate conditions in Smyrna severely indicts 
Greek troops for their conduct m occupation. 

1939. February. Greece given mandate in Smyrna. 
May 11. Peace treaty handed to Turkey gives 
Greece certain .■Egean islands, and authority 
overthecity of Smyrna and its circle(see Turkey). 
May 20. Treaty of peace between Allies and 
Turkey signed. Greece given Smyrna and the 
islands except the Dodecanese and Rhodes, which 
remain in Italian possession, but the Dodecanese 
is promptly turned over to Greece (see Italy). 



GREENLAND. 

See under Denmark, page 91. 



GUAM. 

See under United States, page 209. 



GUATEMALA. 

See under Central America, page 79. 



GUIANA. 



See British Guiana, xm^GV British Empire, page 74. 
See Dutch Guiana, under Netherlands, page 129. 
See French Guiana, under France, page 97, 



HAITI. 

Historical Outline. 

The Republic of Haiti occupies the western 
third of the West Indian island sometimes called by 
the Spanish name Santo Domingo, but more often 
by its native name of Haiti. The island was dis- 
covered by Columbus in^492 and named Hispaniola, 
or Little Spain; colonization began in 1496, and 
Haiti developed more rapidly than the other Span- 



i.sh-American possessions, Tiie desire to exploit the 
rich soil and gold mmes led the Spaniards to estab- 
Usli slavery, and tlie population rapidly declined. 
Negro slaves were substituted and became the most 
numerous element in the population. 

In the early part of the 17th gcntury. pirates took 
possession of a large part of the territory of Haiti, 
which was ceded to France in 1697 by the Treaty of 
Ryswick (Rijswijk). As the settlements expanded 
and became populous, they grew rebellious. When 
the French Revolution broke out, the Negroes and 
raulattoes were ten times as numerous as the whites. 
Conflicts arose between negroes and mulattoes, and 
then came a terrible insurrection. In 1793 the aUied 
British and Spaniards sent a force to Haiti. As a 
coimter measure the French Convention issued in 
the same year a decree of emancipation for all slaves. 

In 1795 the Spanish colony on tlie island passed to 
France. Toussaint L'Ouverture then appeared as 
leader of the blacks, expelled the British forces, and 
made himself dictator of the govemment, wliich pro- 
fessed nominal submission to France; but in ISOl 
lie demanded uidepcndence. In 1802 a French 
army under Leclerc overtlirew the Negroes and cap- 
tured Toussaint and sent him to France, where he 
died in capti\ity. His successor, Dessalines, de- 
feated the French and expelled them in 1S03, thus 
blocking Napoleon's plans for taking over Louisiana. 

Dessalines declared himself emperor. When he 
was assassmated in 1S06, Cliristophe, a fuU-blooded 
Negro, succeeded him with the center of his power in 
the northwest. Petion, another leader, started a 
temporary republic m the southwest. Boyer suc- 
ceeded Petion and was able to organize the people of 
both sections of the island into the Republic of Haiti, 
but after ruling for twenty years be was overthrown. 

In 1844 the eastern and Spanish-speaking dis- 
tricts, comprising about two thirds of the island, 
separated from the western part and set up the Do- 
minican Republic. In the western portion, or Haiti 
proper, anarchy prevailed. Two years later a re- 
publican constitution was proclaimed imder Presi- 
dent Riche This did not bring peace or estabUsh 
order and tlie liistory of Haiti continued to be one of 
ci\il war, revolt, and anarchy, during wliich obliga- 
tions were incurred to the United States and Euro- 
pean powers for damages to their citizens. 

In 1911 a joint note was submitted by the United 
States, Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy 
insistmg on prompt settlement of clamis. This pre- 
cipitated a revolution which continued intermit- 
tently imtil 1914, when a British cruiser arrived to 
enforce the overdue claims awarded by arbitration. 
The government at Washington thought it time to 
take action. American marines landed and con- 
trolled Cap-Haitien for nearly a month. In July, 
1915, a reign of terror was maugurated by President 
Guillaume Sam, and Rear Admiral Caperton landed 
marines at Port-au-Prince; since that time the 
United States forces have controlled the country. 

In 1916 a treaty was signed between Haiti and the 
Unittxl states which provides for the establishment of 
a receivership over Haitian customs imdcr American 
control. Tills administration includes not only the 
distribution of funds for the payment of foreign debts, 
but the expenditure of the balance for domestic pur- 
poses. Thus, tlirough the supervision of the finances 
of Haiti, the United States controls the operations of 
the govemment and has established a protectorate. 

Organization. 

Government. The present constitution, ratified 
Jime 12, 1918, provides for a Senate of 15 and a 
Chamlier of Deputies on the basis of one member for 
each 60,000 inhabitants, chosen for two years by 
direct popular vote. 

Production and Commerce. The industries of 
Haiti are mainly in tropical products, of which the 
most important are fruit, coffee, cocoa, and sugar; 
the cultivation of tobacco is increasing. Haiti also 
possesses resources of gold, silver, copper, iron, and 
antimony, and in the last few years concessions have 
been granted for mining coal, iron, and copper. 

Keligion. The rehgion is Roman Catholicism. 

Education. Public primary education is tree, 
and in 1918 there were 854 primary schools, with 
61,000 pupils, 29 secondary schools, one normal 
school, a school of law, and one of medicme. 

Defense. An armed constabulary, both urban 
and rural, was estabhshed in 1916. The officers are 
drawn from the United States Marine Corps and the 
force numbers 2,6SS. The reserve force and old 
line regiments anioimt to about 19,000. The coast- 
guard service is three auxiliary schooners. 

The area is about 10,000 square miles and in 1912 
the population, almost entirely Negro, was esti- 
mated at 2,500,000. 

Chronology. 

For earlier history, see Domixican Republic. 

1630. Buccaneers, French and English, begin to 
frequent inland. They obtain a firm footing. 

1697. Sept. SO. By the Treaty of Ryswick (Rijs- 
wijk), western part of the island, occupied by 
buccaneers, ceded to France by Spain and called 
the colony of Saint Dominique. It becomes 



prosperous: sugar production by slave labor. 
Many free mulattoes. 

1791. May IB. French Convention gives the mu- 
lattoes right of citizenship. W'liites object and 
right revoked. In August, the slaves, aided by 
mulattoes, revolt. Sanguinary contest ensues; 
white planters slaughtered and driven from the 
colony: fierce reprisals by the wlutes. 

1793. British invade the island and mamtain a 
hold for five years. 

Commissioners sent from France abolish slavery, 
but fail to secure letuni to peace. 

1795. July 22. By Treaty of Basel Spain cedes 
her part of the island to France. 

1796. Toussaint L'Ouverture becomes head of 
the blacks and drives out the French commis- 
sioner, though acknowledging French suzerainty. 

1798. British surrender posts to Toussauit. 

1799. Toussaint, recognized by Napoleon as com- 
mander in chief, establishes a government. 

1801. Toussaint conquers Spanish portion of island 
and proclaims himself president for life. 

1803. Napoleon, having actiuli'ed Louisiana as step 
in development of a colonial empire, needs con- 
trol of Saint Dominique as a base of operations. 
Leclerc lands with troops to subdue it. In May, 
Toussaint submits imder guarantees, but is 
treacherously seized and sent to p'rance as a pris- 
oner. Blacks, under Dessalines, renew the war. 

1803. November. French, completely defeated 
by yellow fever and black rebels, evacuate island. 

1804. Jan. 1. Independence declared, with 
Dessalines governor of the Republic of Haiti for 
Ufe. Massacre of remaining w'hites. Mulattoes 
also reduced and coimtry controlled by full- 
blooded Negroes. Iperor. I 

Ocl. S. Dessalines proclaims himself em-| 

1806. Ocl. 17. Dessalines assassinated by his 
own followers. Period of contention and confu- 
sion follows. 

Spanish renew their control over eastern end of the 
island, and call the colony Santo Domingo. 

1820. Boyer estabhshes Ills power and gains com- 
plete control over 1-rencli end of the island. 

1823. Boyer conquers Spanish colony and remains 
president imtil 1843, when he is driven from the 
island. 

1838. Feb. 12. France by treaty formally recog- 
nizes Independence of Haiti. FoUowmg a 
statement in 1825 of renmiciation of suzerainty, a 
treaty is negotiated April 2, 1831, but not rati- 
fied by Haiti. 

1811. Santo Domingo regains Independence. 
Haiti relapses into a series of short-time presi- 
dencies and civil wars. 

1849. Soulouque proclaims himself emperor. 

1859. Geffrard, a mulatto, drives Soulouque out 
and becomes president. 

1864. Nov. S. _ First treaty of amity (recognition) 
and commerce with United States. 

1867. Salnave overtlirows Geffrard. 

1870. Jan. IS. Salna\e shot. Several short-term 
presidencies and revolutions follow. 

1879. Oct. 22. Salomon elected president. 

1888. Salomon deposed, and civil war rages be- 
tween Legitime and Hippolyte. 

1889. Whites for first time permitted to hold land 
and become citizens. 

Oct. 2. Haiti hasdelegationat first Pan-Amer- 
ican Congress at Washington (see United .States) . 
Oct. 6. Hippolyte elected president. He rules 
arbitrarily but with comparative peace imtil his 
death. (successor. | 

1896. Aprill. Simon SamelectedasHippolyte'sl 

1902. Simon Sam's flight followed by civil war. 
December. Alexis becomes president. Disturb- 
ances and crooked finances promote Interna- 
tional complications. 

1908. Dec. 7. Alexis overtlirown after a turbulent 
rule. December 17, Simon elected his successor. 

1911. July S. Continued financial dcreUction re- 
sults in a joint note from United States, Great 
Britain, France, Germany, and Italy insisting on 
prompt settlement of claims. Haiti has long 
been protected from foreign control or coer- 
cion, similar to that on Venezuela in 1902, by the 
Monroe Doctrine and attitude of United States. 

.Aug. 2. President Simon fiees. August 16, 
Leconte inaugurated president. 

1913. Aug. S. Leconte killed by explosion in the 
palace. Auguste chosen president. 

1913. May 4. Orestc elected president followmg 
death of Auguste. Conditions become eves more 
chaotic than before; national bankruptcy and 
permanent anarchy impend. 

1914. Jan. 27. Oreste abdicates. February 8, 
Zamor elected president. 

May. Great Britain, by presence of a cruiser, 
forces payment of an adjudged claim. Germany 
and France make a formal demand for control of 
customs. 

August. On outbreak of World War, Haiti 
promptly suspends payment of all govemment 
obligations. 

October. Another revolution. October 19, 
American marines land at Cap-Haitien to main- 



112 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: HAITI — HUNG ARY. 



1914 {con'.inued) . 
^ tain order. Zamor flees. October 22, Theo- 

dore, leader of the revolt, succeeds as president 
and is regularly elected Nov. 7. Negotiations 
with United States for a fiscal protectorate 
1915. Feb. 23. Theodore, defeated by Guillaume 
Sam, abdicates and flees. March 1, Guillaimie 
Sam proclaimed president, and is speedily con- 
fronted by another revolt. French marines 
^\ land at Cap-Haitien to protect foreign interests 

'^ June, United States sends a cruiser imder Caper- 

ton, an ofHcer superior in rank to the French 
commander, and talies over the protection. 

July. Reign or terror inaugurated by Guil- 
laume Sam. July 28, he is himself slain. 

Aug. 5. American marines talio possession 
of the fort dominating Port-au-Prince, the capi- 
_- tal, and Caperton, on August 18, takes control 

P of the customhouse. Cap-Haitien and other 

towns also held by marines. August 12, under 
American auspices, Dartiguenave elected provi- 
sional president by Congress. September 4, Ca- 
perton declares martial law at Port-au-Prince. 

Sepl. 16. Treaty with United States signed, 
establishing a virtual protectorate; control of 
customs and general finances, including aU e.\- 

Qpenditures; native constabulary force officered by 
Americans. American control talien without 
waiting for ratification of treaty; Haitian Con- 
gress ratifies promptly, American Senate on Feb- 
ruary 28, 191G. Skirmishes between marines and 
natives follow, but country tranquil by end of 
October and remains so. Of the 25 rulers of 
Haiti down to American occupation only two filled 

Q out their terms; 15 were driven from power, 8 

t\ were killed or died in office. 

1916. May. Parliamentary crisis over refusal of 
Congress to be dis.solvcd in accordance with plan 
for new constitution harmonizing with treaty 
with United States. Caperton supports decree of 
dissolution, which prevails. 

1917. April. Constituent assembly meets to con- 
sider the new constitution. [Germany, j 

O June IS. Rupture of diplomatic relations with! 

191S. June 19. New Constitution receives popular 
ratification. 
July IS. War declared on Germany. 
1919. Jan. 18. Haiti has a delegate at the Peace 
Conference at Paris. 

Feb. So. Admiral Snowden, U.S.N., assumes 
military charge. American marines in occupa- 

Ttion assist in sanitary betterment and internal 
improvement. Native constabulary operates 
successfully. 
1929. The coimtry still impacified. Conflicts be- 
tween "bandits" and marines said to be due to 
forced labor on the roads. 



HAWAII. 

See under United States, page 209. 



HEJAZ. 

The Kingdom or Hejaz was recognized as an in- 
dependent state during the World War. It includes 
the most important portions of Arabia and in it are 
found the Holy Cities, Mecca and Medina. Otto- 
man control in the past was recognized chiefly 
through the payment of an annual subsidy, but in 
1916 the Emir Husein assumed the title of the King 
of Hejaz and threw off Turkish control. Hejaz has 
an estimated area of about 100.000 square miles and 
an estimated population of 750,000. 

ARABIA. 

FoK ages this part of the world has been known 
as Arabia, an enormous peninsula of over a million 
square miles lying l^etween the Red Sea on the 
west, the Indian Ocean on the south, and the Persian 
Gulf on the east. .Since the keys of the two Holy 
Cities, Medina and Mecca, were brought to Sultan 
Selim I-, in 1517, it has been regarded as a tributary 
of Turkey; but the Turks have never exercised au- 
thority except in the provinces of Hejaz and Yemen, 
which stretch alonp tlie Red Sea. In the extreme 
southwest comer is the British protectorate of Aden 
and in the southeast comer is the sultanate of Oman, 
in which British political influence is predominant. 

The interior of Arabia is a wide semidesert. region 
given over to nomadic tribes, embraced under the 
comprehensive name of the Bedouins, some of whom, 
however, have fixed dwellings. The greater part 
are sheplierds and herdsmen whose favorite pastime 
is the sacking of villages and the robbing of caravans. 
Each tribe, whether nomad or settled, is ruled by its 
sheik. Slavery is a deep-rooted institution, and the 
slave trade is still carried on. The majority of the 
Bedouins are orthodox Moslems. 

The organized parts of Arabia have been included 
in the new liingdom of Hejaz. 

Chronology. 

670. This is the approximate date of the birth of 
Mohammed, at Mecca. Before this the Arabian 



peninsula had seen many small kingdoms vari- 
ously imder Jewish. Roman, Persian, Abyssinian, 
and Byzantine influence. 
62%. Mohammed's flight (hegira) to Medina 

with the followers of liis new creed of Islam. 
632. Mohammed dies, having accompUshed the 
spread of liis religion throughout Arabia, and also 
made important steps toward political imity. 
632-1258. Caliphate. Under the rule of the suc- 
cessors of Mohammed. Islamism is extended by 
conquest tlirough Asia, northern Africa, and into 
Spain. At first Medina continues to be the politi- 
cal capital of this increasing empire, but Damas- 
cus displaces it in 658. and Bagdad succeeds in 
766. Mecca and Medina, however, remain the 
Holy Cities of the Mohammedan faith. Arabia 
resumes its earlier condition of disorganization and 
intertribal contests. Except for the holy pilgrim- 
ages and tlie hold retained by its language through- 
out ihr Mo.slfin world, the coimtrj- becomes again 
politicall.N' inii>ot<'nt. a province owing nominal 
allegiance to the Bagdad or Egyptian caliphate. 
Mecca and Medina are governed by local shereefs. 
lieutenants of the caliphs, and bound to provide 
protection for the pilgrims. 
1200. One line of the descendants of Mohanmied 
is hereafter recognized as supreme in Mecca, the 
heads of it being successively the Grand Shereef 
of Mecca, preceded in official prayers by the ca- 
liph only. Between the shereefs and the repre- 
sentatives of the suzerain power there is constant 
friction. 
1508-1651. Eiu-opean connection with Arabia be- 
gins with the Portuguese occupation of Maskat and 
siuTOunding regions of Oman, on the Persian Gulf. 
1617. Turkish sultan, Selim I., having conquered 
Egj-pt. recognized as caliph and spiritual head 
of Islam, with control over the Hejaz, the strip 
of coimtry stretcliing along the northern half of 
the Red Sea and containing the Holy Cities. 
Nominal Tiu-kish suzerainty is acquired over other 
portions of the peninsula. Oman remains inde- 
pendent; there is no effectual control over the ul- 
terior. 
1742. Beginning of Wahabiism. a puritan move- 
ment which gains control over much of Arabia and 
takes Mecca and Medina, but grows corrupt. 
1798. Sultan of Oman treats with the British East 
India Company, the beginning of British sphere 
of Influence there. British intervention at vari- 
ous times upholds the independence of the sultan- 
ate, though it is tor a while tributary to the earlier 
Wahabi empire. 
1818. Wahabi rule finally overthrown by an Egyp- 
tian army under Ibrahim, the son of Mehemet All. 
1824. Wahabi state begins again and continues to 
the present time. It acquires practically inde- 
pendent control over central Arabia and El Haza 
on the Persian Gulf, consisting sometimes of one 
and sometimes of two emirates. 
1838. September. Aden is ceded to Great Brit- 
ain by its sultan. Protectorate over the hinter- 
land develops. 
1845. Egyptian army finally withdrawn from 
Arabia, and nominal Turkish control and ad- 
ministration of the Red Sea littoral is resumed 
later, but is resented and obstructed as much as 
possible by the Arabs. 
1854. Sultan of Oman cedes to Great Britain the 

Kuria Muria Islands. 
1857. Great Britain occupies the island of Perim. 

at the mouth of the Red Sea. 
1902-1905. Turko-British commission delimi- 
tates the British sphere in southern Arabia, 
placing Oman and the coast between Oman and 
Aden within the sphere. Great Britain has ear- 
lier engaged the nflers of the southern coast not to 
cede any territory without British consent. Great 
Britain also subsidizes the sultanate of Koweit, 
on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf; ex- 
pected terminus of Berlin-to-Bagdad railway (see 
Mesopotamia). [of Mecca. | 

1908. Husein Ibn All becomes shereef and emirl 
Railroad connection between Medina and 
Damascus opened. Line is later extended north- 
ward to junction at Aleppo with the German-con- 
trolled Bagdad railway. This Hejaz railway a 
great aid to the Turkish military control over the 
region. 
1916. Junes. Shereef Husein, taking advantage 
of Turkish preoccupation in the W'orld War, de- 
clares his independence. 

August. He issues a proclamation to the Mos- 
lem world giving the reasons for his actions; de- 
noimces the control of the Yoimg Turks as sap- 
ping the foundation of the Mohammedan faith, 
for maligning the Prophet, for murder, and for 
profanation, especially in shelling the Caaba at 
Mecca. | 

September. France, with British approval 



place of the Prophet, as evidence of the continu- 
ance of their claim to the liegemony of Islam. 
Under Arabic and Allied protection the holy pil- 
grimages are resumed. 

Nor. 16. The emir assumes the title of King 
of the Hejaz, and is recognized by the AUies 
1917-1918. The Hejaz army, imdcr Emir Felsal, 
the king's son, operates in connection with the 
British-Egyptian invasion of Syria. Feisal's 
forces advance northward in the region of the rail- 
road. 

1918. Sept. SO. Damascus is occupied by both 
British and Arabian troops. After the formal en- 
try, the next day AUenby turns the city over to the 
Hejaz administration. 

Oct. SO. Armistice with Turkey calls for the 
withdrawal of her troops from all places still held 
in the Arabian vilayets, including Medina. 

1919. Jan. 18. Hejaz is represented at the Peace 
conference by two delegates. 

1920. For relations of Arabia and Syria, see Stria. 
May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to the 

Turkish delegates. It recognizes independence of 
Hejaz. 



HERZEGOVINA. 

See imder Jcgo-Slavia. page 123. 



HONDURAS. 

See under Central America, page 79. 



HONDURAS, BRITISH, 

See under British Empire, page 74. 



HONGKONG. 

See under British Empire, page 62. 



HUNGARY. 
Historical Outline. 

The Kingdom of Hungary owed its foimdation 
to the invasion of the non-Aryan tribe of Magyars. 
This people, probably akin to the Finns, imder the 
leadership of the semimythical king Arpad. reached 
the great plain of Hungary at the close of the ninth 
century and completely overthrew the empire of 
Moravia. The Bulgarians. Serbs, and Croats in the 
southern provinces were quickly reduced and a non- 
European djTiasty and kingdom were established 
between Teutonic Europe, the Turkish Empire, and 
the Slavic territories to the east. Christianity from 
the Roman Catholic Church was introduced by 
Stephen I., who was recognized king of Hungary in 
the year 1000 by Pope Sylvester II. Immigration 
from other parts of Europe took place and Hungary 
became the refuge of thousands of immigrants from 
central Europe, especially Germans. Other move- 
ments from the east and south brought in Roumani- 
ans and a few Serbs. 

From the time of Stephen down to comparatively 
recent times, little attempt was made to weld the 
kingdom into a united nation. During his reign the 
political power was entirely in the hands of the Mag- 
yar freemen, who were nobles; and until 1848 the 
whole burden of taxation was borne by the msiss 
of peasants. 

In 1222, during the reign of Andrew II., the 
" Golden Bull " was promulgated, which has been 
compared to the Great Charter of England and which 
served as the first basis for the written constitution 
of the Magyar kingdom. The purpose of the Golden 
Bull was to strengthen the crown by uniting with it 
the interest of the mass of the Magyar nobihty. who 
like the crown were threatened by the great barons. 
It also confirmed the principle of exemption from 
taxation of aU nobles and theh' right to refuse mili- 
tary service abroad. The Arpdd dj-nasty came to 
an end in 1308 and during the four liimdri-d years of 
its rule, in spite of the terrible Tatar invasion, had 
founded a Cliristian state and a national monarchy 
based on a Western model. 

Himgary came imder the House of Anjou (1308- 
1382); and under the rule of Louis the Great the 
PoUsh crown was added to that of Himgary. Sigis- 
mimd (1387-1437) of the House of LiLxemburg suc- 
ceeded Louis the Great. As king of Hungarj-, Sigis- 
mimd fought bravely against the Turkish peril and 
prevented fiu-ther mroads of the Turks, But on the 
whole the greatness of the kiiigd<im began to de- 
cline. In the fifteenth century the Turks again 
threatened Himgary, but were defeated by John 
Hunyadi (Himyadi Jdnos) at Belgrade (1456). In 
1458 the Diet chose Matthias, son of Jolm Hunyadi, 
as king. Under his leadership the army was reor- 
ganized, the finances rcforiiud, and Hungary raised 
sends a delegation of Moslems to congratulate the to a liigh rank among the powers of Europe. On his 
new Arabian government and to extend aid. Aid death the dechne was rapid, and during the reign of 
comes also from Egypt. By the end of the year! Ladislas II. the royal power almost disappeared 
the emir's army has gained complete control over ' and feudalism was the mam governing force, 
the Hejaz. except Mcdma and the territory along j In the first quarter of the sbtteenth centurj', Sul- 
the railroad. Turks chng to Medina, the burial | tan Solyman invaded the land, and the Hungarian 



901 - 1913. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: HUNGAEY. 



113 



army was dffeated at the battle of Mohacs (152fi), 
in which the kint; and 24,000 men were liilled. Tlic 
sultan occupied Buda but soon withdrew, carrjiiig 
with liim 105,000 captives and ravaging the territory. 
As a result of tliis invasion a portion of Himgarj- 
came into the liands of Ferdinand of Austria, for 
which the Austrian sovereign paid tribute to Tiu-ljey. 
For the next two centuries Himgary suffered alilie 
under the pressure of the Hapsburgs and the Turldsli 
invasion, which did not end until the Peace of Kar- 
lowitz (1699). During the eighteenth century 
Himgary, united to Austria, was drawn by Austria 
into the wars of the Spanish Succession and the 
Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, and 
anally shared with Austria the shock of the Na- 
poleonic wars. 

In the middle of the nmeteenth century came a 
Hungarian national revival and a struggle for auton- 
omy, or independence. The first great leader was 
Count Istvdn (Stejihcn) Szi'clienyi, who deniandetl 
social reform and aimed to make Himgary a prosper- 
ous modem state. His work, however, was carried 
on outside; within the Himgarian Diet developed a 
radical party led by Louis Kossuth and Ferencz 
(Francis) Ue&k. By 1840 Kossuth became the 
leaderof the Liberal party and urged a program which 
demanded taxation of the nobles, control by the 
Diet of all national expenses, liberty of the press, 
freedom for public meetings and associations, and 
autonomy for Himgary. 

On March 3, 1S4S, Kossuth in the Hungarian Diet 
initiated the revolution by a marvelous speech which 
was spread tlu-oughout the empire. In Austria it 
brought about the fall of Mcttemich and in Himgary 
the passage of the famous March Laws. These laws 
destroyed the old aristocratic political machinery 
and established a democratic constitution. Feudal 
service was abolished, religious freedom established, 
literty of the press and trial by jiu-y proclauned, and 
the Diet was to be elected, not by the privileged no- 
bility, but by every Hungarian who possessed prop- 
erty to the amomit of $150. 

Moreover, the relations between Hungary and the 
empire were vitally altered, and Hungary became 
practically independent, having its own ininistry, 
not only for domestic busmess. but for war. finance, 
and foreign affairs. Himgary and Austria were now' 
imited only by the common sovereign. Should the 
consent of Austria be obtamed, Hungary's autonomy 
would be complete. This consent was given under 
compulsion on April 10. 184.8. and Himgary created 
a national army and adopted a national flag 

Although Himgary had practicaUy won mdepend- 
ence. the new Austrian emperor. Francis Joseph, 
was waitmg for an opportime time to reassert his 
power, and took advantage of the racial rivalries 
The Revolution of 1848 was carried on by the Mag- 
yars, who. although the most numerous single race, 
formed a minority of the population. In the sum- 
mer of 1848 the Serbs. Croatians. and Roumanians 
demanded from Himgary the same privileges that 
Himgary had won from Austria. The Hungarians 
would not consent, and Austria exploited the situa- 
tion by stirring up the Croatians. In September. 
1848, the Serbs and Croatians began a civil war 
agamst the Magyars: and Kossuth and the radical 
party gamed control of the Hungarian Diet. War 
was declared against Hungary by Austria in 1849; 
and. although the Magyars were unsuccessful during 
the first months of the year, a few victories in April 
led them to declare for independence and to estab- 
lish a repubhc with Kossuth as president. Austria 
appealed to Russia and the Czar « iUingly responded 
Between 100.000 and 200.000 Russian troops poured 
into Hungarj-. while the Austrians advanced from the 
■west. The Hungarians fought bravely, but were 
forced to capitulate at Vilagos August 13. 1849- and 
Hmigary's independence was at an end. 

For the next ten years Hungary was ruled as a 
subject province of Austria without local self-gov- 
ernment. In 1861 Francis Joseph attempted to 
create some form of constitutional government and 
one parUament for the entire empu-e. The Hun- 
garians refused to cooperate: they beheved that 
Hungary had always been a separate nation, united 
to Austria only in the person of the sovereign. They 
objected to a constitution being " granted " by the 
Austrian emperor and demanded one founded upon 
their historic right. 

After the war with Prussia a compromise or 4 us- ' 
nleich was established in 1867. which served as the 
constitution of the Austro-Himgarian Empire until 
November, 1919. (See Austria.) 

Tlie political history of recent Himgarv has turned 
upon race questions. The Magyars, a"lthough the 
most numerous race, were still in the minority, yet 
they had held control and attempted to Magyarize 
the other peoples. Only in Croatia, where there was 
a strong Slavic popiUation, have thev allowed the 
subject nationahties to develop. Here they estab- 
lished a compromise shnilar to that which Austria 
had given them in 1867. Elsewhere the Magyars 
with their political experience, dominated the peas- 
ants of the other nationalities. 

Nevertheless the policy was not successful : even in 
Croatia there was a demand for larger independence, 



while the Roimianians in Transylvania demanded 
umon with the kingdom of Roimiania and many of 
the Serbs in the south desired to jom with Serbia 
Towards the end of the nineteenth centiu-y the 
Magyars, now under the lead of Francis Kossuth 
son of Louis Kossuth, demanded a greater inde- 
pendence in the affairs of the empu-e. They aske<i 
for separate diplomatic representation in foreign 
affairs and the privilege of franimg their own tariff 
laws. Most emphaticaUy did they demand the use 
of the Magyar liinguage m the Hungarian part of 
the miperial army. These demands the emperor. 
JYancis Joseph, denied, and he even threatened to 
abdicate. He added the threat of introduction of 
imiversal suffrage. To this the Magyars were op- 
posed, inasmuch as imiversal suffrage would sub- 
merge the Magyar minority. 

During the World War. in spite of demands from 
the Liberal party for independence. Himgary re- 
mamed faitliful to Austria until November 1. 1918 
On that date a revolution broke out and a Hungarian 
repubUc was proclaimed. November 11. Emperor 
Charles alxlicated. and the separation between Aus- 
tria and Hungary was complete. The new Hun- 
garian republic faced great difliciilties. shortage of 
food, and grave social discontent. Moreover, the 
Roumanians, Serbs, and Czechs advanced into Hun- 
garian territory and occupied the BdnAt region, from 
which came the food supply, and the northern coal 
mines, upon which industrial life depended At the 
beginning of 1919 a Bolshevist outbreak occiured 
and a Soviet government was estabUshed under Bela 
Kim. At first the new government won some suc- 
cess against its enemies but receiving no support 
from the Allies in the Peace Conference it finally fell 
and was replaced by a republican form of govemnient 
In January. 1920. the Peace Treaty of Neuilly was 
handed to the Hungarian delegates. 



Organization. 



Government. Betwe<'n 1918 and 1920 Hun- 
gary had four forms of government. Until the ab- 
dication of the Emperor (diaries. Himgary was living 
under the old historic constitution, whicli had devel- 
oped from the Golden BuU of 1222 and was partly 
written and partly dependent upon tradition. This 
constitution was declared forfeited in 1849 but was 
restored in 1860. and when Emperor Francis Joseph 
I. was crowned kmg of Hungarj- he swore, in 1867, to 
maintam the constitution. 

The legislative power was vested in a Parliament 
of two houses. The House of Magnates, composed 
chiefly of nobles and clergy and ex-officio members 
numbered 304. The House of Deputies was elected 
by the vote of male citizens of 20 years of a^e who 
were able to meet the suffrage qualifications. In 

1912 the nimibcrof voters was 1,221.415. ora fourth 
of the male population over 20 years of age. It was 
by means of this unrepresentative assembly that the 
Magyar minority succeeded in maintamiiig its su- 
premacy. In all. the assembly had 463 memljers. of 
whom only 40 represented the titiUar kingdom of 
Croatia and Slavonia. 

The executive power was in the hands of the king, 
wielded by a mmistry responsible to ParUament. In 

1913 there were 13 ministers, the president of the 
council, the ministry of finance, the ministry of the 
king's ix-rson, the ministry of national defense, the 
ministry of the interior, the ministry of education 
and public worship, the ministry of justice, the min- 
istry of industry and commerce, the ministry of agri- 
culture, the mmister for Croatia and Slavonia. 

From November 2. 1918. to March 22. 1919, a re- 
publican form of government was estabUshed. with 
Count Karoiyi as prime minister. This repubhc fell, 
and a Bolsherist Soviet government was established 
with a ministry formed by the Workmen's Council 
of Budapest. This, in turn, gave way to the reestab- 
lishment of the republic. 

Industry and Labor. In Hungary the cultiva- 
tion of the soil was the chief industry and supported 
two thirds of the population, more than 42% of the 
total area bemg classified as arable land and about 
27% as forest land, nearly half of which belonged to 
the state. On the establishment of the republic 
measures were taken to lireak up the vast estates 
and distribute the land to the peasants. Before the 
World War the chief agricultiu-al crops were com, 
wheat, oats, barley, and rj-e. The fruit crops were 
varied and valuable and the tobacco crop ex- 
tremely important. The horses of Hungary are 
famous, and the breed is carefully preserved. In 
April, 1913. therewere over 2.000,000 horses m Hun- 
gary, besides vast flocks of sheep, goats, and pigs. 
Silk cultiu-e is also important. There is valuable 
mmeral wealth and the most important products, 
before the war, were lignite, iron ore, some coal, and 
a little gold. 

The manufactures of Hungarj- gave emplo-i-ment, 
before the war, to about a twelfth of the popiilation. 
and included the manufacture of clothing and food- 
stuffs, iron and metal work, beer and ale, sugar, and 
tobacco products. The chief exports, in the year be- 
fore the war, were cereals, live stock, and sugar. 

Religion. There was complete religious tolera- 
tion and equality of both sexes before the law. A 



ittle over half of the population are Roman Catho- 
hc, lS<:i Evangelical, UiJi Greek Orthodox 

Education. Education in Himgary was con- 
ductc<l by means of infant schools, elementary and 
repetition schools, preparatory schools for teachers 
universities, and special schools. Attendance at 
school was compulsorj- for children between the ages 
of 6 and 12 and repetition coiu-ses for children from 
12 to 15 years; wliile children between 3 and 6 un- 
less otherwise provided for. might be sent to uifant 
schools. In spite of tliis elaborate system in 1910 
over 9,000.000 out of a population of 21 000 000 
were unable to read and write. Five universities 
were maintained by the state, of wliich the largest 
was the I niversity of Budapest, with 437 professors 
and about 5,400 students. 

Defense. Before the separation of Austria and 
Himgary. compulsory military service was required 
from the 19th to the 42nd year, and Hungary con- 
tributed her share to the common army In addi- 
tion there was the Himgarian reserve ( HonvMseo) 
numbering about 36.000. who served for two years 
With thecolors. Afterten years' furtherserviceii the 
Honvedseg. service m the Landsturm ( Kepfolkdes) 
or territorial army, was required until the 42nd birth- 
day. With the establishment of the repubUc of Hun- 
gary a new army was raised, but its final organiza- 
tion awaits the ratification of peace. 

In 1910 the area of Hungary was 125.609 square 
miles and the population was 20.886 487 Of 
these somethmg over 10.000,000 were Magyar, 
nearly 3.000.000 Roumanian, over 2.000 000 Ger- 
man. 1.600.000 Croatian. 1,000,000 Serbikn The 
Peace Treaty of 1920 reduced both the area and 
f,°no,' i",'°" °' "^^ ancient kingdom. Himgary now 
(1920) has an area less than half the size of the 
old kmgdom. and a population of about 8,500 000 



Chronology. 



For events m common with Austria, see Austhia- 
HuNGART. For other early events, see Medievai, 
Period, Chmwlogy, and Early Modern Period, 
Chronology. 
901. Completion of conquest by Magyars, a 
Ural-Altaic race, of the Slav races occupvmg mod- 
em Hungary. 
1000. Pope Sylvester II. makes Stephen I. king of 
Hungary Magyars converted to Latin Cliureh. 
1526. Ferdinand of Hapsburg, later emperor, is 
elected king of Hungary. A rival kingdom con- 
tmues; Turkish unasion results from 1547 m a 
tripartite division between Hapsburgs. Turkey 
and Magyar rulers. 
16S;. October. Emperor Leopold forces the Hun- 
garian Diet to declare the crown (liitherto elec- 
tive) Iiereditary m house of Hapsburg. 
1699. Jan. 26. By Treaty of Karlowitz between 
the empire and Turkey, Hungary is again 
united under the Hapsbiu-gs. 
1J41. Hungarian nobles pledge support to Queen 

Maria Theresa. 
1784. German is made the ofiaeial language; one 
of the measures of Joseph II. toward the forma- 
tion of a UDifled absolute sovereignty. 
1833. Hungarian reaction sets in agamst Metter- 
nich's absolutist policy. Diet is summoned: but 
the Magyar mmority allowed practically to ex- 
clude the majority of Slav and Wallachian subject 
peoples. 
1839. Magyar restored as official language. 

1848. April 10. Royal approval is given to the 
Ten Pomts or March Laws, including responsible 
mmistry, popular representation, incorporation of 
Transylvania, freedom of assembly, religious lib- 
erty, equality before the law, universal taxation, 
aboUtion of obsolete land tenure, and aboUtion of 
serfdom. (For subject races at this time, see 
Czecho-Slovakia, Jugo-Slavia. For Hungarian 
revolt, see Acstria-Hungart.) 

1849. March 7. Emperor Francis Joseph proclaims 
a united constitution for whole empire: practical 
destruction of Hungarian autonomy. 

1867. Military disasters and isolation compel 
Austria to reconcile Magyars. Ausgleich is 
agreed to by which the Dual Monarchy of Austria- 
Hungary is established (see Austria-Hdngabt). 

1868. May S9. New Hungarian constitution: an 
ampUflcation of the March Laws. Magyarizing 
of subject races becomes fixed policy, aided by 
extreme Umitation of suffrage and manipulation 
of representation. 

1902-1906. Contest between king and ParUament 
over imperial control of Hungarian army, espe- 
cially over use of German or Magyar Kords of 
command. Insistent demand for universal 
suffrage. 

1909. Nor. 11. CoaUtion mlnistrj- (Magyar 
chauvinists) mtroduces a universal suffrage bill, 
but so controlled as not to imperil the Magyar 
state idea. Not enacted: another long poUtical 
crisis ensues. 

1912. June J,. Army bill satisfactory- to the king 
is forced through Parliament amid riotous demon- 
strations. 

1913. May IS. Electoral reform act is passed, 
which, however, by manipulation of age, property. 



114 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: HUNGARY — ITALY. 



1913 — 1920. 



1913 (conlinued). 

and educational qualifications (plural voting) con- 
tinues the Magyar and class control. Drastic 
measures used to keep down riotous opposition. 

1914. Hungarian statesmen join with the Germans 
in Austria to force war on Russia, which at once 
tocomes a World War. |Hung.\hv. | 

For the World W.\r, see that title, and Austria-! 

1916. Aug. 17. Roumanian treaty with Allies; 
Roimiaaia is promised practically all of Himgary 
east of the Tisza River. 

191J. Mau 2.3. Resignation of Tlsza ministry, in 
power since June 9, 1913. Coimt Julius An- 
drassy. an advanced Liberal, becomes premier 
on May 29. 

1918. Oct. SO. Eevolutlon at Budapest: troops 
act in agreement with the National Comicil imder 
the leadership of Karolyl, head of the Independ- 
ence party. Karolyi is made premier by the 
king; the ministry is largely Sociahst. (For inde- 
pendent actions of subject peoples, see Czecho- 
slovakia, Jugo-Slavia.) 

Nov. 1. Tisza assassinated. 

Nov. 2. Karolyi announces that King Charles 
has freed Himgary from its allegiance. 

Nov. IS. Armistice between Himgary and 
Allied commander; limitation is placed on advance 
of Allied troops; but Serbs. Czechs, and Rouma- 
nians disregard this and by occupying portions of 
Hungary cut off coal and food supplies. 

Aon. 16. Hungarian independence is pro- 
claimed; Karolyi president. 

Dec. 1. Transylvania National Council pro- 
claims tmion with Roumania, thus abandoning 
Himgary. 

1919. March 19. Supreme Coimcil at Paris orders 
Hungary to withdraw troops within the Tisza line. 

March 21. Karolyi's government falls; he turns 
control over to the Commu nists under Bela Kun. 

March 22. New government proclaims the rule 
of the proletariat and solidarity with Russian 
Bolsheviki. 

.1 pril J,. Supreme Council negotiates with Bela 
Kun for neutral zone between Hungarian and 
Roumanian armies. Terms rejected ; Roumanian, 
Czech, and Serb armies advance on Budapest. 

June 21,-26. Counter-revolt m Budapest is put 
down with great severity. [manians.l 

July 2S. Bela Kun moves against the Rou-1 

July 26. Supreme Council puts pressure on 
Hungarian people to overtlirow the Reds. 

July SI. Soviet government resigns; suc- 
ceeded by a moderate Socialistic ministry. Bela 
Kun leaves Hungary. 

Aug. J,. Roumanians, in spite of contrary- 
orders by Supreme Council, occupy Budapest 
and seize property. Supreme Coimcil protests, 
Roumania threatens to permit a return of " chaos." 

Aug. 6. 'Government overthrown by a coup 
d'etat of Archduiie Joseph, who becomes regent. 
Reactionary Frledrich ministry. 

Aug. 20. Archduke Joseph resigns under the 
dictation of the Supreme Coimcil. 

Sept. 1. Frledrich ministry; resigns. 

Sept. 7. Envoys sent from' Paris with an ulti- 
matum to Roumania; Budapest in a deplorable 
condition. 

Nov. 23. Huszar coalition ministry formed. 
Reprisals against Communists. 

Dec. 10. Roumania signs the Austrian treaty, 
and also (after 17 ultimatums) retires from 
Budapest, but troops stop at the Tisza. 
1930. Jan. 15. Peace Treaty of NeulUy handed 
to Hungarian delegates practically separates Croa- 
tia and Slavonia Flume, a German-speaking Ijelt 
on the western boundary, the former pro\1nce of 
Pressburg, the Bdndt, and Transyhania, Bound- 
aries to be adjusted by a commission. Provision 
made for reparation, size of army (35,000), and 
division of financial obhgations. 

Jan. 2.5-Sl. Elections to the Natibnal 
Assembly prove anti-Socialist. Evidence of de- 
sire for monarchy. 

Feb. 2. Council of ambassadors warns Himgary 
that restoration of the Hapsburgs will not be per- 
mitted. 

Feb. 27. Roumanian troops withdrawn to the 
prescribed line beyond the Tisza. 

March 1. Admiral Horthy is elected regent by 
the National Assembly. 



ICELAND. 

The important island in the north Atlantic Ocean 
known as Iceland belongs properly to the Western 
Hemisphere. It is four times as far from the Nor- 
wegian coast as from Greenland . Being of a volcanic 
origin, the coast is irregular and the interior is thrust 
up into jagged mountains. The island is noted for 
its cUmatic and otlier peculiar features — lava beds 
and e.xtinct craters and geysers. 

The great importance of Iceland as a coimtry lies 
In the old Norse stock here displayed in its purest 
and best development. The language and the spirit 
of the race are expressed in an interesting literature. 
At a time when America was unknown, poets and 



story-tellers and historians flourished in Iceland. 
Poems and that peculiar form of the epic called the 
saga abounded before there was any extensive Eng- 
hsh literature. 

The sailors of this stock were the most adventur- 
ous of any m the Middle jiges. Only the Italians 
and Portuguese and Dutch navigators of a later age 
rivaled the Norse sea kings in their gouigs forth and 
discoveries. 

Iceland was colonized by Norse adventurers about 
the middle of the ninth century. The first perma- 
nent settlement is attributed to Ingoff the Norwegian, 
who chose e.xile rather than the acceptance of the 
Cliristian religion, and organized a government about 
the year 930. An assembly of tlie pagan chiefs 
founded the Althing m the plam of Thmgvalla. The 
government was representative and democratic. 
There was a national parliament composed of the 
ciiiefs, and a president called the Lugmadur. 

In the year 1000 Christianity was adopted by the 
Althmg as the religion of the republic. The civil life 
of the people became active, and political e.xcitement 
ran to party divisions. By taiing advantage of 
these divisions the Norwegians succeeded in obtain- 
ing the sovereignty of the coimtry. In the latter 
half of the . twelfth centiu-y, the Black Death rav- 
aged Iceland and a considerable period elapsed be- 
fore the people recovered tJieu" spirits. 

A new disaster came when the Danes (1380) ex- 
tended their sway over Iceland. This fatal blow at 
national independence seemed to paralyze the spirit 
of the people. For a long time Iceland remained a 
scarcely disco\ erablu spot in the history of Europe. 
The publication of the Icelandic and Norwegian 
manuscrijJts and the exphcation of the sagas by the 
antiquaries of Denmark and Sweden revived the 
interest, first of scholars and then of the whole world, 
in the literature and liistory of the Norse coimtries. 

In 1S74 the millennial anniversary of Iceland was 
ceielirated witli as much eclat as the whole popula- 
tion could give to the occasion. The king of Den- 
mark visited the island in person, and was received 
with enthusiasm. 

The government of Iceland as a dependency of 
Denmark ceased imder the Act of Union of Novem- 
ber 30, 1918. under wliich the island is now practi- 
cally an independent state. 

The area is 39.709 square miles. The popula- 
tion by last census (1910) was 85.183. 



INDIA. 

See under British Empire, page 62. 



INDIA (French and Portuguese). 

See imder France, page 96. and under PoETnoAL, 
page 135. 



INDO-CHINA. 

See under France, page 96. 



IRELAND. 

See British Empire, page 50. 



ITALY. 
Historical Outline. 

Or all nations of Europe, Italy has been the most 
transformed by the passage from ancient to modem 
times. Italy was the seat of the Roman Empire. 
When that empire was divided, the western part-was 
submerged by barbarian invasions, and Teutonic 
prmcipalities were founded throughout the penin- 
sula. During the Middle Ages there grew up the 
free cities which developed into states governed by 
a semirepublican elite or by commercial guilds. 
Political unity was impossible, but the rivalries of 
these states enlarged the "sense of individual power 
which made Italy the home of the Renaissance. 
Throughout, the pope, as the head of the univei-sal 
church, was the spiritual leader and also a political 
ruler of the territory called the States of the Church. 
Italy was an object of contention and a battlefield 
for Spain. France, and Germany. 

Down to the middle of the 17th century no one 
considerable state existed within the limits of Italy, 
except Venice, which had fought for and still pos- 
sessed mainlands and islands on and beyond the 
Adriatic. Milan, Florence, Genoa, and Pisa, and 
some smaller cities, kept up a tradition of independ- 
ence without the reaUty. Rome was the traditional 
center of the peninsula but had little govenimental 
power. Naples was a kingdom under a foreign line 
of sovereigns. Italy had become what Metternich 
later dubbed it: — "a geographical expression." 
Even the so-called Italian states — Tuscany, Parma, 
Modena, and the rest — were pawns in European 
poUtics. several of them practically Austrian, bought, 
sold, traded, divided, inherited, given away. The 
traditions and prestige of Rome were the only forces 
within Italy that were regarded outside. 

Francis I. of France invaded Italy in 1515. Sol- 



diers of Charles V. sacked Rome in 1527. The 
Swiss came down from the north; Piedmont was 
controlled by the French for a time, under Louis 
XIV. Venice, after the discovery of the all-water 
route to the Indies, lost her ascendancy in the Med- 
iterranean coimtries. As a result of the Treaty of 
Utrecht (1713), Austria received Naples and Sai- 
dtnia. Between 1731 and 1737Tuscany and thepos- 
sessions of the Medici passed to Francis of Lorraine, 
thehusband of MariaTheresa ; and in 1 748 there was a 
general partition of Italy; Austria retained Lilian 
and Tuscany; Don Philip, brother of Charles III. of 
Spain, held Parma and Piacenza; Charles III. was 
confirmed in the kingdom of tlie Two Sicilies; Mo- 
dena went under the protection of the French; the 
ancient house of Savoy in the north assumed royalty 
in 1720; and this kingdom of Piedmont was the only 
genuinely Italian state, except the repubUcs of Venice 
and Genoa, which remained nominally independent. 

During the French Revolution the French invaded 
Piedmont and the Austrian possessions, swept down 
the peninsula (1804), captured the pope, and occu- 
pied Naples. In 1S04 Emperor Napoleon redis- 
tributed Italy. Part was annexed directly to the 
French Empire; another part w-as erected into the 
kingdom of Italy, with liimself as king and his step- 
son, Eugene de Beaulianiais, as viceroy. The re- 
mamder was made into the kingdom of Naples under 
Napoleon's brother, Joseph, and afterwards imder his 
brother-in-law. Murat. The papacy was recognized 
by the Concordat of 1801. Venice was dismembered. 

The supremacy of the French made the later ItaUan 
unity possible, in that it created three governments 
instead of a dozen states. Feudalism was abolished, 
political barriers were thrown down, commercial 
intercourse was made more free, enlightened laws 
were imposed, and industry was stimulated. 

The collapse of Napoleon's empire left Italy again 
in confusion. The Congress of Vienna (1815) imdid 
most of the work of the French and created ten 
states, none large enough to be a danger. To Aus- 
tria were given as provinces Lombardy and Venice: 
Austrian princes ruled in three other states, making 
Austria the controlling power in the north. In the 
south Ferdinand, king of Naples, was allied with 
Austria. The only independent powers left on the 
map were the States of the Church and the little 
kingdom of Piedmont with the island to the south; 
the combined territory was caUed the kingdom of 
Sardinia. Yet in this tough and vigorous stat«. 
which included the great port of Genoa, was pre- 
served a national sijirit which made it the nucleus of 
a united Italy. 

Within five years of the Congress of Vienna. Milan 
and Naples were both in revolt, but Austria, as the 
agent of the Holy Alliance, suppressed the rismg in 
Naples. Similar stirrmgs in 1830 were put down; 
Austria's power seemed invincible. The only hope 
was in Piedmont, which made war on Austria. In 
1849 Kmg Charles Albert was defeated, abdicated, 
and was succeeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel II. 
In 1853 Cavour became prime minister and began to 
prove himself the consummate statesman of Italy. 
He set out to bring about the unification of Italy. 
Piedmont received a coi>stitution; Cavour labored to 
strengthen its industrial and economic condition so 
that it might be fit to play its part. With magnifi- 
cent audacity Sardinia joined France and England in 
declaring war upon Russia in 1855. As a result 
Piedmont was given a place at the Congress of Paris 
in 1856 and won the sympathy of Emperor Napoleon 
III. of France. 

In 1859 Cavour secured the powerful alliance of 
France for the price of Nice and a strip of Savoy. 
Austria was provoked to declare war upon Pied- 
mont, and Napoleon came to its aid. The allies 
were successful and won the battles of Magenta and 
Solferino. Then Napoleon weakened and, to the 
wrath of Cavour, refused to carry out the full pro- 
gram. The hasty peace of Villafranca transferred 
Lombardy with Milan to Piedmont: but Austria was 
not expelled from Venice nor was Italy united. 

Within a year came a great popular movement 
throughout Italy. The simple plam Garibaldi, 
without tlie support of Cavour, led the Legion of the 
Thousand which overtlirew the Bourbons in Sicily 
and Naples. The people of the kingdom of the Two 
Sicihes voted to join themselves to Sardinia (Pied- 
mont). In 1860, Italy allied with Prussia in the war 
against Austria and although the Italians were de- 
feated by land and sea, Austria was compelled to 
hberate Venice. Thus Italy was at last imited, ex- 
cept for Rome, which would have gone into the 
combination but for a garrison of French troops. In 
1870. during the Franco-Prussian War. Rome was 
occupied by Italian troops and by popular \'Ote 
joined Italy. It at once became the Italian capital. 
The entire peninsula thencefonvard formed a imited 
and independent kingdom under Victor Emmanuel 
and his successors. 

Nevertheless, Italy was still a small and weak 
power. The pope refused to accept the loss of his 
temporalities and to come to living terms with the 
Italian government. As the " Prisoner of the Vati- 
can " he might still furnish a cause for intervention 
by one of the great Roman Catholic powers. The 



1548-1713. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ITALY. 



115 



Italians, however, recalled the glories of the past. 
They had restored the center of the old Roman Em- 
pire and now looked forward to occupying its posses- 
sions in the Mediterranean. Tunis was the national 
ambition; and the French seizure of Tunis in 1881 
gave a shock to the friendship and gratitude of the 
ItaUan people. Hence, in 1SS2, Italy joined the al- 
liance already formed between Austria and Ger- 
many — the famous Triple Alliance which domi- 
nated Europe in most crises until 1914. The pro- 
tection offei-ed by this alliance had its price; if Ital>' 
claimed the prerogatives of a great power, she must 
organize a military and naval program on a large 
scale. The result was heavy expenditure and grow- 
ing debt. 

Italy also embarked on colonial expansion. In 
1SS5 she seized the port of IMiissaua on the Ked Sea 
and set up the colony of Eritrea in East Africa and a 
protectorate of Somaliland. The colonies proved 
valueless, and led to war with Abyssinia and a disas- 
trous defeat at Adowa (189(5). In 1912 Italy went 
to war with Turkey for the possession of Tripoli ; as a 
part of the hostilities, Italy occupied the Dodecanese, 
twelve islands in the .-Egean Sea which were coveted 
by Greece, and which Italy agreed to sun-ender to 
Greece. Peace in 1913 confu'med tliese losses of 
Turkey. In 1917 Italy occupied Albania and set up 
a government at Durazzo; and in 1918-19 occupied 
parts of Dalmatia and Fiunie. and still retained the 
Dodei^anese. 

At the outbreak of the World War Italy remained 
neutral, standing on her rights in holding that she 
was obliged to aid her allies only in a defensive war. 
Negotiations took place with both sides. Austria 
offering considerable territory. The decision was 
made to adhere to the Entente on the basis of the 
promise of Adriatic territory made in the secret 
Treaty of London of April 26. 1915. On May 4, 
1915, she denounced the Triple Alhance, and on May 
23 she joined the other powers and declared war 
against Austria and later (August 21) against Turkey 
and (October 19) against Bulgaria. 

Durmg the war, after some defeats, Italy won a 
great advantage in 1917 and almost reached Trieste; 
but on October 24 the Germans and Austrians began 
a formidable offensive and drove the Italians back to 
the Piave. Not imtil October in 1918 could Italy, 
with the aid of the Allies, make headway. Then, in 
a victorious campaign of about a week, 400, (X)0 Aus- 
trian prisoners were taken and on November 4 Aus- 
tria-Hungary accepted an armistice dictated by the 
Italians. As a result of the war Italy " redeemed " 
Italian territory by adding a region mhabited by 
Italian-speaking people and beyond that by pushing 
the political boundaries to the main divide of the 
Alps. These successes encouraged a hope for fur- 
ther advances, for the possession, in short, of all the 
rest of the eastern Adriatic coast from Trieste to 
southern Albania. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution of Italy is an 
expansion of the charter granted by Charles Albert, 
king of Sardinia (Piedmont), in 1848. The execu- 
tive power is vested in the king, but may be exercised 
only tlirough ministers who are responsible to a par- 
liament of two chambers. The Senate is composed 
of adult princes of the royal house and of an unhm- 
ited number of senators, nominated by the king for 
life. They must be 40 years of age, must have filled 
a high office or have acquired fame for the benefit of 
the nation, and must pay taxes of $600 a year. In 
1917 there were 376 senators and seven members of 
the royal family. The Camera de Deputati is chosen 
by imiversal manhood suffrage, but men less than 21 
who. have performed military service during the 
World War may also vote. The numl>er of deputies 
is 508, or one for every 71.000. The duration of 
Parliament is five years and it must meet annually. 

Under the parliamentary system the king has the 
power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies but is 
compelled to order new elections and convoke a new 
meeting within four months. Politics in Italy have 
been much affected by individuals and by combina- 
tions rather than by genuine differences of pohtical 
opinion. Two difficulties have stood in the w^ay of 
real popular government. The first is the influence 
of a small group of irrcconcilables. the " CathoUc " 
group who long abstained from participation in the 
national life and denied the right of the Italian gov- 
ernment to control them. The second is the rapid 
growth of the Socialists, who are numerous and well 
organized. 

Industry and Labor. From time immemorial. 
Italy has been one of the fertile regions of the earth. 
Only 7.9% of tlie whole land is waste land, while 
48.8% is tilled. 28.1% is in pasture, and 5.8% is de- 
voted to vineyards and orchards. Land is held on 
one or another of three tenures: (1) Peasant proprie- 
torship, wliich is most common in Piedmont and Li- 
guria. although found in many other parts of Italy: 
(2) Partnership holdings, by which the peasant culti- 
vates the land on shares, a system found in Tuscany, 
the Marches, and Umbria; (3) Rent, which exists in 
Lombardy and Venetia. Throughout Italy the land 
is generally divided into small holdings. 



The chief agricultural crops in order of quantity 
produced in 1918 were wheat, com, potatoes, sugar 
beets, oats, rice, and beans, while olive oil and wine 
were produced in large quantities. Tiie silk culture 
is also important and in 1918 the silk cocoon crop 
amomited to more than 29, OCX), 000 kilos. The re- 
fining of sugar is also becoming increasingly impor- 
tant, having grown from foui" sugar factorie^s m 1899 
to 34 m 1918, with an output sixteen times greater. 
The iiroducts of the forests are also imjwrtant. 

Many valuable mmerals are foimd in Italy, the 
more important according to value of product being 
mineral fuel, sulphur ore. iron, zinc, mercury, lead, 
boric acid, and the output from the quarries of build- 
ing and decorative stone. Italy, however, lacks coal 
and iron in paying quantities. 

Tlie birth rate of Italy is higher than that of any 
other country in Europe, and this has led to a condi- 
tion in which not enough food is raised to support 
the population, which in less than fifty years in- 
creased by two fifths. The insufficiency of home- 
grown food proved a great drawback during the 
World War. Emigration has helped to readjust the 
balance: between 1876 and 1905 over 8,000.000 per- 
sons emigrated: but the hope of Italy was in becom- 
ing an industrial nation, so as to give employment at 
home and thus check emigration. Therefore Italy 
began to develop industries and German capital 
hastened the process. The industrial expansion 
proceeded so far that by 1908 emigration practically 
ceased except from southern Italy and Sicily. In 
1911, 243,926 industrial establishments were enu- 
merated which employed over 2,000,000 persons. 
The chief exports of Italian manufacture are raw 
silk, cotton and silk manufactures, and wines. 

Religion. The state religion of Italy is the 
Roman Catholic, but freedom of worship is granted 
to all denominations, nineteen twentieths of the peo- 
ple professing to be Roman Cathohcs. In 1855 a 
law was passed providing for the suppression of re- 
ligious corporations, wliich was extended in 1873. 

The most difficult question wliich Italy has faced 
is the relation of the kingdom to the papacy. Since 
Itahan imity was accomplished by the overtlirow of 
the temporal authority of the pope m the Papal 
States, the pope regards the khig and his govern- 
ment as a usurper in Rome. Although the govern- 
ment treated the pope with generosity and courtesy, 
granting liim a quarter of Rome to be entirely under 
his control and an ammal pension of over 3.000,(X)0 
francs, he still considers liimself the " Prisoner of the 
Vatican " and refuses to leave its precmcts and thus 
subject himself to the sovereignty of a "robber 
king." In the early years of the kingdom, more- 
over, the pope forbade all devout Catholics to take 
any part in the political life of the state, thereby 
creating the class of irreconcilables. As time has 
gone on some of the bitterness has disappeared and 
most Catholics to-day do not feel themselves de- 
barred from voting or from political life. 

Education. At the formation of the kmgdom. 
the most pressmg problem was that of education. 
In Piedmont and Lombardy. wliich were the most 
advanced sections, about a third of the men and 
more than one half of the women were illiterate, 
whilfe in Naples and Sicily the number of iUiterates 
exceeded 90%. In 1877 a compulsory educational 
law was passed, but because of the expense was not 
ver>' thoroughly enforced. At present the state 
regulates public instruction, wliich is supported 
either entirely by the state or in conjunction with 
the towns and provinces. PubUc schools are of 
every grade, and every teacher must have the quali- 
lications required by law. Four tj-pes of schools are 
maintained by the kingdom : ( 1 ) Elementarj' schools, 
of lower grades with compulsory attendance; everj- 
comniime must have at least one for lx>ys and one 
for girls. Higlicr grade elementary- schools are re- 
quired of the larger communes, and those having 
normal and secondar>' schools, and attendance is 
compulsory to the age of twelve; (2) Secondarj- 
classical schools, which provide instruction leading 
to the universities; (3) Secondarj' instruction in 
teclmical subjects, provided by special schools; 
(4) Higher education, met by twenty-one public uni- 
versities, the oldest of which is the University of 
Bologna, foimded in 1200. and the largest, that of 
Naples which has over 6.300 students, while the 
University of Rome has 4,100. Padua 2900. Bologna 
2,600. Turin 2,400, Palermo 2,100. In the elemen- 
tary" and secondary schools there are over 4.000.000 
pupils. The effect of this system of education is 
remarkable. In 1911 illiteracy was highest in Ca- 
labria (69.6%) and lowest in Piedmont (11%,): cer- 
tain districts reported that no young man or woman 
twenty years 'of age was unable to read and wTite. 

Defense. Italy has an extensive seacoast, meas- 
uring about 2,000 miles, exclusive of the Italian 
islands. The land frontier bordering on France is 
300 miles in extent: on Switzerland, 418: on Austria 
and Jugo-Slavia. 566: and on San Marino, 25. The 
routes into Italy from central Europe on the north 
are easily defended. The Alps are a sufficient bar- 
rier except for a few passes, mostly fortified. The 
boimdary to the eastward between Jugo-Slavia and 
Italy is more open. The new boundary places Italy 



on the summit ridge of the high Alps. The Italian 
seaboard at all accessible points was well fortified 
under the conditions of warfare down to 1914 as were 
the islands and the Strait of Messina. 

The Italian militarj- system is modeled upon that 
of Germany. Service hi the army and navy is uni- 
versal and compulsory. The total period is 19 years, 
l^eginning at the age of 20. The young men of each 
annual contingent are divided into tliree classes: the 
first Isehig drawn for the permanent army, the second 
for the iiermanent army " with unhmited leave," and 
the third of those exempted from military service, 
but assigned to the territorial mihtia. The term of 
service in the ranks of the permanent army is two 
years wliich is followed by eight years' service in the 
reserve, four years in the mobile militia, and seven 
years in the territorial militia. 

The Carabinieri. or militar>- poUce force, are 
selected from the army and serve for three yeaTs; 
after which they are transferred for four years' serv- 
ice in the reserve of the Carabinieri and then to the 
territorial militia. The normal strength of the 
Itahan field army is about 400,000 men. of the mo- 
bile mihtia, 326.(X)0. From 1915 to November, 
1918, over 5,600.000 Italians mobilized of whom 507.- 
000 were kihed, and 962.000 wounded. The Italian 
navy (1920) consists of six dreadnoughts and six 
predreadnoughts and five armored cruisers, besides 
monitors, submarhies, and destroyers, Before the 
opening of the war, Italy was building four super- 
dreadnoughts, but with her entrance into the war, 
work was discontinued on these ships. 

Area and Population. The area of Italy is 
110,632 square miles and the estimated population 
in 1915 was 36,120,118. The density of the popula- 
tion in 1915 was 326.5 to the square mile. It is esti- 
mated that the new territory gained by Italy from 
Austria by the Treaty of Sauit-Germain will add 
about 12,500 square miles to the area and 1,900,000 
to the population. 

ITALIAN DEPENDENCIES. 

The colony of Eritrea on the coast o! the Red 
Sea has an area of about 45.000 square miles and a 
population, largely nomadic, estimated at 450,000 
The tropical climate and the scarcity of water make 
agriculture without irrigation impossible. Pastur- 
age, however, is abimdant. Camels, oxen, sheep, 
and goats are conmion and the produce supplies the 
local trade. Pearl fisheries are carried on and a prom- 
ising trade in palm nuts is being developed. There 
are 74 miles of railroad, a telegraph line of 514 miles, 
and 863 miles of telephone lines. 

Italian Somaliland. The colony and protec- 
torates of Italian Somaliland extend along the east- 
em coast of Africa from British Somaliland south- 
ward to the Juba River and comprise 139,430 square 
miles with a population of about 650,000. The prin- 
cipal occupation of the people is cattle raising and 
agriculture. The exports, which are cliiefly agricul- 
tural, amotmted to more than 6,000,000 lire (1918). 

Tripolitanla and Cyrenaica (together called 
Libya or Libia Itallana). These colonies formed 
out of Turkish Tripoli were acquired by Italy as the 
result of the war with Turkey in 1912. The area of 
Libya is estimated at 406,000 square miles and the 
population from 523,000 to 1 ,000,000 and even higher. 

Tripolitanla is divided into four zones: (1) along 
the sea, covered with palms, olives, lemon and fruit 
trees; (2) in the highlands, where oUve groves, palm 
and fig trees flourish, and cereals and rich grasses 
are raised; (3) oases which are rich in palms; (4) a 
region covered with palms, figs, vines, and almonds. 

In CjTenaica olives and cypresses are common, 
pasturage is abundant, and cattle can be bred on a 
large scale. There is considerable caravan trade 
between Tripoli and central Sudan, an important 
article of which is ostrich feathers to the value of 
S350,CK)0 a year. Sponge fisheries were started in 
1885 and are now very profitable. 

Chronology — Italy and Dependencies. 

For earlier events, see Mediev.\l Period, ChTonolvgy, 
and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 

1648. Italy weak, divided, and oppressed by 
foreign dynasties. Ancient free cities practically 
extinguished, except Venice and Genoa. Only 
Italian dj-nasty is that of Savoy. Rome ruled by 
the pope as a temporal sovereign. Literary and 
artistic life declines. People brutaUzed by war and 
oppression. 

1669. Venice, after prolonged warfare with the 
Turks, is obliged to abandon Candia (Crete). 

1674. Leaders of revolt at Messina oiler Sicily to 
Louis XIV.. of France, who deserts them when 
peace is made in 1678. 

1684. The Venetians, imder the lead of Francesco 
JSIorosiiii, wrest the Peloponnesus from the Tiu-ks. 
Venetian ascendancy in Ionian Islands maintained. 

1707. The armies of Louis XIV., frequently de- 
feated by Prince Eugene of Savoy, are driven out 
of Italy. 

1713. April 11. By the Treaty of Utrecht, Sicily, 
with Montferrat and Alessandria, is assigned to 
Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy who takes the 
title of King of Sicily. 



116 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ITALY. 



1714-1906. 



1714. Elizabeth Fanit-su is married to Philip V. of 

^ Spain. Tliis marriai-'e.*gi\rts excu-r to Pliilip for 

breaJiing the peace of Bhiropeby iii\;«ling Sardinia. 

Naples, Sardinia, JViantua, and Milan ceded to 

Austria. 

1720. Victor Amadeus compelled to exchange 
Sicily for Sardinia. Head of House of Savoy, 
destined to become the djTiasty of United Italy, 
assumes title of King of Sardinia. 

O1730. Victor Amadeus abdicates the tlironc in favor 
of liis son Charles Emmanuel III. 
1731. Duchy of Parma passes .to Prince Charles 
(later Charles III ) of Spain. 

1733. Victor Amadetts makes an tmsuccessful at- 
tempt to recover liis authority in Turin; over- 
tiirown and imprisoned. 

1734. Naples and Sicily conquered by Spain. 
1737. Gian Gaston, last of the Florentine Medici, 

P dies, and liis riglits pass to Frimcis of Lorraine. 

1740. Lombardy in a war in wliich the claims of 
Maria Theresa are met with the coimterclaims 
of France: the king of Sardinia takes sides with 
tlie House of Hapsburg-Lorralne. 
1745. Charles Emmanuel and his army of Sar- 
dinians are defeated by the combined forces of 
France and Spain. 

Q1746. Army of Francis of Lorraine (Francis I. of 
Germany) gains a victory over the French in the 
battle of Piacenza. 
1748. Oct. IS. By the Treaty of Aix-la^Chapelle, 
Italy Is redivlded among Austria, France, and 
Savoy; Austria retains Milan and Tuscany, Parma 
and Piacenza are assigned as a duchy to Philip, 
brother of Charles III. Charles is confirmed in 

- the possession of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

R IVIodena passes imder the protection of the French. 

Italians enjoy a period of repose. 
1765. Francis I. dies and transmits Tuscany to his 
tliird son. Peter Leopold, wlio reigns as an inde- 
pendent sovereign. 
1789. At outbreak of French Revolution, Italy is 
divided into 10 states, of wliich all are hereditary 
monarcliies except Venice. Genoa, Lucca, and the 

e Papal States. 

^ 1790. Peter Leopold becomes the Emperor Leo- 

pold, and transmits the kingdom of Tuscany to 
his son Ferdinand, who, with Charles Emmanuel 
of Sardinia, furnishes the motive for the revival 
of the independent spirit among the Italians. 
Italian writers, in sympathy with the Encyclope- 
dists of France, promote the spirit of liberty. 

,_ 1797. Ocl. 1-7. The status of Italy is determined 

I by the Treaty of Campoformido, in wliich Napo- 

leon establishes the Cisalpine Republic in 
northern Italy. Venice is assigned to Austria. 
(See Fr.^nce.) 

1798. Roman Republic established. All the so- 
called republics are mider French domination. 

1799. The Parthenopean Republic is created in 
southern Italy, having Naples for its capital. 

U Charles Emmanuel FV. resigns, and Pope Pius 

^^ VI. flees from Rome into France, where he dies 

soon afterward. 

French driven out of Italy by Austrians and Rus- 
sians. 

1800. June 14. Napoleon, returning from Egypt, 
is victorious over the Austrians in the great battle 
of Marengo. 

V1804. Napoleon, having become Emperor of the 
French, decrees a new settlement of Italian 
affairs. He crowns himself with the iron crown of 
the Lombards, restores Rome to the pope, and 
drives Ferdinand from Naples. Tuscany and Ven- 
ice become the kingdom of Etruria. The Ligurian 
and Cisalpine republics are combmed as a vice- 
royalty under Prince Eugene de Beauhamais. 

1806. The French emperor transfers the kingdom 
^A/ of Naples to his brother Joseph, and afterwards 

(.\ugust 1, ISOS) to his brother-m-law, Murat. 

1809. Pius VII. is deposed and Rome becomes a 
part of the Frencli Empire. Kingdom of Etruria 
is assigned to Napoleon's sister, Eliza, as duchess 
of Tuscany. [out of Italy. 1 

1813-1814. Forces of the allies drive the French I 

-. NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

^ 1815. June 0. By the Treaty of Vienna, the Na- 

poleonic conditions in Italy are swept away, 

and the preceding political arrangements are. as 
nearly as practicable, restored. Austria receives 
Lombardy and Venetia; Genoa assigned to Pied- 
mont (Sardinia). The returning sovereigns of the 
old order regard the restoration as a warrant for 
tyranny and oppression 
Y 1820. Revolution in Naples. 

1821. Congress of the powers (see Nineteenth- 
Centitry Period) is held at Laibach: Austria 
is authorized by the body to crush the Revolu- 
tion. Revolution in Piedmont. Austrians win 
battle of Novara (April 8) and aid Charles FelLx 
to restore absolutism. 

1831. A popular insurrection begins inModenaand 

Z spreads to Parma, Bologna, and Romagna. Aus- 

trian troops bear down on the insurgents, and the 
rebellion is quelled. [with an army. I 

1832. Louis Philippe of France occupies Anconal 



1833. Society of " Young Italy," organized by 
Mazzmi, attempts revolt in Piedmont. Mazzini 
publishes a book on the " Moral and Civil Pri- 
macy of the Italians." 

1846. Pope Gregory XVI. dies; succeeded by 
Pius IX. Pius imdertakes many reforms and is 
regarded with hope by the moderate liberals as a 
leader of the national cause. 

1848. Italy, in sympathy with revolutionary 
France, breaks into revolt. Sicily declares in- 
dependence, A radical administration is estab- 
lislied in Naples. Lombardy rises, and Milan and 
Venice expel the Austrians. Ducliies free them- 
selves. Pope Pius IX. escapes from Rome in dis- 
guise. Charles Albert of Piedmont declares war 
on Austria. Radetzky, at the head of an Austrian 
army, wins battle of t'ustozza, July 24-25. 

1849. A republic is established in Rome, with 
Garibaldi and Mazzini as leaders, but after a 
resolute defense the city is taken by the French in 
July. Rome, Venice, and Milan are taken by the 
Austrians, and in the battle of Novara, March 23, 
1S49, the power of Piedmont is seemingly de- 
stroyed. Charles Albert abdicates, and is suc- 
ceeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel II. By 
liim the spirit of nationality is encouraged. Pied- 
mont becomes the basis of ItaUan tmity. Rome 
is held by French troops to prevent its absorption. 

1850. Legislative reforms are instituted in Pied- 
mont (Sardinia), culminating, in 1854, in an eccle- 
siastical reform decree. Count Cavour joins the 
government and becomes minister of commerce. 

1853. Cavour made prime minister, and the for- 
times of Italy revive imder his skillful diplomacy. 

1855. Sardinia becomes a participant with the allies 
against Russia in the Crimean War. 

1856. Cavour represents the kingdom of Sardinia at 
the Congress of Paris. He secures the sympathy 
of the Emperor Napoleon III. 

1858. July 11. Cavour makes the secret agree- 
ment of Plombieres with Napoleon III., who 
promises to help drive Austrians out of Italy (see 
Nineteenth-Century Period). 

1859. Victor Emmanuel declares that the govern- 
ment is not insensible to the " cry of dolor " aris- 
ing from Italy. The Franco-Italian War with 
Austria ensues. The allies triumph at Magenta 
on Jime 4, and at Solferino on Jime 24; the 
Treaty of Villafranca is concluded July 9, by 
which the Mincio is made the boimdary between 
Sardinia and Austria. 

Modena, Parma, and Tuscany expel their rulers 
and in 1S60 vote for union with Piedmont. 

1860. Garibaldi leads a successful insurrection in 
Sicily and Naples. The Sardinian government 
allies itself actively with the insurgents, and the 
king takes the field with Garibaldi, who. on the 
completion of the victorious campaign, resigns Ills 
position as dictator. Sicily and Naples are by 
popular vote annexed to Sardinia. 

1861. First Italian parliament meets, and Vic- 
tor Emmanuel is made king of Italy. Count 
Cavour dies, Jime 5. 

1862. Garibaldi leads a force against Rome; he is 
wounded and captured in a skirmish at Aspro- 
monte. He and liis followers are given amnesty, 
and he remains the popular hero; but the govern- 
ment, out of deference to France, leaves Rome 
under the power of the pope. 

1864. Capital of the kingdom is fixed at Florence. 

1866. Italy joins Prussia In war against Aus- 
tria. Her army is beaten at Custozza, June 24, 
and her navy near Lissa; but victorious Prussia 
secures the liberation of Venetia, which is united 
with Italy. Except Rome, the whole of Italy l>e- 
comes united and independent. French withdraw 
troops from Rome and then return them. 

1867. Garibaldi heads attack upon Rome, but he 
is finally defeated at Mentana, and sent Irto 
retirement at Caprera. 

1869. Ecumenical council meets at Rome, and in 
July, 1S70. afBrnis the dogma of the Infallibility 
of the pope. 

1870. France, absorbed in the war with Germany. 
withdraws her troops from Rome; the Itahan 
troops enter almost without opposition ; union with 
Italy is accepted by a popular vote, and Victor 
Emmanuel makes Rome his capital; Pope Pius 
IX. (though calling liimself a prisoner) is permitted 
to retain the Vatican and its dependencies. 

1878. Jan. 9. Victor Emmanuel dies and is suc- 
ceeded by his son. Humbert I. (Umberto). Fet)- 
ruarj' 7, Pope Pius IX. dies; is succeeded by 
Leo XIII. The new pope, while strongly main- 
taining the papal claims to temporal dominion, is 
regarded as a liberal, and more disposed than 
Pius IX. to harmonize the ecclesiastical force with 
the popular and democratic spirit, 

1881. French occupation of Tunis results in fall of 
Cairoii ministry. 

Suifrage is extended and reformed. 

1882. Miiy il. Italy joins with Germany and 
Austria in the Triple Alliance. 

June g. Garibaldi dies. 
1884. Asiatic cholera appears in Italian ports, and 
spreads with great rapidity into the provinces. 



1885. Italians occupy Massaua on the Red .Sea; 
beginning of Eritrea. 

1886. Antagonism of Church and State be- 
comes acute. Pope issues an allocution filled 
with accusations against the government. The 
Clerical party is accused of conspiracy to over- 
tiirow the existing order. The pope's letter in 
praise and support of the Jesuits arouses the Lit>- 
eral party, and a commission is appointed to in- 
vestigate the monastic institutions. 

1887. Feb. 20. Renewal of Triple Alliance. 
Germany in separate treaty agrees to support 
Italy against France if the latter tries to extend 
her power in northern Africa. 

1888. Pope Leo puts forth positive assertions of 
temporal sovereignty, denoimces the government 
of iving Humbert as a usurpation, and calls upon 
the clergy and the Clerical party to repeat and 
mamtam his protest. Senate replies with the en- 
actment of stringent laws to prevent the clergy 
from demonstrations in favor of restoring the 
pope to temporal power. The celebration of the 
pope's jubilee intensifies the animosity. 
Foreign relations of Italy are strained. Italy a,s- 
stmies a determined attitude in resisting the am- 
bition of France to extend her frontier line In 
Africa. In July, Italy takes possession of Zuila 
in tlie Egj-ptian Sudan. 

1889. Crispi, by the reaction following an attempt 
to assassinate him, strengthens his govern- 
ment and confirms his ascendancy. 

1890. Jan. IS. Italy's African possessions organ- 
ized as Colonia Eritrea. 

In the elections Crispi is indorsed by an over- 
whelming majority. Financial embarrassment of 
the kingdom leads to a sudden popular reaction 
against the Crispi ministry. 

1891. Crispi government is overthrown, to be 
succeeded by that of the Marquis dl Rudlni. 
The new government pm"sues the same policy as 
its predecessor, particularly in respect to the 
maintenance of the Triple Alliance. 

Labor troubles, general throughout Europe, be- 
come acute in Italy; distress of the people is in- 
tensified by the closing of the French ports against 
Italian commerce. 

1892. Discontent arising from the biu-den of debt 
upon the people leads to tlie overthrow of the 
Rudlni ministry; Giovanni GlollttI becomes 
prime minister. 

Exposure of astoUHdlng corruption and frauds 
among the go\'eninient officials. The prime min- 
ister involved and is deposed. Giuseppe Zanar- 
delli succeeds him. Credito Mobiliare suspends, 
and the government is shaken to its fotmdations; 
Crispi is recalled from Sicily to assume control 
and restore political order. 

1893. March. Jubilee of the pope, this being 
the fiftieth anniversary of Leo's consecration as 
Archbishop of Damietta. The ceremonies attract 
midtitudes of distinguished strangers to Rome, 
among them WilUam II. of Germany. 

Dec. 31. Italian troops rout the enemy in a 
campaign against the dervishes, near Massaua 
in Africa. A severe battle occurs near Kassala in 
the Sudan, July 17, 1894. 

1895. Tlie government, notwithstanding the finan- 
cial scandals in wliich it is involved, oblauis a ma- 
jority in the elections, chiefiy by the action of the 
pope in forbidding Catholics to go to tlie polls. 

1896. March 1. Italians defeated at Adowa, by 
King Menelik of Abyssinia. October 26, Italy 
abandons claim to protectorate over Al^yssinia. 

March 5. Final overtlirow of the Crispi minis- 
try follows further exposiu"0 of government fraud 
in the bank scandals and the defeat of the army in 
Abyssmia; Rudlni becomes premier. 

1898. May. Formidable riots in Milan are sup- 
pressed only with much bloodshed; similar distur- 
bances occur in other large cities, caused by high 
price of bread, hea^T taxation, and alleged republi- 
can conspiracies. End of tariff war with France. 

1899. June -23. Law against socialistic and repub- 
lican activity. Great popular opposition. 

1900. July 29. King Humbert is assassinated; 
succeeded by his son Victor Emmanuel III. 

1901. Census shows a population of 32.475,000, 
with a ratio of increase the greatest in Europe. 

June li. Campanile of St. Mark's, Venice, 
falls. Restored. 1912, by J. P. Morgan, the Amer- 
ican banker. 

1903. Feb. SO. Leo XIII. celebrates his 25th an- 
niversary as pope. 

July 20. Death of Leo XIII. 
.411;;. 4. Giuseppe Sarto, patriarch of Venice, 
is elected pope as Pius X. 

1904. March 27. Conference between the king 
and Kaiser William. 

May. Vatican protests against visit of Presi- 
dent Loubet of France to King Victor Emmanuel. 

1905. Feb. SJ,. Simplon tunnel between Italy 
and Switzerland completed. July 1, the state 
assumes control and management of nearly all 
railway lines. 

1906. Feb. e. Ministry resigns. Sidney Sonnino 
as premier forms new ministry. 



MODES OF TRAVEL. 



1. Ascent of the Andes. Republic of Colombia. 

2. Ski Runner. From a drawino- in tlio Norwegian edition of "Farthest 

North," by Fridtjuf Nanscn. 

3. Eskimo Dog Sled. From photograph furnished by V. (larde. 

4. Eskimo Kayak. Mock Suns. Photograph furnished by V. Garde. 

5. Reindeer Caravan. Amur River, Eastern Siberia. 

6. Yak Caravan. Tilx-tan Highlands. Photo In- Henri, Princ^e d'Orleans. 

7. Llama Porters. Village of Palca, Peru. 

8. Russian Tarantas. 

9. Siberian Tarantas. Driven by iMongols and Mongol Khalkhas, Thian 

Shan (Mountains); after X. Przheval.ski. 

10. Mail Carrier. Indo-China. 

11. Japanese Transport of Goods. 

12. Japanese Jinrikisha. 

13. Cochin-China Buffalo Wagon. 

14. Indian Buffalo. Taken near Bombay. 

15. Teke Turkomans. Merv, Central Asia. 

16. Mongol on Dromedary. With I'rayer Whe<.l in his hands. Tibetan 

Frontier. 

17. Camel with Atatich (covered saddle for women). From photograph 

furnished Ijy M. Zeys, in charge of a Mission sent out by the French 
Minister of Public Instruction. 

18. Elephant with Howdah (canopied seat on liack). Bangkok, Siam. 

19. Trekking in the Transvaal. Boer traveling by ox team. 

20. Pampas Wagon. La Plata River, South America. 

21. Sicilian Charrette. 

22. Interurban Trolley Car. 

23. Modern American Express Train. 

24. Touring Car. 



X. 




I'Or clescnpuuii see previous pa^ie. 



MODES OF TRAVEL OF SAVAGE, BARBAR 




S, SEMI-CIVILIZED, AND CIVILIZED MAN. 



Copyright by G. & C. Mf.rriam Co. 

Registered at Stationers' Hall. London. England, 



1906-1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ITALY — JAMAICA. 



117 



1906 (.continurd) . 

April 1,-15. The most severe eruption of Vesu- 
vius since destruction of Pompeii, a. d. 79, occurs. 

May. Sonnino caljinot resigns, and new cabi- 
net is formed witli Giollttl as premier. 

1907. May 15. Minister of foreign affairs, Tom- 
maso Tittoni, in the Chamijorof Dcputirs furmaily 
details the Itahan program in regard lu fdrrign re- 
lations. 

1908. Aprils. Strike riots at Rome. 

April 23. First Women's Congress ever held in 
Italy, opens in Rome. 

Dec. SS. Earthquake in Calabria and Sicily 
destroys Messina, Begglo, and several villages. 
Loss of life is estimated at from 125,000 to more 
than 200.000. The property loss is incalcidable. 

1909. April IS. Elaborate ceremonies lield at St. 
Peter's, Rome, at the beatiflcation of Joan of Arc. 

Dec. S. Giolitti ministry resigns: on December 
10 a new ministry under Sonnino. 

1910. March 21. Disagreement over a ship sub- 
sidy bill wreclis the cabinet of Sonnino, l5ut tlie 
bill is later passed (May 28) as a temporary meas- 
ure imder premier Lulgi Luzzatti. 

March 21,. Mount Etna Inirsts into violent 
eruption, continuing for weelis. 

iiepl. 20. Speech by Mayor Nathan of Rome 
on the anniversary of tlie entry of Italian troops 
into Rome intensifies the contest between the 
government and the "Vatican. 

Sept. 23. George Chavez, a Peruvian, flies in 
an airplane over the Alps near the Simplon Pass. 

1911. March 16. Trial for murder of thirty-si.x 
members of a crimmal secret society, the Ca- 
morra, is Ijegim S,t Viterbo. Hearings marlsed by 
great disorder. 

March IS. Premier Luzzatti resigns, owing to 
the rejection of ills scheme of electoral reform with 
compulsory voting. 

April 6. New ministry is formed by the Radi- 
cal ex-premier, Giolitti. 

Seplemher. Italy demands from Turkey con- 
cessions in Tripoli amoimting to a protector- 
ate, and on Septemlier 2.S delivers an ultimatum 
wliich is at once rejected. War is declared by 
Italy September 29, Tripoli captured Octoljcr 
5. D'Olmo is appointed first Italian governor of 
Tripoli, and decrees the alxilition of slavery. Ad- 
vance into the interior fiercely resisted. First 
war in wliich the airplane is used. Italians ac- 
cused of cruelties. 
1913. Jan. 7. ItaUan cruiser squadron sinks seven 
Turkish gtmboats in the Red Sea. [Bill. I 

Feb. 25. King signs Tripoli AnnexationI 

March IS. Bengazi captiu'ed from tiie Turks. 

April IS. Italian warships lx)mbard forts at 
entrance to Dardanelles, thus ciosmg tiie straits, 
which calls fortli a strong protest from the powers. 
They are reopened May 1. 

April-June. Italian fleet seizes Stampaha at 
entrance of /Egean Sea, and occupies many of the 
iGgean Islands, mostly uiliabited Ijy Greeks. 

May 12. Chamber of Deputies extends fran- 
chise to iihterates when more than 30 years of age. 

July S. Camorrlst trial at Viterbo ends with 
the conviction of 26 men and their sentence to im- 
prisonment for terms of from five to thirty years. 

A ug. 6. Italian troops occupy Zoara, last Trip- 
oli coast town of importance. 

Sept. 17. Tiu-kish attack on Itahan position at 
Dema is repulsed ; last important Ijattle of the war. 

Oct. 16. Treaty of Lausanne, Ijy wliich Tur- 
key renoimces all sovereignty over Tripoli and 
Cyrenaica, and Italy agrees to return the captured 
jEgean islands (Dodecanese) when certain con- 
ditions are carried out : islands remain in Italian 
hands. No indemnity on either side. .?f 

Dec. 6. Triple Alliance renewed. ,| 

1913. May. Pacification of Tripoli is interrupted 
by Arab outbreaks. 

Sept. 11,. Professor Malladra descends to a 
depth of 1200 feet in the crater of Moimt Vesuvius, 
and records a temperature of 626*^ F. , ,. 

October. First general election imder wxv 
franchise law is held, the number of voters lieing 
now increased from .3i to 8i millions. The fran- 
cliise is extended to all males over 21 years of age. 
with tlie exception of illiterates imder 30 who have 
not served in tlie army. 

Nov. 1 . Naval agreement for joint action in tiie 
Mediterranean by Itahan. Austrian, and German 
navies goes into effect. 

Dec. 12. Leonardo da Vinci's world-famous 
paintuig Mona Lisa, stolen from the Lou\Te in 
Paris, August 22, 1911, is recovered in Florence. 

1914. March 10. Giolitti caljinet resigns, following 
the witlidrawal of Radical support. New cabinet 
formed by Antonio Salandra, March 17. 

May 5. Italo-American general arbitration 
treaty is signed at Wasiiington. 

June S. General strike proclaimed tlirough- 
out Italy as a protest against the killing of two 
anarciiists durmg the recent rioting at Ancona. 
Government caUs strikers to the colors and rees- 
tablishes railway and telegraptiic commimication. 
Strike is called off within two days. 



WORLD-'WAR PERIOD. 

1914. Aug. 6. Italy declares slie is not botmd to 
join in World War liy terms of the Triple Alliance 
as Germany and Austria-Hungary are engaged in 
an " aggressive war" 

Aug. 20. Pope Pius X. dies. 

Sept. s. Giacomo della Cliiesa elected pope 
as Benedict XV. 

O-t. 1. Government protests against Austrian 
mine-laying in the Adriatic. 

Oct. 28. Italian naval force occupies Avlona. 
Albania. 

Dec. 29. Sir Henry Howard presents his cre- 
dentials as British amtjassador at the Vatican. 
No similar appointment has been made for more 
tiian 400 years. 

1915. Jan. 13. Earthquake devastates south- 
ern and central Italy; many eluu-ches. statues, 
and pubUc buildings are destroyed. 

Feb. 1 9. Opening of Parliament is accompanied 
liy scenes of disorder in tiie streets Iiy molis de- 
manding intervention on the side of the Allies, and 
the recovery of Italia irredenta (see Irredentist, 
in tlie Dictionary) . 

March 21. National defense law is passed. 
Drastic measures are taken against espionage, 
contraband, and publication of military move- 
ments. Government is authorized to appropriate 
for military purposes inventions made by Italians. 

April 26. Secret Treaty of London, under 
wiiicli Italy enters the war on the side of the 
Allies. She is to recover the Trentino. southern 
Tirol, Gorizia (Gorz), Trieste, Istria (not including 
Flume), Dalmatia, various islands off tlie liiyTian 
coast, certain possessions in and control over Al- 
bania, witli prescribed neutralization of otiier por- 
tions of the east side of the Adriatic, and also is to 
retain the Dodecanese, to share in the partition of 
Asiatic Turkey, and to get compensation for any 
-\nglo-French gains from German possessions in ; 
Africa. The Boislieviid make tliis treaty public 
on November 28, 1917. 
For the World W.\r, see that title. 

May 4. Italy denoimces lier alliance with 
Germany and Austria-Himgary. 

May 10. All reserves back to the class of 1876 
are called to the colors. 

May 12. Government receives final proposal of 
Austria for territorial concessions. War demon- 
strations are lield all over the countrj-. 

May 16. Premier Salandra consents to retain 
office notwithstanding opposition of the antiwar 
party led by Giolitti. Country is in a turmoil, 
populace clamoring for war. 

May 19. Green Book is issued giving the Ital- 
ian view of Austro-Italian relations. Italy 
holds that Austria has violated the Triple Alliance, 
by declaring an offensive war against Serbia, and 
occupying Balkan territory without Italian agree- 
ment or compensation. 

May 22. General mobilization is ordered. 
Martial law is proclaimed in northeastern Italy. 
Tlie king signs the bill giving pleneiry powers to the 
cabinet. 

May 23. Government formally declares that a 
state of war with Austria-Hungary will exist 
from May 24. 

July 7. Government is authorized to use com 
pulsory measures in increasing the output of war 
materials in private numition factories. 

Aug. 21. Italy declares war on Turkey. 

Oct. 19. Italy declares war on Bulgaria. 

Nov. 30. Government subscribes to Allies' 
agreement of " no separate peace " and the Quad- 
ruple Entente becomes the Quadruple AUiance. 

1916. For the World War. see that title. 
February. Importation or transit of all Ger- 
man or Austrian merchandise tlirough Italy is pro- 
hibited. On February 29, German merchant 
ships, to the number of 34, mtemed iu Italian 
ports are requisitioned liy the government. 

May 16. Austrians liegin drive in Trentino. 

June 11. Salandra caliinet resigns : eight days 
later, Paolo Boselli forms a coalition ministry, 
representing all factions except the intransigeant 
.Socialist group. 

July. Decree rendering citizens of nations al- 
hed to Austria-Himgary liable to internment as 
enemy aliens and their goods subject to seques- 
tration. 

Aug. 10. Italy institutes a blacklist similar to 
that of Great Britain, foriiidding Italians to deal 
with enemy subjects or agents wherever resident. 

Aug. 27. Italy declares herself at war with 
Germany from August 28. 

Dec. 4. Italian steamship Palermo, with 25 
Americans on board, torpedoed off coast of Spain. 

Dec. 31. For reply to German peace proposal, 
see Germany. 

1917. For the World War, see that title. 

Jan. 6. Premiers of France and Great Britain. 
with statesmen of other Entente nations, meet at 
Rome for consultation witli Italian government. 

Jan 11. For reply to President Wilson's " peace 
note," see World Wab. 



Aug. 1. Pope Benedict XV., in an appeal to 
the belligerent powers, suggests the base« of 
an enduring peace; "simultaneous and recip- 
rocal decrease of armaments " with arbitration: 
evacuation of Belgium and northern France: resti- 
tution of the German colonies and on disputed 
territorial questions " a conciliatory spirit, consid- 
ering tlie aspirations of the population." 

Aug. IS. Secret Anglo-Franco-Italian agree- 
ment by which Italy is to participate m the par- 
tition of Turkey (see Symma under Greece). 

Aug. 27. President Wilson, replying to the 
pope's peace message, declares that the nation can 
deal only with a government representative of tlie 
German people themselves. 

Sept. S. Great Britain adheres to the presi- 
dent's reply to the pope. 

Sept. 21. German and Austrian replies to the 
pope are pubhshed accepting proposals for peace, 
disarmament, and arbitration but say nothing as 
to territorial adjustments. 

Oct. 24. German-Austrian offensive begins: 
pushes back the Italians till Novemlier 13. 

Oct. 28. Boselli cabinet resigns. 

Oct. SO. Vittorio Emanuele Uriando forms a 
new cabinet, retauiing Sonnino as foreign minister. 

Nov. 9. Premiers of Great Britam, France, and 
Italy, in view of the invasion of nortiiem Italy, 
decide to create a Supreme War Council for the 
western front, wliich shall mcludo political repre- 
sentatives and Generals Cadorna, Foeli, and Wil- 
son (Great Britam). General Armando Diaz 
succeeds Cadorna in command of ItaUan army. 

1918. For tlie World War, see that title. 

March 2S. General Vittorio ZupeUi succeeds 
Aldieri as war mmister. 

June 10. Premier Orlando announces to Parlia- 
ment that he has rejected an Austrian olfer of 
peace wliich contemplated the cession of certain 
territories to Italy. 

Oct. 27. In final operations of the war, Italians 
cross Piave: Austrians in rout. 

Nov. S. Armistice with Austria (see Austria). 
Italians occupy Trent, Rovereto, and Trieste. 

Nov. 10. Victor Emmanuel makes a triumplial 
entry into Trieste. 

Dec. 2S. Leonida Bissolati, a Socialist member 
of the ministry, resigns in protest agamst Italy's 
peace poUcy. 
For the Flume controversy, see Jugo-Slavia. 

1919. For peace negotiations, see under World 
War: for Italy and Ail^ania, see Albania; and for 
Italy and Asia Minor, see Smyrna, under Greece. 

January. Pope Benedict removes the proiiibi- 
tion on CathoUcs participating in Italian elections. 

Jan. IS. Reorganization of Orlando cabinet. 

April 24. Italian delegation leaves the 
Peace Conference because of the Flume con- 
troversy. Parliament, by a vote of 382 to 40. 
supports Orlando in his attitude on April 29. 
Delegates return to conference on May 6. 

June 19. Orlando ministry resigns, due to 
dissatisfaction over high cost of food and labor im- 
rest:Nltti ministry succeeds. Strikes and dem- 
onstrations against high cost of living continue. 

June 2S. Great earthquake in Tuscany. 

August. Italy continues to suffer for lack of 
raw materials, and transportation facihties, and 
because of the employers' refusal to agree to col- 
lective bargaining. 

Sept. 1. The king announces his intention to 
relinquish the crown domains for the benefit 
of peasants and soldiers. 

Sept. 4. Chamber adopts woman suffrage for 
national elections. 

Sept. 17. D'AnnunzIo enters Flume (see 
Jugo-Slavia for continuation of tills controversy). 

Oct. 7. The king ratifies the peace treaty with 
Germany, but Parliament does not act until later. 

Nov. 18. Elections to Parhament: Catholics 
for the first time vote as an organized party. 
Ministry (Liberals) get 161 seats, Socialists 156, 
Cathohcs 101, others 79. 

1920. Jan. 15. Strike begins wliich ties up tlie 
entire railway system, but it ends on February 
4 with a complete triumph for the government. 

Feb. 4. Lira is quoted in New York at IS. S3 
to the dollar (normal par value about 5.18 to the 
dollar) . 

May 11. According to the treaty of peace 
handed to the Turldsh delegates. Italy is to retain 
the Dodecanese. 

May 20. Treaty of peace between Allies 
and Turkey signed. Dodecanese and Rhodes 
granted to Italy, who promptly turns over the 
former to Greece. Rhodes to hie occupied by Italy 
for 15 years, when a plebiscite will decide its dis- 
posal. 

IVORY COAST. 

See under France, page 96. 



JAMAICA. 

See under British Empire, page 74. 



118 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: JAPAN. 



N 



U 



W 



JAPAN. 
Historical Outline. 

The Japanese Empihe occupies the numerous 
islands which he off the coast of Asia between the 
twentieth and flltieth degrees of latitude. There 
are five principal islands in this group, nearly 500 im- 
portant ones, and about 3000 others. The Pacific 
coast line of these islands is indented with numerous 
harbors, and to the west the ocean bottom descends 
to its greatest known depth. It is probable that at 
tliis point there is a subterranean volcano, which 
causes the freciuent earthquakes that visit Japan. 
The eastern coast of the islands is more regular, and 
the Japan Sea, which separates the islands from 
Korea and China, is comparatively shallow. A 
mountain range nms north and south throughout all 
the islands; the most famous peak is Fuji (12.440 
ft.). In the islands the summers are hot and humid, 
though short, and the winters long, cold, and clear. 

The original people of Japan were the Atnus, of 
whom a few thousands still exist. They were prob- 
ably driven northward by the Manchu-Koreans and 
the Malays, and in some ways suggest a closer affin- 
ity with Europeans than with the other types. The 
modem population of Japan is the result of a fusion 
of tlirce stocks; the Manchu-Korean type, the Mon- 
gol type, and the Malay tj-pe. The fusion of these 
races has gone on for so many centuries that at pres- 
ent, although different origms may be recognized, 
the population of Japan is singularly homogeneous. 

Japanese chronicles trace the liistory of Japan 
from 660 b. c. when the first mikado, Jimmu Tenno 
ascended the tlu-one. It is better to classify the 
period between 660 b. c. and 500 a. d. as the prehis- 
toric period. In 552 Buddhism was introduced into 
Japan from Korea and China. This meant not 
simply the introduction of a religion, but the bring- 
ing of the Japanese mto contact with Chinese civih- 
zation and culture and the accelerating of immigra- 
tion from China and Korea. 

Probably m the sixth or seventh century the be- 
ginnings of the shogunate were established. This 
was the result of social and political forces wliich 
must have been working for centuries, and wliieh 
produced a system somewhat similar to the feudal 
system of western Europe. It was associated with 
several changes; (1) The growth of a numerous court 
nobility, who, by intermarriage with the family of 
the mikado, claimed divine descent. This class 
gradually absorbed all the civil offices, but became 
enervated, and, although retaming titular authority, 
lost the actual power. The mikado himself, though 
treated with great respect and reverence, was re- 
moved from the scene of actual government and 
existed simply as a puppet in the hands of the miU- 
tary class. (2) The daimm, or feudal lords, were 
heads of dnimio clans wliich oppressed or contended 
with each other, like the similar class in Europe. 
(3) The military class, or samurai, were supported by 
the rations delivered to them by their cliiefs. Their 
sole occupation was war. They were the only mid- 
dle class, had the privilege of wearing the sword, and 
considered themselves the guardians of the coimtry's 
welfare. They felt contempt for money and gam. 
insisted on the strictest code of honor, and developed 
stoical endiu'ance and indifference to pain and suffer- 
ing. (4) The shoguns, as the generals were called, 
were great daimios who took possession of power, 
and gradually made the title and the office hereditary 
in a single family. They were mayors of the palace. 
In 1U03 lyeyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa dy- 
nasty, succeeded to the office of sitouun, and the 
power remained in that family until the revolution 
of 1868. 

The famous policy of isolation was not a tra^ii- 
tional matter. Until about 1600 Japan enjoyed m- 
tercoiu'se with Korea and Chma. lyeyasu rigidly 
excluded foreigners and forbade native Japanese to 
emigrate, because he believed that the missionaries 
and Christian converts were opposed to liis govern- 
ment. Under the edicts of the two and a half cen- 
tiu'ies thereafter all trade with Europeans was in the 
hands of the Dutch, who maintained a post at Naga- 
saki, where they were practically prisoners. The 
Japanese continued to develop their native art and 
industries. Untiring industry, uncomplaining pa- 
tience, scrupulous attention to minute details, and 
strict obedience to authority were their chief charac- 
teristics. 

NINETEENTH-CENTORY PERIOD. 

The awakening of Japan was probably due to the 
success of the Europeans in breaking into China. 
It came about in 1853, when Commodore Perry ap- 
peared in Tokyo Bay and proposed a treaty of amity 
and commerce between the two nations. The Japa- 
nese feared armed invasion and granted their first 
treaty with the West (1854). 

Treaties followed with Great Britain, Russia, 
France, and Holland and foreign influence began to 
be felt in all directions. Between 1S67 and 1871 
Japan chajige<l from a medieval power to a modem 
one. The Shogim Ki-ki resigned in 1.S67 as the re- 
sult of a revolutionary reform movement, which 



had its origin in a group of yomig men and wliich 
placed in power the Mikado Mutsuliito. As the 
movement developed, the whole feudal system was 
abolished and a centralized authorit>' set up. The 
national government slowly develoiied into a system 
which, if not democratic, at least brought about rep- 
resentative government. 

The subsequent history of Japan reaches out in 
three main directions: (1) the enthusiastic adoption 
of Western ideas and culture; (2) the development of 
a modem government; (3) the expansion of the for- 
eign relations of the empire. Nothing could be more 
remarkable than the enthusiasm with wliich Japan 
set out to modernize herself. The entire nation 
went to school. The leaders of the state called from 
European nations and .'Vmerica experts in different 
fields. Thus. Englishmen constructed the railways 
and trained the workers on them; Frenchmen re- 
framed the laws and at first trained the army; 
Americans superintended educational affairs, the 
postal service, and agriculture; Germans codified the 
commercial methods, and ultimately took over the 
military framing; wliile ItaUans were engaged to 
teach painting and sculpture. The Japanese showed 
their remarkable liberalism and eclectic instmct m 
choosing what was needed for their condition with- 
out doing violence to theu- own traditions and con- 
ventions; and withm one short generation proved 
that a nation of Asiatic cultiu-e might adjust itself to 
progressive Western ideas. 

The overtlu-ow of the shogimate left the mikado in 
theory- absolute. His power, however, was shared 
by an appointed ministry, the geuro, an imofflcial 
comicil of seven heads of great famihes. In tliis min- 
istry developed a liberal group who advocated the 
adoption of reprasentative government and the es- 
tablishment of the parliamentary system. Tests 
were made in local affairs, and assemblies were called 
in the various cities and provinces of representatives 
chosen by the people. In 1889 the Imperial Constitu- 
tion, the work of Prince Ito, was promulgated; it 
established a Diet, together with a cabinet. This 
cabinet, however, is not responsible to the Diet, but 
is appomted and removed at the sole pleasure of the 
mikado ; although pressure from the Diet often causes 
resignations. 

The history of Japan's recent foreign relations 
centers roimd the idea of expansion, — a policy 
which was forced upon her. The population in 1872 
was about 30,000.000, but has increased rapidly. 
Between 1899 and 1907 the population increased 11.6 
per cent, while the food-producing area mcreased by 
only 4.4 per cent. Thus the question of the support 
of a dense and rapidly increasing population was a 
vital one. Moreover, Japan does not possess all the 
raw materials necessary tor modem industrj' ; and m 
the desire to obtain aii outlet for her population, a 
market for her manufactiu-es, and a source of raw 
materials she has acquired territory and fields of in- 
fluence at the expense of her neighbors. 

In the early years of the restored empire, Japan 
was involved in disputes with Russia conccrnmg the 
island of Sakhalin, which was awarded to Russia in 
1875. Japan came into collision with China con- 
cemmg Formosa and the Riuliiu (Okinawa) Islands, 
which were aimexcd in 1895 after victorious war. 

The first serious foreign comphcation, however, 
came over Korea. From the sixteenth centiu-y, 
when Japan had overrun the Korean peninsula, it 
had been the custom for the Koreans to send con- 
gratulatory presents to each shogun on his acces- 
sion. This custom was disconthiued on the over- 
throw of the shogimate, much to the displeasiu-e of 
Japan. In 1875 Japan and Korea were nearly in- 
volved in war, and Japan, by threatenhig a naval 
demonstration, extorted a favorable treaty with 
Korea (1876), by which tliree ports were opened to 
foreign trade, while the independence of Korea was 
recognized. It was China's policy, liowever, to sur- 
roimd herself with states wliich were nominaUy inde- 
pendent, but actuaUy vassal states, to serve as buf- 
fers against foreign aggression. Korea was one of 
these, and China resented the acknowledgment that 
Korea was mdependent. The government of Korea 
was weak, inefficient, and corrupt, and China had 
oftentimes dispatched military forc^ to support it. 
Japan now claimed the same privilege and dis- 
patched troops to support the reform movement. 

The War with China in 1894 was a series of tri- 
umphs for Japan. In the first pitched battle at 
Pingyang (September 16, 1894) the Cliinese, armed 
withKrupp gmis and repeating rifles, were driven 
from their fortified positions with a loss of 6,000 men. 
Next day a detachment of foiu-teen warships and six 
torpedo "boats of the Chinese navy was encoimtered 
by eleven small Japanese men-of-war off the Yalu 
River. The Japanese sank four of the Chinese ves- 
sels and drove the rest into refuge. The sea route 
was now open and Jaiian captured the fortified naval 
stations at TaUen (Dairen), Port Arthur, and Wel- 
haiwei. In this war, although the Japanese had 
120.000 men engaged, only a thoasand were killed 
and less than five thousand were woimded. 

A treaty of peace was negotiated by the American, 
Foster, in behalf of China in April, 1895, by which 
the independence of Korea was established and 



Japan was given a part of Manchuria, the islands of 
Formosa and the Pescadores, and a large indemnity. 
Pending the payment of tliis hidemnity, Japan occu- 
pied W eihaiwei, and four new ports were opened to 
foreign trade. 

Russia, Germany, and France resented Japan's 
success. A joint note was presented recommending 
that the territories given to Japan on the mainland 
should not be permanently occupied, as such a pro- 
ceeding would be detrimental to peace. Although 
couched in diplomatic terms, the powers gave every 
indication that they were prepared to enforce their 
recommendation by arms. Japan was in no condi- 
tion to resist, and on the day of the pubhcation of the 
treaty an imperial rescript was published in which 
the mikado announced that he had yielded to the ad- 
vice of the three powers. 

The next foreign war in wliich Japan was involved 
was also with China, for the relief of the legations at 
the time of the Boxer Rebellion (1900). Japan some- 
what imwiUingly engaged in this expedition upon the 
request of the European powers and the United 
States. The conduct of her officers and troops won 
much praise and gave her a high military reputation. 

In 1904 Japan came into inevitaiile cuUision with 
Russia. Russia's Asiatic empu-e lacked an ice-free 
port and convenient access to the Pacific. In 1898 
Russia acquired Port Arthur and gamed special 
privileges hi Manchuria, but after the Boxer Rebel- 
lion had made a point of withdrawing from Man- 
churia. In 1903 she attempted to gain a foothold in 
Korea so as to flank the access of China to the sea, 
precisely what had been prohibited to Japan. But 
whereas Russia was only indirectly opposed to 
Japanese expansion, Japan was vitally interested m 
the bar to expansion in Korea. Moreover, Japan 
had thousands of settlers in Korea, had investetl in 
the railways, and had developed a trade. After five 
months of fruitless negotiation, Japan declared war 
(February 10, 1904). 

On sea and land Japan had imexpected success. 
In the first operations eight Russian cruisers were 
disabled. Port Arthur, after a siege lasting from 
May until January 1, 1905, was taken. The Rus- 
sian forces were driven back in southern Manchuria 
and defeated in several pitched battles. From Feb- 
mary 20, 1905, to March 15 raged the battle of Muk- 
den, the greatest in history up to that time. On 
May 27 and 28, 1905, the Russian Pacific fieet was 
amiihilated off Tsushima hi thestrait between Korea 
and Japan. The Russians were checked audi ■locked. 
Both parties became exhausted ; Japan hinted to Pres- 
ident Roosevelt a willmgness to negotiate. Russia 
was ready to meet halfway in the consideration of 
peace terms under the auspices of the United States. 
A peace conference was held at Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire, as a result of which a treaty was ratified 
which recognized Japan's preponderant mfiuence in 
Korea, transferred Russia's lease of Port Arthur to 
Japan, divided the island of SakliaUn between 
Russia and Japan, and provided for the jomt evacu- 
ation of Manchuria by both armies. This went mto 
effect October 15, 1905. 

Japan had fought two wars for Korea and was re- 
solved that her mfluence should be supreme m that 
coimtry. The Koreans had made no progress in 
improvmg either their government or finances. 
Japan mstituted many reforms in 1906, and m 1908 
organized it as a dependency. FmanciaJ reforms in- 
cluded ta.\es, currency, and banks. Industry was 
fostered by the estabhshment of printhig, brickmak- 
ing, forestry, coal mining, the laying out of model 
farms, and cotton cultivation. Pubhc works like 
waterworks, hospitals, and medical schools were 
opened, and reforms were made in the government. 
An efficient body of pohce was established and a ju- 
diciary, of which the majority were Japanese, was 
established. Finally in. 1907 the Korean standing 
army was disbanded. This resulted in an msurrec- 
tion wliich lasted for two years. Japan had prom- 
ised to respect the territorial integrity and sover- 
eignty of Korea, but held that the conditions made 
further independence impossible; and in 1910 Japan 
proclaimed the formal annexation of Korea. 

The position of Japan in Asia was that of a Western 
military and naval power, with the intense mterest 
of the strongest Oriental nation. 

In 1908 through an exchange of notes between 
Secretary Root and Ambassador Takahira wliich 
was not submitted to the Senate for ratification, the 
United States recognized the mterest of Japan to the 
prmciple of the " open door." Both parties pledged 
themselves to observe the independence and integ- 
rity of China. In 1915, however, Japan presented 
the " 21 demands " to China, which looked to- 
ward a Japanese monopoly of some lines of trade, 
and an influence mconsistent with Chinese hide- 
pendence (see China). In an exchange of notes 
(November 2, 1917) between Secretary Lansing and 
Viscount Ishii it was recognized that Japan had 
" special interests " in Chhia, but disclaimed dis- 
crimhiation against other nations or infringement of 
the independence or territorial integrity of China. 
Both Japan and the United States declared that 
they adhered to the policy of the " open door " and 
equal opportimities for trade for all nations. 



1542-1894. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: JAPAN. 



119 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 

Already in alJiance with Great Britain, Japan 
quickly recognized the opportunity to take a place 
among world powers by entering the World War. 
After a few months' campaign. Japan compelled the 
German forces to surrender the fortified port of 
Tsingtau in Kiaochow. Japan thus obtained the 
dominant place in the Cliinese province of Shantimg, 
and also occupied all important islands previously 
German in the North Pacific. In the conference 
and treaty which brought the war to an end. Japan 
ranked with Great Britain. France, Italy, and the 
United States as one of the five world powers by 
whose decision the perplexing questions were settled. 
For herself, Japan secured the Shantimg peninsula 
and the privileges wliich Germany had previously 
held, as well as the German Pacific Islands north of 
the equator. The Shantimg concession so offended 
Ciiina that she refused to sign the treaty. 

During the World War Japan prospered greatly. 
Her manufactured products and her raw materials 
were in great demand. But the wealth was by no 
means evenly distributed, and there was great suiTer- 
ing and considerable disorder among the lower classes. 
For the first time in the history of the empire, labor 
began to organize and to state its claims. A move- 
ment for popular government also gained headway. 



Orga 



gamzation. 

Government. The constitution asserts the em- 
peror's rights of sovereignty and all the executive 
power of the state. The genro down to 1919 made 
most of the great decisions of state policy. The ex- 
ecutive power, however, is exercised by a cabinet, 
whicli is not responsible to Parliament, but solely to 
the emperor. The emperor nominally can declare 
war and make peace and treaties. In legislation, all 
laws require the assent of the Imperial Diet, which 
may be called, prorogued, or dissolved by the em- 
peror. The Diet consists of two houses: a House of 
Peers of 373 members consisting partly of hereditary 
nobles and persons nominated by the emperor for 
meritorious services, who sit for life, and partly of a 
group of lesser nobilitj' and representatives of the 
prefectures, who are chosen for terms of seven years; 
and a House of Representatives consisting of 381 
members chosen from electoral districts by Japanese 
subjects of 25 years of age and upwards who are 
taxpayers. 

In local government the coimtr>' is di\ided into 
prefectures {fu and ken) and into mimicipaUtics. In 
each prefecture there is a governor and an assembly 
which gives decisions chiefly on financial matters. 

Industry and Labor. About tliree fifths of the 
arable land is cultivated by peasant proprietors. The 
chief crops are rice, barley, rye, and wheat. Scarcely 
less important than the cereal crops is the production 
of silk and tea. The important mineral and metal 
products in order of their value (1918) are: coal, 
steel, copper, pig iron, petroleum, silver, and gold. 
A large industry in cotton goods has developed; 
other important manufactures are silk, paper, 
matches, earthenware, lacquer ware, knit goods. 

Japan's merchant marine has developed rapidly 
since 1898 and consists of over 2,700 steamers and 
12.236 sailing vessels. The government subsidizes 
sliipping companies for foreign trade, and Japanese 
steamers now run on four great routes to Eiu-ope, 
JSlorth America, South America, and Australia. In 
addition there are lines between Japanese ports and 
Korea, Northern China, and the Yangtze River. 
There are over 7,800 miles of railway, of wliich 5,999 
miles are state railways. 

Religion. There is absolute religious toleration 
in Japan. The state religion, however, is Shinto, 
wiiich has neither dogma nor moral code, but com- 
bines mythology and a politico-religious ritual. Its 
supreme tenet, however, is the inculcation of im- 
plicit obedience to the heaven-descended mikado. 
Buddhism was introduced from Korea in the sLxth 
century, and has a strong hold on Japan. Confu- 
cianism, accepted by the educated classes, was 
formerly the basis of the educational system. 
There are numerous Christian missions of the 
Roman Catholic, Greek CathoUc. and Western 
Protestant Churches, with about 137,000 converts. 

Education. Education is compulsory between 
the ages of six and fourteen. There are more than 
25.000 eleraentar>- schools, with nearly 7.500.000 
pupils; more than 700 middle, high, and normal 
schools, with more than 260.000 pupils; 7,600 special 
and technical schools, with 394,000 students. The 
four imperial universities of Tokyo. Kyoto. Tohoku 
(at Sendai and Sapporo), and Kiushu, have an at- 
tendance of nearly 10,000 students. 

Defense. Service in the army and the navy is 
compulsory and imiversal, I^eginning at the age of 17 
and extending to the age of 40. Service in the ranks 
is on the former German plan, two years in the in- 
fantry, and three years in other branches, then five 
(or four) years and four months in the reserve. The 
reserves are called out twice for training for 60-day 
periods during their term of ser\ice. Ser\'ice in the 
second reserve lasts for ten years, with two periods 
of training of sixty days each. After this the men 



are enlisted in the home defense army or territorial 
reserves. The total strength of the field army in 
1920 was about 600.000 combatants. The Japanese 
navy consisted (1920) of nine dreadnoughts, 13 pre- 
dreadnoughts, 100 destroyers, 43 submarines, besides 
armored cruisers and other boats. 

The area of Japan is 148,756 square miles and 
the population by the first census (1920) was 55.- 
961,140. The area and population of the impor- 
tant Japanese dependencies are as follows; Korea 
(Chosen) 84,738 square miles, 17,284,207 population; 
Formosa (Taiwan), 13,944 square miles, 3,654,000 
population; and Sakhalui (Karafuto), 13,253 square 
mile5, 105,765 population; for the whole Japanese 
Empire a total area of about 260.700 square miles 
and a total population of 77,005,112. 



Chronology. 

1542 or 1543. Japan flrst visited by a European 
vessel (Portuguese). 

1549. St. Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit missionary, 
arrives at Kagoshima. Visits Kyoto and other 
places, remauiing in Japan for more than two years. 

1603. lyeyasu, founder of the Tokugawa dy- 
nasty, becomes shogun, or regent, of the empire. 
The dignity remains in that family till 1S68. 

1605. lyeyasu resigns in favor of liis son Hidetada. 

1611. Dutch begin a trade with Japan which is 
maintained during the period before the country 
is opened hy treaty in 1854. 

1614. Violent persecution of the Christians im- 
der an edict of lyeyasu on the charge of aiming 
at the overthrow of the govenmient. [Nagasaki.! 

1623. Terrible massacre of the Cliristians occurs in| 

1623. Hidetada succeeded by his son lyeraitsii. 
who completes the dual system of administra- 
tion instituted by his grandfather. 

1639. Portuguese expelled from Japan; Dutch re- 
stricted in trade and residence t-o Nagasaki. 

1651. lyemitsu dies after having completed the 
extermination of the Christians. Japan re- 
mains imder the actual government of the sho- 
gun; the mik^o, the "Divine Emperor," living 
in Kyoto, is s^oimded by a retinue of daimios, 
or nobles, and regarded as the foimtain of all honor 
and power, but without authority in pubhc affairs. 
Shogun has the actual power in military affairs 
and state policy. 

1659. Edicts prohibiting Christianity. 

1700, Episode of the 47 Ronins, classical Japanese 
example of devotion to one's lord. 

1707. Last eruption of Fuji. 

1797-1803. Several American vessels sent to Japan 
by the Dutch, who do not themselves dare trade 
during the European wars. 
1820-1850. A few sliip wrecked Japanese are 
brought up in Europe and America. 

1853. Perry commands an expedition sent by the 
United States to Japan. 

1854. March 31. Perry concludes a treaty of 
commerce. Like treaties with Great Britain 
and Russia signed soon afterward. [States | 

1860. First Japanese embassy sent to the United I 
1860-1S99. Europeans admitted only to "treaty 

ports," under principle of exterritoriahty. 
I 1863. Four treaty powers of France, Great Britain, 
' Holland, and United States join in pimishing the 
daimio of Choshi for firing upon their vessels. 
They demand damages from the shogim, though 
government disavows actions of its subordinate. 
1867-1868. Civil revolution, by which the Jap- 
anese shogimate is abohshed and the supreme au- 
thority is vested in the mikado only. Mikado 
promises a new imperial constitution. Civil war 
ensues between the imperialists and the partisans 
of the shogun, which ends in the complete suprem- 
acy of the former. 

1868. Mutsuhito, the mikado, accepted as riding 
emperor. Beginning of the "Meiji era,*' from 
the title of the emperor's year period. 

1869. Mikado removes his capital to Yeddo, the 
name of which is changed to Tokyo; he takes be- 
fore liis nobles the " charter oath." By a decree 
of the emperor the old daimio and kvge nobihties 
are abohshed and their revenues assigned to the 
imperial treasury. 

1871. Feudal divisions of old Japan abolished, 
and administrative prefectures take the place of 
daimiates. Imperial commission is sent to the 
United States; a permanent Japanese em- 
bassy established at Washington. Mint opened 
at Osaka. First treaty with China. 

1872. Mikado dresses in foreign style and informs 
himself of conditions by personal inspection. 
Tokyo- Yokohama Railroad, flrst railway in 
Japan, opened. System of mihtarj' conscription 
introduced and the army remodeled. 

July. Imperial proclamation abohshing the old 
Ji-Gisho, or Board of Religion, and declaring the 
new religious code of the empire to be foimded 
5imply on honor to the gods. love of country, 
reverence to the emperor, and obedience to duty. 
Law against nudity in cities. 

1873. General post office established and other 
reformatory measures for the improvement of 
the civ'l and social administration mtroduced. I 



Gregorian calendar accepted; prohibition of Chris- 
tianity withdrawn by an edict of the emperor. 

1874. Expedition into interior of Formosa, an 
island belonging to the Chinese Empire, where the 
natives had killed ship\\Tecked Japanese sailors 
and defied the authorities. In Decemlier, Japan- 
ese troops are withdrawn. Convention con- 
cluded with China; Formosans pay S700,000 as 
" consolation money." 

1875. Mitsubishi Steamship Company established. 
Orders of knighthood introduced. 

July. New treaty concluded with Russia; 
the island of Saklialin ceded to Russia in exchange 
for a portion of the Kurile Islands. Proclamation 
■ issued by the emperor declaring the final extinc- 
tion of feudalism. Council of Elder Statesmer 
(genro) created; becomes the extraconstitutiona 
body that makes decisions. 

1876. Reorganization of the Japanese army com- 
pleted; the wearing of swords interdicted. 

February. Treaty negotiated with Korea se- 
cures satisfaction for outrages or Japanese sub- 
jects there and recognizes Korea as an autono- 
mous nation. 

1877. Conservatism in Japan produces a tempo- 
rary reaction against the progressive poUcy of the 
imperial administration, with alarming symptoms 
of revolt. In the island of Kiushu the Satsuma 
clan rises, but is defeated. In September the re- 
bellion ends. A national exhibition of arts and 
industries held in Tokyo. Japan joins the Pos- 
tal L)nion. 

1878. Censorship of the Japanese press relaxed. 
May 14, Okubo Toshimichi, minister of the in- 
terior, assassinated in Tokyo. Serious mutiny 
of the soldiers occurs. 

As a preparation for the anticipated parliamen- 
tary government of the nation, local assemblies 
authorized for the discussion of minor adminis- 
trative matters in each kcti, or prefecture. 
United States indicates willingness to withdraw 
exterritoriality, if other powers agree. 

1879. Ex-President Grant (U.S.A.) visits Japan. 

1880. Serious difficulty with China respecting 
Japanese rights in the Okinawa (Riukiu or Liukiu) 
Islands terminated by a peaceable settlement im- 
der which China resigns her claims to the group. 
A new ministry is formed as a concession to the 
conservative reaction. The flrst legal code 
published; drafted by French publicists. 

1881. Department of Agriculture added to the ad- 
ministrative offices. Postal and telegraph 
service developed in accordance with European 
and American methods. Police board created. 

1882. Steps by the imperial government for the 
holding at Bern, Switzerland, of an international 
conference with a view to revising the harsh and 
unjust treaty stipulations imposed on Japan by 
the Western powers. The Kaishinto (Progressive 
party) and Jiyuto (Lit^eral party), organized. 

1883. Commercial treaty with Korea concluded. 

1884. Orders of nobility on the European pattern 
instituted. 

Americans help to shape coumion school and imi- 
versity instructibn. English language Intro- 
duced into the common school curriculum. 
Consequent upon the rivalry between the Conserv- 
ative and Liberal parties, pohtical riots break out 
in wiiich many persons are killed. 
Owing to the extension of Japanese influence in 
Korea, two political parties spring up in that 
kingdom, a pro-Japanese and an anti-Japanese 
party; and these break into open hostility at 
Seoul. Koreans agree to pay indemnity for the de- 
struction of the buildings of the Japanese legation. 

1885. Treaty with China ratified. May 7. An 
international money order agreement made with 
the United States. German Influence begins 
to predominate in Japanese reform measures. 
Cabinet formed by Premier Ito. Department of 
Posts established. 

1886. Law creating Imperial University at Tokyo 
promulgated . Japan joins International Red Cross. 

1887. Building of a war fleet and the work of 
constructing coast defenses continue with great 
activity. Peace establishment of the army is in- 
creased to 59,000. Inoue's negotiations for re- 
\ision of treaties with European powers fail. 

1888. Commercial treaty with Siam. 

1889. Fib. 11. New imperial constitution, 
promised under oath by the mikado, in 1S6S, is 
promulgated. Constitution, consisting of 76 arti- 
cles, revolutionizes and modernizes the ancient 
system, but preserves the empire imder constitu- 
tional forms, establishing an imperial Diet on the 
representative plan, and securing to the people 
the rights of citizenship. Arinori, the progressive 
minister, assassinated. 

1890. July 1. First national election under the 
new constitution. New government goes into 
operation imder the direction of a ministry not 
selected by or responsible to the Diet. [perish. I 

1891. Oct. 2S. Great earthquake; about 8,0001 
1894. June. China, by invitation, sends troops 

to Korea, to put down an insurrection: June 9, 
Japan, protesting that Korea is independent, also 



120 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: JAPAN. 



1894-1920. 



1894 (continued). 
^ sends troops; China refuses to abandon claims of 

suzerainty. July 25, war begins witli a naval vic- 
tory for Japan. August 1, both nations declare 
war. Sept. 15, Japanese capture Pingyang, 
Chinese fleeing across Yalu River. Sept. 17, in 
the naval battle of Yalu River Japanese disperse 
the enemy's fleet. Oct. 25, Japanese army forces 
the Yalu and invades Manchuria. Nov. 21, 

O Japanese capture Port Arthur on Liaotung prom- 

ontory, (see China). 

July 16. Treaty with Great Britain: flrst 
release from exterritoriality. Preceded by treaty 
of 1878 with United States. Both agreements in 
elTect July 17, 189U. 
1895. Feb. 12. Fleet of Admiral Ting surrenders to 
the Japanese at Weihaiwei. Li Himg Chang sues 
for peace. Foster, an American, associated as 
P negotiator. Li Himg Cliang wounded by a Jap- 

anese. April 17, treaty of peace at Sliimono- 
seki; China acknowledges the independence of 
Korea; cession of Formosa, Pescadores, and Port 
Arthur; money indemnity. Russia, Germany, 
and France Intervene and prevent the cession of 
Port Arthur; Japan receives e.xtra indemnity for 
relinquishing it. 

QOct. 8. Murder of Queen Mln of Korea, who 
has espoused reaction against Japanese " re- 
forms," affects Japanese prestige. 
Japanese steamer line to Australia established. 
189J. Oct. 1. Gold standard adopted. 

1898. January. Marquis Ito, assisted by the per- 
sonal intervention of the mikado, forms a cabinet 
independent of party lines. In Jime this ministry 
resigns. Okuma cabinet succeeds, but gives way 

R to one headed by Yamagata in November. 

April So. Agreement with Russia on Korea, 
which is temporarily placed outside Russia's sphere. 

1899. JnJy 17. Treaties recognizing Japan as 
one of the " family of nations " go into effect 
Courts are reorganized and legal codes revised on 
the German model, foreigners no longer Umited to 
treaty courts or enjoy exterritoriality. 

S1900. Bo.xer rising (see China). 
September. Yamagata ministry gives place to 
one headed by Ito. 
1901. Premier Ito, with all his cabinet, except the 
minister of war, resigns on May 1, owing to the 
failure of the fhiance minister to carry out ex- 
pected puljlic works. Succeeded as premier by 
Katsura Taro. Owing to the failure of the Clii- 
^ nese market and heavy expenditures for pubUc 

I works, a serious financial stringency results. 

Remarkable revival of interest in Christianity. 
1903. Jan. SO. Treaty with Great Britain. First 
alliance with a Western power. Japan recog- 
tiized as occupying special status in the Orient; 
mutual promise of military and naval aid in case 
of Asiatic complications, if either is attacked by 
more than one nation. 
U 190.3. Russia attempts to gain a foothold In 

■^ Korea. Japan's vigorous protest leads to negoti- 

ations. Japan insists on tfie maintenance of sov- 
ereignty of China in Manchuria and a recognition 
of Japan's preponderating interests in Korea; 
Russia proposes a neutral zone in Korea, and in- 
sists that Japan recognize Manchuria as outside 
her sphere of interest. Each prepares for war. 
. . 1904. Feb. 6. Diplomatic relations with Rassia 

V severed. February 8-9, the Japanese attack 
the Russian Beet near Port Arthur. February 
10, war formally declared. 
Active naval operations in which Japan has the 
advantage. Several ships smxk by mines. Au- 
gust 10, Japanese injure the Port Arthur fleet. 
August 14, Vladivostok fleet badly damaged by 
the Japanese. 

A/ Feb. S. Land operations. Occupation of 

Iforea begins by the landing of Japanese troops 
at Chemulpo. April 28, Japanese force under 
Kuroki crosses the Yalu into Manchm-ia. In 
May, a siege of Port Arthur begins. August 13- 
November 30, series of desperate assaults on Port 
Arthur. August 25, Japanese attack on Kuropat- 
kin at Klaoyang; a Japanese victory. Russian 

Karmy conducts an orderly retreat. October 2, battle 
of Shakho River begins; ten days' hard fighting. 

July. Russians seize several British merchant- 
men in the Mediterranean and sink a British 
steamer off Tokyo. British protest causes release 
of the captured vessels and a revision by Russia of 
her classification of contraband of war. 

Oct. li. Baltic fleet sails from Revel, Russia, 
for the Par East. Octoter 21, near the Dogger 

Y Bank it flres on trawlers from England. War 
with Great Britain seems possible, but the matter 
is referred to an international commission, which, 
in 1905, decides that Russia must indemnify the 
trawlers. Baltic fleet proceeds and in December 
reaches Indian Ocean. [Arthur.] 

1905. Jan. 1. General Stossel surrenders PortI 
Feb. 20. Japanese under Oyama begin a series 

Zof engagements lasting imtil March 15, known as 
the battle of Mukden. About 400.000 men are 
engaged on the Russian side and .500,000 on the 
Japanese. Battle line extends over 100 miles. 



Japanese occupy Mukden on March 10. Rus- 
sians fall back 150 miles. Kuropatkin resigns 
and is succeeded by Linevich. July 31, the 
Russian forces on Saklialin siu-rendcr. 
The Baltic fleet, under RozhestvenskI, after 
meeting the second squadron imder Neljogatov, 
sails northward. Togo, in command of Japanese 
fleet, makes his attack off Tsushima island in the 
eastern channel of Korea Strait, May 27-28; prac- 
tical annihilation of the Russian fleet. 20 ships 
captiu'ed or sunk. 

Russia and Japan both weary of war, and find 
difflculty in raising money. Hence they suggest 
or welcome (June 8) President Roosevelt's identic 
note suggesting a peace conference and offering 
his services. First meeting August 9. Ports- 
mouth, New Hampshire. Peace is arranged 
upon the basis of recognition of Japanese pre- 
ponderant mfluence in Korea, evacuation of Man- 
cluu'ia by both armies, the transfer to Japan of 
Russia's lease of Port Arthur, return of civil ad- 
ministration of Manchuria to China, transfer to 
Japan of Chinese Eastern Railway, and the posses- 
sion of southern Sakhalm by the Japanese. Treaty 
a great disappointment to the Japanese masses, 
and riots break out in Tokyo, which are sup- 
pressed by martial law. 

Aug. 12. Treaty between Japan and England 
renewed; agam renewed JiUy 13, 1911. Recog- 
nizes Japan as an Asiatic power. 

1906. January. Famine develops in the northern 
provinces; enormous loss of life. Generous finan- 
cial aid received from the United States. 

1907. Feb. 20. Anti-Japanese legislation 
California and gentlemen's agreement with the 
United States government on emigration (see 
United States). 

July IS. At the suggestion of Japan, the em 
peror of Korea abdicates in favor of the crown 
prince. Rioting of Koreans in Seoul and else- 
where. July 24. agreement at Seoul by which all 
legislation and all important executive acts are 
subject to the approval of the Japanese residents 
general, Korea's autonomy thus coming to an end. 

1908. Jan. 25. Emigration of laborers to Hawaii 
discouraged by the government. 

Feb. 29. Japan demands and receives of China 
indemnity and apology for seizure of Tatsu Maru, 
a Japanese vessel with a cargo of arms. 

June 16. Japan confiscates the property of the 
emperor of Korea. 

October. Visit of I'nited States fleet of war vessels. 

Nov. SO. Exchange of notes (Root-Takahira) 
with United States on common poHcy of develop- 
ment of Pacific and integrity of China. Not sub- 
mitted to tlie United States Senate, but considered 
as establishing a pledge. 

1909. June. Prince Henry of Prussia visits Japan. 
Oct. 26. Ito, retiuTiing from Korea, assassi- 
nated by a Korean. 

1910. July. Japan gives notice that all commer- 
cial treaties will be terminated a year hence. 

July 1. Port Arthur opened to all nations. 

July If. Russo-Japanese entente treaty 
concluded; status quo in Manchioria. 

July 22. Treaty is signed with Korea by wliich 
Korea is annexed to Japan as the provmce of 
Chosen. 

1911. Jan. IS. Twenty-foiu' conspirators against 
the lives of the crown prmce and officers of the 
imperial household condemned to death. 

July 13. New Anglo-Japanese treaty, to 
last ten years, signed in London. 

Aug. 25. Katsura resigns the premiership; a 
new cabinet formed by Saionji. 

1912. July 30. Mutsiihito dies and his son, Yo- 
shihlto, ascends the throne. 

Sept. 13. Simultaneously with the fimeral 
ceremonies of the emperor. General NogI and his 
wife, in accordance with an ancient custom, com- 
mit suicide as a final tribute to the emperor. 

Sept. 22. Worst typhoon for half a century 
sweeps Japan, himdreds of lives being lost and 
$20,000,000 damage bemg inflicted. 

Dec. 4. Premier Saionji and cabinet resign. 
December 17, Katsura is directed by the emperor 
to form a cabinet. 

1913. Feb. 5. Vote of censm-e on the government 
imder Katsura carried amid great tumult. Em- 
peror suspends the session of the Diet. Feb-. 
ruary 10, political rioting in the streets of 
Tokyo; Premier Katsiu-a stoned, btu'eaucratic 
newspaper offices and the dwellings of the minis- 
ters attacked. 

Feb. 12. Yamamoto appoints premier, and 
forms coalition ministry. 

April. Proposed California antlallen land 
legislation bitterly resented in Japan ; war threats 
by extremists. Formal protest to the United 
States, May 9. Bill signed May 19, the United 
States replying to Japan that the measiu*e in no 
wise infringes treaty rights. Renewed protests 
are made on June 4, August 26, and September 
30 (see United States). 

Sept. 26. Japan sends ultimatum to China, 
demanding satisfaction within three days for at- 1 



tack at Nanking; several Japanese killed and tho 
Japanese flag insulted. September 28, formal 
apology and reparation. 

1914. Jan. 11-is. Sudden eruption of Saku- 
rajlma, after being quiescent for 130 years. 

Feb. 10. Naval scandal, growing out of com- 
missions to naval oflJcers for influencmg admiralty 
contracts m favor of a German firm. Serious 
rioting In Tokyo. Vote of no confidence re- 
jected by the Diet after a turbulent debate. In 
-■^pi-il, Okuma forms a cabinet. 

Aug. 15. Japan sends an ultimatum to Ger- 
many to deliver up Kiaochow to her; Japan to 
hold it in trust for t.'luna tmtil the end of the 
war. Receivmg no reply, Japan declares war on 
Germany, August 23 (24, Tokyo time). Diplo- 
matic relations severed with Austria-Hungary. 
(For the World War, see that title.) 

Oct. 7. Japanese force occupies Marshall Is- 
lands in the Pacific. 

1915. January. Japan presents demands for con- 
cessions in China (see China). 

March 18. Japan informed by Great Britam, 
France, Russia, and mdependently by the United 
States, that diplomatic relations will be diflScult to 
maintam if she msists on pressmg more demands 
upon China (see China). 

March 25. Government party returned at 
the elections with mcreased strength. Women 
participate in the electoral campaign for the flrst 
time in Japanese liistory. 

June 1. House approves the government's 
militarj' program, increasing the standing army. 

July SO. Okuma cabinet resigns, following the 
investigation into bribery charges in connection 
with March elections. August 8, resignation with- 
drawn at request of emperor; cabinet reorganized. 

Nov. 10. Emperor Yosblhlto crowned at 
Kyoto. 

1916. Jan. 13. Premier Okuma narrowly escapes 
two bombs in Tokyo. 

June I. New factory law becomes effective, 
markmg the flrst step in the protection of women 
and children workers. 

Oct. 3. Okuma resigns premiership; Terau- 
chi requested by the emperor to form a ministry. 

Nov. 3. Hirohito, eldest son of the emperor, 
installed as crown prince. 

1917. April 20. House Of Representatives having 
refused to vote confidence in the Terauclii cabinet, 
new elections give the government 217 seats, the 
opposition 161. 

Nov. 2. Lansing-Ishii agreement regarding 
American and Japanese policies toward Cliina is 
made at Washington, recognizing Japan's "spe- 
cial interests." Not submitted to ratification by 
United States Senate. 

1918. May. Sino-Japanese military compact im- 
der which Japan secures many privileges in China. 

July. Japan accepts American proposals for 
intervention In Siberia. 

Aug. 17. Government takes over the rice 
supply of the country after several days of rioting. 

Sept. 21. Terauchi resigns as premier. Sep- 
tember 30, Hara, leader of the Seiyukai party, be- 
comes premier. 

1919. Jan. IS. Japan has five delegates at the 
Peace Conference at Paris. She is admitted as 
one of the five principal powers. 

Jan. 20. Emperor of Korea dies in Tokyo. 

February-April. Korean peasants rise in a 
" passive revolution," demandmg independ- 
ence. Put down by Japanese troops. Many 
atrocities are reported. Provisional revolutionary 
government for the " Republic of Korea." 

April 19. Publication of proposed secret Ger- 
man-Japanese treaty. 

April SO. Supreme Cotmcil at Paris jields to 
Japan's claims in the Chinese province of Shan- 
tung, Japanese peace delegates havmg threatened 
to withdraw from the conference. 

May. Anti-Japanese movement begins in 
China ; boycottmg of Japanese goods. 

May 6. Japan given a mandate for the Ger- 
man islands in the Pacific north of the equator. 

Aug. 26. Japanese make demonstration against 
peace delegates for not securing provisions of racial 
equality m Treaty of 'Versailles. 

Oct. SO. Ratification of the Treaty of Versailles. 

1920. Jan. 14. Announcement to China that 
Japan has succeeded to the German rights in 
Shantung by virtue of the Peace Treaty and de- 
mands direct negotiation in accordance with 
the demands of 1915. 

Jan. 18. Representatives of Japan participate 
in the opening ceremony of the League of Nations. 

Jan. 19. Renewed demands on China for 
direct negotiations in regard to Shantung. China 
refuses to parley, Januarj' 26. 

Feb. 9. Russian Bolshevists said to foster re- 
beUion in Korea. 

Feb. 14. Uproar in Japanese Diet on universal 
suffrage. Demonstrations in Tokyo last for two 
weeks. 

Feb. 28. Diet dissolved by an imperial decree 
leaving Premier Hara In power. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: JUGO-SLAVIA. 



121 



JUGO-SLAVIA: KINGDOM OF THE 

SERBS, CROATS, AND SLOVENES. 

Historical Outline. 

At the outbreak of the World War the Serbs in the 
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were geographically 
subdivicled. and in a position of political inferiority to 
the Germans in their half of the empire and the Him- 
garians in then- half. A proposition to rearrange the 
empire into three groups — German, Himgarian, and 
Slav — was supposed to be favored by Francis Ferdi- 
nand, heir to the throne, at the time of his assassina- 
tion The Slavs numbered 27,000,000 out of 51,- 
000,000 in the empire ; yet were in a minority in both 
the Austrian and Himgarian diets. In the Himga- 
rian part of the empire, the Slavs with the adjacent 
Bo.snians and Herzegorinians numbered 7,300,000, 
besides 2,800,000 Roumanians, out of a total popula- 
tion of 23,000,000. Yet the Himgarians were work- 
ing systematically to root out their languages, tradi- 
tions, and nationality. Only the Croatians received 
any favor at the hands of their masters. 

A Slav propaganda went on under the surface. In 
1903 a set of treason trials at .^gram revealed a se- 
cret organization. The Serbian kingdom across the 
Drave was gaining ground and had the ambition to 
draw away the Serbs out of Himgary into a large 
Serb state. The Bosnians and Herzegovinians, who 
emerged from their age-long tliralldom to Turkey in 
'1878, were also Slavs and they joined forces with 
their blood brethren. 

The war of 1914 was directly due to the growing 
fear on the part of the empire that the Serbians 
would imite with the Serbs in Himgary, and was 
aimed at the destruction of the fountain of such in- 
fluence. In the World War the Croat, Slav, and 
Bosnian troops, forced into service, had no desire to 
fight tlie Russian Slavs, and surrendered in large 
numbers. They felt no such hesitation with regard 
to Italy, wliich as soon as she came in (1915) began 
to plant herself in Albania. By the secret Treaty of 
London (April 2(5, 1915), the Italians were promised 
a large slice of territory inhabited by Slavs, in- 
cluding the coast of Dalmatia. 

No opportunity came for a combined Slav move- 
ment till Austria-Hungary coUapsed, in 1918 
Then the fragments came together. Serbia, as an 
organized state, was the nucleus. The Montene- 
grins, who are Serbs in all but name, threw in their 
lot with Serbia. The Croats, Slovenes, Bosnians, 
and Dalmatians were at last free to imite with them 
in a Jugo-Slav nation organized under the name of 
the " Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and .Slovenes," 
headed by Prince Alexander of Serbia as regent. 
Their state is popularly known as Jugo-Slavia. 

Many difficulties and rivalries developed inside 
this combination of peoples, whose only common na- 
tional bond for ages had been the former va.ssalage to 
Turkey. The great obstacle to imion was the Italian 
demand for the whole coast of Dalmatia imder the 
Treaty of London ; and then their still more serious 
claim to Flume, the natural port of Croatia, and the 
only port, on that part of the coast coimected with 
the interior by a first-class railway. 

Government. No constitution has been adopted 
for the new imifled state. The legislative Assembly 
consists partly of Serbian deputies, who were elected 
before the first Balkan War, and partly of delegates 
appointed from the new territories. According to 
the constitution of the former Serbian kingdom, no 
measure can become a law imless adopted by one 
half of the Assembly. As it has been impossible to 
obtain such a majority, there has been almost a con- 
tinuous conflict between the legislature and the suc- 
cessive cabinets. 

The estimated area of Jugo-SIavia is 101,254 
square miles and the population is about 14,361 ,000. 

Chronology. 

For earlier history of the states and peoples com- 
posing Jugo-Slavia, see Serbh, etc., below. 

1915. ApnlJO. Secret Treaty of London between 
the Allies and Italy before the latter enters the 
World War promises to Italy the territories of 
Gorz (Gorizia), Trieste, Istria (without Plume), 
most of Dalmatia, and most of the islands along 
the lUyrian coast: rest of Dalmatian coast to be 
neutralized, saving existing rights of Montenegro: 
Italy to have Bay of Avlona and virtual control 
over rest of Albania : rest of coast north of Albania 
to be in Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro. 

1916. Aug. 17. By the treaty under which Rou- 
niania enters the war on the side of the Allies, she 
is promised the region of the Banat. 

1917. Jan. 10. The reply of the Allies to Wilson's 
peace note mentions liberation of the Slavs from 
foreign domination as one of the aims of the war. 

JuUj iO. Derlaration of Corfu for the free 
and independent kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, 
and Slovenes (commonly called Jugo-Slavla) : 
equal religious and alphabet rights, Gregorian cal- 
endar, freedom of Adriatic Sea, territory to extend 
over all the region where Jugo-Slavs are " living 
in compact masses," Declaration is signed by 



Pashic, premier of Serbia, and Trumbic, president 
of the Jugo-Slav Conmiittee of the Austrian States. 
1918. March 2. Meetuig at Wagram, Including 
Jugo-Slav members of Austrian Parhament and 
also of Croatian Diet, demands a national and in- 
dependent state of Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs. 

April III. Pact of Rome, drawn up by a Con- 
gress of Oppressed Austrian Nationalities; 
declaration that unity of Jugo-Slavs is vital to 
Italy and the deliverance of the Adriatic Sea from 
any enemy is vital to Jugo-Slavs and ItaUans. 

May 2'J. United States expresses earnest 
sympatiiy with the national aspirations of Jugo- 
slavs. 

June 4. Supreme War Coimcil at Paris adheres 
to the above expression. 

Sept. 9. Italian governnient addi-esses a note 
to the Allied governments approving of Jugo-Slav 
movement for independence. 

Oct. 11. Emperor Cliarles issues manifesto of 
intention to unite Croatia-Slavonia, Bosnia, and 
Herzegovina in one state. 

Oct. -^u. Croatian Diet declares tile inde- 
pendence of the " kingdom of Dalmatia. Slo- 
venia, Fiume, and Croatia." After the armistice 
Italian troops occupy Fiume and other places 
not included in the armistice, and friction begins. 

Oct. SI. Bosnia and Herzegovma join Serbia, 

Nov. S. Austrian armistice reciuires the evacu- 
ation of Gorz (Gorizia), Trieste, Istria, and Dal- 
matia, which Itahan troops occupy for the Allies. 

Nov. 7. Meeting at Geneva of .Serbian minis- 
ters, leaders of Serbian opposition, and delegates 
from the National Coimcil of the Austrian Slavs : 
recognition of Serl>Croat-Slovene nation as a ijiel- 
ligerent and friendly power to be asked of the Allies 
pending formalities of final union with Serbia. 

Nov. 2^ National Coimcil at Agram appoints 
as regent Prince Alexander of Serbia (acting 
sovereign) and votes for imion with .Serbia; protest 
is made against Italian occupation of Fiume. 

Dec. 1. Great National Assembly (Skupshtina) 
of Montenegro deposes King Nicholas and 
votes to unite with Serbia. 

Delegation from National Council protects Itahan 
occupation of Jugo-Slav territorj-, dechning to ac- 
knowledge validity of Treaty of London Jugo- 
slav ministry is formed with Pashic as premier. 

Dec. is. OfHcial statement of Jugo-Slav 
claims: asserts right to Dalmatia (767,708 Slavs, 
108,147 Italians): Istria (224,000 Slavs, 145,516 
Italians): Gorz, and Trieste, which, though itself 
Itahan, is considered a component and indivisible 
part of the whole Jugo-Slav hinterland: also the 
Bdndt, wliich Roumania contests. 
1919. Jan.B. United Serb-Croat-Siovene King- 
dom Is formed at Belgrade by representatives 
of Serbia, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herze- 
govina, Croatia-Slavonia, and Slovenia, 

Fchruary- March. Following an incident at 
Laibach, Italy estabhshes a partial blockade of 
entry of food supplies into Jugo-Slavia: trouble is 
adjusted by the Supreme Coimcil at Paris. Like- 
wise a contest within Jugo-Slavia over question of 
erecting a federalized state or a centralized one 
under control of Serbia, [Siavia. I 

Feb. 7. United States recognizes Jugo-I 

April S.i. Wilson issues a statement on the 
Fiume controversy, supporting Jugo-Slav claim 
to it and eastern part of Istria. with various is- 
lands: denies vaUdity of the Treaty of London as 
no longer applicable, Italy claims the city and 
suburbs because of Italian majority in the city and 
need of protection against Jugo-Slav aggression, 
Jugo-Slavs claim the city because it is their main 
and only advantageous port (Italy having Tri- 
este) and the suburbs and hinterland are over- 
whelmingly Slav. France and Great Britain in- 
clined to yield to Italian claim, Jugo-Slavia to be 
compensated from Dalmatian claim of Italy under 
Treaty of London. 

April g4. Itahan delegates leave the Peace 
Conference because of Fiume controversy, but re- 
turn on May 6. 

Sept. 10. Peace of Saint-Germain between 
Austria and Allies makes the boundarj- with Italy 
and Jugo-Slavia approximately the Drave River, 
Austria recognizes independence of Jugo-Slavia. 
Klagenfurt area to hold a plebiscite on question of 
attachment to Austriaor Jugo-Slavia. Hungarian 
treaty is delayed by lack of stable government. 

Sept. 17. Occupation of Fiume by irregular 
Italian troops imder d'Annunzio without orders 
from the Italian government, to prevent abandon- 
ment of the claim. Occupation, strongly sup- 
ported by Italian opinion, continues in spite of 
verbal threats of Italian government, 

Nov. 16. D'Annimzio seizes Zara in Dalmatia, 
1930. Jan. 7. Agreement reached by premiers 
of Great Britain, France, and Italy for giving Is- 
tria to Italy: Fiume to be a free city of Italian 
character, with neutralization of port, and railway 
under control of League of Nations: Italy to give 
up most of the islands and Dalmatia, except Zara, 
Jugo-Slavia given the choice between this and the 
Treaty of London. 



Jan. 15. Peace Treaty of NeuUly handed to 

Hungarian delegates. Himgary to agree to accept 
such boundaries with Jugo-Slavia as are assigned. 
Supreme Council assigns most of the Bdndt to 
Roumania, but southern portion to Jugo-Slavia. 

Jan. 20. Jugo-Slavia agrees to the neutraliza- 
tion, but adlieres to M'ilson's boundaries. 

Feb. I J. Wilson threatens to withdraw the 
peace treaty from the Senate if the Allied gov- 
ernments settle the Adriatic problem without 
American conciuTcnce. 

April 24. Though Italy and Jugo-Slavia agree 
at San Remoupon Fiume as a bulTer state with- 
out continuity of territory with Italy, the French 
and British premiers do not agree, and the negoti- 
ations continue. 

JTJGG-SLAVIA: COMPONENT PARTS. 
SERBIA. 

Historical Outline. 

Two of the sections of Jugo-Slavia. Montenegro 
and Serbia, have had a testing as independent king- 
doms. Serbia was in 1914 an inland kingdom of 
southeastern Europe, in the northwestern part of the 
Balkan Peninsula. The population was chiefly Slav, 
but included some Croats, Bulgars, Slovenes, Monte- 
negrins, Albanians, and Turks. The history of the 
Serbs dates from the middle of the 7th century, 
when they became settled in the Balkan Peninsula. 
By the 12th century they acknowiedged the suze- 
rainty of 1 he Byzantine emperors. The most glorious 
era of Sert »ia, however, was in the 14th century when, 
imder Stephen Dushan (1331-1355), " Emperor of 
the Serbs and the Greeks." an attempt was made 
to establish a Serbian empire, wliich should include 
Serbia. Greece, and Bulgaria. Stephen's object was 
to prevent the Turks from gaining a foothold in Eu- 
rope, for wliich he ijlamied to secure Constantinople : 
but he died in 1355. 

His successor was overwhelmingly defeated by the 
Turks (1389) in the battle of Kossovo. For the next 
three centuries and a half Serbia was a Turkish de- 
pendency, suffering all the evils of the rule of the' 
lawless and corrupt pashas. 

The Serbians' struggle for independence began in 
1804 with the election of Czemy Djordje, or Kara 
Georg ( " Black George "), as commander in chief of 
the Serbian nation. Under his command the Serbs 
succesded in exTpelling the Turks, and by 1807 the 
sultan was forced to otTer them self-government. 
On the advice of Russia tills was refused: but when 
Russia, attacked by Napoleon in IS12, was forced to 
conclude the Treaty of Bucharest, no provisioc was 
made for Serbia, which was reconquered by Turkey. 
Another insurrection occurred in 1S15 and two years 
later Serbia regained her autonomy, wliich was recog- 
nized by the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829. 

Between 1830 and 1879 Serbia was becoming uni- 
fied and was struggling for independence. Under 
Prince Michael in 1867, after an imderstanding had 
been arrived at with other Balkan states and prov- 
inces for an attack upon the Turkish power, Serliia 
demanded that Turkey should withdraw from Bel- 
grade and all other Serb fortresses. To prevent a 
general uprising. Great Britain intervened and com- 
pelled Turkey to submit. 

As a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) a 
greater Bulgaria was created. This dissatisfied and 
alarmed the Serbs. Although tlie Congress of Ber- 
lin reduced the territories assigned to their neighbor, 
it failed to satisfy the ambition of the Serbs. From 
1879 Serbia developed her internal resources and al- 
though defeated by Bulgaria in a brief war in 1SS5. 
she prospered. In 1903 King Alexander, who had 
suspended the constitution of 1889 and was ruling 
despotically, was assassinated, together with Queen 
Draga: and Peter Karageorgevich. who had planned 
the murder, was proclaimed king. 

In 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
These provinces contained a large Serb population: 
and since Austria under the terms of the Congress of 
Berlin was entitled only to " occupation and admin- 
istration." Serbia hoped that they might become a 
part of a greater Serbia. 

In 1912 the Balkan League, consisting of Monte- 
negro. Serbia. Greece, and Bulgaria was formed, and 
war was declared by Serbia on Turkey. October 17 
(see TrRKEv). The leading spirit in Serbia was the 
premier. Pashic. The allies won every pitched bat- 
tle and captured every besieged fortress and occu- 
pied Monastir and other strongholds in Macedonia, 
and on the Adriatic occupied the port of Durazzo in 
defiance of Austria. Together with the Bulgarians, 
the Serbians captiu-ed Adrianople (March 26. 1913). 
which forced Turkey to accept their terms. By the 
Treaty of London. Turkey was expelled from the 
Balkans : but by the terms dictated by the great pow- 
ers, the so-called independent kingdom of Albania 
was planted upon the Adriatic. Bulgaria, appar- 
ently imder the Instigation of Austria, treacherously 
attacked her former allies, but was defeated, and 
Serbia gained a large portion of Macedonia. 

Serbia felt that Austria had prevented her legiti- 
mate expansion in Bosnia and on the Adriatic. 
Austria regarded Serbia as a dangerous neighbor who 



122 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: JUGO-SLAVIA. 



was attempting to unite all the southern Slavs in 
M Austria-Hungary under her protection. On June 28 

' 1914. the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the 

Austrian throne, together with his wife, was assassi 
nated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Although 
the crime was done by an Austrian subject. Austria 
held the Serbian nation responsible and on July 23 
presented a humihating ultimatimi of ten demands 
wliich commanded Serbia to suppress all Pan-Ser^ 

Obian propaganda and all newspapers and societies 
^^■hioh fosU*red hatred and conttnipt for the Austrian 
t-'nvcrnnient. ]\Ioreo\'er, Au.stria demanded that 
Scrliia should accept Austrian assistance in investi- 
gating and punishing the perpetrators of the crime of 
Sarajevo. Although England attempted to obtain 
a modification of the terms, Austria refused. Even 
after Serbia submitted. Austria mobilized her forces 
and declared war. This step led directly to the 
p World War of 1914-18. 

In the first year of the war, the Austrian armies of 
invasion were repeatedly thrown back. In 1915 a 
combined force of Austrians and Germans, fresh from 
their success in Russia, invaded Serbia. Greece, 
wliich was boimd to come to her aid. refused luider 
the unconstitutional influence of King Constantine. 
the brother-in-law of the German kaiser. Thus Ser- 

Qbia, deserted by her allies and attacked on the north, 
and by the Bulgarians on the cast, was conquered 
and utterly crushed with indescribable cruelty. 
What was left of her army was transported to the 
island of Corfu, where it was refitted and in 1918 
joined with the Allies in the attack upon Bulgaria, 
which surrendered September 30. 

Organization. 

R Government. Before the World War the consti- 

tution of Serbia provided for a king, assisted by a 
council of ministers who were individually and col- 
lectively responsible to the National Assembly. 
The National Assembly (Narodna Skupshtina) 
was composed of 166 deputies elected by male citi- 
zens of 21 years of age who paid a small tax. Elec- 
tions took place every four years and the assembly 
Smet annually. This assembly, includmg popidar 
elements, was verj' representative of national feeling. 
The leading Serbian statesman was Pashic. 

Industry and Labor. More than four fifths of 
the Serbians are peasant farmers, the great majority 
of whom cultivate small farms of their own. Indian 
corn is the principal crop and is used for food and as 
fodder for the swine, which are the principal export. 
Wheat, flax, hemp, and tobacco are also raised, and 
I the sugar beet was successfully introduced in 1900, 

Religion. The state religion is the Greek Ortho- 
dox, which has nearly 3,000,000 adherents. There 
are 8,000 Roman Catholics, SOO Protestants. 6,000 
Jews, and 14,000 Moslem Turks and Gypsies. Com- 
plete liberty of conscience is allowed. 

Education. Education is compulsory and free 
in all primary schools under the ministry of educa- 
tion. In 1900, however, less than 17% of the people 
could read and write. In fact the country has al- 
most no schools. The luiiversity at Belgrade had 
(1920) SO professors and 7.250 students. 

Defense. Before the World War, military serv- 
ice was compulsory and universal between the ages 
of 18 and 5.5, but the recruits joined at 21 and com- 
plet-ed their military service at 45. Serbia was able 
- _ to muster an army of 500,000 men. During the 

V World War 757.000 troops were raised and the casu- 
alties were 369,000. 

After the Treaty of Bucharest, which closed the 
second Balkan War, the area of Serbia was 33,891 
square miles and its population 4,615,567. 

Chronology. 

For Serbia before the 19th century. 
\A/ see Bulgaria and Turkey. 

1804. Under Czemy Djordje (Kara Georg), 
founder of the Karageorgevich family, the Serbi- 
ans rise against the Janizaries, then against Turk- 
ish rule. Interest in their great national past is 
revived. 
1813. Serbian rebellion crushed* following the 
withdrawal of Russian aid. 

X1830. Milos Obrenovii", foimderof the Obrenovic 
family, after fighting the Turks fifteen years and 
assassinating Czerny Djordje, is recognized by 
the Porte as prince of Serbia, which is made an 
autonomous province. 
1831. National Chmxh established. Serbia now 
free from Turks in politics and from Greeks in re- 
ligion, [pressed. I 
1835. First constitution granted and then sup- 1 

Y 1839. Forced abdication of ]Milos Obrenovic. 

His son Michael succeeds. 

1842. Michael deposed and replaced by Alexander, 
son of Czerny Djordje. 

1858. Alexander deposed, and Milos recalled. 

18G0. Milos dies, and is succeeded by his son Mi- 
chael, who is a.ssassinated in ISGS, and is suc- 
ceeded by Milan, a minor, who, as IVfilan I., be- 
Z comes Serbia's most able modem ruler. 

ISfi?. Turks still maintain garrisons in Serbia. 
Belgrade is bombarded. For this the Turks have 
to withdraw entirely in 1SG7. 



U 



1869. Jvhj 11. A constitution is proclaimed. 

1876. July 1. Serbian troops cross the frontier to 
attack Turkey, but are crushed at Aleksinac, Oc- 
tober 31. 

1878. July 13. Independence of Serbia recog- 
nized by the Congress of Berlin. 

1883. Serbia declares itself a kingdom. 

1885. Novembfr. Serbia, attacking Bulgaria, 
is decisively defeated at the battle of Slivnica, 
November 17-19. Austria saves Serbia from in- 
vasion. 

1889. New constitution is granted Milan ab- 
dicates (March 6) in favor of his son Alexander. 

1894. April 13. By a coup d'etat. King Alexander 
takes personal charge: on May 21 he restores the 
less liberal constitution of 1869. 

1901. Conservative constitution: bicameral As- 
sembly. 

1803. June 11. Army oflScers assassinate King 
Alexander and Queen Draga for benefit of 
Peter. Obrenovic family is extmguished. 

June 16. Peter Karageorgevich. grandson of 
Czemy Djordje (Kara Georg), is declared king. 

1906. Customs imion with Bulgaria. 

June i-'i. King Peter declares radical consti- 
tution of 1SS9 restored. 

1908. Serbians excited by the action of Austria- 
Himgar>- in annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina 
and by proclamation of Bulgarian independence. 

1909. January 16. Cabinet resigns for the third 
time within a fortnight. 

March IS. Great Britain, France, and Russia 
demand that Serbia enter upon peaceable ne- 
gotiations with Austria-Himgary. March 25, 
Crown Prince George resigns his right to the suc- 
cession in favor of his brother Alexander. March 
30. Serbia accepts the proposals of the powers, 
thus ending the political crisis. 
1912-1913. For first Balkan War, see Turret. 
Austria keeps Serbia from an outlet to the sea. 

1913. For second Balkan War, see Bulgaria. 

1914. Feb. 17. Diplomatic relations with Bulgaria 
are resumed. 

March 14- Treaty of peace is signed with 
Turkey at Constantinople. 

Juhj 3S. Austria declares war on Serbia. 
For the World Wah, see that title. 

1915. February. Epidemics of tj-phus and typhoid 
extending over the whole of Serbia are reported. 

April 1. American Red Cross sends experts 
from New York to fight the disesise devastating 
Serbia. 

April 3-5. Bulgarian irregulars raid the fron- 
tier. Bidgaria disclaims responsibility. 

Mny 24. Army reorganized: Great Britain 
and France supply it abimdantly with artillery 
and ammunition. 

October- December. The country is entirely 
overrun by the troops of the Central Powers; 
the remnant of the army escapes through Monte- 
negro and Albania to the coast, whence they are 
conveyed to Corfu and there reorganized; later 
they participate in the Saloniki advance. Gov- 
ernment also establishes itself at Corfu. 

1917. June 26. Cabinet is reorganized, Pashi6 re- 
maining premier. 

1918. Nov. 1. Serbian armj' reoccupies Belgrade. 

1919. July IS. King Peter returns to Serbia. 
The country is incorporated into the new king- 
dom of Jugo-Slavia. 

CROATIA AND SLAVONIA. 

Historical Outline. 

Among the Slavic tribes that settled in central Ger- 
many the Croatians found their way into the land 
south of the middle Drave. Alongside of it to the 
eastward was the similar settlement of the Slavo- 
nians. In recent times the two were imited as a 
double province of the Hungarian portion of the 
Austro-Himgarian Monarchy. The territory ex- 
tends from the Drave and the Danube to the in- 
closed reaches of the Adriatic above Dalmatia. 
The twin peoples were blood brethren of the Serb- 
ians, Bosnians, and Montenegrins. 

Their common liistor>' is that they were won for 
Christianity through the Roman Church in the 
ninth century. In the tenth century they were con- 
quered by the kings of the Hungarians, who gave 
themselves the title of Kings of Croatia and Dalma- 
tia. Later a king of Croatia. Dalmatia, and Sla- 
vonia was set up by the Himgarian sovereign (who 
was also sovereign of Austria) in order to organize 
the frontier against the Turks. Nevertheless. Bos- 
nia and its sister provinces Herzegovina. Croatia, 
and Slavonia were conquered and occupied by the 
Turks. The Venetians succeeded in holding the 
strip of Dalmatian coast. Slavonia was till 1745 a 
military province. 

Napoleon, by his crushing \ictories in Italy and 
Austria, forced the Austrian government to >ield to 
him, by the Treaty of Schonbrunn, or Vienna (Oct. 
14, 1809), the Dalmatian coast and a broad belt 
extending inland which he called the " Il!>Tian 
Provinces." This was the most enlightened gov- 
ernment that these lands had ever known, but it 



was their misfortime to be restored to Austria by 
the Treaty of Vienna, in 1815. 

From that time onward for a hundred years the 
Hungarians made it their policy to Magy arize their 
Serbian subjects. The result was that when, in 
1S4S. the Hungarians were fighting for their inde- 
pendence against Austria, the Croats sided with the 
tifrmans. For this service they received no rew^ard. 
Every effort was made to break up their national 
traditions. After the defeat of Austria by Prussia 
in 1S66. the Dual Monarchy was formed, and Hun- 
gary reluctantly granted to Croatia (1808) an organ- 
ized government with ministers and a legislature. 
A similar system was set up for Slavonia. 

In 1908 the Himgarian government prosecuted, 
convicted, and put to death several of the Croatians 
on a charge of plotting for the independence of their 
coimtry. The Croatian-Slavonians ardently sympa- 
thized with the protests against the formal incor- 
porating into the monarchy of Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina, wliich they had hoped to see develop into a part 
of a new Serb state. They were much aroused by the 
Serbian victories over the Turks in 1912 and 1913. 

The double province of Croatia-Slavonia is a re- 
gion which in the midst of barren momitains incloses 
considerable areas of fruitful soil, and there are vari- 
ous minerals in the mountams. The inliabitants are 
a lively agricultural people. In the European wars 
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the 
Croat cavalry was celebrated for its braverj^ and its 
cruelty to noncombatants. The area of the double 
province is about 16.000 square miles. Before the' 
World War. the population was about 2,600,000 
people, nearly all of them of Serb stock. 

Chronology. 

1648. Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, Slavic tribes 
of the san^e speech and customs, have been sepa- 
rated by difTerent rule, religion, and alphabet. 
Slovenes and Croats, Catholics and using Latin 
alphabet, are under the Hapsbui^s in Austria 
and Hungary. Some Serbs, Orthodox (Greek 
Church) and using the C>TilIic alphabet, are far- 
ther east in the Bdnat and elsewhere imder Hun- 
gary. The remainder of the Jugo-Slavs are imder 
Tm-key; mostly Orthodox, but some Mohanmie- 
dans. Montenegro and Ragusa are independent. 
Dalmatian coast and islands are imder Venice; 
farther inland the Turks govern. Fiume. formerly 
part of Croatia, is a separate royal Hungarian 
city. Croatia is autonomous, under Himgar>', in 
domestic affairs. (See Serbia and ^Montenegro.) 

1690. Aug. '21. " Privileges of the Serbs " in Hun- 
gary issued, forming a legal basis of autonomy; 
not put in operation. 

1718. July 21. By Peace of Passarowitz (Poz- 
arevac) Turkey cedes her portion of Dalmatia to 
Venice. 

1797. Oct. 17. Venetian Republic being sup- 
pressed by Treaty of Campoformido, Dahnatia is 
ceded to Austria. 

1809. Oct. 14. By Peace of Schonbrunn (Vienna) 
Austria cedes Camiola, Dalmatia. Istria, Fiume. 
Gorz iGorizia). Trieste, and parts of Cartnthia and 
Croatia, w'hich are formed into the Sia\ic Prov- 
inces of Illyria, part of Napoleon's kingdom of 
Italy. Ragusa is added in 181 1. Region is reoc- 
cupled by Austria in 1813 and returned to her 
rule by Congress of Vienna. 

1840. Evidence of intention of Himgary to intro- 
duce Magyar as official language in Croatia-Sla- 
vonia is counteracted by promotion of a union of 
" IlljTian Slavs." 

1844. Hungary abolishes the prerogatives of the 
Serbian (Orthodox) Church m and aroimd the 
BduAt, and requires Magyar as official language 
of church administration. 

1848. Revolutionary year offers opportunities to 
the Serb people. Himgarian revolt is anti-Slav, 
and Serbs and Croats imite ip demanding recogni- 
tion ; Austria humors them imtil Hungary is sub- 
dued and then continues the policy of repression. 
Croatia-Slavonia and Fiume are separated from 
Hungary in 1849 and ruled as a single Austrian 
crownland. 

1867. By the Dual-Monarchy Ausgleich the 
Serbo-Croats of Dalmatia and Istria, and the Slo- 
venes of Caniiola, Carinthia, St>Tia, and Gorz 
(Gorizia) are grouped in Austria: and the Croats 
of Croatia Slavonia and the Serbs of the Bdndt, 
Bacs-Bodrog, and Baranya are included in Hun- 
gary; Germans and Magyars dividing the Slavs 
in order the better to keep them repressed. 

1868, June 25. Hungary agrees to a local Diet In 
Croatia-Slavonia, and to Serbo-Croatian as 
official language; Croatia-Slavonia acknowledges 
"Himgarian sovereignty, pays part of revenue to 
Himgary. and is represented in the Parliament. 
Resistance to Hungarian control continues. 

1870. Fiume is separated from Croatia-Slavonia; 
becomes again a royal free town of Hungary. 

1878. July 13. By Treaty of Berlin, Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, inhabited by Catholic, Orthodox, 
and Moslem Serbo-Croats. are continued nomi- 
nally under Turkish sovereignty; but Austria- 
Hungary is given a mandate of administration; 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: JUGO-SLA VIA — LIBERIA. 



123 



1878 (continued). 
this checks plans for Greater Croatia as well as 
Greater Serbia and helps to develop a united Jugo- 
slav sentiment and movement. 

1908. Oct. .5. Austria-Hungary annexes Bos- 
nia and Herzegovina (see Nineteenth-Century 
Period, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, below). 

MONTENEGRO. 

Historical Outline. 

Montenegro, as an independent state, dates from 
the battle of Kosso\o in 1389. .Some of the defeated 
Serbians took n^fuj^e in Cmagora. tlie " Black Moim- 
tain" (Venetian Italian ■'Moiilfnegro"), a higlily de- 
fensible upland region. There they maintained a 
heroic resistance for over 500 years — the only people 
in the Balkans who never yielded to the Tiu-k. Their 
independence was acknowledged by Tm-key and 
Europe at the Congress of Berlin in I87S. The popu- 
lation of Montenegro is a primitive, peasant people, 
delighting in war and impatient of peace. Since 1S60 
they have been ruled by Prince Nicholas, who in 
1910 took the title of king. 

In 1912 the Montenegrins were the first to declare 
war upon Turkey and marched upon Scutari, the 
capital of Albania. This they continued to besiege 
in spite of the opposition of Austria and the great 
powers who blockaded the coast, and Scutari finally 
surrendered to them with Serbian aid, April 23. 1913. 
King Nicholas was obliged by the opposition of Aus- 
tria to surrender Scutari to the great powers, who 
then established the so-called independent kingdom 
of Albania- 
August S. 1914. Montenegro declared war upon 
Austria to aid Serbia, and together with the Serbians 
carried the war into Bosnia. After the subjugation 
of Serbia, the Austrians attacked Montenegro in 
1916 and occupied its capital. Cetinje. Bemg hard 
pressed, the Montenegrins sued for peace, but would 
not accept the ttTms and the war was resumed. 
The chief ports and towns were occupied by Austri- 
ans. many of the Montenegrins retiring into Albania. 
Scutari was reoccupied by the Austrians, and the 
Italians were forced to evacuate Durazzo, so that 
Austria was everywhere successful on the eastern 
coast of the Adriatic. 

By the surrender of Bulgaria, in September. 1918, 
and the withdrawal of Austria, the Montenegrins re- 
turned. The National Assembly on April 20. 1919, 
voted for the union of Montenegro with Jugo-Slavia. 
In 1919 Serbian troops occupied Montenegro and 
King Nicholas {not in the coimtry) appealed to tlie 
Peace Conference for protection and restoration of 
his royal power, which was not accorded. 



Chronology. 



1648. For Balkan Peninsula in 1C4S. see Bulgaria. 
Turkish invaders or border raiders enter Monte- 
neg:ro almost every year till 1913. 

IJOO. Though never subdued by the Turks. Mon- 
tenegro's independence was not acknowledged 
by the Turks imtil the close of the ISth century. 

1830. Peter I. dies after reigning nearly 50 years, 
during which time the size of the coimtry had 
been doubled and its organization entirely rebuilt. 

1851. The ancient connection of princely and ec- 
clesiastical fimctions is abolished and the ruler- 
ship made hereditary. 

1860. Prince Danilo is assassinated, and his nephew 
Nicholas succeeds. 

1876. For Montenegro in the Russo-Turkisli War, 
and the Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin, see 
Turkey. 

1881. Privileges secured by the Treaty of Berlin 
are attained, after the powers force tlie Turks to 
withdraw. 

1896. Elena, daughter of Prince Nicholas, marries 
Victor Emmanuel III. of Italy. 

1905. Parliament and a liberal constitution 
granted: not a success. 

1910. Aug. 2S. Montenegro is proclaimed a 
kingdom, with Nicholas I. as king. 
Army Improved by French instructors. Russian 
teachers reorganize education; close commercial 
relations witli Italy. 

1912-1913. For first Balkan War. see Turkey. 

1913. Anril 6. Montenegro's refusal to withdraw 
from before Scutari caixses a naval blockade by 
the powers. 

April 23. Scutari surrenders. 

Maij .5. King Nicholas, in spite of popular 
opposition, agrees to evacuate Scutari; city is 
handed over to an international force on May 14. 

June-Atigust. For second Balkan War, see 
Bulgaria. 

August. Montenegro receives from Serbia, in 
return for assistance in the two Balkan wars, about 
hall of Novibazar sanjak, 

1914. Aiu). S. Montenegro declares war on 
Austria in support of .Serbia (see World War). 

1915. April 6. Government appeals to American 
Red Cross for assistance to flght epidemic of 
typhus. 

December. Country is entirely ovemm by the 
Central Powers and government driven into exiie. 



1919. April 20. National Assembly votes to unite 
with Jugo-Slavla. 

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA. 

Historical Outline. 

The province of Bosnia, once part of the Roman 
Empire, wasorgauized about 1200 a. d. tmder a ban 
or sovereign, who later incorporated the neighboring 
district of Herzegovina. For a time this region was 
included in the empire of Serbia. Then it was inde- 
pendent ; but in 1463 it was conquered by the Tm-ks, 
wiio lield it nearly four centuries. A considerable 
part of the population accepted the Moslem religion 

In 1S75 a retjeUion called the attention of Europe 
to the sufferings of the Christian population. By 
the Treaty of Berlin in 1S78 the double province, in- 
stead of being put on the road to independence, was 
placed imder the control of the Austrian government 
without being annexed to either part of the empire. 

A pohcy of subjecting the region to Austrian laws, 
ideals, etc.. was followed, and order was restored by 
military force. Nominally, there was still a feudal 
relation to the sultan, hut after the insurrection of 
the Young Turks the Austrian government assumed 
that this suzerainty had ceased and in 1908 formally 
annexed the provinces to the empire. This was a 
great disappointment not only to the Bosnians, but 
also to Serbia, wliich had looked forward to including 
the blood brethren in a large Serb kingdom. The 
assassination of the heir to the imperial throne at the 
capital, Sarajevo, in 1914, was tlie pretended occa 
sion for the World War. The Bosnians were com- 
pelled to serve in the Austrian armies. The Serbs 
made unavailing efforts to get a permanent foothold 
in the country. At the end of the war the Bosnians 
and Herzegovinians entered into the new state of 
Jugo-Slavia. 

The population is chiefly Serbian by race, but in 
respect to religion it comprises about '.idO.tNio creek 
C^atholics. half a million Roman C'alliolics. and (iCX).- 
000 Moslems, the last named lia\ ing maintained 
their faith notwithstanding their separation from 
Turkey. The country, which covers an area of 19.- 
762 square miles, is mountainous and considerable 
parts are sterile, but there are broad and fertile val- 
leys and in normal times a considerable production 
of foodstuffs, timber, and salt. Herzegovina mider 
the ayite helium system was cut off from the sea by the 
coastal province of Dalmatia. 

Chronology. 

958. Croatian kings in authority in Bosnia. 

1000-1200. Subject to Hungary, with brief inter 
vals of independence. Bogomilian heresy adopted 
by the Bosnians (see Bogoiwile. n., in the Diet.). 

133?. Stephen Kotromanic, ban of Bosnia, ex- 
tends authority to the sea. Reigned till 1353 
Last and greatest of Bosnian bans. 

1376. Stephen TvTtko " King of Bosnia. Serbia and 
all the Seacoast." 

1398. Invasion by the Turks. 

1448. Stephen Vukcic, created Duke of St. Sava 
(wlience comes the name Herzegovina, that is, 
"the Duchy "). 

1463. Conquest by the Turks, who permit the Ro- 
man and Greek Christians to continue as peasants 

1500-1790. Part of the region conquered by the 
Himgarians. 

1831-1851. Insurrections against the Turks. 

1875-1878. Rising against the Turks, aided by 
Russian campaign in Bulgaria. Result: separa^ 
tion from Turkey. 

1878. Treaty of Berlin gives Bosnia and Herze- 
govina to .\ustria. which leads to a rising. 

1908. Oct. T. Austria proclaims incorporation of 
Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

1910. Feb. M. Fundamental statutes for Bosnia 
and Herzegovina. Personal rights and a Diet. 

1919. Jan. 5. Incorporated In Jugo-Slavia. 



Roman Catholics. Before the war there were only 
98 secondary schools and the percentage of iUiterated 
was 21.5. 

The area of Latvia is about 24,440 square miles 
and the population (1914) a little over 2,500,000. 



KA.MERUN. 

See under Germany, page 105. 



KIAOCHOW. 

See imder Germany, page 105. 



LATVIA. 

Latvia is tlie name now given to the southern two 
thirds of the former province of Livonia and the 
province of Kurland. Tliis region is inhabited by 
the Letts, who have resisted the Bolshevist aggres- 
sions and attempted to establish a national state. 

Government. Before the adoption of the con- 
stitution Latvia was governed by a coimcil of state 
of 102 members to whom the cabinet was responsible. 

Industry and Labor. Latvia is primarily an 
agricultiu-al countrj-. although an increasing number 
of the population are turning to industrial life: be- 
fore the World War there were nearly eight himdred 
factories. The cliief exports, are flax and limiber. 

Religion and Education. The majority of the 
population are Protestant, although there are many 



See also Baltic Provinces (imder Russia) , Esthonia, 
Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and World War. 

1918. March S. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 
Latvia is to be occupied temporarily by the Ger- 
mans (see Esthonia). 

1919. June. Treaty of Versailles annuls Treaty 
of Brest-Litovsk. and binds Germany to accept 
arrangements later to be made as to former Rus- 
sian territory. 



LEEWARD islands. 

See under British Empire, page 74. 



LffiERIA. 

Historical Outline. 

Liberia is situated at the upper angle of the 
southwestern coast of Africa. Its coast line is about 
350 miles in length and extends from the British col- 
ony of Sierra Leone to the French colony of the 
Ivory Coast. 

In 1816 the American Colonization Society was 
organized in Princeton, New Jersey. The avowed 
object was to establish in Africa a colony to be peo- 
pled with American freedmen and captured slaves. 
The first coloni.sts arrived in 1S20 and, in course of 
time, the Society sent 18,000 American Africans. 
Civil government was established in 1824, and in 
1828 a regular constitution was prepared. For 
nearly twenty years the home society retained the 
control and then surrendered everytlilng into the 
hands of the Liberians. 

Liberia, while nominally independent, is actually 
under the tutelage of the United States. Thus, in 
1910 an agreement was made with France and Ger- 
many by wliich the American government was to 
take charge of the financts. military organization, 
agriculture, and boimdaiw disputes. And thus Li- 
beria in sympathy with Ihr Tnited States declared 
war upon Germany August 4, 1917. 

Government. The constitution of the republic 
is modeled on that of the United States. The execu- 
tive power is given to a president (elected for four 
years), vice president, and a council of six ministers. 
Legislative power is in the hands of a House of Rep- 
resentatives of 13, elected for four years, and a Sen- 
ate of 8. elected for six years. 

Industry. Although Liberia is rich in agricul- 
tural, mining, and forest resources, industry is in 
a backward state. The chief exports are rubber, 
palm oil, coffee, and cocoa; and in 1913 the export 
trade was a little over a million dollars. There are 
no railroads, and transportation is carried on by ox- 
carts and on the rivers. 

Religion. The Americo-Liberians are all Protes- 
tants and there are several American missions at 
work, and one French Roman Catholic. 

Education. In 1910 there were 113 government 
elementary schools, with more than 4.000 pupils. 
There were also 87 mission schools, with about 2,000 
pupils. The Methodists maintain a college at Mon- 
rovia, and the government established a college 
(1916) with 3 professors and 20 students. 

Defense. Every citizen between 16 and 50 is lia- 
ble for military service, and the organized militia, 
volimteers. and police number about 400. There is 
one armed revenue cutter. 

The total area is about 40.000 sq. miles: the popu- 
lation (estimated) between 1,500,000 and 2,100,000. 

Chronology. 

1816. December. American Colonization So- 
ciety is organized at Princeton. N. J. 

1822. April 25. First Negro colonists land at 
Monrovia. American government assists finan- 
cially in the project. After initial trials, settle- 
ment prospers and others are started. 

1824. Name Liberia adopted. 

1847. July 26. Declaration of Independence 
and constitution framed; Society gives up control. 
J. J. Roberts, a Negro, first president. 

1848. Nov. 21. British treaty of recognition and 
commerce ; similar action by other countries later. 

1862. Oct. 21. Treaty with United States; no 
guarantees, but United States frequently uses its 
good offices to protect Liberia. 

1885. Nov. 11. Treaty delimiting Sierra Leone 
bomidary is forced by Great Britain. 

1892. Dec. S. Boundary treaty with France. 

1909. Investigation by an American commission 
leads, some two years later, to American super- 
vision of financial, military, agricultural, and 
boimdary, questions. International loans con- 
cluded, with America in charge of customs and 
additional French, British, and German receivers. 

1912. Jan. 1. D. E. Howard inaugurated as- 
president. 

November. Germany coerces Liberia for Ir.- 



124 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: LIBERIA — MESOPOTAMIA. 



N 



U 



W 



1912 (continued) . 
suits to German merchants and ofBcers. Trade 
chiefly in German hands. [Germany, I 

1917. May S. Liberia severs int^TCOurse with| 
Aug. 4- War is declared on Germany. 

191S. April 9. A German- siiljmarine siulis the 
Liberiaii patrol vessel and bonibartls Monrovia. 

1919. Jan. IS. Liberia is represented at the Peace 
Conference. 

June 28. By the Treaty of Versailles Germany 
renoimces all her special rights in Liberia and 
participation in its rehabilitation. [president.! 

1920. January. C. D. B. King is inaugurated asl 



LIBYA. 

See under Italy, page 115. 



LIECHTENSTEIN. 

Liechtenstein, a small principality, situated on 
the upper Rhine between Switzerland and the Aus- 
trian province of Vorarlberg, was one of the constitu- 
ent states of the Holy Roman Empire and a member 
of the German Confederation from 1S15 to 1S66. It 
was left out of lx)th the Austrian and Prussian reor- 
ganizations of 1S67, and is nominally independent, 
though a satellite of Austria till the World War. The 
sovereign in 1920 was Prince Johann II . The area is 
65 square miles and the population (1912) 10,716. 



1613. Count of Hohenenis acquires the region. 

1713. Coimty passes to llie Liechtenstein family. 

1719. Jan. i?i. Emperor makes it a principahty in 
the Holy Roman Empire. 

1806. Part of Rliine Confederation. 

1815. June S. Made a member of the German 
Confederation. 

1866-1867. When the Confederation faUs it is left 
out of the new Union: is theoretically independent, 
but is included in Austrian Customs Union. 

1918. A'or. 7. With the break-up of Austria- 
Hungary the Diet resolves to establish complete 
Independence. 



LITHUANIA. 

The Lithuanians he south of the former Baltic 
Provinces of Russia, east of Germany and Poland, 
and are foimd chiefly in the former Russian prov- 
inces (governments) of Ko\iio, Suvalki, Grodno, 
and part.s of Vitebsk, Minsk, and Vilno. They rep- 
resent a brancli of the Aryan race wliich from time 
immemorial has inhabited this region near the Baltic. 
They were the last of the native European races to 
accept Christianity. In alliance with the Poles they 
occupied a large part of Prussia and defeated the 
Germans in a decisive battle in 1410. When Rus- 
sia dismembered Poland. Lithuania practically ceased 
to exist; but during the 19th century a feeling of race 
consciousness was aroused, and an idea of an inde- 
pendent Lithuania took root. 

Lithuatua is an imfertile coimtry with low-lying, 
marshy land. Only in the province of Ko\iio is agri- 
culture carried on to any extent. The raising of live 
stock and the utilization of the forest resomx»s are 
the other industries. 

During the overthrow of the Russian government 
and the defeat of Germany the new repiitilic nf Po- 
land claimed a large part of tliis region, and whether 
it will be attached to Poland or remain an independ- 
ent state is still imcertain. 

GoTernment. Pending the convocation of a 
constituent assembly a provisional constitution was 
adopted. April 4, 1919. The state council, the 
cabinet, and the president exercise the authority. 
The president conducts all foreign relations and is 
commander in chief of the army. The state coun- 
cil, of 40 members, exercises the functions of a legisla- 
ture. The cabinet is responsible to the state coimcil. 

Industry and Labor. The chief industry of 
Lithuania is agriculture, important products being 
rye, wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes. The coimtry 
is also rich in live stock. Poultry farming, particu- 
larly geese rearing, is carried on. The chief articles 
of export are com, cattle, lumber, hides, and wool. 

The approximate area of the prt?sent Lithuanian 
Republic is 30. .532 square miles, and the popula- 
tion in 1914 was 4,6.51,000. In the compUcations 
due to the World War Kurland was grouped with 
Lithuania, not claiming a separate existence. 

Chronology. 

See also B.\ltk- Provinces (imder Russia), Estho- 
NiA, Latvia, Poland, and World W.\r. 
Personal union with Poland. 
Practically annexed by Poland. 
Annexed by Russia. 

Joins in Polish Revolution against Russia. 
Convention demands self-government. 
German invasion of Lithuania and Kur- 



1386. 
1S69. 
1795. 

1863. 
1905. 
191«. 

land. 
1915. Russia orders the peasants to evacuate: 

population of Kurland reduced from 674,000 to 
230,000, but in Lithuania emigration is stopiied by 
the nationalists and the Germans are welcomed. 



Baits are not restored to power in the province, and 
in Lithuania a national council is permitted. 

1917. Dec. 11. National government proclaims 
independence and alliance with Germany. 

1918. March S. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 
Russia renoimces sovereignty over Lithuania, 
Kurland, and Riga. 

March ;^3. Germany recognizes Lithuania 
as an independent ally. Plans for instaUing a 
German king. 

Nor. SO. Republic proclaimed in Lithuania. 

1919. April. German and German-Baltic troops, 
on pretense of lighting the Bolslieviki, overtlirow 
pro\-isional Lithuanian government at Libau, 
Poles advance In Lithuania against the Reds. 

May. Bolshevik! are driven out, ail the 
states combining in the offensive. 

June 10. French General Focb orders Ger- 
man troops in the Baltic states (" Iron Division " 
under von der Goltz) to retire. Order is ignored. 

Sept. 28. German government profe^^es inabil- 
ity to enforce the retirement of the " insubordi- 
nate " troops in the Baltic states. 

Oct. S. A Russian army (nominally WTiite) 
mider Bermondt, with von der Goltz's assistance, 
makes an attack on Riga and sets up a dictator- 
ship at Mitau. In November it finally begins to 
evacuato the region. 

Vol'. 10. Conference of Estbonlan dele- 
gates at Yurev (Dorpat) attended also by dele- 
gates from Lithuania, Latvia (Livonia-Kurland), 
Finland, Poland, and UTiraine. Red delegates 
attend and make drastic demands on Esthonla. 

Nov. 29. Armistice, made ttirough the Allied 
commission, provides for retirement of all the 
German troops by December 13. 



LUXEMBURG. 

This, the only independent duchy in Europe, is 
situated between France, Belgium, and Germany. 
In 1384 it became a duchy, and its dukes several 
times occupied the imperial tlirone. It passed by 
turns to Burgimdy, Spain. France, Austria, and 
again to France. After the fall of Napoleon, it was 
created a grand duchy and given to the Netherlands. 
On the rise of Belgium in 1830, half of it was assigned 
to the new kingdom. 

The other half, now the duchy, was neutralized in 
1S67, and in 1,S90 its connection with the Nether- 
lands was severed. A mountamous region, occupy- 
ing an important strategic position, the possession of 
the duchy has long been coveted both by France and 
Germany. 

The duchy of Luxemburg was occupied tiy the 
Germans in 1914 and until the close of the World 
War. By the Treaty of Versailles, Germany re- 
noimced all the rights she had gained to the exploi- 
tation of the railways and recognized that Luxem- 
burg is no longer a member of the German Customs 
Union and accepts neutrality. 

Government. The reigning princess is the ex- 
ecutive, and there is a Chamtwr of Deputies of 48 
elected by the cantons for six years, one half renew- 
able every three years. In 1919 the duchy was 
formally continued by popiflar vote. 

Industry and Labor. Mining and smelting are 
the iiKtst important occupations. 

Religion and Education. AU but 5,000 of the 
population are Roman Cathohcs. In addition to 
primary and secondary schools, Luxemburg has a 
seminary and one institute for tlie deaf and dumb. 

The area is 999 square miles and the population 
(1916) was 263,824. 

Chronology. 

1551. Luxemburg is part of Spanish Netherlands. 

1697. Sept. SO. By Treaty of Ryswick (Rijswijk) 
Luxemburg is restored to Spain. 

1713-1714. By Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, 
ceded to Austria. (a department. I 

1795. June .5. Captured by French: organized asl 

1815. June 9. By Treaty of Vienna, Luxemburg 
raised to rank of a grand duchy and given to king 
of the Netherlands; fortress of Luxemburg to be 
occupied by Prussian troops for the German Con- 
federation. 

1830. Aug. 1. LiLxemburg. except the capital, re- 
volts against the king of the Netherlands, 

1839. April 19. Ratification of Treaty of London 
(see Belgium), Luxemburg divided; western 
half becomes Belgian, eastern is restored to king 
of the Netherlands. 

1842. Feb. 8. In spite of local opposition. Grand 
Duke WiUiam II. adlieres to the German Zolherein. 

1867. March. Napoleon III. negotiates for the 
purchase of Luxemtjurg, as offset to aggrandize- 
ment of Prussia. Danger of war between France 
and Prussia over this question. 

May 11. Treaty of London: Luxemburg de- 
clared perpetually neutral, under " collective " 
guarantee of the powers. 

1871. By treaty, Frankfurt railroad ceded to Ger- 
many : not to be used so as to endanger neutrality 
of Luxemburg. (duchy and Germany. | 

1872. June 11. Railroad convention between the I 



1890. Nov. 2S. Deathof king of the Netherlands; 

succeeded in Luxemburg by Adolph of Nassau. 
1912. Feb. 26. Marie Adelaide succeeds as grand 

duchess. 
1914. Aug. 1-2. German troops occupy the 

duchy in violation of its guaranteed neutrality, 

and continue in occupation during the World War. 

1918. Nov. 21. United States troops enter the city 
of Luxemburg. 

1919. Jan. 9. Luxemburg denounces railroad and 
Zolherein treaties with Germany. Agitators de- 
mand estabhshment of a republic. 

Jan. 12. Marie Adelaide abdicates. 

Jan. 15. Charlotte Adelgonde succeeds as 
grand duchess. 

Sept. 28. Plebiscite resiUts in favor of reten- 
tion of dynasty, and of economic alliance with 
France, rather than with Belgium. 

Oct. 26. Elections for the Chamber are held 
under scrutin de liste and proportional representa- 
tion; women vote. 



MADAGASCAR. 

See under France, page96. 



MALAY STATES, FEDERATED. 

See under British Empire, page 65. 

MALTA. 

See under British Empire, page 62. 



MAURITIUS. 

See under British E.mpire, page 65. 



MESOPOTAMIA. 

The plain through wliich flow the twin rivers, Ti- 
gris and Euphrates, extending from the mountains 
of eastern Asia Minor to the Persian Gulf , is the seat 
of some of the earliest empires. The flat plain was 
very early fertihzed by irrigation waters from the 
rivers, and supported a large population, which de- 
veloped immense cities with vast walls, temples, and 
public buildings. Two centers of mtensive national 
life sprang up — Babylon near the present Bagdad, 
and Nineveh near the present Mosul. 

About 2300 B. c. Babylon became a great commer- 
cial city. It was brought into relations with the ris- 
ing Hittite power to the westward. About 1100 b. c. 
the Assyrians became powerful and for a time they 
held Babylon. Judea was drawn mto the wars and 
conquests of this i)eriod. In 639 b. c. the Persians 
took Babylon, which had revived, and held Meso- 
potamia till the Persian Empire went down before 
Alexander (331 b. c). The kingdoms set up by 
Alexander's generals and the rising nation of the 
Parthians contended for the region. The Romans 
long disputed the Partiiian rule, and eventually, at 
the beginning of the third century a. d., came into 
possession of the valley, only to confront a revived 
Persian Empire, which for ages was the enemy of 
Rome's successor, the Byzantine Empire. 

The rising tide of the new religion and the Mo- 
hammedan power in the eiglith century prevailed 
over the Persians, and Bagdad lx>came the capital of 
the eastern Mohammedans. In the thirteenth cen- 
tury the nomadic Arabs ruled the country and the 
canals fell out of use. In the seventeenth century 
the Turks became the masters, and did notliing to 
restore it to fertiUty . Just before the World War the 
Germans were pushing their project of a " Berlin- 
to-Bagdad " railroad which was to give them control 
of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia. During the war 
the country fell wholly into the hands of the Enghsh, 
who expect to keep it, lest it become a gateway to- 
ward India for enemies. There is no evidence that 
the inhabitants desire any rule except that of their 
own contending trilx^. 

The coimtry contains valuable oil fields and could 
probably be made a cotton-producing region. The 
area is 143,250 square miles and the population is, 
according to the 1920 census, 2,849,282. 

Chronology. 

B. C. 3000-539. Mesopotamia is the seat of Baby- 
lonian and AssjTian civiUzation. 

B. C. 539. Conquest of Babylon by Cjtus the Per- 
sian. During the following centuries Macedo- 
nians, Parthians, Romans, Sas.sanians, and Byzan- 
tines by turn control and contend for the region. 

A. D. 762. Bagdad founded; cliief city of Meso- 
potamia (Euphrates-Tigris Valley) ; capital of the 
cahphate and center of the Islamic world. 

1258. Bagdad captured by Mongols and ceases to 
be the religious center of Mohammedanism. Ca- 
nals abandoned and coimtr>- loses importance. 

1638. City and region become part of Ottoman 
Turkish Empire. 

1798-1914. For British interests in Persian GuU, 
see Arabia, under Hejaz. 

1845-1851. Layard's explorations in AssjTian 
ruins. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: MESOPOTAMIA — MEXICO. 



125 



1888. Concession to a German company for a short 
railway east from Constantinople; beginning of 
tlie " Berlin-to-Bagdad " plan for German in- 
terest in Asia. 

1899. Xov. 37. Concession to Germans to con- 
tinue tlie Anatolian railway from Konia to Bagdad 
and Persian Gulf, witli a branch to the Persian 
frontier. Further convention March 5, 1903. 
By 1914 the Imc extends from Constantinople to 
Karabimar in Cilicia, with various disconnected 
sections farther on. 

1903. Jan. 2i. Official British annoimcement of 
intention to preserve ascendancy in the Persian 
Gulf; repeated May 5. 1903. 

1911. Aug. 19. Convention between Russia and 
Germany (" Potsdam agreement "), recognizing 
German control of the Bagdad railway in re- 
turn for a free hand in building railways in Persia 
to Unk up with the Bagdad line. 

1914. June 29. Official British annoimcement of 
agreement with Germany and Turkey for the Ger- 
man plan of railway to Busrah, but German line 
not to extend beyond that point toward the Persian 
Gulf. Furtherunderstanding with Turkey respect- 
ing British ascendancy in ilir Gulf :uid control of 
Koweit. Not made formal ; World War intervenes. 

Nov. 6. British Indian army l>egins the Meso- 
potamian campaign. On November 21 Busrah is 
occupied. Kunia is captured December 9. 

1915. Oct. 24. Great Britain in agreement with 
Husein on Syrian state (see Syria) reser\-cs 
provinces of Bagdad and Busrah. 

Nov. 23-24- British advance repulsed below 
Bagdad; Townshend retreats to Kut-el-Amara, 
where on December S, he is besieged by the Turks, 

1916. A pril 39. Townshend surrenders at Kut- 
el-Amara, tlu-ee reUef expeditions having failed. 

May 9. Secret agreements between ,Great 
Britain and France. Lower Mesopotamia (from 
Persian Gxilf to a point north of Bagdad) assigned 
to the British: northerly portion an Arab state di- 
vided into British and French spheres. 

1917. Fib. 34. Kut-el-Amara recaptured by 
General Maude. 

March 11. Bagdad taken. Economic restora- 
tion of the region goes steadily forward imder Brit- 
ish control. Busrah-Bagdad railroad completed. 

1918. Oct. 23-30. Final operations in Mesopo- 
tamia; surrender of the Turkish force below 
Mosul. Mosul is occupied on November 14. 

1919. Great Britain given a mandate for Meso- 
potamia by the Supreme Coimcil at Paris. 

1930. May 11. By peace treaty handed to Tiu-key. 
Mesopotamia is recognized as an Independent 
state with British mandate. 



MEXICO. 

Historical Outline. 

The earliest Spanish discoverers learned that in 
the central plateau of southern North America lived 
a people who had a considerable degree of culture. 
Tliis was the empire of the Aztecs imder Montezuma, 
whose principal city was on an island in the lake of 
Tezcoco. Like the Peruvians in South America, the 
Aztecs had reached the upper stage of barbarism. 
They dwelt in vast commvmal houses of red stone 
coated with white stucco, which were divided into 
rooms by cedar partitions himg with tapestries. 
The city of Mexico was connected with the mainland 
by three stone causeways, each nearly five miles in 
length, and by a solid masonry aqueduct. The 
temple was surroimded by walls eight feet high and 
in the coiu-tyard were twenty pyramids not far 
from one himdred feet in height, on which were of- 
fered human sacrifices to the war god. From this 
strategic position the Aztecs waged war and levied 
tribute upon the surrounding tribes and were able to 
oppose the Spanish conquests with some success by 
assembling an organized army . 

By making an alliance with neighboring tribes who 
hated their Mexican masters and by taking advan- 
tage of the belief that the Spaniard was the God of 
Light, Cortes succeeded in obtaining an entry to the 
city (1519"). from which, however, he was expelled 
in a memorable night battle. He reformed his forces 
and in 1521 after a terrible siege the city of Mexico 
surrendered, the Aztec empire was conquered, and 
the chieftain Montezuma was executed. 

During the long colonial i>eriod, Mexico was the 
seat of the viceroyalty of New Spain, wliich included 
Guatemala, Manila, and Santo Domingo and was 
the center of the Spanish colonial power in North 
America. During this period four classes of popu- 
lation developed: the native Indians; the Creoles, of 
Spanish descent but Mexican birth; " Peninsulars," 
Spaniards bom in Europe: mestizos, or half-breeds, 
who were crosses between the other classes and In- 
dians. To these classes should be added the Negro 
slaves and the various crosses which resulted from 
their intermarriages with other races. The Spanish 
rule of Mexico was like that of the other Spanish 
colonies, and the Spanish language and culture and 
the Roman Catholic religion were introduced and 
material improvements made in the city of Mexico. 



The overtlirow of the Bourbons aroused the Mexi- 
cans and a revolution was started in 1810 under 
Morelos-Pav6n. In 1813 a national congress was 
summoned and Mexico was declared independent, 
but tiie old government rallied, defeated the popular 
party and after three years of guerrilla warfare re- 
stored order. In 1820 a new revolution broke out 
imder General Itiu-bide who captured the capital and 
m 1821 the last viceroy. O'Donoju, formally recog- 
nized the independence of Mexico. Iturbide de- 
clared himself emperor of Mexico. At the end of a 
year the mipirr gave way to a repubhc, proclaimed 
by Lopez de Santa Anna. 

No stable government was possible, and the land 
went through a series of revolutions. In 1S36 the 
Anglo-Saxon settlers of Texas revolted and the forces 
of Santa Anna were defeated at San Jacinto. Texas 
therefore declared independence, which was recog- 
nized by the United States. In IS45 at her own re- 
quest Texas was annexed tothe Union. The transfer 
of Texas and the desire of the United States for Cali- 
fornia led to war between the United States and 
Mexico. General Zachary Taylor captured Mon- 
terey and defeated Santa Anna at Buena Vista while 
General Winfiold Scott captiu-ed Vera Cruz and the 
city of Mexico. The war was termiziated hy the 
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, by wliich Me.xico gave 
up not only Texas but New Mexico and California 
as well. 

In 1S61 Spain. England, and France invaded 
Mexico in order to force a settlement of their claims 
for uijiu-ies against their citizens and property. 
Spain and England witlidrew, but Napoleon III. 
declared war upon Mexico.. occupied the city, and 
established a so-called empire under Maximilian 
of Austria (1864). The United States protested 
against anj- alti-nipt to found an empire against the 
will of the Mtxicans; hence, the French troops were 
withdrawn, Maximilian was overwhelmed, and exe- 
cuted (1867). 

After a period of prosperity under President 
Judrez. a full-blooded Indian, broken by occasional 
insmrections. General Porfirio Diaz led a revolt and 
secin-ed the presidency in 1877. From this time milil 
1911 the development of Mexico was almost wholly 
the work of Diaz who was reelected from time to time 
and permitte<l no rivals. Mexico made great prog- 
ress in economic and material ways. Foreign capi- 
tal was secured for railroads and mines by conces- 
sions and guarantees of lx)nds and some of the vast 
resoiu-ces of the coimtr>- were developed. Steps 
were taken to establish a stable ciu'rency on the gold 
standard, railways were built, and the harbor of 
Vera Cruz was improved. There were few Insiurec- 
tions of importance and a rebellion of Yacjui Indians, 
who had never l>een sui)dued since the Spanish con- 
quest, was ended in 1907. But the political power 
was in the hands of a few who exploited the lower 
classes for their own benefit and pledged the re- 
sources of the country' to foreign capitalists. 

The long administration of Diaz came to an end 
in 1911 when a revolt headed by Francisco J. Ma- 
dero spread over the northern section of the coimto'. 
Diaz resigned and Madero was elected president. 
During the next two years there were relx>llions 
against the Madero government in all parts of the 
count.r>' and on February 18, 1913, Madero was de- 
posed and Victoriano Huerta proclaimed president. 
On February 23 Madero was shot, wliile being trans- 
ferred from one prison to another by the order of 
Huerta, and although some of the rebel leaders sub- 
mitted to Huerta's government, the " Constitution- 
alists" mamtained their resistance and won im- 
portant victories. 

The United States refused to recognize General 
Huerta. who refused to resign, declared liimself dic- 
tator, and was then nominally elected president. In 
the meantime the Constitutionalists under General 
Francisco Villa won important victories. 

The administration of President Wilson refused 
to recognize Huerta and followed a policy of " watch- 
ful waiting." In 1914 some American sailors were 
arrested and the Huerta government refused to apol- 
ogize and salute the flag. American' marines and 
sailors were landed at Vera Cruz and after some little 
fighting took possession of the city. The real piu*- 
pose was to prevent militarj' supplies from reaching 
Huerta. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, the "ABC " 
states of South America, offered to mediate in the dis- 
pute, and a conference was held at Niagara Falls 
which attempted to settle the international compli- 
cations and hoped to arrange the internal disputes of 
Mexico. However, as General Carranza, the first 
chief of the Constitutionalist forces, refused to con- 
sent to an armistice, little progress was made in the 
internal settlement. 

The conference had some good effects, for it 
showed that the United States was actuated by no 
selfish motives, and did much to allay the feeling of 
resentment which the American occupation of Vera 
Cruz had aroused in the South American repul)lics. 
Huerta gave up the struggle, resigned the presidency, 
and left the coimtry. A period of anarchy and war 
followed, in wliich the city of Mexico changed hands 
four times. Fmally. the conflict narrowed down to 
one between the forces of Carranza and Villa. 



The United States formally recognized Carranza 
(October 19. 1915) and considerable progress was 
made in establisliing order. Villa alone stood out in 
active, spasmodic warfare against the government. 
But Carranza was unable to control the bandits and 
Villa (March, 1916) attacked a United States post at 
Columbus, New Mexico. General Pershing led a 
pimitive expedition into Mexico to capture Villa. It 
remained nearly a year without reaching Villa and 
was at last withdrawn (1917). 

A revised constitution was promulgated February 
5, 1917, wliich established, on paper at least, a demo- 
cratic form of government and Carranza was chosen 
president. His policy was to establish law and or- 
der, to reform the disordered finances, and to restore 
the industries and credit of Mexico, m which task he 
subjected certain foreign interests to almost confis- 
catory taxation. He set himself against foreign con- 
cessions and interests, beUeving that much of Mex- 
ico's troubles have come from such intervention. 
During the World War the German residents and 
official representatives attempted to put obstacles 
m the way of obtaming petroleum, and Mexico was 
the seat of German plotting. Although Carranza 
himself was not accused of mmeutra! action, certain 
of his decrees were certainly favorable to Germany. 
In 1918 a new form of tax on oil wells aroused opposi- 
tion in the United States. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution of 1917 estab- 
lishes a federal republic of states which manage their 
owii local atfairs, but are subject in national and in- 
ternational affairs to the control of the central gov- 
ernment. The executive power is in a president 
elected by direct popular vote for a term of four 
years. The legislative power is in a congress con- 
sisting of a House of Representatives directly elected 
for tw^o years by imiversai suffrage at the ratio of one 
meml>er for every 60,000 inhabitants ; and a Senate of 
58 members, two for each state, elected in the same 
way as the deputies. In practice the states are sub- 
ject to the national executive in office at the time. 

Industry and Labor, .\lthough Mexico has a 
fertile soil and one of the most favorable chmates in 
the world, her agricultiu-e and industry- are back- 
ward. The principal products are com, cotton, 
wheat, coffee, and a large oiUput of sugar and mo- 
lasses. The oil fields of Mexico are widely distrib- 
uted and very important, and in spite of the dis- 
ordered condition of tlie coimtry, the production has 
mcreased from 12,000.000 ban-els in 1911 to S0,(X)0,- 
000 in 1919. Mexico is rich in mines, yielding gold, 
silver, copper, lead, zinc, and antimony. 

Religion and Education. The prevailing re- 
ligion is the Roman Catholic, but according to the 
new constitution of 1917 there is toleration for all 
religions and the church is separated from the state. 
To prevent ecclesiastical influence in politics it is 
provided that no religious body can acquire landed 
property. Education is free and obligatory and con- 
troUed by the national government in the Federal 
District and in the territories. Elsewhere it is 
regulated l)y the state authorities. In 1912 primary 
education was nominally extended so that it might 
reach the native population. The National Univer- 
sity of Mexico, established in 1910, is situated in the 
city of Mexico. 

The area of Mexico is 767,198 square miles. The 
census population of 1910 w'as 15,115,612 and the 
estimated population in 1912 was 15,501,684. 

Chronology. 

1517. C6rdoba explores coast of Yucatan and dis- 
covers Maya culture. 

1518. Grijalva trades along the coast as far as site 
of Vera Cruz. 

1519. February. Veliisquez, governor of Cuba, 
sends Cortes to make a settlement. Vera Cruz 
foimded and Cortes enters Mexico City in No- 
vember. 

1620. June 30. Cortes obliged to retreat from 
Mexico City (Noche triste; Spanish, " Sad night "). 

1521. Aug. 13. Final capture of Mexico City by 
Cortes after a prolonged siege. Complete over- 
throw of Aztecs and foundation of a Spanish col- 
ony. Cortes made governor and captain general. 
He sends expeditions to the South Sea. and also 
into Central America, but Central America is not 
attached to Mexican government. 

1535. Cortes superseded in civil power by a viceroy, 
Mendoza; viceroyalty of New Spain. Natives 
reduced to serfs, but gradually freed. Negre 
slavery' never of much importance. Interm&r- 
riage of natives, Negroes, and Spanish produces 
complex mixture of races and castes. Clei-gy gain 
great influence. 

1537. Lower California discovered. 

1539-1542. Coronado explores the southwestern 
portion of the present Linited States, which be- 
comes a part of New Spain. 

1512-1543. Cabrillo and Ferrer sail along the west- 
ern coas( as far as Oregon: beginning of Spanish 
clainin Tliis region also is attached to New Spain. 

1598. Beginning of settlement of New Mexico, a 
province of New Spain. 



126 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: MEXICO. 



1604-1859. 



N 



U 



W 



1604. Acapiilco becomes the port of Spanish Ori- 
ental and Philippine trade, and for transship- 
ment of goods across Mexico to Vera Cruz. Used 
also for Peruvian trade. Great fairs at Vera 
Cruz and Acapulco. 

1607. Beginning of drainage of the capital, which is 
subject to disastrous overflow from the surround- 
ing lakes. System not completed until 1896. 

1090. Beginning of Spanish settlement of Texas, a 
part of New Spain. 

1767. June 26. Arrest and deportation of the 
Jesuits: Mexicans resent it. 

1769. Beginning, at San Diego, of settlement of 
California, a province of New Spain. 
Gdlvez arrives in Mexico as visitador general (com- 
missioner) to devise reforms in administration. 

lSOG-1807. Burr conspiracy and New Spain (see 
United States). 

1808. Influence of overtlirow of Bourbons iji Spain 
felt in New Spain. Conditions favor revolt; 
influence of example of United States and of 
French thought and revolution; Creole hatred of 
the Spanish (" Gachupine ") oligarcliical rule: In- 
dian hatred of both Spanish and Creoles. Viceroy 
Iturrigaray shows a disposition to grant the Creoles 
a voice in the government. Gachupines over- 
throw him, which crystallizes spirit of revolt. 

1810. Hidalgo, a priest, raises a revolt of Indians 
whose fanatic excesses prevent aid or sympathy 
from substantial elements of society. Hidalgo 
betrayed and executed (1811). Guerrilla war 
continues; Lopez de Santa Anna and Iturbide gain 
prominence on royal side; Bravo, Victoria, Guer- 
rero, and Morelos-Pavon on partisan side. Parti- 
sans subdued by 1S19. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1819. Feb. 22. Treaty between Spain and United 
States (see United States). Territorial claims 
of New Spain limited to region south of 42° and 
west of present Kansas and eastern line of Texas. 

1821. Feb. 24. Plan of Iguala. Gachupines, 
especially the clergy, under Iturbide, fearing effect 
of liberal Spanish constitution o!i their privileges, 
conspire. Bases of new state were independence, 
old privileges {/ueros), religious intolerance, Um- 
ited monarchy under a Bourbon prince. O'Don- 
oju, Spanish commander, yields August 24, and 
Iturbide enters Mexico City, September 27. 

Sept. S. Chiapas, part of captaincy general of 

Guatemala, joins Mexico. [tlenient of Texas. 

December. Beginning of Anglo-American set- 

1823. Jan. 3. Rest of Central America proclaims 
union with Mexico. 

July 21. Iturbide crowned emperor, Con- 
gress imder military and mob pressiu-e having 
elected him. Santa Anna, alienated by the em- 
peror, starts a repubUcan revolt, aided by Victoria, 
Guerrero, and Bravo. Army deserts the emperor. 

1823. Ja7i. 27. Jackson commissioned first Ameri- 
can minister to Mexico: does not accept. Poin- 
sett, first actual minister, not sent until 1825. 

March 19. Iturbide abdicates. 
July 1. Central America, not including Chia- 
pas, declares its separation from Mexico. 

Nov. 23. New Congress meets. IneflBcient 

J but finally adopts a federal constitution, modeled 

chiefly on the United States constitution; those of 

Spain (1812) and of French Repubhc also drawn 

upon. 

1824. July 19. Iturbide, who has returned to 
Mexico in spite of a prohibition, executed. 

Oct. 4. Constitution of the I'nited States of 
Mexico proclaimed. Oct. 10, Victoria becomes 
president, witli dictatorial powers. Foundations 
for foreign complications laid by pubhc loans, es- 
peciaUy from British. Development of Federalist 
and Centralist (oligarcliist and monarchist) parties. 

1825. Santa Fe trail between the Missouri River 
and New Mexico opened; increases American in- 
terests in that portion of territorj' of Mexico. 

1827. December. Revolt of aristocrats under 
Montano and Vice President Bravo. Put down 
by Guerrero. 

1828. Expulsion of Gachupines ordered by 
Congress. Many depart, Mexico losing a strong 
element somewhat like the American loyalists. 

Jan. 12. Boimdary treaty with United States, 
confirming treaty of 1819. 

September. Presidential election. Guerrero, 
popular (Federahst), and Pedraza, moderate Fed- 
eralist, but with Centralist support, the candi- 
dates. Pedraza declared elected. Santa Anna 
heads a revolt in favor of Guerrero. Acordada 
Insurrection at Mexico City, December 2, drives 
out Pedraza and Congress declares Guerrero 
president. Inaugurated April 1, 1829. 

1829. Spanish army lands, but surrenders to Santa 
Anna. Last effort to reestablish Spanish rule. 

Sept. 16. Abolition of slavery proclaimed. 

December. Vice President Bustamante deserts 
the Federahsts and leads a Centralist revolt. 
Guerrero flees; captured and shot. 

1830. Jan. 1. Bustamante assumes control. 
Ala man real head of government. 

1832. Santa Anna " pronounces " for Pedraza. 



Ignoring Congress, he and Bustamante reach an 
agreement; the latter retires and Pedraza in- 
stalled to finish Guerrero's term, December 26. 
1833. April 1. Farias, vice president elect and 
radical Federalist, takes over the government and 
attempts economic and social reforms, attacking 
both army and church. 

May 16. Santa Anna, president elect, assumes 
oflflce and checks reforms. June 16, Santa Anna 
declared dictator by the army. He receives sup- 
port of the Clericals and Centralists, ousts Con- 
gress, and drives Farias into exile. 

1835. Jan. 2S. Santa Anna retires on leave of ab- 
sence; Barragdn, ad interim successor, liis puppet, 

1836. Feb. 27. Barragdn dies; Corro becomes act- 
ing president. 

March 2. Texas declares independence. At 
battle of San Jacinto, April 21, Texans defeat 
and captiu-e Santa Anna, and make good their 
claim to mdepeudence. They desire annexation 
to United States, but receive recognition only 
(March 3, 1S37). Mexican irritation against 
United States increases, as northern repubhc is 
accused of supporting and promoting Texan ac- 
tion, as well as of desiring California. 

Dec. 2S. By treaty, Spain recognizes inde- 
pendence of Mexico. 

Dec. SO. Seven Laws proclaimed: a central- 
ized constitution, adopted by Congress. 

1837. Papacy recognizes independence of Mexico, 
on the miderstanding that antiecclesiastical laws 
have been repealed. 

April 19. Bustamante inaugurat«d presi- 
dent for eight years after an election. Finances 
in deplorable condition, army given all available 
cash to keep it loyal; chaotic poUtical conditions 
amoimting almost to anarchy. 

1838. March. French squadron appears off the 
coast to enforce payment of claims (Pastry War). 
April 16. blockade proclaimed. Various revolts 
break out against the government. November 
27-28, bombardment and capture of San Juan de 
Ulua, the fortress of Vera Cruz. December 5, 
French occupy Vera Cruz. Santa Anna loses a 
leg in the fight, becomes again the national hero, 
and proceeds to undermine the president. 

1839. March 9. Peace convention with France; 
certain payments promised. 

April 11. After many delays, Mexico signs a 
claims convention with United States. 

1841. Sept. 2S. Bases of Tacubaya issued under 
Santa Amia's control; new Congress to draft a 
new constitution; meanwlnle a provisional presi- 
dent. Santa Anna virtuafly dictator again. 
October 5, Bustamante submits and goes into 
exile. Corruption rampant. 

1842. New Congress, not proving amenable, barred 
out and dissolved. New constitution, called Or- 
ganic Bases, framexi under Santa Anna's control. 

1843. Jan. 30. Mexico evading payments under 
the awards of the American claims convention of 
1839, a new convention grants her more indulgent 
terms, which she again fails to carry out. 

July. Governor of California and other nortli- 
ern departments ordered to expel all Americans. 

1844. January. Santa Anna becomes president 
under the new constitution, but suspends Con- 
gress, and loses control of the people tlu-ough his 
graft and evident mtention of ruling absolutely ; the 
army revolts on DecemlxT 6. and he flees. Janu- 
ary 11, 1845, captured and banished. 

1845- Herrera, president of the Council of State, 
becomes acting president. Reforms attempted, 
but fear of the army and chiu-ch and approaclmig 
war with United States over Texas maie condi- 
tions hopeless. 

March 1. American Congress passes a joint 
resolution for annexation of Texas. 

Nov. SO. Slidell, special American minister 
sent to reach a satisfactorj^ settlement with Mex- 
ico, arrives at Vera Cruz. Mexican government 
refuses to receive him. 

Dec. 29. Herrera overthrown by a revolt 
headed by Paredes, who becomes temporary 
president. New government reiterates the re- 
jection of Slidell. [United States. I 

1846-1848. For war with United States, see | 

1846. May 20. Discontent against Paredes breaks 
into revolt. To calm it Paredes starts to take the 
field against the Americans, leaving Vice President 
Bravo as acting executive. Aug. 6, Bravo yields 
to Salas, who has pronounced for Santa Aima. 

Aug. 16. Santa Amia lands at Vera Cruz.' 
His return has been permitted tlirough the Ameri- 
can blockade after an " understandmg " with 
President Polk's representative. [stored. I 

Aug. 22. Federal constitution of 1824 re- 1 
Sept. 17. Santa Anna appointed com- 
mander in chief, craftily refusing civil responsi- 
bilities. Salas continues acting executive with 
Farias as dictator. December 22, Congress, 
composed largely of radical Federalists {Puros), 
elects Santa Anna president ad interim and 
Farias vice president. Latter assumes charge 
of administration. 

1847. Jan. 11. Act (called Law of January 11) to 



meet financial demands by pledging or selling 
property of the church. Kismg, fostered by 
the church and an American agent, follows. 
Alarch 23, Santa Anna returns from battle of 
Buena Vista and supersedes Farias. Santa Anna 
compromises with clergy and annuls the law. 
His prestige restored. 

Sept. 16. Santa Anna resigns presidency and 
assigns executive power to a triumvirate, Pena y 
Peila, Herrera, and Alcorta. Peiia y Peiia be- 
comes acting president, October 7, Santa Anna 
ordered to relinquish command and submit to a 
military trial because of reverses. 
1848. Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with 
United States; California and New Mexico ceded, 
Rio Grande boundary recognized; United States to 
pay Mexico $15,000,000 and assume claims. 

April. Santa Anna permitted by American 
and Mexican governments to leave the countr>'. 

April 29. President Polk of United States in- 
forms Congress that Vucatan, where the Indians 
are in revolt, considers itself independent and de- 
sires protection or annexation to United States, 
which he favors, especially as British interven- 
tion is feared. No action taken. Indians do not 
submit imtil 1853. 

June 3. Herrera inaugurated president. 
Financial and other reforms attempted. 

July. Paredes, w^ho has been in revolt, de- 
feated. He leaves the coimtry. 
1851. Jan. 15. Arista constitutionally succeeds 
as president, carrying on Herrera's policies. 

Jan. 25. Convention with United States for 

construction of a canal on the Tehuantepec route. 

Ratified, but denounced by Mexican Congress in 

1852. [of Santa Anna. I 

185^. Sept. 13. Blan carte starts a revolt for recall | 

1853. Jan. 6. Arista resigns; Chief Justice Cebal- 
los becomes head. He dissolves Congress as first 
movement in a peace plan, but resigns himself, 
February 7. MUitary leaders elevate Lombar- 
dini, a stop-gap until Santa Anna is elected presi- 
dent, March 17. 

Sept. 21. Santa Anna, again dictator, cen- 
tralizes the government. State militia system 
also submerged. However, internal improve- 
ments and education are fostered. [States).! 
Dec. 8. Gadsden Purchase (see United] 
Dec. 16. Santa Arma issues a decree prolonging 
his dictatorship indefinitely and bestowhig title of 
" Most Serene Higlmess " on liimself. 

1854. March 1. Flan of Ayutla issued by revo- 
lutionists; grievances of Santa Anna's despotism 
recited, basis for a provisional government elimi- 
nating him. Alvarez becomes head of the move- 
ment, wliich makes headway quickly. 

1855. Aug. 9. Santa Anna leaves the capital, 
after appointing a triiunvirate to succeed liim. 
City proclaims the plan of Ayutla, August 13. 
Santa Anna leaves the country, August 17. never 
to regain power. Alvarez becomes acting presi- 
dent imder the plan; September 24, he orders an 
assembly of delegates who elect him president ad 
interim, October 4. Liberal reforms attempted; 
clergy and army hostile. December 11, Alvarez 
siurendei-s office to Comonfort, who continues 
efi'orts for reform. 

1856. June 2S. Ley Lerdo, striking at mort- 
main, and permitting tenants of ecclesiastical and 
civil corporations to become owners of their leased 
land. Church revolts at Puebla, but reaction- 
ists defeated by end of year. 

1857. Feb. 12. New federal constitution pro- 
mulgated, drafted by constituent assembly. 
Much borrowed from United States Constitution: 
privileges (fueros) of clergy and army abolished, 
equality before the law a fmidamental right, bill 
of rights. Comonfort continues in power under 
plan of Ajoitla imtil government is organized im- 
der new constitution. • 

Oct. S. Meeting of first Congress under new 
constitution. Comonfort elected re^Uar presi- 
dent, installed December 1. Already conserva- 
tive reaction has set in. December 17, Plan of 
Tacubaya issued to set aside the constitution and 
restore Comonfort's dictatorial power pending 
formhig of a new one. Congress declares Comon- 
fort's presidency at an end. December IS, 
Zuloaga enters capital and dissolves Congress. 

1858. Jan. 19. Chief Justice Juarez, a fidl-blooded 
Indian, becomes head of the constitutional gov- 
ernment, Comonfort having ended his vacillation 
by siurendering authority to Iiim as the person 
legally entitled to receive it. February 7, Com- 
oniort goes into exile. 

Jan. 23. Zuloaga chosen president by reac- 
tionists under plan of Tacubaya. Civil war and 
virtual anarchy for tliree years. 

Dec. 23. Zuloaga resigns following revolts 
among his own followers. January 30, a junta 
elects Miramon his successor. 

1859. July 12. Judrez decrees confiscation and 
nationalization of property of the clergy; he 
follows it by other decrees for ci\il marriage, sep- 
aration of church and state, control of cemeteries, 
and abolition of mission to the Vatican. 



1859-1914. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: MEXICO. 



127 



1859 (continued). 

Dec. 14- Draft treaty p.nd convention be- 
tween United States and Juarez on transit and 
commerce and " to enforce treaty stipulations." 
Earlier efforts under Southern pressure for more 
territory from Mexico abandoned: but for money 
payment and assumption of claims Mexico grants 
right of transit by Tehuantepec and other routes. 
Protection by United States and right of inter- 
vention. American Senate declines to ratify 
agreements. 

1860. Dec. 22. Decisive victory of Juarez over 
Miramon. Mexico City occupied; Miramon flees. 

1861. May 9. Second Congress under constitu- 
tion of 1S57 assembles.' June 11, Juarez de- 
(^lared elected president; inaug-urated Jmie 15. 

Oct. 31. London Convention by Great Brit- 
ain, France* and Spain for joint intervention 
to enforce claims in Mexico. I'nited States re- 
fuses to join, while giving warning of seeing that 
its own rights are not injureti. December 14, 
Vera Cruz occupied by the allied forces. Reac- 
tionists rally to the invaders. 
1863. April 22. British and Spanish forces retire 
from Mexico because of evident French intention 
to turn the intervention into a conquest. France 
begins war on Juarez's government. 

1863. June 10. French occupy Mexico City. 
Judrez retires to the north and continues the light. 
Almonte, Salas, and the Archbishop of Mexico 
become provisional executive imder the French. 

July S. Appointed assembly meets. July 11, 
assembly promulgates decree for a hereditary 
Catholic monarcliy, with Maxiniiiian. brother 
of the emperor of Austria, as emperor of Mexico. 

1864. April 10. Maximilian accepts the crown 
(under French guarantees). He and his consort 
land at Vera Cruz, May 29, and enter Mexico 
City. Jime 12. His policy is concUiator>' and 
liberal, but supported only by French arms and 
financt« and unable to harmonize factions. 
Church disaffected l>y decree of religious freedom. 
Juarez holds out in spite of continued reverses. 

1865. United States, freed from the Civil War. 
becomes peremptory in demand for with- 
drawal of French forces. American army sent 
to Mexican border. 

1866. April. Napoleon orders withdrawal of 
French troops, to begin in November. Repubh- 
can forces advance as French withdraw. 

1867. February. French evacuate Mexico City; 
Mexican soil cleared of them by IVIarch 12. 

June 19. Maximilian, refiLsing to leave, is 
overwhelmed and captm*ed; executed by the Re- 
publicans. 

Dec. 19. Juarez again elected president. 
Minor revolts continue but make little headway. 

1868. Restoration of diplomatic relations with 
Europe begins. Measures decreed for payment 
of British and Spanish claims. 

1S71. Oct. 12. None of the tiiree presidential can- 
didates (Juarez, Diaz, Lerdo de Tejada) receiving 
the required majority. Congress reelects Juarez. 
Followers of Diaz (Porfiristas) revolt; Diaz issues 
a manifesto. November 8. Not successful, but 
yet not crushed. 

1873. July IS. Judrez dies: Lerdo, by right of his 
chief justiceship, succeeds as president. Diaz 
submits, October 26. amnesty being proclajmed. 
Lerdo elected by Congress, regularly inaugurated, 
December 1. 

1873. Jan. 1. Opening of the railroad between 
Vera Cruz and the capital. 

May 29. Reform laws as additions to consti- 
tution of 1857; separation of church and state, 
freedom of religion, marriage a civil contract, no 
monastic orders. Incorporated in constitution, 
September 2.5. Efforts of clergy to arouse old- 
time fanatic disturbances as protest fail. 

1876. Jan. 15. Plan of Tuxtepec promulgated, 
denoimcing L/erdo for usurpations and centralism 
and pronoimcmg for Diaz. 

Jan. 31. Joint American-Mexican claims com- 
mission imder convention of lsi>s tinishi-s its work. 

Oct. 26. Lerdo fraudulently rlrrlnrrd n-i'k-cted. 
Ingleslas, as chief justice, ignores tht- election and 
assumes provisional presidency himself. Diaz 
defeats the Lerdistas, November 16, at Tecoac. 
Lerdo flees the country. January 25. 1877. 

Nov. 2S. Diaz assumes the executive power. 

1877. Jan. 17. Inglesias, refusing to accept Diaz, 
but unable to resist, goes into exile. 

May 2. Diaz declared elected constitutional 
president; inaugurated May 5. Hostile move- 
ments continue for some years, but are suppressed. 
Economic advancement, improved foreign rela- 
tions and social progress, but public finances weak. 

1878. May 5. Constitutional amendment prohib- 
its reelection of a president. [France.! 

1880. October. Diplomatic relations resumed with | 

Dec. 1. Gonzalez succeeds Diaz as president. 

1883. July 29. Convention with United States 

permitting troops to cross the border in pursuit 

of Indians. Frequently renewed. 

Sept. 27. Boimdary treaty with Guatemala, 
which, however, does not end the controversy. 



1883, Jan. 20. Reciprocity convention with 
United States. Ratified and proclaimed in 
18S4, but American Congress fails to pass neces- 
sary legislation and it ceases to be operative. May 
20, 1887. 

1884. .4 pril 10. Opening of Mexican Central Rail- 
road between Mexico City and El Paso, giving rail 
connection with United States. (ish-huld debt. I 

Novernber. Convention for conversion of Brit- 1 
Dec. 1. Diaz inaugurated for a second term. 
By repeated reelections he continues president 
until 1911; period of relative internal peace, 
promoted by Diaz's organization of the guardias 
rurales irural guards) made up of men who had 
formerly been bandits; greatly increased financial 
and economic progress with much development of 
resoiu'ces tlirough foreign concessions. Govern- 
ment, while preser\Tng the forms of federalism 
and constitutionahsm, virtually central and per- 
sonal. Hea\T taxation of lower classes, land 
monopoly, and corruption cause discontent, wliich, 
however, is long unable to make headway. 

1887. Oct. 23. Constitutional amendment to per- 
mit reelection of a president to successive terms. 

1888. Dec. 1. Diaz begins his third term, being 
eligible imder the amendment of 1S87. 

1889. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress 
opens at Washington (see United St.vtes). 

1892. Dec. 1. Diaz begins his fourth term. 

1893. Various rebelhous uprismgs occiu", but are 
put down: some concessions granted, 

1895. Indian uprising in Yucatan; Mayas resent 
white settlement. 

April 1. Tlirough American mediation the 
Mexican-Guatemalan boundary dispute settled 
and armed conflict avoided. 

1896. Dec. I. Diaz begms his fifth term. 

1897. Ju.ie. Yaqoi Indians, imsubdued since 
Spanish conquest, agree to a treaty with Diaz. 

1900. Dec. 1. Diaz's sixth inauguration. 

1901. Restoration of diplomatic mtercourse with 
Austria, broken off since execution of Maximilian, 

Oct. 22. Second Pan-American Congress 
meets at Mexico City. Project adopted for 
voluntary arbitration and Internationa! Bureau 
of American Repubhcs (later Pan-American 
Union) organized with seat at Washington. 

1904. May 6. Because of Diaz's age, a constitu- 
tional amendment adopted restoring office of 
vice president. Terms of president and vice 
president made six years. 

Dec. 1. Diaz begins his seventh term as presi- 
dent. Corral installed as vice president. Lib- 
eral sentiment in antagonism to centralized and 
autocratic power develops more rapidly as the elec- 
tion of Corral indicates the perpetuating of per- 
sonal rule and its attendant corruption. 

1907. Jan. 23. Railroad across Tehuantepec 
IsthmiLs opened. Ambitious plan for a ship rail- 
way, de\'ised by Eads, has never been cairied out. 

1910. September. Celebration of centenary of 
declaration of independence. 

Nov. 22. Madero, a Liberal, who has been a 
presidential candidate against Diaz, arrested for 
sedition until after the election and then ordered 
to leave the country; proclaims a provisional 
government. Revolt in north makes progress. 

Dec. 1. Diaz and Corral inaugurated. 

1911. March 7. Because of the Mexican rebellion, 
American troops ordered to the border to check 
filibustering and lighting on American side of the 
line. Diaz fears intervention and makes conces- 
sions, then negotiates with the rebels. 

May IS. Peace proclaimed, Madero having 
agreed to the government's proposals of surrender. 

May 25. Diaz resigns and goes into exile. De 
la Barra. with Madero's support, elected by Con- 
gress provisional president . M adero the real head . 

Nov. 6. Madero inaugurated president after 
having received a unanimous electoral vote. 
SudreE vice president. Reyes, opposing candi- 
date at popular election (October 11), withdraws. 
Disturbed conditions continue. Rebels in south 
under Zapata keep the field. Reyes attempts 
a revolt in December, but fails and surrenders. 
1913. Zapata continues in revolt in the south 
throughout the year. Madero finds it impossible 
to control his followers and secure the peace neces- 
sar>' for his program of reforms. Property and 
lives of foreigners, especially Americans, endan- 
gered and lost in the disturbances. 

Feb. 12. Orozco. a Madero leader, revolts and 
captures Ciudad Juarez. 

March 2. President Taft of United States 
warns American citizens against taking part in the 
Mexican disturbances, 

March 14. Taft. underauthorityof a joint reso- 
lution of Congress of same date, puts an embargo 
on export of arms or war supplies to Mexico. 
Later modified to permit supplies to Madero. 

Oct. 16. Felix Diaz, nephew of the ex-president, 
heads a new rebellion against IVladero, Surren- 
ders, Oct. 23. Sentence of execution commuted. 
1913. Feb. 7. Military cadets at Mexico City 
mutiny and liberate Reyes and Felix Diaz. 
Reyes killed in subsequent street fighting . 



Huerta, Madero s commander in chief, goes over 
to the rebels, who arrest Madero and Suarez. 
Februar>' IS. Huerta proclaimed provisional 
president. February 19. Orozco and other op- 
ponents of Madero adhere to new government. 

Feb. 23. Madero and Suarez shot. Huerta 
personally responsible. 

March 26. Constitutionalists repudiate the 
provisional government and start a coimter-revolt 
imder Carranza. Villa is one of his officers. 
Revolt, like Madero's, fimdamentally an agra- 
rian one. Constitutionahsts gain possession of 
much of the north diuing the year. Zapata also 
continues his depredations. 

Aug. 10. Lind arrives in Mexico City as per- 
sonal representative of President Wilson to medi- 
ate for restoration of peace with elimination 
of Huerta, whom Wilson refuses to recognize, 
though accredited by various European nations. 
Lind fails; Huerta declines to be eliminated. 

.4i/f;. 27. Wilson addresses Congress on the 
Mexican situation, stating his poficy of ** watch- 
ful waiting.** 

Oct. 10. Huerta executes a coup d*etat, arrest- 
ing 110 congressmen and dissolving Congress. 

Oct. 26. Farcical election under Uuerta*s plan, 
results in his election as president. Wilson 
declines to recognize it as legal. Felix Diaz re- 
signs from the army and later seeks refuge abroad. 

Nov. 15. New Congress refuses to consider 
presidential election constitutional, but continues 
Huerta as provisional president. 
1914. Constitutionalists continue their successes. 
Huerta s government, mauily because of lack of 
American recognition, camiot get fimds, and is 
obliged to resort to drastic measures, including a 
moratorium and defaults on interest payments. 

Feb. 3. Wilson lifts embargo on munition 
exports' to Mexico; this aids Constitutionalists. 

April 9. American naval men ashore at Tam- 
pico for suppUes arrested. Released next day. 
American admiral demands as partial reparation 
salute to American fiag, which Huerta refuses. 

April 21. American marines occupy Vera 
Cruz because of Tampico incident, and by seiziu-e 
of the customhouse attempt to prevent landing of 
cargo of arms for Huerta from Germany. Mex- 
icans oppose the marines; casualties on both sides. 

April 22. American Congress supports the 
Vera Cruz occupation by authorizing use of 
force against Me.xico. 

April 23. American embargo on war supplies 
for Mexico restored. 

April 25. Representatives of Argentina, Brazil, 
and Chile at Washington offer their good services 
on Mexican difficulties (ABC mediation). 
Accepted by Wilson and Huerta, but Carranza 
refuses to suspend hostilities. 

April 30. American army imder Funston takes 
over possession of Vera Cruz from the navy. 

May 20. Sessions of ABC representatives 
regarding mediation begin at Niagara Falls. 
Carranza not represented until Jime 12. Junt- 
24, mediators announce plan for a provisional 
government established by agreement of Huertista 
and Constitutionalist delegates, which United 
States should recognize witliout demandmg satis- 
faction for Tampico affair. Huerta and United 
States approve this protocol; never made active. 

July 4. Torreon Conference of Constitutional- 
ists called to consider ABC protocol and breach 
between Carranza and Villa. Protocol rejected; 
breach healed for the time being. Constitution- 
alists continue their victories. 

July 15. Huerta resigns and leaves the coun- 
try. Carbajal provisional president; he fails to 
reach an agreement with the Constitutionalists. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. August. At outbreak of World War many 
Germans and large German investments in Mexico, 
and much German sympathy from Mexicans. 

Aug. 15. Constitutionalists imder Obreg6n 
occupy the capital. Carranza arrives, August 
20, and assumes provisional presidency. Enmi- 
ties within Constitutionalist ranks at once become 
active; Carranza rules arbitrarily. 

September. Zapata resumes his depredations 
near Mexico City. Orozco and others lead re- 
volts; and Villa, September 23. declares war on 
his chief, demanding that Carranza be ehminateJ 
from candidacy for public office. 

Oct. 10. Convention at Aguascalientes of dele- 
gates chosen by Constitutionalist soldiers. As- 
sumes sovereign powers. Villa and Zapata dele- 
gates dominate. October 30, convention decrees 
retirement of Carranza and Villa, and, November 
2, elects Gutierrez provisional president. Neither 
Villa nor Cai-ranza willing to retire. 

Nov. 23. American troops withdrawn 
from Vera Cruz. 

Nov. 24. Carranza withdraws from Mexico 
City; Zapata occupies it. December 3, Gutier- 
rez takes possession. Villa dominates the govern- 
ment and holds northern Mexico; Carranza 
holds southern portion. 



128 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: MEXICO — MOROCCO. 



1915. Jan. 16. Convention disowns Gutierrez. 
^ wlao flees, and makes Gonzalez Garza provisional 

president in name; itself the real ruler. 

Jan. 2S. Obregon, Carranza's general, compels 
the convention to leave Mexico City. 

March 10. Zapatistas drive Obregon from the 
capital. Fighting continues in northern jMe.xico 
with indecisive results, but with violation of 
American rights. 

OJiine £. Wilson warns the factions that the 
United States will intervene to bring about order, 
if not otherwise accomplished speedily. 

June 9. Convention deposes Gonzdlez Gai'za 
and makes Lagos Chazaro figurehead. 

July 10. Carranza occupies Mexico City again; 
evacuates it July 17, and Zapatistas reoccupy it 
July IS. August 3, the capital again occupied 
by Carranza* who continues to hold it thereafter, 
P meanwhile enlarging his control in central and 

northern Mexico. 

.\uii. 0. Pan-American Union delegates repre- 
senting seven states appeal to the Mexican fac- 
tions to hold a peace conference. Villa accepts, 
Carranza rejects the appeal. 

Oct. 19. United States recognizes Carranza 
as head of de facto government, following a imani- 

Qmous vote by the seven Pan-American delegates 
in his favor. Great Britain and other powers as 
well as the Pan-American ones recognize him. 

Dec. 20. Most of the Villistas surrender to 
Carranza. Villa continues in the field as head of 
a bandit force and is outlawed. 

1916. Jan. 11. Villa stops a train at .Santa Isabel, 
takes from it 19 Americans, mostly mining engi- 
neers, and slioots them. February 17, Wilson re- 

R ports to the American Senate that during 1913- 

191.5, 76 .4merlcans had been killed in Meiieo: 
and during the same period 20 American civilians, 
16 American soldiers, and 62 Mexicans had been 
killed on American side of the border. 

March 9. Raid of ViUistas on Columbus, 
New Mexico; eight American soldiers and nine 
civilians killed. 

S March 16. American punitive expedition 

under Pershing crosses into Mexico in pursuit of 
Villa. Carranza, after raising objections, gives 
conditioned consent and promise of cooperation. 
Some bands dispersed, but Villa not captured, 
.'^pril 12, clash between Americans and Carranza's 
troops at Parral. Carranza on same day de- 
mands withdrawal of American troops. Troops 

^ not withd^aw^l, but no further active operations. 

I May 2. Following a conference at El Paso of 

American commanders with Obregon, Carranza's 
minister of war, conditional agreement to with- 
draw troops is reached. 

May 6. Villistas make another raid across the 
border, killing three soldiers and two civilians. 
American soldiers pursue far into Mexican terri- 
tory. Wilson, May 9, orders out militia of border 

U States and sends more regulars to the region. 

^^ May 22. Carranza renews his protest against 

presence of American troops on Mexican soil. 
This and other evidences of; hostilities lead Wil- 
son, June 18, to order all the National Guard to 
mobilize for service on the Mexican border. 

June 20. American reply to Carranza's protest 
refuses flatly to withdraw American troops 

V Carranza troops treacherously attack and kill or 

capture an American detachment at Carrizal. 
Jime 25, United States demands release of the 
prisoners. Complied with, June 29. 

J idyl. American Congress authorizes president 
to draft National Guard into Federal service. 

Sept. 4- Conference of a joint commission of 
American and Mexican delegates begins. 

Oct. 22. Elections for a constituent assembly; 
^^ voting limited to supporters of de jacto govern- 

ment. Assembly convenes, December 1. 

Nov. S.',. Joint commission reaches an agree- 
ment on withdrawal of American troops and patrol 
of border. Carranza refuses to approve. 

1917. Felj. 4. Last of American troops with- 
drawn from Mexico. 

Feb. o. Kevised constitution promulgated; 

X president and bicameral congress elected by imi- 

versal male and female suffrage; radical demo- 
cratic provisions such as justice without cost , mini- 
mum wage, compulsory arbitration, profltr-sharing, 
eight-hour day; severe measures against Catholic 
and Protestant churches; agrarian reform, but 
not so radical as expected ; regulation of foreign 
capital, all national resources public property. 
Feb. 2S. Publication of dispatch (dated Jan- 
Y "ary 19) by German foreign office to ambassador 

at Mexico, lu-ging that Mexico make war on the 
United States (see United St.vtes). 

May 1. Carranza inaugurated president 
(election imder official pressure, March 11). He 
also controls Congress. 

1918. Raids by ViUa and other bandits continue, 
including some across the border with retaliation 

2 by American forces and loss of life. Mexico lie- 

lieved to be under German influence, but neu- 
trality is preserved. 
Feb. 19. Decree placing heavy taxes on for- 



eign-owned oil lands and contracts, which hamper 
operations of the Allies, Protests and warnings 
by American and British governments agamst con- 
fiscatory measm-es. Some modification. 

May 24. Diplomatic relations with Cuba 
severed, probably to show pro-German sympathy. 

June 7. Notable address by Wilson to Mexi- 
can editors on visit in L^nited States; smcere help- 
ful friendship, no interference in internal settle- 
ment, no forcible " big-brother " attitude, but Pan- 
Americanism by agreement and coiiperation. 
1919. April 10. Zapata, southern bandit, killed, 
Felix Diaz operates against the government in the 
southeast. 

April 23. Official statement that Carranza 
does not recognize the Monroe Doctrine, 

June 14. American troops cross the border at 
El Paso and disperse a body of Villistas operating 
against Ciudad Juiirez. Carranza protests, possi- 
bly pro forma. 

June 2S. By Treaty of Versailles Mexico 
omitted from list of neutral nations invited to 
join the League of Nations. 

July. Conditions show a weakening of Car- 
ranza's control. Four or more rebellious forces 
in the field against him. Report of 317 outbrealis 
of disorder against him between April and July. 
Associates in the victory of the Constitutionalists 
aUenated, especially Olaregon. Finances in pre- 
carious condition. Outrages on Americans and 
their property continue. 

July 22. State Department of LTnited States 
threatens a "radical change of policy" imless 
outrages cease. Carranza's reply, July 28, elusive ; 
caustic reference to disturbances in L^nited States. 

July 25. American embargo against export 
of arms and munitions to Mexico tightened. 

Aug. IS. Bandits capture and hold for ran- 
som two American aviators. Ransom paid b.v 
American army authorities and later repaid by 
Carranza. Unsuccessful punitive expedition 
crosses the border after the bandits. 

Oct. 19. Abduction of Jenkins, American 
consular agent at Puebla. Released on payment 
of ransom, he is arrested for cormivance in his own 
abduction in order to discredit the government. 
American government demands his release, No- 
vember 20. Released, December 4, after a mo- 
tion to sever diplomatic intercourse is introduced 
in American Senate. Jenkins threatened with 
expulsion; exequatur revoked. 

A'oii. 2e. Execution, after captiu'e and trial 
bycom-t-martial, of Angeles, whom Villa had pro- 
claimed president. 

Dec. 24. Ban against export of arras to Mexico 
made yet stronger by American government. 
1920. Jan. 1. Export duty on crude oil made 10 
per cent; with lighter diu.v on refined oil. 

Jan. 12. Decree for smaU-denomination paper 
money on deposit of gold; due to shortage of 
change from hoarding and melting of silver coin. 

Feb. 11. First United States-Mexico Trade 
Conference opens in Mexico City; 125 American 
representatives attend. 



MONACO. 

The Princip-\lity of Monaco has an area of eight 
square miles. It is the smallest state in Europe, 
It is inclosed between the French department of 
Alpes-Maritimes and the Mediterranean. The 
population is 22,956. There is no elective assembly, 
the prince acting as absolute master. Its reputa- 
tion is due to its casino, which is the gambling center 
of Eiu'ope. A joint-stock company controls the 
gaming tables, having obtained a concession which 
does not expire until 1947. The company pays the 
prince .5400.000 annually, besides occasional bonuses 
which run into the millions. In reality Monaco is a 
dependency of France. 



1337. Ranier II. as head of Monaco, a feudal pos- 
session of the Grimaldi family, begins the regu- 
lar succession of princes. His son, Charles I.. 
acquires Menton and Roquebrune. 

1534. Allegiance transferred from France to Spain. 

1641. Allegiance returned to France. 

1793. Feb. 14. Monaco formaUy annexed by the 
French National Convention. 

1814. May 30. By Treaty of Paris region restored 
to Grimaldis. 1815, by Congress of Vienna placed 
imder protection of Sardinia. |is resumed, I 

1S60. March 14 French protection of Monacoi 

1861. Monte Carlo is leased as a gambling re- 
sort; thenceforward the profits are sole revenues 
of the country, [France. | 

Feb. 2. Menton and Roquebnme sold to I 

1911. Jan. 7. A constitution with representa- 
tive government proclaimed, 

1914. Monaco protectorateof Franceand a.ssociate 
during World War. (left in Europe, I 

Prince of Monaco one of the few titular sovereigns I 



MONTENEGRO. 

See under Jugo-Sl.wia, page 123. 



MOROCCO. 

Historical Outline. 

Technically and geographically Morocco is the 
westward extension of Algeria, but it is the home 
of a diverse popiUation — Berbers, Arab-Bedouins. 
Moors, Jews, and Negroes. Morocco was the last of 
the North African coimtries to fall before the Mos- 
lem invasion of the seventh centiu-y. In 1058 an 
independent kingdom was founded on what had been 
the dominion of the caliphs. At the middle of the 
sexenteenth century Ali Shereef, bom in Arabia, 
gained ascendancy and foimded the dynasty of the 
Alides. Morocco was one of the group of north 
African states from wliich came the Barbary pirates 
over whom a victory was won by the United States 
a century ago. Christian slavery was abolished and 
piracy suppressed. From 1859 to 1873 there was 
war with Spain, and Morocco was obliged to pay an 
indemnity and to siurender territory and certain 
commercial advantages. 

Sidtan Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz succeeded in 1904. 
His reign was troubled and full of confusion. Brig- 
ands infested the land, and an American citizen, 
Perdicaris, was captiu-ed and held for ransom by the 
bandit leader Raisuli. which led President Roosevelt 
to dispatch a squadron to Tangier and demand 
" Perdicaris aliveor Raisuli dead." Great Britain and 
France negotiated a joint convention for tlie policing 
of Morocco, April 8, 1904; but Ciermany was greatly 
irritated by this and maintained that the German com- 
mercial interests demanded protection. On March 
31, 1905, the German emperor landed at Tangier and 
antagonized the French policy in a public address. 

This resulted m the calling of a conference at Alge- 
ciras, Spain, .January 15, 1906, in wliich the United 
States hail Krcat influence. The result was a conien- 
tion for the joint control of Morocco by France and 
Spain. Acting upon this, Casablanca was bom- 
barded by French and ,Spanish vessels and occupied 
by Frencli troops, to the wrath of Germany. In 
1908 relations were straine^l by the arrest of certain 
German deserters who were members of the French 
foreign legion, and the matter was submitted to the 
Hague Tribwial for arbitration. Revolts occurred 
in 1911, and in 1912 a French protectorate was es- 
tablished over Morocco, assented to in the Franco- 
Spanish treat.v by wliich Tangier was declared inter- 
national. The French protectorate was recognized 
by Great Britain also in 1914, and reaffirmed by the 
Peace Treaty of 1919. 

Organization. 

Government. The go\ernnient is in the hands 
of a sultan, who is absolute and irresponsible save as 
affected by foreign influence and fear of revoltition. 
Since 1912, however, the sultan is obliged to follow 
the advice of the French resident-general, who is ap- 
pointed by the French minister of foreign affairs. 
There is a grand vizier, who also is under the control 
of the French resident-general, and a minister of 
fhiance who acts imder the control of the French di- 
rector-general of finance. 

Production and Industry. Agriculture is in a 
primitive state, but the soil is suitable for agricul- 
tural production. Grapes and a great variety of 
fruits are grown, and in 1911 cotton was introduced. 
The fisheries are very valuable, especially the sardine 
and tunny fisheries. There are rich but little devel- 
oped mineral deposits of copper, iron, lead, anti- 
mony, sulphur, silver, gold, and petroleum. In 1917 
the imports amoimtetl to over $70,000,000 and the 
exports to S25,(X)0,000. 

The area is about 231,500 square miles and the 
population may be rouglily estimated at 6,000,000. 

Chronology. 

1649. Establishment of present (Filali) djTiasty. 

1769. Portuguese expelled from Mazagan, their 
last possession. Policy adopted of as little inter- 
course as possible with foreigners; but in com- 
mon with other Barbary powers, Morocco preys 
oncommerce, makes slaves of white persons, and 
demands tribute. Tliis lasts imtil alx)Ut 1S20. 

1844. War with France over Algerian boimdary; 
treaty on March 18, 1845. [claims. I 

1851. French bombard Sale to secure settlement of 1 

1859. Oct. 22. Spain declares war, captures and 
holds Tetudn. [demnity of $20,000,000 paid. I 

1860. April 26^ Peace treaty with Spain; in-l 
1894. June 7. Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz becomes sul- 
tan; his predilection for foreign ways and reforms 
makes him unpopular. 

1902. September. Revolt in behalf of the sultan's 
brother, Mohammed; sultan seeks French aid. 

1904. April S. Anglo-French agreement on 
paramoimtcy of French interests in Morocco (see 
Nineteenth-Century Period). 

May IS. Shereef Raisuli, who controls region 
around Tangier and kidnaps foreigners for ran- 
som, takes one Perdicaris, an American. Ameri- 
can squadron is sent to Tangier, but Perdicaris is 
released, June 24, when sultan yields to Raisuli's 
demands Secretary Hay .secures results through 
French channels. 



Habitations of Mankind. 



1. Interior of Eskimo Hut. Owing to the excessive heat generated by the 

oil lamp in these small snow houses, the inhabitants as a rule discai-il all 
clothing in their huts. They mostly live in polyandry. 

2. Greenlanders. Eskimos. Moss-covered hut and circular snow liousc 

in background. 

3. Ostyak Hut. 0.styak in winter costvune; Northern Siberia. 

4. Fuegian Hut. Natives in front. Though the cold of the climate is 

intense, the natives go about nearly nude, shifting a sealskin robe, 
fastened around their neck, from one side to the other, according to the 
direction of the wind. 

5. Arab Tent. Tunis. 

6. Kirghiz Tent. Western Siberia. Owner, a man of means. Bride on 

horseback. 

7. Kurdish Tent. Western Asia, Kurdistan. 

8. Sioux Indian Tent. 

9. Pueblo Dwelling. Built of adobe— sun-dried brick. See Carl Eik- 

meyer, "Among the Pueblo Indians," Nordennkjold, "Cliff Dwellers," 
"Fifteenth Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology," Washington, from 
which latter the figure of the Kachina Mask No. 9a is copied. Figure 
in doorway is a Taos Indian. Woman with child is from a Hopi village. 

10, 11, and 12. Mambu Huts. Central Africa. Women at work con- 
structing dwelling; sick man and sorcerei's in front of huts. 

13. Guahariba Huts. Amazon River. 

14. Sambioa Hut. Central Brazil; after Paul Ehrenreich. 

15. Kamayura House. Bororo Cazik, in front Kamayura woman carry- 

ing seven-year-old child on hip; after Karl von den Steinen, " Unter 
den Naturvolkern Central Brasiliens." 

16. House in MalbatO. island of Luzon, Philippines. 

17. House from Village of Pertoemboken. island of Sumatra. 

18. Communal House of the Bahnars. Savages of the South of Anam. 

19. Aerial Dwelling. Memiaou, New Guinea. 

20. Tree Dwellers. East Coast of New Guinea. At the foot of the tree 

two women mourners in front of the House of the Dead; Kalp, Kemp 
Welch River. 

21. Lake Dwellers. Sowek, New Guinea. 

22. Anamese Floating Village. 

23. Skye Crofter's House. Scotland. 

24. Modern American Dwelling House. 

25. Modern Business House. "Skyscraper." 












For description see previous page. 



HABITATIONS OF MANKIND— SAVAGE, BA 




iOUS, SEMI-CIVILIZED, AND CIVILIZED. 



CuPYRiGHT by G. A C Mkhjiiam Co. 
Registered at Stationera' Hall. London. England. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: MOROCCO — NETHERLANDS. 



129 



1904 {continued). 

Oct. 3. Franco-Spanish agreement on inter- 
ests in Morocco (see Nineteenth-Century Pe- 
riod). 

1905. Germany and Morocco (see Nineteenth- 
Century Period), 

1906. Algeolras Convention (see Nineteenth- 
Century Period). 

1907. July Si. fialsuli kidnaps Sir Harry 
Maclean, commander of the sultan's bodyguard. 
Great Britain pays ransom of SIOO.CXX), most of 
wtuch Kaisuli is later forced to refund. 

August. Frencia, Spanish cooperating, bom- 
bard and occupy Casablanca. foUowiug attacks by 
tribesmen. 

1908. Jan. 4. Mulai-Abd-el-Hafld, in revolt 
against his brother. Is proclaimed sultan at Fez. 
Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz gives up the struggle in Au- 
gust, and Hafld is again proclaimed sultan at Tan- 
gier on August 23. 

Sept. 25. Arrest by French of German desert- 
ers from the French Foreign Legion leads to Ger- 
man demands, but matter is arbitrated. 

1909. Feb. 9. Franco-German agreement (see 
Nineteenth-Century Period). 

July 19. Moorish tribesmen attack Spanish at 
Melilla. By convention of November 16, Span- 
ish control is increased. 

1911. Franco-German controversy and conven- 
tion (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 

June 5. Spanish land at EI Araish and occupy 
district beliind it. 

1912. March SO. French protectorate is estab- 
lished by treaty. Powers recognize it. Treaty is 
followed by native outbreak and attack on Fez. 
with massacres. 

Aug. 14- Mulal Yusef proclaimed sultan, his 
brother having abdicated on a French pension. 

Nov. 27. Franco-Spanish convention; Span- 
ish protectorate within defined boimdaries (Medi- 
terranean coastal region. Er Rif). French protec- 
torate over rest, except Tangier, wtiich is inter- 
nationalized. Plan does not work smootlily. 

1913. Oct. 15. Organization of new French judi- 
cial system intended to replace the exterritorial 
jiu"isdiction of consular courts. Various nations 
accept it. and it is imixised on Germany and Aus- 
tria by the peace treaties of 1919. 

1914. May 9. French occupation of Taza makes 
possible junction of Moroccan and Algerian inter- 
ests, and promotes extension of railway joining 
Fez with coast at Rabat eastward to milon with 
Algerian lines. 

1914-1918. Various revolts during the World War, 

due largely to German intrigue; neutral Spanish 

protectorate compUcates matters. 
1919. June 2S. By Treaty of Versailles. Germany 

makes a complete surrender of all interests and 

special rights in Morocco, 



NATAL. 

See under British Empire, page 66. 



NEPAL. 

Nepal is one of the so-called " independent " 
states in the Himalayas, on the borders of British 
India. It stretches, a narrow mountainous belt, for 
500 miles between Tibet and India as far east as Sik- 
kim. The government is a militar>' oligarchy, and 
the prime minister, who liolds the rank of a British 
lieutenant general, has all the power. The regular 
army numbers 30,000, and there is an irregular force 
of about the same number. 

This is the land of the famous Gurkhas, who in- 
vaded Tibet, and carried on war with China and 
India. Since the Treaty of Segauli in 1S16, a Brit- 
ish resident has lived at Katmandu, the capital, and 
the relations of the Gurlvhas with the British have 
been friendly. 

The exports include hides and skins, drugs, gums, 
dyes, jtite, pulse, and cereals. The people are in 
general prosperous. 

Nepal contains Mount Everest, height 29,002 feet, 
and other of the loftiest motmtains on the globe. 

The area is about 54,000 square miles and the 
population about 5,600,000. 



1768. Nepal, occupied by mixed Mongol races, is 
conquered by the Gurkhas, who are Rajputs. 

(See Gurkha in the Dictionary.') 

1J91. Commercial treaty with the British East In- 
dia Company. 

1814-181S. War with British India foUowing a 
series of depredations (see India). By treaty of 
December 2, 1.S15, Nepal gives up conquered terri- 
tory and receives a British resident. 

1857. During the mutiny, Jung Bahadur, prime 
minister and de facto ruler, sends troops to assist 
the Enghsh: as a reward, portions of territory are 
restored. Gurkhas are permitted to enlist in 
the Indian army, where they are highly valued 

1914. On the outbreak of the World War the prime 
minister offers the army to the governor-general 
of India. 



THE NETHERLANDS. 

Historical Outline. 

The Netherlands, or U)wlands or ' hollowlands." 
whence comes the name " Holland." popularly" ap- 
plied to the coimtry (which formerly included Bel- 
gium and the duchy of Luxemburg), lie between 
Germany and Belgiiun. The coast is formed by a 
line of sand dunes and the land, much of which is be- 
low the sea level, is protected from the sea by a series 
of dikes. It is necessary to confine the rivers as well, 
and because of the continual deposits some of the sur- 
faces of the rivers are higher than the surrounding 
land. A series of canals more than l.r>00 miles in 
length extends throughout Holland. A people in- 
habiting such a territorj' were bound to be a sea- 
faring race, and the sailors of Holland early gained 
preeminence. The Dutch became the successors of 
the Portuguese and Spanish East Indian empire and 
monopolized a large part of the carrying trade. 

As a result of the long struggle with Spain (see 
Spain), the Dutch cities and coimtrj- were welded 
into a federal union (1579), which by the Peace of 
Westphalia was recognized as an indejiendent state. 
When Charles II. of England favored Louis XIV. of 
France, the enemy of the Dutch, the war was revived 
between Holland and England, and one of the results 
was the English capture of New Amsterdam in 
-■Vmerica. By the Treaty of Breda (1667) England 
and Holland were imit«d as Protestant powers in 
opposing Louis XIV. In 16S9 Prince William of 
Orange was elected to the throne of England, and 
both countries united in the struggle with France. 

On the death of WiUiam III. without male heirs, the 
anti-Orange party in the Netherlands prevented the 
appointment of a Stadliolder. Wlicn the Stadholder- 
ship was restored in 1747, the holders — beginning 
with AVilliam (IV.) Friso, of the House of Orange — 
were virtually kings of a declining federation. 

In 1795 HoUand was conquered by the French 
imder Pichegru and converted into the Bata^ian Re- 
pubhc. This popular government gave place to the 
kingdom of HoUand. which Napoleon created for his 
brother Louis in 1806. A few years later Louis was 
deposed by the French emperor, and HoUand was 
incorporateti with France. After Waterloo, Prince 
WUUam of Orange was declared king by the As- 
sembly of HoUand. 

The Congress of Vienna dealt liberally in the con- 
struction of the new kingdom. In order to prevent 
the expansion of France in the direction of the North 
Sea, Belgium was included ^vith HoUand. This 
arrangement was maintained imtil 1830, when the 
people of Belgium, sympathizing with the Revolu- 
tionists in France, broke into revolt and declared 
independence. 

In the Netherlands the reign of William I. ex- 
tended to 1S40, and that of liis son. WiUiam II.. to 
1849. The latter was succeeded by his daughter 
Wilhelmina imder the regency of the Queen mother. 
Wilhelmina was inaugurated as fuU sovereign in 1898. 

Since 1S9S the franchise has been somewhat ex- 
tended, and in 191G women were made eligible to 
membership in the States-General. In 1908 there 
was a slight difficulty with Venezuela, and a naval 
force was dispatched to South America. 

On the outbreak of the World War the position of 
HoUand was precarious. Germany attacked Dutch 
commerce, and the Allies established a virtual em- 
bargo against her, for fear that supplies would be 
transported to Germany, As a result there was a 
great shortage of food, and riots broke out attended 
by serious loss of life. In 1916 the British and 
American governments seized the Dutch shipping in 
their ports and utilized it for the transportation of 
supplies, promising, however, ample compensation 
to the owners. At the end of the war Emperor Wil- 
liam took refuge in HoUand, which refused to sur- 
render him to the Allies. 

Organization. 

GoTernment. The constitution of the Nether- 
lands was proclaimed in 1815. and was revised in 
1848, 1887, and 1917. According to this charter, 
Netherlands forms a constitutional, hereditary mon- 
archy. The executive power belongs exclusively to 
the sovereign, while the legislative authority is exer- 
cised conjointly by the sovereign and the States- 
General. The States-General consists of two cham- 
bers, the upper, or first, chamber and the lower, 
or second, chamber. By the Reform Act of De- 
cember 12, 1917, imiversal suffrage, male and female, 
is extended to aU Dutch citizens 23 years of age; 
the upper chamber of 50 members serving for terms 
of nine years is, however, chosen by men only; the 
lower chamber is made up of 100 deputies, who are 
elected directly for terms of four years. 

Industry and Labor. The chief agriciUtural 
products of HoUand are oats, rj-e. wheat, and sugar 
beets. It is renowned for its cattle and dain,* prod- 
ucts. There are a few mines of coal, which consti- 
tutes t he sole mineral wealth. The fisheries are verj- 
important. There are numerous shipyards, and 
Dutch steamers are found in ever>' part of the world. 

Kellgion. There is entire liberty of conscience, 



although the royal family and the majority of the 
people are members of the Reformed Church. 

Education. Public instruction is compulsory 
(act of 1900) between the ages of 6 and 13, and is 
entirely secular. The cost of primary' instruction is 
divided between the state and the towais. 3,000 
public elementary schools and more than 2.(X)0 pri- 
vate elementary schools care for over 1,000,000 pu- 
pils, while 113 middle schools accommodate 19,000 
pupils. There are numerous special and technical 
schools as weU as four pubhc universities, with more 
than 5,000 students. 

Defense. By the act of 1912 service in the army 
is partly volimtary and partly compulsory. Every 
Dutch citizen is liable to service in the army or navy 
between the ages of 19 and 40. Actual service is 
determined by lot. The maximum strength of the 
annual contingent is 25,5(X), including 6(Xt for sea 
service. The peace strength of the army is 194, (X)0 
men. There are 156,000 additional trained men, 
and 250.000 imtrained men available for mobiliza- 
tion. The navy is maintained for a double purpose: 
protection of the Dutch coast, and the defense of 
the East Indian possessions. The navy consists of 
six coast defense ships and five cruisers. In addi- 
tion are gimboats and torpedo boats. A large force 
was kept under arms during the World War, to protect 
the border and keep the country in a state of defense. 

The area is 12,582 square mUes and the popula- 
tion (1918) is 6,778,699, one of the densest in Europe. 

DUTCH POSSESSIONS. 

The kingdom of the Netherlands has colonial pos- 
sessions in both the West and the East Indies, to- 
gether comprising an area of more than 780.000 sq. 
miles, inliabited by more than 47, 000, OCX) people. 

In the West Indies are Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, 
and Curacao - 

DUTCH GUIANA. 

Since the Peace of Breda in 1667, when Dutch 
Guiana was assigned to the Netherlands in exchange 
for New Netherland in North America, it has been 
twice taken by Great Britain, but both times re- 
turned to the Netherlands on conclusion of peace. 
It is a small territorj- of about 46,000 square miles, 
with 107,827 inliabitants in 1919, exclusive of the 
Negroes and Indians living in the forests. The gov- 
ernor and high officers are named by the sovereign, 
and there is a representative body, caUed the Colo- 
nial States, the members of wliich are chosen for a 
term of sLx years, one meraljer for every 200 voters. 

CURACAO. 

Curacao is the name given to the colony compris, 
ing a little cluster of islands north of Venezuela, of 
wliich the largest is Ciu-a^ao. The total area is 403 
square mUes and the population 57,195 (1918). 

DUTCH EAST UNDIES, 

In the East Indies the more important possessions 
are Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the Molucca Is- 
lands, the Sunda Isles, about three foiuths of 
Borneo, and about three fifths of New Guinea. 

Most of these were acquired by the Dutch East 
India Company, formed in 1602 and dissolved in 
1798. On its dissolution the home government took 
over the control. 

The entire area is about 735,000 sq. miles; total 
population (est. 1917) approximately 47,000,(K}0. 

Java, the most valuable Dutch possession, has an 
area of 48,854 square miles, and about 34,000.000 in- 
habitants. With the neighboring island of Madura, 
it is divided into 17 residencies, each ruled by a resi- 
dent, assisted by assistant residents and contrdlenrs. 
Under them is a iiost of fimctionaries, Dutch and 
native. The Dutch colonial army of about 42.(X)0 
of all ranks is entirely separate from the home army. 
One third are Europeans, including aU the commis- 
sioned officers, gunners, and a certain proportion of 
noncommissioned officers. The greater part, of the 
land is government property. The labor laws are 
stringent and vigorously enforced. Coffee, sugar, 
tobacco, rubber, indigo, tea. and spices are the staple 
productions. There are valuable oU fields. 

Chronology. 
The Netherlands and Dutch Possessions. 

For earlier events see Medieval Period 
and Early Modern Period. 
164S. Jan. 30. At Peace of Westphalia (Mimster) 
Independence of the Netherlands formally rec- 
ognized by Spain after 70 years' existence. 
1651. Oct. 9. English Navigation Act limits 

Dutch trade. 
165?. War with England over Navigation Act. 
November, Dutch imder Tromp defeat EngUsh 
fleet near Goodwin Sands. 

April. Dutch begin settlement of Capetown 
(see South Africa). [minster.] 

1654. April 3. English treaty of peace at West-! 

1655. October. Dutch conquer Swedish settlement 
(New Sweden) on Delaware River in America, 

1656. Dutch destroy Portuguese power in Ceylon 
(for Dutch in India, see India). 



130 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: NETHERLANDS — NORWAY. 



1664 — 1920. 



N 



U 



W 



1664. Aug. 29. Capture of New Amsterdam by 
English fleet without declaration of war (see 
United States). [Britain).! 

1665. Feb. 2'2. War with England (see Great] 

1667. After De Buyter has menaced London. 
treaty of peace is made at Breda, July 31, in 
which France and Denmark join. 

1668. Triple alliance with Sweden and England 
against France (see France and Great Britain). 

1675. France secures alliance of England under 
Charles 11. ; war declared by them on Holland. 

March 17. Dutch make William of Orange 
leader against French invasion, 

1673. Frederick William of Brandenburg aids 
Dutch, but is forced into neutrality by French. 
William of Orange with Austrian allies forces 
French to abandon designs. [year.] 
Dutch occupy New York, but return it nextl 

1674. March 7. Peace of Westminster with 
England. French war continues. 

1676. April. De Buyter defeated by the French 
off the coast of Sicily. 

1677. Nov. IS. William of Orange marries 
Mary, daughter of the Duke of York (later James 
II., of England). 

1678. Aug. 10. Peace of Nimwegen (Nijmegen) 
with France: French conquests restored to Hol- 
land. (See Early Modern Period.) 

1689. Following flight of James II., William of 
Orange, and Mary, his wife, chosen rulers of 
England (see Gre.^t Britain). 
Grand Alliance formed against France. 
1692. May. Dutch and English overcome the 

French fleet off La Hogue (see Great Britain). 
1697. Sept. 20. Peace of Byswiek (Rijswijk) 
(see France and Gre.\t Britain) ends struggle 
with France. Conquests restored. 
1702. Holland joins War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion against France. English and Dutch fleets 
overcome French and -Spanish at Vigo. 

March S. Death of William of Orange (Wil- 

Uam III. of England). Holland pas.ses under 

administration of the Grand Pensionary Heinsius. 

1713. .4pri7 //. Peace of Utrecht ends War 

of the Spanish Succession; Spanish Netherlands 

(present Belgium) pass to Austria. 

1715. Barrier treaty is signed with Austria and 

Great Britain; Dutch permitted to garrison parts 

of Austrian Netherlands. 

1717. Jan. i. Triple alliance with France and 

Great Britain against Spain. 
1720. Aug. 3. Heinsius dies; his successors govern 

for a quarter of a century. 
1747. April. William IV. of Orange becomes 
stadholder; practically a hmited hereditary mon- 
archy results. 
1751. Oct. 2g. William V., three years old, suc- 
ceeds his father. 
1780. Dec. 20. Great Britain declares war on 
Holland because of membership in the Armed 
Neutrality and supposed alliance with the United 
States. Conflict for naval supremacy follows, 
in which Holland is defeated (see Great Brit.ain). 
1782. Oct. S. Treaty of recognition and com- 
merce with the United States. 
1784. Man 20. Peace with Great Britain; British 

gains in East Indies. 
1787. Civil strife occurs in the Low Coimtries, 
caused by opposition to the House of Orange, but 
Prussia interferes and restores order. 
1795. French Bepublicans, having mvad,ed Hol- 
land in 179.3, subdue the country, which makes 
Holland an ally of France. The Batavian Repub- 
lic is formed. British conquer Dutch colonies. 
18*2. March 2.5. By Peace of Amiens Great Britain 
restores all conquests except Ceylon; but after re- 
newal of war in 1S03 again occupies Dutch colonies. 
1806. Napoleon creates the kingdom of Holland 

and bestows it on his brother Louis. 
1810. Holland annexed to the French Empire. 

1814. .4 us. i.3. Peace of Paris with Great Brit- 
ain; all colonies except Capetown and part of 
Guiana are restored to Holland. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1815. June 9. Final act of the Congress of Vienna 
confirms new kingdom of tiie Netherlands, in- 
cluding Belgium, with personal miion with Lux- 
emburg: former royal house restored in the person 
of William I., son of WiUiam V. of Orange. 

1830. Belgians revolt (see Belgium). 

1840. Oct. 7. William I. abdicates; succeeded by 
his son William II. 

1849. March 17. WiUiam II. dies; succeeded by 
bis son William III. 

1873. Dutch begin a war on Achin, in Sumatra, 
but are disastrously defeated. Struggle contin- 
ued, and in 1879 a victorious peace is concluded. 

1890. Noti. 23. WiUiam HI. dies; succeeded in 
HoUand by Wiihelniina, his daughter, with Queen 
Emma as regent. Adolphus of Nassau succeeds 
to the .sovereignty of Luxemburg (^ee LuxEMsmiG) . 

1891. Elections of the States-General are carried 
by the Liberals. 

1892. Merwede Canal, connecting Amsterdam 
with Rhine Pro\ince in Germany, completed. 



1894. A ug, 26. Dutch contending with the chiefs 
of Achin surprised and badly routed. 

1895. International Exposition of jVrts and In- 
dustries in Amsterdam. 

1896. Sept. e. Electoral Beform Bill, pending 
for several sessions of the States-General, adopted 
by both chambers. 

1898. Sept. 16. Wilhelraina enthroned. 

1899. International Peace Conference at The 
Hague (see Nineteenth-Centcry Period). 

1901. Jan. SO. Hague Court of International 
Arbitration, formed in accordance with the con- 
vention adopted Jidy 29, 1899, by the Hague 
Conference, organized. 

Feb. 7. Queen Wiihelmina weds Duke Henry 
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 

June 14. So-called ** monster alliance ** 
between extreme Catholics and extreme Calvin- 
ists on separation of church and state defeats the 
Liberal government in the election. 
1903. January. Strike on state railroads. April 
12, government passes a law making strikes of 
state employees criminal and subject to severe 
penalties. Socialists alone oppose it. 

1907. J-unel.^. Second Peace Conference opens at 
The Hague (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 

Not. 6. BiU introduced for reclamation of 
land from the Zuyder Zee. 

1908. Venezuelan crisis (see Venezuela). 
June 15. Representatives from 23 nations are 

present at the International Suffrage Con- 
gress in Amsterdam. 

1909. April SO. 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 

See under British E.mmre, page 73. 

NEW GUINEA. 

See under British Empire, page 75; Netherlands 
(Dutch East Indies), page 129: German-, page 105. 

NEW SOUTH WALES. 

See under British Empire, page 75. 

NEW ZEALAND. 

See imder British Empire, page 76. 

NICARAGUA. 

See under Central America, page 79. 



NIGERIA. 

See imder British Empire, page 67. 

NORWAY. 
Historical Outline. 

arcliieological researches have 



Geological and 
shown that a fishing and hunting population Inhab- 
ited Norway as far back as 6000 b. c, but the earli- 
est tradition attributes the settlement to Olaf, who 
fled from Sweden. The country was settled by 
numerous chieftains, whose principal occupation as 
Queen Wiihelmina gives birth ' described in the sagas was piracy and war. In the 



to a daughter, Juliana, heir to the throne, 

1913. July 1. International Opium Confer- 
ence opens at The Hague 

Aug. 20. Universal Peace Congress begins 
its twentieth annual session at The Hague. 

Aug. 2S. Palace of Peace at The Hague, the 
gift of Andrew Carnegie, dedicated. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. August. On outbreak of World War, mar- 
tial law is proclaimed, troops are massed on the 
frontier and other measures are taken to enforce 
neutrality. Thousands of refugees cross from 
Belgium. 

1915. April 16. Intense public indignation over 
the sinldng of the Dutch steamer Katwyk by a 
German submarine. 

April 27. International Congress of Women 
convenes at The Hague. 

July 30. New Landsturm Bill becomes law: 
provides for a considerable increase in the number 
of trained soldiers. 

Oct. 14. Martial law is proclaimed in trades 
providing militai-y supplies. 

1916. April 6. Government forbids the exporta- 
tion of foodstuffs untU further notice. 

June 14. Food riots occur in Amsterdam and 
Rotterdam. 

Sept. 9. Government's offer to care for young 
children from the invaded districts of France ac- 
cepted by Germany 

1917. Holland suffers much from both Germany 
and the Allies, the former ravaging her com- 
merce, while the latter, fearing transmission of 
supplies to Germany via Holland, establish a vir- 
tual embargo against her. 

July. Food riots; troops compeUed to fire on 
the rioters. 

Dec. 12. Electoral Reform Act; universal suf- 
frage and proportional representation, woman 
suffrage and eligibihty for ofBce, including States- 
General. 

1918. March IS. British and American gov- 
ernments seize Dutch shipping in their ports, 
holding that Holland, after entering into an agree- 
ment, withdrew in response to pressure from Ger- 
many. Alhed powers promise compensation to 
the owners and provision to meet the possibihty of 
losses tlu-ough enemy action. 

April. Dispute with Germany over trans- 
portation of sand and gravel for military purposes 
across Holland. 

June 14. Project for reclaiming Zuyder Zee 
becomes law. Amoimt to be reclaimed 523,000 
acres. [HoUand. I 

Nov. 10. William of Hohenzollern enters! 

Nov. 15. German troops try to return from Bel- 
gium across Dutch Limburg and are disarmed. 

1919. Friction between Holland and Belgium 
over Belgian claim to Limburg and the Dutch 
territory on south side of Scheldt (see Belgium). 

1920. Jan. 22. Dutch government refuses to 
surrender the ex-Kaiser as the Allies demanded 
on January 15. 

Jan. 31. Dutch press publishes text of treaty 
with Belgium arranging navigation of the Scheldt 
(see Belgium). 

Feb. 12. Great dock strike begins: latei; de- 
nounced as being a Bolshevist movement. 

Feb. 20. Holland Joins League of Nations. 

March 5. Dutdi government, again refusing 
to surrender the ex-Kaiser, promises to keep a 
careful guard over him. 



tenth century Greenland was discovered by Eric the 
Red, and Vinland (possibly part of America), was 
visited by Ills son. Christianity was introduced 
about 1000, and the kingdom became united imder 
St. Olaf. Iceland was conquered in 1260. and the 
three kingdoms of Denmark. Norway, and Sweden 
were imited by the Kalmarian Union (Union of 
Kalmar), 1397. 

At the beginning of the 16th century, the king of 
Denmark gained the ascendancy. A long period of 
dependency foUowed imtil, in 1814, Norway was 
ceded to Sweden by the kmg of Denmark, who then 
held the suzerainty. The Norwegians were dissatis- 
fied with the union, declared theu- independence, 
and chose a Danish prince for their king. A Swedish 
army overawed the cotmtry, and Norway was 
joined in a personal union with Sweden imder the 
rule of Charles XIII. Tliis continued for over a 
himdred years, when, in 1915, Norway declared her 
Independence and chose Charles of Denmark as 
king, who riUes nnder the name of Haakon VII. 

During the World War Norway remained neutral 
Her commerce suffered more than that of any other 
neutral nation from the depredations of the sub- 
marines. Although suffering privations almost 
amounting to famine from her InabUity to import 
coal and the necessary foodstuffs, her carrying trade, 
because of the high freight rates, greatly prospered. 

Organization. 

Government. Norway is a constitutional 
monarchy with a king whose authority is exercised 
by a CouncU of State consisting of one minister of 
state and at least seven coimcUors, who are heads 
of the departments of government. The king ap- 
points the high officials, may issue provisional ordi- 
nances, declare war and peace, and may exercise the 
veto twice, but if the same bUl passes tliree sepa- 
rate legislatures it becomes a law without his assent. 
The legislature, called the Storthing, assembles every 
year. The Storthing is chosen every third year by 
universal suffrage, since 1913, and consists" of 126 
members. On assembling, the Storthing divides it- 
self into two houses, the Lagtiiing. which consists of 
one fourth of the members of the Stortliing, and the 
Odelsthing, which consists of tliree fourths. If the 
two houses do not agree, a joint session is held and 
the final decision is made by a majority of two thirds. 

Industry and Labor. Norway is a barren and 
momitainous country, with Uttle opportunity for 
agriculture. The chief crops are potatoes, hay, and 
oats. The forests. and fisheries are the two chief 
sources of national wealth. Although the comitry 
lacks coal, manufacturing is carried on successfully 
because of the enormous amoimt of water power, 
which in recent years has l^een turned to the pro- 
duction of electrochemical products. The fisheries 
furnish more than half of Norway's exports, and there 
are valuable mines of pyrites, iron ore, and copper. 

Beligion. The Evangehcal Lutheran Church is 
the national church, endowed by the state: but all 
other religions are tolerated. 

Education. Education is compulsory between 
the ages of 7 and 14, and in 1916 there were more 
than 6,000 elementary schools, 93 secondary schools, 
and S9 commimal and private schools. There were 
10 normal schools, and a imiversity at Christiania 
with more than 1,600 students. 

Defense. The army of Norway is a national mili- 
tia, in wliich service is compulsory and imiversal for 
men, liability existing between the ages of IS and 55. 

The area is 125,001 square miles and the esti- 
mated population in 1918 was 2,632,010. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: NORWAY — PARAGUAY. 



131 



Chronology — Norway. 

For earlier iiislory, st-L' Denmark. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1814. -f'tn. 14. By Treaty of Kiel. Denmark 
cedes Norway to Sweden. Norwegians refuse 
to acknowledge the treaty. May 17, National 
Assembly at Eidsvold adopts a liberal constitu- 
tion for Norway. A prince of Denmark declared 
king: but negotiations follow with king of Sweden. 
November 4, Norwegian Storthing agrees to a 
personal union only, tinder Charles XIII. of 
Sweden. Ratified by both coimtries in 1815. 

1818. Feb. 0. Charles XIV. (Bernadotte) suc- 
ceeds on death of Charles XIII. 

1819. Nobility is abolished. 

1844. March S. Oscar I. succeeds on the death of 

hjs father Charles XIV. 
1859. July S. Oscar I. dies; succeeded by his son, 

who becomes Charles XV. 
1872. Sept. IS. Charles XV. dies and liis brother, 

Oscar II., succeeds, 
1896. July. Friiitjof Nansen, leader of a polar 

expedition, who reached the parallel of 80° 14' 

north, returns in safety. 
1898. llniversal male suffrage adopted. 
1901. May i.j. Parliament confers the franchise 

on women taxpayers. 

1904. Feb. SS. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 
open negotiations for a northern alliance. 

1905. May '21. King Oscar vetoes Norway's bill 
for separate consular service. As a result. Jime 
7. Norway, tlirough the Storthing, declares her- 
self separated from Sweden. Jime 22. Swed- 
ish Riksdag (Diet) refers the government's pro- 
posal of settlement with Norway to a special com- 
mittee. August 13, popular vote in Norway is 
practically tmanimous in favor of separation. 

Sept. 2S. Agreement of Karlstad by Swedish 
and Norwegian delegates stipulates: dissolution 
of personal imion: formation of a neutral zone be- 
tween the two coimtries, and demolition of cer- 
tain fortresses therein by Norway: freedom of 
transit traffic from ta.xation : safeguards for certain 
vested rights in waterways ; disputes to go to the 
Hague Tribunal. Octoter 9, Norwegian Stor- 
thing adopts agreement; Swedish Riksdag (Diet) 
does so on October Hi. October 27. King Oscar 
relinquishes Norwegian crown. 

Nov. 13. By a large majority of the popular 
vote. Prince Charles of Denmark elected 
king; on November 18 imanimously elected by 
the Storthing, and takes the name of Haakon 
VII, November 27. the king takes oath to ob- 
serve the Norwegian constitution. 
1900. Jime 22. Haakon VII. and Queen Maud 
cro^vned. 

1907. June 14. Suffrage is granted to women 
of Qualified class. 

1908. .Ipril 23. Joint declaration by Great Brit- 
ain. Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, and 
Sweden for the maintenance of the territorial 
status quo on the North Sea. 

1910. Jan. 18. Stortliing passes law admitting 
women to public office, [mimal elections. I 

Jmie. Woman suffrage granted in all com- 1 

1911. Dec. 16. Amundsen, Norwegian explorer, 
reaches South Pole. 

1913. June 11. Woman suffrage extended, 
allowing all women to vote in parhamentary elec- 
tions. Women also allowed to serve on Juries. 

June 26. Royal veto abolished by Storthing. 

■WORLD WAR PERIOD, 

1914. May 1.5. One-himdredth aimiversary of the 
separation of Norway from Denmark celebrated. 

Dec. 18. King Haakon, with King Christian of 
Denmark and King Gustavus of Sweden, meet at 
Malmo to discuss the effect of the World War on 
their countries. 

1915. January. Government embarks upon the 
policy of developing imder state ownienship the 
priDcipal water powers of the comitry, primarily 
for generating electricity for state railroads. 

191C. Feb. 3. Constitutional amendment makes 
women eligible to the Council of State. 

1917. Norway suffers severe loss of shipping, but 
maintains her policy of neutrality. At the end of 
November the kings of Norway. Sweden, and Den- 
mark meet at Cliristiania and adopt as policy 
during the war close cooperation and mutual aid. 

1918. April 30. Under an agreement with the 
United States. Norwayguarantees that imports 
from the United States shall not reach Ger- 
many, and limits her own exports to Germany. 

1919. June 10. Labor party votes to adhere to the 
Third International of Moscow. 

Oct. 7. Prohibition of strong drink 
adopted by popular referendum. 

Nov. 21. Spitzbergen commission having 
made a report favoring Norse sovereignty of the 
islands, the Supreme Council at Paris grants it. 
Treaty with Norway to that effect. Feb. 9. 1920. 
1930. March 6. Norway Joins the League of 
Nations. 



NYASALAND. 

See tmder British Eiipire, page 65. 



OMAN. 

Oman is an independent state situated on the Giilf 
of Oman, extending from the entrance of the Persian 
Gulf to the extreme point of Aral)ia. The coast line 
is nearly a thousand miles long and the area S2.000 
square miles. Great Britain and France have guar- 
anteed the integrity of Oman. The population is 
estimated at 500,000. chiefly Arate. The capital is 
Maskat. The exports are chiefly dates, fish, limes, 
cotton goods, hides, and skins. A mail boat runs 
to Bombay and there is cable commmiication. 



ORANGE FREE STATE. 

See under British Empire, page (56. 



PALESTINE. 

Historical Outline. 

The name Palestine is applied to the territory ly- 
ing between the eastern coast of the Mediterranean 
Sea and the line of the Jordan River, with somewhat 
indeflnite boundaries to the northern and southern 
ends. It has been celebrated for ages as the seat of 
the Jewish people; and as the scene of the birthplace, 
iiome. and death of Jesus Clirist, and hence the " Holy 
Land ' ' of Christian coimtries. 

Palestine has gone through many mutations; it 
has been part of the Egjiitian, Babylonian. AssjTian. 
Seljiik. and Ottoman empires. It was the scene of 
the great struggles of the Crusades, and it once in- 
cluded a kingdom of Jerusalem with a Western sover- 
eign. It has been the bridge for the march of armies 
l^etween Asia and Africa, and is at present the object 
of a movement for the resettling of a Jewish com- 
munity who expect to become an independent state. 

The Jews who came into the land about 1160 b. c. 
eventually were divided into two kingdoms — Israel 
and Judah. Their sacred city oi Jerusalem was 
many times taken, notably by the Roman general 
Titus (70 A. D.), by the Crusaders in 1099, and by 
Saladin in 1187. It remained thereafter under Mos- 
lem pc^tver till 191S. 

The population of Palestine contains many races, 
of whom the majority appear to be Bedouins, or set- 
tled Arabs, and a few of Persian and Kurdish descent. 
A Jewish population is made up in part from colonies 
planted from outside during the last fifty years. 

The cliief products of the country are olives, 
wine, fniits, and other semitropical products. 

There are no workings of valuable minerals. 

During the World War a railroad line was com- 
pleted from EgyiJt to Jerusalem, from which there 
are connections by rail north and northward to 
Damascus, Beirut, and Aleppo. 

The area of the former Tm-kish vilayet of Jeru- 
salem is about 6,600 square miles, and the popu- 
lation, in 1915, about 350,000: but the borders of 
the state of Palestine, which is imder the mandate 
of Great Britain, contain about 9.000 square miles 
and a total population (1919) of about 650,000. 

Chronology. 

1099. July 15. Jerusalem taken by Crusaders, 

1100-1391. Kingdom of Jerusalem. City re- 
captured by Saladm, 1187; held agam by the Cru- 
saders 1229-1244: kingdom ends with Moslem 
capture of Acre. 

1516-1917. Turkish domination. 

1860. Massacre of Christian Maronites of Mt. 
Lebanon by Mohammedan Druses (see Stria). 

1864. Sept. 6. Autonomy granted to Lebanon 
imder a Cliristian governor. 

1878. Beginning of Jewlsli emigration from the 
Pales and elsewhere in Europe to Palestine for 
agricultural settlement, assisted first by the Cho- 
vevi Zion Society and later by Hirsch's Jewish 
Colonization Association. 

1893. Jewish Colonization Society founded. 
Takes over Rothschikl colonies in 1809. 

1896. Publication of Herzl's Jewish State, advocat- 
ing Zionist movement for a tribute-pajing Jewish 
sta&e in Palestine tmder Turkish suzerainty. 

1897. International Zionist Congress held at 
Basel. Others follow, but no practical resiilts. 

1914. About 15,000 Jewish agriculturists in Pales- 
tine in about 40 colonies, with more or less local 
self -government. 

1916. May 9-16. Secret agreement between 
France and Great Britain for partition of Tur- 
key; provides for an international administration 
over Palestine. (War) . | 

1917. Allenby's Palestine campaign (see World I 
Nor. 2. Balfour, British foreign secretarj', 

declares the government's sympathy with Jewish 
Zionist aspirations. 

Dec. 9. Occupation of Jerusalem. 
19?0. Feb. 27, March 8. Anti-Zionist demonstra- 
tions in Jerusalem by Arabs, other Moslems, and 
Christians. 



April 25. Supreme Council meeting at San 
Remo gives Great Britain mandate for Pales- 
tine, estabhshed as a home land for the Jews. 

May 11. Peace treaty handed to Turkey m- 
corporates British mandate in Palestine. 



PANAMA. 



See under Centr.^l America, page 81. 



PAPUA. 



See under British Empire, page 75. 



PARAGUAY. 
Historical Outline. 

Paraguay is one of the .South American states not 
touching the ocean. Its cliief city, Asuncion, was 
founded by Ayolas in the fall of 1536. After the 
abandonment of Buenos Aires by the Spaniards, 
.\sunci6n became the capital of the whole region of 
the Plata. Paraguay was a dependency of Buenos 
Aires, when, in 1811, it rose against the Spanish 
authorities and defeated the Argentine leader Bel- 
grano. The consulate, established in 1812, wa£ sup- 
planted two years later by the dictatorship of Gen- 
eral Francia, who held tmdisputed sway until 1840- 
A second brief consulate was succeeded by the presi- 
dency of Don Carlos Lopez. After him his son Don 
Francisco Lopez ruled from 1862 for seven years over 
what was called the Republic of Paraguay. His 
ambition and egotism involved Paraguay in wars 
with Brazil and the Argentine Republic, but on April 
1. 1870. Lopez was killed and Paraguay crushed at 
the battle of Aquidaban. From that date Paraguay, 
although troubled by revolutions in 1!)0S, 1911. 1912, 
and 1915, has shown great industrial progress. 

Organization. 

Government. By the constitution (1870) the 
legislative power is vested in a Congress consisting 
of a Senate of 20, one to every 12,000 inhabitants, 
and a Chamber of Deputies of 40, one to every 6.000. 
Both senators and deputies are chosen directly by 
the people. The executive power is in the hands of 
a president chosen for four years, who exercises liis 
fimction through a cabinet of five ministers respon- 
sible to Congress. 

Social Conditions. The native races of this 
part of South America were the Guaranis, whom the 
wliites first conciliated, then subjected, and with 
whom they intermarried. The modem Paraguay- 
ans are the descendants of this relationship. The 
Roman Catholic is the established religion, but the 
free exercise of other reUgions is permitted. Educa- 
tion is free and nominally obligatory, but not every- 
where available. 

Defense. The army consists of atout 2,500 men : 
the nav-y of three small converted merchantmen. 

Industry. The coimtry is predominantly agri- 
cultural and supports vast herds of cattle. Mate, or 
Paraguay tea, is one of the chief articles of export: 
tobacco is also exported. 

The area is estimated at 65.000 square miles and 
the population at 1,000,000, 

Chronology. 

15S7-1628. Exploration of the Paraguay and Pa- 
rana rivers by Sebastian Cabot. 
1536. Aug. IS. Asuncion founded. Region 

comes tmder viceroyalty of Peru. 
1605. Jesuit missions established: become a 

power in the laud. 
1769. Jesuits espeiied. [Aires | 

1776. Paragtiay put imder viceroyalty of BuenosI 
1811. July 5. Independence declared both from 

Spain and Argentina. Not contested. 
1814-1840. Dictatorship of Francia; anticlerical, 

opposed to foreign commerce, but favorable to 

internal development, 
1840-1862. Dictatorsliip of Carlos Antonio Lopez, 

Francia's nephew. 
1855. Feb. 1. Paraguayans fire on U.S.S. Water 

Witch on Parand River. 

1858. June 2. Congress of United States author- 
izes a commission to settle Water Witch and claims 
controversies. Naval force also sent to La Plata. 

1859. Feb. 4. Paraguay apologizes and pays 
indemnity: also treaties of commerce, free naviga- 
tion of Parand and Paraguay rivers, and arbitra- 
tion of claims. [ceeds as dictator.! 

186S. Lopez's son, Francisco Solano Lnpez, .sue- 1 

1865. March IS. Lopez's ambition for conquests 
leads to declaration of war on Argentina; but 
Brazil and Uruguay form alliance with Argen- 
tina (May 1), and Paraguay is invaded, devas- 
tated, and depopulated. War lasts five years. 

1870. March 1. Paraguayan forces crushed and 
Lopez killed at battle of Aquidaban. Rivalry 
among alUes preserves Paraguay's independence. 
Nor. 25. Constitution proclaimed; Rivarola 
first president. Bevolt.s are frequent; down to 
1912 few presidents complete their terms. 

1872. Jan. 9. Treaties of peace, indemnity, and 
boundaries with Brazil. 



132 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: PARAGUAY — PERSIA. 



N 



U 



W 



1876. Feb. 3. Treaty of peace, indemnity, and 

boundaries with Argentina; EI Chaco territorj' 

to be arbitrated. 
1878. Nov. IS. President Hayes of tlie United 

States decides El Cliaco controversy in favor of 

Paraguay. 
1883. April iO. Treaty of peace with Uruguay; 

Paraguay recognizes war debt. 

1903. January. President Aceval (in office since 
189S) forced to resign by a cabal of " generals." 

Not. 2.i. Juan Ezcurra inaugurated presi- 
dent; military control. 

1904. August. Almost bloodless contest between 
Conservative government and Liberal party under 
Ferreira begins. 

1S05. February. President Ezcurra resigns; Liber- 
als make Gaona provisional president. 

December. Gaonaresigns; lialz provisional presi- 
dent. 

1906. December. Ferreira inaugurated regular 
president. 

1908. July 2. Revolt at Asuncion. Two days 
later Ferreira resigns ; Naveiro becomes president. 

1910. Nov. 2o. Gondra inaugurated regular 
president. 

1911. Ja7i. 19. Gondra having been forced to re- 
sign, Jara succeeds as president. Disturbances 
continue. 

July 5. Centennial of Independence cele- 
brated. On same day President Jara expelled; 
Rojas made provisional president, deposed in 
December, restored the next January. 
1913. January. Brief controversy with Argentina 
involving severance of diplomatic relations. In- 
tercom-se restored m February. 

March 1. Pefia takes place of Rojas as provi- 
sional president: latter in hands of rebels. 

March 22. Revolution forces Feiia to flee. 
Navero provisional president. 

April 27. Jara revolts. Captured and dies. 
May 17. Anarchy prevails. 

July 19. Eduardo Schaererelected president; 
inaugurated August 15. Law and order finally 
prevail; industrial and financial progress result. 

1915. January. Uprising by Escobar quickly sup- 
pressed. 

1916. July 19. Treaty with Bolivia: step toward 
settlement of boundary controversy. 

Aug. IS. Manuel Francosucceedsconstitution- 
ally as president. 
1919. June 7. President Franco dies; Vice Presi- 
dent Montero succeeds. 

Nor. IS. Paraguay joins the League of Na- 
tions. 



PERSIA. 
Historical Outline. 

Few existing nations go farther back for their origin 
than does Persia. Ancient history takes note of Iran 
as one of the earliest seats of civilization. Following 
the old empire of Bactria came that of the Medo- 
Persians. Under the Acliaemenian kings (559-330 
B. c.) Persia was a conquering power, the dominion 
of wliich was extended westward to Greece, east- 
ward to the Indus, southward to Ethiopia, and 
northward to the countries above the Caspian. 

The Persians made successful war with almost 
every kingdom upon their borders, imtil Alexander 
the Alacedonian tiuTied the tide of conquest. The 
brief Greek ascendancy was succeeded by the dy- 
nasty of the Seleucidae, and that by the Parthian 
Empire. The Romans held the country for a time, 
includmg the conquest of Persia by Trajan and the 
subsequent campaigns of Sevenis. The Sassanian 
Empire followed, from the third century to the period 
of the Moslem conquest. The Persians repeatedly 
conquered parts of western India, and have left a 
mark on its religion and literature. Under the Ab- 
basside caliphs Persia again became a great empire, 
the transformation of wliich into modem Persia may 
be dateti from the death of Abbas III., in the year 
1736. At that time the ambitious Nadir became shah. 
His northern conquests and wars in the west justified 
his reputation as one of the greatest of the shahs. 

The history of Persia dtiring the latter half of the 
eighteenth century is largely an account of feuds and 
revolutions. The Kajar dynasty was estabhshed 
with the accession of Aga Mohammed in 1794. who 
since 1779 had contended for the throne in a civil 
war. Fath Ali Shah was proclaimed in 1798; then 
followed a war with Russia, which led to diplomatic 
relations between Persia and England, and Persia and 
France. Napoleon I. cultivated friendly relations 
with the shah. 

Persia, however, has never entered into the Euro- 
pean system; and the Western states have not much 
concerned themselves with the course of Persian 
events. Mohammed Shah sent an army against 
Herat in 1.S37, and thus came into collision with the 
British. His son, Nasr-ed-Din Shah, during the 
Crimean War (1854-56), entered into secret relations 
with Russia, and it was only after the treaty of 
peace that friendly relations were again declared be- 
tween the shah and the Western governments. 



Great Britain in the nineteenth century adopted 
the poUcy of maintaining an envoy at the Persian 
court. In 1862 the Anglo-Indian telegraph was 
carried through Persia from London by way of Te- 
heran and Bagdad. In 1873 and again in 187S the 
shah visited l^)n(lon ;uul other Western cities, where 
he was reci'i\ed willijircal distinction. In 1881 the 
intematiouul boimdary between Persia and Russia 
was peacefully estabhshed. Nasr-ed-Din held the 
throne for forty-eight years, and was then, in 1896, 
assassinated by a fanatic. The Persian rule passed 
without controversy to his son Muzaffar-ed-Din. 

Between 1899 and 1907 Russia and Great Britain 
were rivals for the control of the kingdom. The 
Russian Bank lent Persia $20,000,000 of wliich more 
than half was squandered by the shah. In return 
Russia obtained a valuable concession and tlireat- 
ened Great Britam's naval supremacy in the Persian 
Gulf. In 1899 Ijord Lan.sdomie staud in the House 
of Lords that Great Britain would resist by all means 
in its power the attempt of any other nation to ob- 
tain a naval base on the Gulf; and in 1903 Lord Cur- 
zon. viceroy of India, made a naval demonstration. 

The rivalry of Russia and England in central Asia 
extended to Persia. As a part of a general clean-up 
of the situation they came to an agreement in 1907 
in which Persia was not consulted, by wiuch Great 
Britain agreed not to seek any political or commer- 
cial concessions or to interfere with Russia in the 
northern zone; while in the southern zone which 
bordered upon Afghanistan, Great Britain was to 
have free hand. The central zone was regarded as a 
neutral belt in which either comitry might obtaui 
concessions. In case Persia should fail to meet her 
liabilities in regard to loans previously contracted, 
Great Britain and Russia reserved the right to as- 
.sume control of the Persian revenues within their 
respective spheres of inlluence. In addition Russia 
admitted the special interests of Great Britain in the 
Persian Gulf. This was virtually a partition of the 
ancient land. 

In 1907 Mohammed Ali Mirza succeeded to the 
tlirone and a self-constituted Assembly demanded 
that he rule as a constitutional monarch. To this he 
agreed. Revolution broke out, the shah was de- 
throned and his eleven-year-old son proclaimed shah 
and a representative government estaijlished (1909). 
In 1911 W. Morgan Shuster, an American, was made 
treasurer-general with full powers of direction and 
control. The ex-shah invaded Persia with consider- 
able forces, but was defeated. Russia demanded 
the dismissal of Shuster, and the Persians were 
forced to comply. Russia nevertheless invaded the 
coimtry and occupied Tabriz. In 1913 the British 
and Rtissian governments agreed to advance $2,000,- 
000 to Persia and in return each received conces- 
sions for railways. Alimed Mirza was then crowned 
shah and in 1918 Persia informed Holland that she 
regarded the treaties imposed on her in recent years, 
especially the Russo-British treaty of 1907 fixing the 
spheres of interest, as no longer binding. 

Organization. 

Government. Until 1906 the shah, witliin the 
limits imposed by the Mohammedan religion, was an 
absolute ruler. The only limit upon his power was 
the influence of the leading doctors of the law. In 
1906 a repre.-i('nt;iti\e government, called National 
Council, w;is in tlieorj- established but never prop- 
erly constituted; and siure 1915 it has ceased to exist 
as a legislative or adnunistrative body. The govern- 
ment is in the hands of a self -designated cabinet. 

Religion. 8,500.000 of the population are Mo- 
hammedans of the Shiite sect. 850,000 of the rival 
Sunnite sect. There are about 10,000 Parsis or fol- 
lowers of Zoroaster, 50,000 Armenians, 30,000 Nes- 
torians, and 40,000 Jews. 

Education. Various Moslem colleges are sup- 
ported by public funds in which the students are in- 
structed in the Mohammedan religion and the Per- 
sian and ^Vrabic literature. In 1849 a polytechnic 
school was opened at Teheran and there are also 
military colleges. Within recent years many schools 
modeled on military lines have been established and 
the whole educational system is undergoing radical 
changes. 

Industry and Labor. Persia has from time im- 
memorial been regarded as a garden countrj', not^ 
withstandmg the vast areas of desert. The products 
range from those of the north temperate zone to those 
of tile tropics. Next to Arabia, Persia leads in the 
production of medicinal gums. All cereal grains 
and many of the common fruits, such as apples, 
peaches, apricots, plums, quinces, figs, dates, and 
oranges, are produced in abimdance. 

The oil fields of the Caspian region are extremely 
rich and m 1916-17 more than $17,000,000 worth of 
oil was exported. There are considerable mineral 
deposits, iron, lead, copper, and coal — none of 
them developed. The most important exports of 
Persia, besides petroleum, are, in the order of their 
value, as follows: dried fruits, opium, animals (live 
stock), cotton, rice, and skins. 

Defense. The army consists of a small force at 
the capital of not more than 2,000 men and two 
brigades with their headquarters at Shiraz and Ker- 



man. The police force is organized and com- 
manded by Swedish officers. 

The area of Pereia is estimated at 628,000 square 
miles and the population at between 8,0(X),000 and 
10,000,000. 

Chronology. 

1499. A native Persian dj-nasty, the Sophi, over- 
throws foreign rule. 

1586-1638. Abbas Shah makes Persia again a 
great power in southern Asia ; afterwards the Sophi 
djTiasty declines. 

1J21. Persia conquered by Afghans. 

1739. Nadir (shah after 1730) reestablishes the 
Persian power and greatly extends it; but the em- 
pire faUs to pieces on his assassination (1747). 

1794. Aga Mohammed of the Kajars, a Tiu-kish 
tribe, secures the tlirone ; Kajar dynasty has since 
ruled. 

1800. Georgia, a subject state, joins Russia; war 
follows (see Rcssia), in which Persia loses. 

1828. Feb. 22. By the Treaty of Turkomanchai, 
Russia makes further advances and secures ex- 
territorial privileges. 

1856. Nov. I. Great Britain declares war on Per- 
sia because of her seizure of Herat. Peace is 
made at Paris, March 4, 1857. Persia giving up 
Herat. 

1884. Russian conquest of Turkestan places her on 
the whole of Persia's northern frontier. Persia 
becomes the objeet of European diplomacy: as 
a field for controversy between Russia and Great 
Britain; as a sphere, for commercial concessions; 
as in the way of British ascendancy in the Persian 
Gulf; as a stepping-stone for Germany on the way 
to India. 

1896. May 1. Nasr-ed-Din Shah is assassinated, 
succeeded by his son Muzaffar-ed-Din. 

1906. .4 ug. 5. The shah assents to the formation 
of a representative national coimcil ; end of abso- 
lute rule. Coimcil meets on October 7. Decem- 
ber 30, the shah and crown prince issue a consti- 
tution on the powere and duties of the council. 

1907. Jan. S. The shah dies; succeeded by his son 
IVIoharanied Ali Mirza, who attempts to ignore the 
constitution. 

Aug. SI. Anglo-Russian convention ends 
the rivalry in Persia; a phase of the Entente Cor- 
diale and advantageous to Russian interests. 
Persian mdependence and territorial integrity to 
be upheld, but coimtry divided into tliree zones: 
the northern, a Russian sphere; the southern, a 
British one: the middle neutral zone, open to the 
influence of both. 

1909. July 16. Revolution against the reaction- 
ary policy of the shah leads to his practical abdica- 
tion ; the council proclaims as shah his son Ahmed 
Mirza, who is 11 years old. 

1911. June 13. Shuster, an American, is ap- 
pointed treasurer-general in an effort to bring 
order out of the financial chaos ; but December 28, 
Russia, by a tlireat of armed intervention, com- 
pels Ills dismissal. Misgovemment and general 
disorganization, with Russian and British loss of 
prestige, gives Germany an opportimity to gain 
influence. 

1914. July 21. Shah is crowned. 

November. Persia declares neutrality when 
Turkey joins the Central Powers. (For conflicts 
in northwestern Persia, see Armeni.^.) 

1915. November. Persia the seat of rival In- 
trigues. Crisis at Teheran, due to the attempt 
of the Central Powers to force the shah to side 
with them. Great Britain becomes firmly estab- 
hshed in the south, where her position follows the 
fluctuations of the Mesopotamian campaign; and 
the Russian advance south of Teheran breaks up 
the Turko-Gerraan force. Persia's gendarmerie is 
reorganized by Sir Percy Sykes. 

1917. November. Peoples of northwestern Persian 
province of Azerbaijan join those of Baku and Eli- 
zavetpol in forming new state of Azerbaijan; for 
a while this is part of Republic of Transcaucasia, 
but in May. 1918. becomes Independent. 

1918. On withdrawal of the Russians from north- 
em Persia, British extend their operations and oc- 
cupy Meshed in the northwest as a guard against 
the Bolsheviki. 

May 3. Persia denoimces Anglo-Russian agree- 
ment of 1907. 

1919. Aug. 9. Anglo-Persian agreement: Great 
Britain to furnish administrative advisers, niili- 
tarj' officers and equipment, encourage develop- 
ment of commimication, and lend Persia sufficient 
money for the.se purposes, customs being pledged 
for payment and precedence given over other 
loans. Agreement meets with much outside op- 
position as contrary to the League of Nations, but 
British deny all designs on Persian integrity. 

Oct. 31 . Shah visits England. 
1930. Persia's adlierence to League of Nations an- 
noimced. 

Feb. 8. Permission is given a British syndicate 
to survey a railway from the railliead near Bag- 
dad on Mesopotamian frontier to Teheran and the 
Caspian Sea. 



1527 - 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: PERU — POLAND. 



133 



PERU. 

Historical Outline. 

In Peru was clcvclopud the highest native civiliza- 
tion in either of the Americas. In the luglilands 
wliich extend into Bolivia the kingdom of the Piruas 
was estabhslied, probably as early as SOO a. d., and 
ruins of vast masonry edifices are foimd at Tiahiia- 
naco near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca and at 
Cuzco. This empire was overthrown aliout ICKX) 
A. D.. and about 1230 the Inca Empire was estab- 
lished at Cuzco. A wonderful syst«m of roads and 
bridges was Ijuilt tlirough the moimtains, temples 
and fortresses were built with marvelous sliill. The 
workers in metals showed great varietj' and original- 
ity of design, while the textiles wliich have survived 
show perfection of teclmique and pattern. A care- 
fully plarmed system of land tenure and colonization 
provided for aU the wants of the people. The native 
government, however, was fierce and tyraimical. 

The Spaniards entered Peru in 1,527. Just before 
their coming a civil war Jiad raged between Huas- 
car and Atahualpa, and tlie people were divided. By 
1533 the Spanish conquest was completed. Quito, 
northern Ecuador, part of New Granada, Charcas 
(modem Bolivia), and northern Chile had been m- 
vaded and conquered. In 1535 Pizarro foimded 
Lima and made it his capital. The abimdance of 
gold excited the Spaniards and they treated the na- 
tives with cruelty imusual even for them. Peru was 
made a viceroyalty which included the whole of 
Spanish South America, but in 1718 New Granada 
was set off; in 1776 La Plata, and even Chile and 
Quito, were not wholly subordinate. 

In 1780 tlie Indian natives, always niunerous, but 
as a rule not formidable to the Spanish ascendancy, 
rose in rebellion imder their hero, Tupac Amaru. 
The insurgents, however, were not able to hold their 
own against the Spaniards and were left in a worse 
condition than before. 

When the insiu-rections against Spanish rule broke 
out in the north and east, Peru was the center of the 
Spanish power in South America and the Spanish 
military strength was concentrated at Lima. Con- 
sequently the risings in the more distant provmces 
such as Chile and Buenos Aires were successful. In- 
dependence, however, depended on destroying the 
power of the viceroy at Lima. 

San i^Iartin, the Argentine general, brought a con- 
tingent of the Argentine army across the Andes and 
the Chilean troops landed on the Peruvian coast in 
1820, protected by a fleet of armed ships under the 
command of Lord Cochrane, an Englishman. San 
Martin was enthusiastically received and proclaimed 
the independence of Peru at Lima, July 28, 1S21. 
The Spanish rallied aft-er one defeat, but Bolivar ar- 
rived at Lima to organize an attack upon the .Span- 
ish viceroy in the interior. In 1824 the final battle 
of Ayacucho was fought, in which the viceroy and all 
his officers were taken prisoners and the Spanish 
power finally wiis overtlirovvn. In 1826 Callao, the 
last Spanish port in Soutli .\merica, was evacuated. 

For five years Simon Bolivar ruled Peru with 
dictatorial power. When he retired in 1826 a revolt 
broke out and a disastrous war was waged with 
Colombia. From 1835 to 1839 Peru was joined 
with Bolivia imder the rule of Andres Santa Cruz, 
who was overtlu'own by the intervention of Chile. 

It was only after 1S45 that order was restored in 
Peru, but here, as in the other coimtries of South 
America, the people divided into factions and presi- 
dents were made and deposed by military violence. 
No stable government was secured in Peni. 

In 1864 Spain seized the Chincha Islands which 
had valuable guano deposits, intending to hold them 
imtil the Spanish claims against Peru should l)e sat- 
isfied. Although the islands were restored, a body 
of Peruvian revolutionists declared war agauist 
Spain, and the Spanish admiral bombarded Callao. 
In 1868 an era of speculation began wliich continued 
until 1876 when a financial crisis produced general 
bankruptcy, and then war with Chile broke out. 

Chile alleged that Peru and Bolivia had formed an 
alliance against her, but the true object was to ob- 
tain possession of the rich deposits of guano and the 
nitrate beds on the Bolivian and Peruvian coasts. 
Severe fighting occiured between 1873 and 1883 and 
both Bolivia and Peru were crushed. By the treaty 
of 1883 Chile obtained absolute cession of the province 
Tarapacd and ten years occupation of the districts 
of Tacna and .\rica, the ovvnership of wliich was to bo 
decided by a popular vote at the expiration of the 
period, a vote wliich was never taken. 

From this war Peru has not yet recovered. 
Boimdary disputes with Bolivia, 1908, Brazil, 1910, 
and Ecuador, 1911, have been settled by arbitration, 
and revolutions have been frequent, the last in 1919. 
In 1918 war tlireatened between Chile and Peru, but 
through the influence of the United States the differ- 
ences were settled and the United States acted as 
mediator in the boimdary dispute. 



Organization. 



Government, .\ccording to the constitution 
(1920), the legislative power is vested in a Senate of 



57 elected by direct vote and a House of Representa- 
tives (128) composed of deputies of the provinces hi 
the proiJortion of one for every 30,000 inliabitants. 
Everj- two years one tliird of the members of each 
chamber, as decided by lot, retire. The executive 
power is m the hands of a president elected for five 
years and not immediately reeligible The peace 
establislunent of the army is 11,000, the pohce force 
organized as soldiers is 8,000, the navy consists now 
of six vessels. In no Lathi-Anierican state do the 
actualities of despotic military government differ 
more from the paper constitution. 

Education and Religion. By the constitution 
there is absolute political and religious liberty. Ro- 
man Catholicism is the religion of the state. Ele- 
niemary education is by law compulsorj-, but the law 
is not enforced. In 1919 there were 2,880 primary 
schools with 195,000 pupils, and in 1916 5,000 pupils 
were registered in the government high schools, for 
which a moderate tuition is charged. There is a 
central imiversity at Lima with 1,500 students. 

Industry and Labor. The cliief agricultural 
products of Peru are cotton, cotfee, and sugar. The 
coffee cultiu'e, under the management of the Peru- 
vian corporation, is leading to the development of 
the country by the construction of roads and bridges. 
Rice and cocoa are also produced and cocaine is 
manufactured at Lima. Peru is rich in minerals and 
produces over $20,000,000 worth of copper, SIO.OOO,- 
CKX) worth of petroleum, SS.OOO.OOO worth of silver, 
although the gold mines have almost ceased to be 
profitable. 

The area of Peru is 722.461 square miles, but the 
boimdaries of some portions are not yet determined. 
The last census was taken in 1876 and showed 
a population of 2,660,881 ; the IJina Geographical 
Society estimated in 1.896 that the population was 
4,620,201, but there are grave doubts whether the 
population is actually increasmg. 

Chronology. 

1527-1533. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro and 
Almagro. Overtlirow of Inca (iua.si civihzation. 

15.33. JunegS. Atahualpa, the Inca, murdered by 
Pizarro. 

1535. Jan. IS. Lima founded. 

1538. April 26. Pizarro executes Almagro. 

1541. June S6. Almagro's followers assassinate 
Pizarro. Civil wars between factions of con- 
querors and between conquerors and Spanish gov- 
ernors continue imtil 1554. 

1544. Viceroyalty of Peru established. 

1555. July 6. Hurtado de Mendoza arrives as 
viceroy. He restores order. 

1J18. New Granada separated from Peru. IPeru. I 

1J76. Buenos Aires (La Plata) separated from] 

1780-1783. Native revolt led by Tupac Amaru, a 
descendant of the Incas. 

18?1. July 28. San Martin proclaims the Inde- 
pendence of Peni. 

1824. Bolivar dictator. Decemljer 9, independ- 
ence won by defeat of Spanish at Ayacucho. 

1826. June. Panama Congress (see Panama). 
Sept. S. Bolivar returns to Colombia. 

1827. Aug. 24. Lamar elected president. 

1828. March 31. New constitution. 

1829. June 7. Lamar deposed. AugiLst 31, Ga- 
marra elected president- Disturbed conditions 
continue imtil 1845; during which control is held 
by Gamarra (1829-1833, 1839-1841), Orbegozo 
(1833-1835), Salaverry (1835-1836), Santa Cruz 
(1,836-1839), andMenendez (1841-1844). 

1835-1839. Santa Cruz and Bolivia (see Bolivia). 
1845. April £0. Castllla elected president. He 

inaugurates a period of peace and prosperity. 
1852. Echenique succeeds to presidency. | 

1854. Revolt drives Echenique from power. Cas- 

tilla again president, January, 1855. 

1862. San Romdn succeeds as president. 

1863. April 3. President San RomSn dies; Vice 
President Perez succeeds. 

1864. April 14. Spaniards seize the Chincha 
(Guano) Islands as security for a claim. Chile 
and other states support Peru. 

1865. Jan. 2S. Perez signs a peace with Spain. 
Very impopular: Perez overthrown by a revolt and 
Prado made dictator. November 26. December 
5, treaty of offensive aUiance with Chile against 
Spain. Ecuador also joins it. 

1866. Jan. 14. War declared on Spain. .Spanish 
fleet bombards CaUao, May 2, but is repulsed. 
No further Peruvian hostilities. 

1867. New constitution continues establishment of 
Catholic Church with Intolerance; but practi- 
cally Protestantism is permitted. 

May. Castilla heads a revolt, but his death 
ends it. In December Balta leads another one, 
and Prado resigns in January, 1868. 

1868. Aug. 2. Balta inaugurated president. 
Policy of extravagant public works. 

1872. July. Minister of War Gutierrez imprisons 
Balta, has liim assassinated, and is himself IjTiched. 
August 2, Manuel Pardo inaugurated constitu- 
tional president. (dency. 1 
1876. Aug. 2. Prado succeeds regidarly to presi- 1 
1879. Dec. 22. Pierola proclaimed dictator, 



with 



Prado having fled. Government is in complete 
cortfusion during the war and after. 

1879-1883. Chilean War (see Chile). 

1883. January. Iglesias elected president under 
Chilean control. C^aceres resists his authority. 

1885. Dec. 2. Both Iglesias and Caceres renounce 
control; junta rules. 

1886. June 3. Caceres elected president. He 
gradually restores order. 

1887. Aug. 1. Treaty with Ecuador for arbitra- 
tion of boundaiy dispute. Not effectual. 

1889. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress opens 
at Wasliington (see United States). 

1890. Aug. 10. Bermiidez succeeds as president. 

1894. March 31. Bermudez dies. In May Caceres 
proclaims liimself president. Civil war breaks 
out under Pierola. 

1895. March 21 . Foreign legations mediate a peace 
after fierce fighting for Lima. Cdceres retires. 
Provisional jimta governs. 

Sept. S. Pierola uiaugurated constitutional 
president. Reforms and a few outbreaks. 
1899. Sept. 8. Romaua histalled president. 

1903. Sept. 8. Candamo Iwcomes president. 
Nov. 14. Boundary treaty (Acre) 

Brazil (see Brazil). 

1904. May 7. Candamo dies. September 24, Jose 
Pardo inaugurated president. 

1908. Sept. 24. Legula succeeds to presidency. 

1909. Decision in Bolivian boundary dispute (see 
Argentina). 

April 21. Colombian treaty to settle boimd- 
ary. Controversy with Ecuador over boundary 
remains, while the question of Tacna and Arica 
with Chile is a constant irritation. 
1912. Sept. 24. Billinghurst becomes president. 

1914. February. Military revolt under Bena- 
vides; Billinghurst imprisoned, deposed, and ex- 
iled. Benavides provisional president. May IS. 

1915. Aug. IS. Pardo again inaugurated president. 
October. Congress finally passes a religious 

liberty amendment; but President Pardo neit'iCi' 
signs nor vetoes it. 

1917. Oct.S. Peru severs diplomatic relations with 
Germany over sinking of Peruvian ship Lorton. 

1918. June 14. Possession is taken of 8 interned 
German ships (.50,000 tons). 

November. Anti-Peruvian riots in Chile over 
Tacna- Arica question tlireatenwar. Good serv- 
ices of United States quiet matters. 

1919. Jan. 13. General strike at Lima and CaUao 
inaugurates a year of industrial unrest. 

Jan. I s. Peru has a delegate at the Peace Con- 
ference at Paris. 

May. Another general strike at Lima. Lasts 
a week, then called off. Martial law, suppression 
of a newspaijer and other actions cause controversy 
between judicial and executive departments. 

July 4. Because of a disputeci presidential elec- 
tion Caceres heads a revolt. Pardo exiled. 
Leguia. Independent candidate for presidency, 
claims election and assumes provisional control. 

September. General Gorgas of Panama Canal 
fame agrees to plan and supervise a sanitary sys- 
tem for Peru. 

Sept. 27. Congress legalizes all of Legula's acts. 

Oct. 10. Government, followhig further strikes, 
promulgates a decree of compulsory arbitration. 

Oct. 12. Leguia, after a further election, in- 
augurated, under a constitutional amendment, 
president for 5 years. 

Nox>. 17. Peru ratifies Treaty of Versailles, in- 
cluding the League of Nations. (Bolivia),! 

1920. Chile-Bolivia-Peruvian question (seel 
Jan. IS. Constitutional reforms proclaimed. 



PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

See under United States, page 210. 



POLAND. 

Historical Outline. 

The state of Poland originated in the Slav migra- 
tions of the 6th century and occupied the inland 
plains which are drained by the Vistula River. Here 
in the 10th century a Slavic state under the Piast 
dynasty was founded, which checked the Teutonic 
movement to the east. In the year 1000 a. d. the 
Emperor Otto III. recognized Boleslaus I. as king of 
Poland. Diirmg the 12th century the Piast dynasty 
declined and Poland was broken up into several prin- 
cipalities. In the 13th century the terrible Tatar 
invasion ravaged and depopulated the land. 

The Poles were now so weak that they became a 
prey to the heathen Lithuanians and Old Prussians. 
These peoples were a separate branch of the Aryan 
race, being neither Slav nor Teuton. Thej' lived 
along the southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea. To 
protect themselves from the invasions of these peo- 
ple, the Poles caUed in the Teutonic Knights, a Ger- 
manic crusading order pledged to subjugate or con- 
vert the Lithuanians. The Teutonic Ivnights es- 
tabUshed themselves on the lower Vistula, and in a 
series of ferocious wars almost exterminated the Old 



134 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: POLAND - PORTUGAL. 



1385 — 1920. 



Prussians, whose territory was resettled by German 

Kl emigrants. 

'^ Tliis influx of Germans drew together the Poles 

and Lithuanians, who had nominally accepted Chris- 
tianity. In 1386 the Lithuanian Prmce Jagello mar- 
ried the daughter of the Polish king, and Poland and 
Lithuania were united against the Germans. This 
kingdom of Poland-Lithuania waged a terrible strug- 
gle with the Teutonic Ivnights, whom they Qnally de- 

^^ feated at the battle of the Tannenberg in 1410; and 

\J in 1466 a peace was made by wliich the Teutonic 

ICnights ceded West Prussia to Poland, but retained 
East Prussia as vassal of the Polish crown. Poland 
thus gained access to the sea. Under Polish rule 
West Prussia became partly Polonized, although the 
towns, especially Danzig, remained German. 

Under the Jagellon djaiasty a succession of able 
kings made Poland-Lithuania a great power. Al- 
P though the old Polish provinces of Pomerania and Si- 

lesia were not recovered, the union with Lithuania 
brought an immense extent of territory to the east. 
Russia, which had just suffered from the terrible Ta- 
tar invasions, lost to Lithuania the territory beyond 
the Dnieper, almost as far as the Black Sea. This 
immense region was occupied by the Poles and Lith- 
uanians who crueUy oppressed the Russian peasants 
Qand reduced them to a condition of serfdom. 
The Jagellon dynasty became extinct in 1572, and 
thenceforward the Pohsh nobility, 60,000 in all, had 
the right to elect a king. The nobles split into fac- 
tions and the country was plunged into anarchy. 
The principle of " liberum reto," or unanimous con- 
sent, crippled the government and led to violence and 
despotism. Poland's weakness attracted the greed 

Rof the great powers. 
In 1772 Russia, Prussia, and Austria united m 
despoiling Poland by carving out the First Partition. 
Russia received the eastern part of Lithuania: Aus- 
tria, EastGalicia: Prussia, most of Polish Prussia. In 
the .Second Partition (1793) Russia took the greater 
part of Lithuania; Prussia, Danzig, and Thorn, and 
the whole of Great Poland, which became Southern 
Prussia. In 1795, by the Third Partition, Poland 

S ceased to exist as an independent state; Prussia took 

the region between the Vistula and the Bug and 
Niemen and part of Cracow; Austria took West 
Gallcia; and Russia, all that remamed. Dm-mg the 
Napoleonic wars the kingdom of Poland was tempo- 
rarily revived as the Duchy of Warsaw, but the Con- 
gress of Vienna redrew the lines of division, giving the 
larger share, including Warsaw, to Russia; while 
Prussia and Austria got comparatively little. 
I The annihilation of the Polish state did not extm- 

guish the Polish nationality. Old Poland had been 
divided between the tyrannical aristocrats and the 
peasants. Under foreign control all classes alike 
suffered oppression and felt a common grievance. 
In 1S30 the Russian Poles, exasperated by the re- 
port that the czar was to use their army to coerce the 
Belgians, broke into revolt. The Russian grand duke 

Ufled from Warsaw and open war ensued. 
On the suppression of the rebellion Russian Po- 
land was made a Russian province and severe meas- 
ures were taken to stamp out all national sentiments. 
The universities were closed, the church harshly 
treated, and the Polish recruits drilled in the Russian 
army. Alexander II. attempted a more liberal pol- 
icy, but an insurrection broke out in 1863 and caused 
. , a return to the harsh methods. However, the sup- 

V pression of the nobility and gentry has caused an 

improvement in the economic position of the Lithua- 
nian and PoUsh peasants. 

In that part, of Poland which fell to Prussia simUar 
attempts at breaking down the national spirit were 
made. The German language was taught m the 
schools and German colonists were settled in the 
territory. In Austria, however, the Poles were 
VV treated "more liberaUy and practicaUy given aut«n- 

' omy in Galicia. Yet the Poles of aU sections never 

lost the hope of a united and independent Poland. 

The World War was Poland's opportunity. In 
March, 1915, Russia at last granted to Poland a 
limited form of self-government, hoping to prevent 
the Poles from becoming allies of the Central Powers, 
who had invaded Poland and were rapidly driving 
y, the Russians back. By the end of 1915, the Ger- 

A mans and Austrians occupied the whole coimtry, 

and on November 5, 1916, the Central Powers pro- 
claimed the independence of Poland, but neither 
determined the boimdaries nor established a consti- 
tution. In October. 1918. a constituent assembly 
was elected to frame a constitution establishing uni- 
versal suffrage, male and female, direct, secret, and 
proportional. By the treaties formed at the Peace 
Y Conference at Paris, in 1919, Germany and the Al- 

lied powers recognized the independence of Poland 
and agreed to accept whatever boimdaries the Allied 
powers should determine. The city and port of 
Danzig, however, was established as a free city imder 
the protection of Poland. 

Organization. 
-^ Government. Poland is now a republic under a 

^ president and a Coimcil of M inisters who are respon- 

sible to Parliament, Ignace Paderewski was the 
first prime muaister; Joseph Pilsudsld president. 



Industry and Labor. Poland is an important 
agricultural coimtry, her principal crops being rye, 
wheat, oats, and barley. There are important 
mines, particularly coal, iron, and zinc; and m Gall- 
cia oil is found. TextUe mdustries are import.ant, 
and Lodz m Russian Poland was the center o£ the 
iron industry. 

Religion. The great majority of the people are 
Roman Catholics, but there is no established church 
and aU denominations are tolerated. Fierce preju- 
dice against the Jews has led to many attacks. 

Education. In former Russian and Austrian 
Poland there were in 1919 over 10.000 public schools, 
with an attendance of over 1,600,000. The Lmver- 
sity of Warsaw had, m 1916-17, 2,500 students 

A PoUsh estimate gives the probable area of the 
new Republic as 141,854 square miles and the popu- 
lation about 30,000,000. 



Chronology. 

1386. Feb. 15. Union of Poland and Lithuania 

by crownmg of Jagello, grand duke of Lithuania; 
becomes also king of Poland as Ladislas II. Be- 
gmning of the history of Poland as a great power. 

1569. Juhl. Union of Lublin (L^'Ublin) makes 
Poland one indivisible body politic; brought about 
by Sigismund II., last of the JageUos. Diet has 
become very powerful, but the constitution is not 
practicable," especially because of the elective 
monarchy and necessity of unanimous vote in the 
Diet wliich assist in the decline, speeded by the 
undisciplmed character of the Polish nobility, who 
are the constitutional members of the repubUc. 

1648-1651. Cossack rebellion, first step in the 
dissolution of Poland. 

1654. Cossacks transfer allegiance to Russia; Rus- 
sia invades Poland. 

1655. Charles X. of Sweden also Invades Poland; 
coimtry is completely overnm by Muscovites and 
Swedes, but both are finally checked. 

166J. Feb. 11. Truce of Andrusovo; Poland jlelds 

Kiev and left bank of Dnieper to Russia. Coirup- 

tion. foreign mtrigue, open barter of crown, and 

factionalcontestshastcndeclineof the kingdom. 

1700-1720. Poland is chief sufferer m the Swedish 

wars (see Sweden). 
177S-1796. Tliree partitions of Poland (see 

Rdssh). Disappears from the map as a nation. 
1807-1812. Duchy of Warsaw is constituted by 
Napoleon out o"f Russian Poland; feeble, and 
mere recnutUig gromid for French army. 
1815. June 9. Fmal act of Congress of Vienna 
divides Poland again between Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia on a different basis (see Nineteenth- 
Centuby Period), except the minute republic of 
Cracow Main portion of Russian share (except 
Lithuania) is formed into kingdom of Poland 
with czar as ruler, in personal union, 

Nov SO Constitution granted by the czar; 
includes national Diet, Polish language, flag, and 
army. Catholic religious establishment; but king 
and Diet soon at odds, . 

1830-1831. Polish revolt (see Russia), foUowmg 
which the kmgdom loses its autonomy and be- 
comes a mere province of Russia, where Russifl- 
cation becomes an estabhshed but not successful 
policy, just as in German and Austrian Poland 
Germanizing is attempted, 
1846. Nov fi, Austria occupies Cracow, with 
consent of Prussia and Russia; Poland entmjly 
extinguished again. 
1863-1864. Second Polish revolt (see Rcssia). 
Contmued policy of Russiflcation; always unsuc- 
cessful. 



of three, with an administrative council and a 
limited parliament (which does not meet). Real 
control remains with the Central Powere as before. 
Pilsudski is imprisoned in Germany, and greater 
repression is exercised. 

1918. Jan. S. United independent Poland is one 
of Wilson's " fourteen points." 

Feb. 9. Ukraine peace treaty with Central 
Powers gives PoUsh Ivholm to U"kraine. Polish 
protest is so great that the provision is modified, 
February 18. , „ , , 

Mareh S. In Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Bolshe- 
viki surrender aU of Russian Poland to the control 
of the Central Pov/ers. 

June 22. Polish army in France is made an 
independent organization mider its own officers. 

Od. 10. Great Britam recognizes the Polish 
National Army, made up of various detach- 
ments in France, Italy, and Russia, as autono- 
mous, allied, and cobelligerent. Other Allies and 
United States do likewise soon afterwards, 

Nov. S-11. Austrian and German armistices 
call for evacuation of Russian Poland, with free 
access of Allies, Ruthenians m Galicia declare 
for union with UTkralne, and Poles there jom Po- 
land ; armed conflict results. In Posen (Prussian 
Poland) there is also strife between Germans and 
Poles, (For other contests and relations, see 
Czecho-Slovakia and Lithuania.) 

Nov. H. Regency Comicil resigns in favor of 
Pilsudski, who becomes dictator. 

1919. Jan. 18. Pilsudski, while remahimg head of 
the state and army, surrenders control to a coali- 
tion ministry under Paderewski. Poland is 
represented at the Peace Conference. 

Jan. 29. United States recognizes the provi- 
sional government of Poland. 

Feb. 9. Constituent Assembly meets, elected 
by a wide suffrage Includmg women and Jews. 
Majority supports the ministry. 

Feb. 12. Special mission arrives at Warsaw 
from Peace Conference to investigate various con- 
flicts between Poland and Germany, Czechs, 
Ruthenians, Ukramians, and Bolsheviki, Con- 
flicts continue. 

Feb. 21. Supreme CouncU at Paris decides to 
recognize Paderewski's government. 

May. Conflict to Galicia Is favorable to Polish 
arms; control is gained of the oU fields. 

June 28 Bv Treaty of Versailles Germany 
cedes Posen and West Prussia to Poland; 
plebiscites to be held in Upper Silesia and southern 
half of East Prussia. Danzig a free city, but 
practically a Polish port. Vistula River is mter- 
nationalized. Poland's eastern boimdaries left 
unsettled pendmg reconstitution of Russia. At 
same time Poland signs the treaty required of aU 
new eastern nations to protect minority races 
agamst discrimmation; especially important be- 
cause of the accusation of anti-Jewish agitation 
and pogroms. 

August. Armed conflict between Poles and 
Germans in Upper Silesia. 

Sept 10. In the Saint-Germain peace treaty 
Austria agrees to such Galician boundaries as are 
assigned to Poland. 

Nov. 21. Supreme Council gives Poland con- 
trol of Eastern Galicia for 25 years. , , , . 
Dec. 7. Paderewski ministry resigns; Skulski 
becomes premier. Pilsudski leading spirit. 
1920. April. Poles advance m connection With the 
Ukrainians, and take Kiev. Look to establishmg 
power over large non-Polish territory. Are thrown 
back and evacuate their conquests. 



WORLD -WAR PERIOD, 

For the World War, see that title. 

1914. Aua. IS. Czar promises autonomy and 
other privileges to retaui allegiance of Poland. 

1915. Russians in retreat lay waste Poland. 
Aug. S. Germany occupies Warsaw. This 

control is at first in some respects propitious; Po- 
lish is ordered taught in the schools; but req- 
uisitions and taxation are laid on the already 
devastated coimtry; Germanizing and checking of 
PoUsh industries encourage emigration of PoUsh 
laborers to Germany. , ,, „ 

1916. Nov. 5. Central Powers proclaim the Po- 
lish State," to be erected out of Russian Poland 
oiily and requiring the raismg of an army to be 
under the control of the Central Powers, Pilsud- 
ski, chief Polish leader, prevents the formation 
of any such army. The new " State " does not 
meet 'with Polish approval. Austrian plan of a 
imion of Russian Poland with Galicia as a third 
Hapsburg group is rejected by Germany. 

1917. Jan. 22. President Wilson advocates a 
imited independent Poland. , 

March 29. Revolutionary Russia proclaims 
Poland independent and asks for a " free mihtarj' 
union "; no more acceptable to the Poles than the 
German plan, „ ,. , 

June if. Prance creates an autonomous Polish 
army under French command at the western front, 

s'ept. 12. Central Powers drop the " Polish 
State " project, and organize a regency council 



PORTO RICO. 

See under United States, page 211. 



PORTUGAL. 

Historical Outline. 

Portugal is one of the oldest states of Europe, the 
Partus Galorum of the Romans, yet it has had a very 
recent political development. Under the Roman 
Empire the country, then occupied by GaUic peo- 
ples was called Lusitania, Afterwards it was a 
Visigothic dependency. Later it resisted the sur- 
rounding Moors. In the eleventh century it came 
into the hands of the Duke of Burgimdy. and wa^ 
recognized in 1143 as an independent kingdom under 
Alfonso I The Burgundian dj-nasty ended in 1385 
with the accession of John I. of the House of Aviz. 

This was the age of discover5^ Prmce Henrj- the 
Navigator, the son of John, initiated and supported 
a series of voyages along the coast of Africa, which 
culminated in the voyage of Da Gama to India 
(1497) This expansion went on diu-ing the reign of 
Emanuel, the Great or Happy (1495-1521), and the 
Portuguese Empire was founded which included valu- 
able possessions in India, the East, Africa, and Brazil. 

In 1581 Philip II, of Spain forced Portugal to 
recognize his authority: for nearly 60 years it was a 
Spanish dependency and Spain took possession of 
much of the Portuguese eastern empire. In 1640 



1650 — 1911. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: PORTUGAL. 



135 



the nation rebelled, and the Duke of Braganza was 
proclaimeci king under the title of John IV. Inde- 
pendence was won by the decisive battle of Monte 
Claros (1665). During the seventeenth century the 
Spanish Bourbons long hoped to reestablish the 
Spanish ascendancy and their policy was hostile 
toward Portugal in 1737 when formal indeix^ndence 
was proclaimed. At this time the reigning sover- 
eign was Jolm v., whose high character and uillueuce 
were recognized tlu-oughout Europe. 

Meanwhile the seafaring and adventures in the 
East react<?<l upon the national intellect, and an age 
of literature and art was opened. Lisbon m the six- 
teenth century was one of the intellectual centers of 
Eiu-ope, the home of poets, historians, and philoso- 
phers, of whom Camoens is the most celebrated. 

In 1750 Joseph I. became king — a reign of disas- 
ter. Lisbon was wrecked by the earthquake of 
1755; and one half of the capital was destroyed. 
The authority of the state passed into tiir liand.s of 
the ecclesiastics and the monarchy \\a.s itrpriiilrnt cm 
foreign support. The Marquis of Punibal refurnicd 
the flnancial and commercial system, established 
sugar, silk, and woolen industries, fostered colonial 
development and tried to establish commercial inde- 
pendence. The order of the Jesuits was expelled 
from Portugal and the funds obtained from the con- 
fiscation of the property were used for education. 

Portugal had long been a kind of trade depend- 
ency of England. During the French Revolution 
Portugal remained neutral until 1801 when a Franco- 
Spanish army compelled Portugal to cede a frontier 
fortress to Spain, to pay an indenuiity. and to ex- 
clude British ships from the ports. In ISOS Portu- 
gal was in the hands of the French. Napoleon de- 
clared that the House of Braganza (Braganza) had 
forfeited its throne. The Braganza family fled to 
Brazil and for nearly fifteen years remained in Rio de 
Janeiro. 

In the meantime the British had driven the 
French from Portugal and xmder a new constitution 
(1S21) Jolm VI, resumed the tlirone. His son. Dom 
Pedro, remained behmd. first as prince regent and 
later as emperor of Brazil (see Be.\zil). When his 
father diet!, in 1S26, Dom Pedro might have become 
king of Portugal, but he chose to send his daughter 
Maria instead. Her yoimger brother, Dom Miguel, 
usurped the throne, but England compelled liim to 
yield. 

Frequent revolutions and insurrections occurred 
until 1870. In 1S89 Carlos I. succeeded to the 
throne. His country was involved in disputes with 
Great Britain and Germany over African territory, 
and more than one collision took place between the 
Portuguese and the British forces: in 1893 these 
boundary disputes were settled. In 1892 the ex- 
travagant management of the railways which were 
guaranteetl by the state caused such a deficit that the 
Purtugufsr goM-rnuH'iu committed a formal act of 
bankruptcy hy i>suin^j; a decree reducing the amotmt 
then due to foreign bondliolders by two thirds. 

The political condition of Portugal was imliealthy. 
The two re-gidar parties were run by professional 
politicians, who manipulated the election retiuns and 
kept out Republican and Independent candidates. 
Finally, in 1906, a dictatorsliip was established under 
Joao Franco, a man conspicuous for his integrity, 
energy, and com-age, who set out to reform the na- 
tional finances and administration. Kmg Carlos 
was accused of financial irregularity and attacked by 
the Republicans. Passion rose ^to the point where 
the king and the crown prince were assassinated 
(1908) and the .second son. Manuel, became king. 
A coalition ministry representing all parties was 
formed and Manuel swore to uphold the constitution. 
In 1910 the Republican soldiers at Lisbon, aided by 
the warships, attacked the mimicipal guards and 
after severe street fighting became masters of the 
capital. The king fled to England and a republic 
was proclaimed, which was oflBcially recognized by 
the powers. 

The life of the new repubUc has not been tranquil. 
The separation of church and state was decreed and j 
the monks and nuns expelled. Monarchist out- 
breaks occurred from time to time, and one presi- 
dent. Doctor Sidonio Paes. was assassinated (1918). 
With the outbreak of the World War, Portugal an- 
noimced its intention of fulfilling its treaty obliga- 
tions to Great Britain in 1916. The German ships 
lying in Portuguese harbors were seized. Germany 
declared war. and Portuguese regiments were sent to 
the lines in northern France. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution of 1911 provides 
for two chambers: a National Council of 164 elected 
by direct stiflFrage tor three years; and a second cham- 
ber of 7 1 elected by the municipal coimcils and renew- 
able half at a time everj' tlu*ee years. The president 
of the republic is elected by both chambers for four 
years, but cannot be reelected. The president ap- 
points the muiisters, but they are responsible to and 
may be removed by Parliament- 
Industry 'and Labor. The industries of Portu- 
gal are all about the same as those of Spain, but on 
the whole the methods of production are less ad- 



vanced. Agriculture is backward. There is a bad 
system of land ownersliip. Only recently has free 
ownership become the right of the people. The 
cliief agricultural products are wheat, rj-e, and oats; 
wine is also produced m large quantities, as is ohve 
oil and figs and other fruits. A fifth of the area of 
the coimtry is covered bj' forests ; the cork f lUTiishes 
one of the principal sources of wealth. Portugal has 
minerals, but because of the lack of coal and cheap 
transportation many of the most valuable mines are 
im worked. The fisheries are important, especially 
of sardines and tunny fish. The most characteristic 
Portuguese industr>- is the manufacture of azuhjos, 
or porcelain tiles, an art inlierited from the Moors. 

Religion. Before the establishment of the re- 
public the national religion was Roman CathoUc, 
although other forms of faith and practice were tol- 
erated. The great number of monasteries and con- 
vents exercised influence not only in religion, but in 
politics. With the estal^li.slinient of the repubUc 
.stale support for the maiiUeiiauce of the church was 
abolished. The conventual establishments of Por- 
tugal were nominally suppressed by a decree in 1834 
and their property was supposed to be confiscated 
for the benefit of the state. Nevertheless, several 
such estabhshments were formed in later years, and 
later suppressed by the RepubUcans. 

Education. There are tlu^e kinds of education 
in Portugal: (1) Primar>', which is compulsory and 
rigorously enforced. In 1915 there were more than 
6,700 elementary schools. (2) Secondao'. which 
includes 32 secondary schools, with more than 11.000 
students, the teachers for which are trained in the 
normal departments of the imivei*sities of Lisbon and 
Coimbra. (3) Higher, wliich was reorganized in 
1911. There are now tlu-ee universities — at Lis- 
bon. Coimbra, and Oporto — with various faculties. 
There is also a teclmical school at Lisbon, special 
colleges for music and art, and a mihtary academy. 

Defense. The ai'my of Porttigal is raised by con- 
scription and all adidt males are liable to service be- 
tween the ages of 17 and 45, but practically service 
begins at the age of 20. Service is required in the 
active army for ten years, ten years in the reserve, 
and eight in the territorial army. In the active 
army the recruits undergo a prehminary training 
from 15 to 30 weeks. Afterwards there are two 
weeks of training durmg the annual mobilization. 
The peace establishment of the active army con- 
sists of 30,(X)0 men, but during the World War 65,- 
000 men were sent to France, and 35.000 European 
troops served in Angola and Mozambique. The 
Portuguese nav>' consists of tliree protected cruisers, 
a variety of old gimboats, five destroyers, and foiu* 
submarines. 

The area of Portugal (includmg the Azores and 
Madeira) is 35,490 square miles and the population 
in 1911 was 5.957,985. 

PORTUGUESE DEPENDENCIES. 

The colonial empire of Portugal comprises 936,000 
square miles with a population of about 8.735,000. 
It includes possessions both in Africa and Asia. On 
August 15, 1914, partial autonomy was granted to 
all Portuguese colonies : they have the right to estab- 
lish their o^ti codes of laws. 

POSSESSIONS IN ASU. 
In. India Portugal still holds Goa, on the Mala- 
bar coast, captm-ed by Albuquerque in 1510 and 
formerly the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the 
East; Daman, north of Bombay, and Diu, a small 
island west of Daman. Besides the salt works in 
these colonies, in 1906 deposits of manganese were 
discovered. In China Portugal holds Macao, situ- 
ated on an island at the mouth of the Si (West) 
River, near Canton. In the Malay Archipelago 
Portugal still controls the eastern portion of the is- 
land of Timor, the chief exports from which are 
coffee, sandalwood, and copra. 

POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. 
These comprise; (1) the Cape Verde Islands. 

fourteen in nujnber. which produce coffee, medi- 
cinal produce, hides, and millet. (2) Portuguese 
Guinea on the coast of Senegambia. which pro- 
duces rubber, wa.x. oil seeds, ivor>', and hides. (3) 
The islands of Saint Tiiomas (Sao Tliome) and 
Principe in the Gulf of Guinea. The islands are 
hilly and the vegetation is rich, the chief commer- 
cial products being cocoa, coffee, and rubber. 
(4) Angola (Portuguese West Africa), which has 
a coast line of over a thousand miles, lies between 
the French Equatorial Africa and British South 
Africa and has a population of more than 4.(X)0,000. 
The chief products are coffee, rubber, sugar, vege- 
table oils, and ivory. The rubber supply is becom- 
ing exhausted, but cotton growing is increasing. 
There are also valuable mineral deposits. (5) Mo- 
zambique (Portuguese East Africa) lies between 
British Central and South .Africa and what was 
formerly German East Africa. Three distinct prov- 
inces occupy the total area of 426,000 square miles. 
The chief products of the pro\'inces are sugar, coco- 
nuts, beeswax, and mining products. Valuable gold 
deposits and coal have been discovered. The chief 



port is Loiirenfo Marques. Considerable progress 
has been made in building railways. 

For Portuguese possessions and interests in India, 
see India. 

Chronology. 

For earlier events, see Medieval Period, Chronol- 
ogy, and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 

1650. War with Spain, begun in 1640 for the re- 
covery of independence of Portugal, carried on by 
John IV. III. of England.! 

1662. Catherine of Braganza espoused by Charles I 

1668. Feb. 13. Treaty of Lisbon. Spain recog- 
nizes independence of Portugal. 

1693. Discover}' of gold in Brazil; brings in vast 
revenues to the crowii. 

1697. Last meeting of Cort«s for over a century. 

1703. May. Portugal enters War of the Spanish 
Succession as ally of England. December 27. 
Methuen commercial treaty with England. 

1713. April 11. Portugal a signatory of the 
Treaty of Utrecht. [Utrecht. I 

IJIS. Feb. 6. War with Spain ended by Treaty of I 

1750-1777. Marquis of Pombal chief mmister. 
Period of reform. 

1755. .Voo. 1. Earthquaiie almost completely 
destroys Lisbon. (Joseph 1. 1 

1758. September. Assassins attempt to kill Kingl 

1759. Jesuits expelled from Portugal. 

176?. Force of Spaniards with French allies invades 
Portugal, but the British interfere, and a treaty is 
signed at Fontainebleau, November 3, by Spain. 
France, Great Britain, and Portugal. 

1801. Short war with Spain. Portugal loses dis- 
trict of Olivenza. 

1807, November. Junot leads the French in an 
invasion of Portugal, and John VI. and court 
set sail for Brazil (for relations with Portugal, 
see Brazil). Lisbon is occupied by the French 
army. (For Wellington's campaign in Portugal, 
1S0S-1.S12, see France.) 

1814, Portugal cedes Guiana back to France. 

1830, Revolution breaks out in Oporto and a con- 
stitutional junta established. 

1821. John VI. returns from Brazil, and makes 
modifications in the constitution. 
Brazil becomes independent (see Brazil). 

1826. Marrh 10. Jolin VI. dies and is succeeded by 
his son Pedro I. of Brazil, who abdicates the Portu- 
guese ttoone in favor of his daughter, Maria II, 

1828, Miguel, the regent, usiu-ps the tlu-one. 
Portugal calls on Great Britain for aid, and Brit^ 
ish troops are sent against the usurper. 

1831. Pedro of Brazil returns to Portugal to oppose 
Miguel. 

1834. April Si. Treaty signed by Great Britain, 
France, Spam, and Portugal, in opposition to 
Miguel. In May the regent makes his submis- 
sion. Maria being declared of age in September. 

1S46. Revolution, fomented by Liberals: queen 
calls for aid. Spain enforces a temporary peace. 

1851, Insurrectionists imder Saldanha force the 
queen to dismiss her minister, Costa Cabral ; Sal- 
danha becomes administrator of the government. 

1853, Nov. 15. Maria II. dies; succeeded by her 
son, Pedro V,, with the prince consort as regent. 

1861. Nov. 11. Pedro V. dies; succeeded by his 
brother. Luiz I, lis overthrown.! 

1870, Saldanha leads a military insurrection, buti 

1872. Fire destroys a great part of Lisbon. Con- 
spiracy is discovered in the army. | Carlos. I 

1889. Oet.19. Lulz I. dies; succeeded by his son. I 

1892. Failure of the Royal Portuguese Railroad to 
pay the interest on its bonds precipitates a finan- 
cial crisis, involving the overtlu-ow of the min- 
istry and commercial troubles. 

1896, Rebellions in the Portuguese colonies. 
Insurrections in East Africa and in Goa and Timor. 

1907. May 10. King dissolves the Cortes; Premier 
Franco thereafter acts without reference to the 
Assembly. Great dissatisfaction, riots, and other 
disorders. 

1908. Feb.l. Carlos I. and Prince Luiz assassi- 
nated. Febniary 2. siu-viving son proclaimed 
king as Manuel II. Premier Franco resigns and 
a generally liberal ministry formed. 

1909. Jan. 8. Plot to detlirone Manuel II. 

A pril 7. Telles forms a new cabinet, but Dec. 
22. under Belrao a new Liberal ministry comes in. 

1910. Oct. J,. Eevolutlon at Lisbon begins with 
an attack from the warships in the harbor. The 
king escapes to England. Republic proclaimed 
October 5, with Braga as president, October 8, 
the provisional government at Lislxin decrees the 
expulsion of monks and mms, and, October 28, the 
total separation of church and state. Oct. 30, ex- 
premier Franco arrested for alleged abuse of power. 

1911. Jan. 20. Pension granted to King Manuel. 
May 2S. Assembly elections result in an over- 
whelming victory for the Republican government. 
Jtme 19. first constituent assembly opened. 

August-September. Republic ofilcially recog- 
nized by the United States and European powers. 

Aug. 24. Arriaga electni president. 

Sept. 2. Cabinrt fornitfi by Premier Chagas. 
In September and October, royalist demonstra,- 



136 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: PORTUGAL — ROUMANIA. 



19H icotitinued) . 

M tions occur, chiefly in the northern mountainous 

country. November 8, Premier Chagas and liis 

cabinet resign. Vasconcelios heads the new 

m inis try [ues. More bishops e.xpeUed. I 

191'i. January. Hostility to the clergy contiu-[ 

Jan. 29. Martial law declared in Lisbon on 

accomit of strike riots ; transit f acihties suspended 

and theaters clo.sed. 

OJune. Ministerial crisis overcome by forma- 
tion of a coalition ministry with Leite as premier. 

1913. January. Severe treatment of political 
prisoners calls fortii the censui'e of tlie foreign 
and domestic press. 

Jan. S. Cabinet under Costa, leader of tlie 
Democrats, succeeds the Leite ministry. 

June-July. Outbreaks of anarchists or 

syndicalists. Iguese legation at the Vatican. I 

P June lu. Parliament votes to abolish Portu-| 

Oct. 20. Monarchist outbreaks in Lisbon. 
E.xpected stipport from the north not arriving, 
movement fails. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. .Ins. S. On outbreak of World War gov- 
ernment annoiuices intention of fulfilling its treaty 

Q obligations to Great Britain. 

A'oi). 22. Parliament authorizes the govern- 
ment to aid Great Britain " at the proper time " 
in the war with Germany. 

1915. Jan. 23. Continho ministry resigns, and 
Castro forms nonpartisan cabinet. 

March 5. Revolutionary government, 
known as the " Republic of Northern Portugal," 
proclaimed, with Barreto as president. May 15, 
R revolution e.itends to Lisbon and other cities 

against Premier Castro. May 16, President Ar- 
riaga continued in office by revolutionists. Cas- 
tro ministry overthrown, and a new cabinet 
headed by Chagas is formed. Premier is shot and 
seriously woimded a few hours after assuming 
ofBce. May 20, revolutionary committee dis- 
solved; general quiet prevails. May 2,5, Chagas 
S resigns premiership. May 27, President Arriaga 

resigns, and two days later Braga imanimously 
elected president by Congress. 

June 13. Elections pass without disorder with 
a majority for the Democrats over the Revolu- 
tionists, [president by Congress I 

Aug. e. Braga resigns, and Machado elected! 

Aug. 27. Monarchical uprising in the north. 
^ Dec. 1. New cabinet headed by Costa. 

I 1916. Feb. 23. Portuguese navy seizes 36 German 

and Austrian merchant ships in Portuguese ports. 

March 8. War is declared by Germany, pri- 
marily because of the seizure of German merchant 
ships. 

March IB. War cabinet formed, with Almeida 
as premier. [mier. I 

1917. April 25, Costa succeeds Almeida as pre- 1 
Dec. s. Paes, leading a revolutionary 

movement, overthrows the Costa cabinet and 
arrests President Machado. 

1918. Jan. 9. Mutinies on warships in Lisbon 
harbor, but the sailors Anally consent to return to 
their barracks on shore. 

April 2S. Paes, leader of the December Revo- 
lution, elected president. 

VDec. 14. President Paes assassinated in Lisbon. 
On December 16 Canto e Castro becomes provi- 
sional president. Barbosa ministry organized. 
1918. Portugal mobilized 200,000 men during 
World War, of whom 8,367 were killed. War 
cost Portugal $140,000,000. 

January. In the north monarchist forces meet 
with success. Barbosa ministry resigns, Relvas 
ministry succeeding; but people rally to support of 
^M the government and the revolt fails in Februarj'. 

Jan. IS. Portugal has one, later two. dele- 
gates at the Peace Conference in Paris. 
March 30. Pereira ministry formed. 
Aug. .'). Almeida elected president. 
1930. March 6. Silva ministry formed, Pereira 
ministry being forced out by Labor opposition. 
Castro ministry succeeds shortly afterwards and in 

Xtiun gives place to Baptista ministry within a week. 
Labor trouble continues to be the great problem. 



u 



QUEENSLAND. 

See under British Empire, page 75. 

RHODESIA. 

See under British Empire, page 66. 



ROUMANIA. 
Historical Outline. 

The modem kingdom of Roumania comprises the 
former principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. 
It also includes the territory of Dobruja (Dobrogea) 
ceded by Tm-key at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. 
The coimtr>' lies between the Carpathians. thePruth, 
the Black Sea. and the Danube. 



The overwhelming majority of the population are 
Wallachians or Roumanians, descendants of Walla- 
chians who includt; some of the descendants of Latin 
colonist-s of the Roman province of Dacia and of the 
Molda\ians who were of Slavic stock, 

Roumanian historj' begins with the foundation of 
the Wallachian state by Kadul Negru in 1220. By 
1526 Wallachia was conquered by the Tiu'ks. Mol- 
davian histor>- begins with the reign of Stephen the 
Great (1458-1504), after whom the coimtry was 
made tributary to Turkey . By the Treaty of 
Adrianople (1829) Tiukish troops were withdrawn 
from the two principalities, and Russian influence 
became strong. In 1848 a revolutionary- movement 
opposed Russian domination and for a time a Rus- 
sian army occupied the territory to restore order. 
The native princes fled to Vierma and Austria, in- 
duced the Russians to withdraw, and occupied the 
provinces with a force to restore order. 

The Treaty of Paris (1856) estabhshed local au- 
tonomy free from Turkish uifluence and rectified the 
frontier; and in 1801 the miion of the two provinces 
was accepted and the election of Colonel Couza as 
Prince Alexander Joan I. was ratified. In 1866 a 
revolution forced Prince Alexander to abdicate, and 
Prince Charles of Hohenzolleni-Sigmaringen was 
elected domn (lord) of Roumania as Carol (Char]es)I. 

Roimiania joined the Russian troops aft^r Russia 
declared war upon Turkej- in 1877. At the Treaty 
of San Stefano, however. Russia demanded the ces- 
sion of Bessarabia by Romnania, though it was 
largely inhabited by Roumanians, and offered com- 
pensation in the form of the Dobruja as far as Con- 
stanta. The Congress of Berlin revised the Treaty 
of San Stefano. As far as the territorial cessions 
were concenied Roumania's position was imchanged 
— she lost Bessarabia, but gained Dobruja. Her 
independence was recognized by the great powers 
and Prince Carol (Charles), who had ruled as domn 
since 1866, was crowned king (^lay 22. 1881). 

During the long reign of King Charles I. (as 
prince. 1866-1881: as king. 1881-1914). Roumania 
steadily progressed and developed a lively conscious- 
ness of nationality. The fact that large numbers 
of (>eople of the Roumanian race lived luider Aus- 
trian rule in Transylvania and under Russia in 
Bessarabia led to the desire for a greater Rou- 
mania. Inthefh*st Balkan War of 1912 (see Turkey, 
Bulgaria. Greece, Serbi.\), Roumania took no part. 
In the second Balkan War (1913). however, Rou- 
mania attacked Bulgaria in the rear and forced the 
cession of a strip of territory south of the Dobruja 
(Dobrogea). 

At the outbreak of the World War, Roumania, in 
common with the other Balkan states, was in a dan- 
gerous position, which was increased by the en- 
trance of Bulgaria on the side of the Central Pow- 
ers. Iving Charles died and his son was anti-German 
in sympathy. On August 27, 1916. Roumania en- 
tered the war on the side of the AUies. She invaded 
Transylvania and achieved some initial success. 
But the Dobruja was ovemm by General von Mac- 
kensen with a force of Bulgarians, Turks, and Ger- 
mans, and the armies from Transylvania were re- 
called. Von Falkenliaj-n, the German commander, 
fell upon these armies in their retreat. Bucharest 
was abandoned, and the whole coimtrj' fell into Ger- 
man control. May 6, 1918, Roumania was forced 
to sign a definitive peace with the Central Powers, 
thereby losing her Black Sea coast and many im- 
portant mountain passes. 

On the overtlirow of the Central Powers, the 
Roumanian people reasserted themselves. New 
elections were held for Parliament and a Liberal 
ministry was installed. The new government pro- 
posed many pohtical and social reforms, among 
which were the establishment of universal suffrage 
and the distribution of land to the peasantr>- by the 
expropriation of the large estates, Moreover, the 
Liberal government sought to reaUze Roiunania's 
ambition for a combination of all Roumanian people 
and a union was established with Transylvania, 
while almost constant warfare was kept up with 
Soviet Russia and Bolshevist Hungar>', largely, 
however, for territorial purposes. In 1919 a Rou- 
manian army invaded Himgary and occupied Buda- 
pest in defiance of the wishes of the Allied Pow- 
ers, retreating only when Roumania had extorted 
territorial compensation and partial reparation for 
some of her suffering during the war. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution of Roumania 
was adopted by a constituent assembly elected by 
tmiversai sufltage in 1866, and has twice been modi- 
fied (1879. 1884). The Senate consists (March. 
1920) of 170 members elected for 8 years; the 
Chamber of Deputies of 347 members electa for 4 
years. Since 1918 these have been elected by uni- 
versal suffrage. The king has a suspensive veto 
over all laws passed by the Assembly and the ex- 
ecutive power is vested in a council of ten ministers. 

Industry and Labor. A good part of Roiunania 
is like the American prairies, fertile and flat, and 
most of the people are engaged in agriculture. 
Nearly half the land, however, is held by proprietors 



of vast estates. There is no middle class between 
the large landholders and the smaU peasants. The 
important crops are wheat, com, barley, and oats. 
Romnania is rich in deposits of coal, possesses a very 
productive oil field, and therefore was regarded as a 
valuable prize by the Central Powers. 

Religion. The overwhelming majority of tiie 
people are adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church, 
although there are about 269.000 Jews and 43.tX)0 
Mohammedans. Only the clergy of the Orthodox 
Church are supjwrted and recognized by the state. 
There is nominal toleration, but tlie United States 
government has several times protested against the 
discriminations applied to Jews. 

Kducation. Education is nominally compulsory 
and free " wherever there are schools," but has been 
greatly neglected, and m 1910 only 41% of the 
army recruiti^ could read or write. In 1912, how- 
ever, there were over 5.000 elementary schools, with 
more than 600, (XX) pupils. The peasants are among 
the poorest and most ignorant in Europe. There 
are two universities, with nearly 4.000 students. 

Defense. Before the AVorld War military service 
was imiversal and compulsorj' between the ages of 21 
and 46, with two or tlu-ee years of active service in 
the ranks. By the Treaty of Bucharest the Ger- 
mans reduced the army to 30.(K)0 men and took con- 
trol of the war material. After the fall of the Cen- 
tral Powers, the army was reorganized and 400,000 
men were placed in the field. Roumania has one 
cruiser, several gunboats and coast-guard vessels. 
and a few torpedo Ijoats. 

After the second Balkan War the area of Roumania 
was about 56,000 square miles and the population 
7,700,000. Should the annexation of Transylvania 
be ratified by the powers, Roimianian territory and 
population would be substantially increased. 

Chronology. 

For Roumanian history before 1860, 
see Bulgaria and Turkey. 

1861. Dec. 23. The two principalities of Walla- 
chia and Moldavia unite and take the name of 
Boumania. 

1866. Feb. 23. Revolution forces Prince Alexander 
Joan I. (Colonel Couza) to abdicate. April 20, 
Prince Charles of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen is 
elected domn. or lord, of Roumania. 

1871. After Franco- Prussian War Charles tries to 
abdicate. Popular sympathy with France. 

1877. April 16. Secret treaty with Russia allows 
the Russian troops to cross Roumania against 
Turkey. (For Russo-Turkish War. see Turkey.) 

May 21. Roumania declares its independence 
and sends troops to join Russian forces in Tiu-key. 

1878. July IS. Koumanian independence is 
recognized by the Congress of Berlin. Bessara- 
bia lost to Russia and Dobruja gained from Bul- 
garia. In Dobruja, the great naval port of Con- 
stanta built. 

1881. 'March 26. Prince Carol (Charies) pro- 
claimed king, as Charles (Roumanian Carol) I. 

1889, March 18. Prince Ferdinand, nephew of the 
childless Charles I., declared heir to the throne. 

1903. Sept. 17. United States Secretary of State, 
John Hay, sends a note to the powers, urging that 
Roumania be compelled to amehorate the condi- 
tion of her Jewish subjects. 

Dec. 27. Roumanian Senate adopts a measure 
providing for naturalization of the Jews. 

1913. For second Balkan War, see Bulgaria. 
Lower Dobruja gained from Bulgaria. 

1914. Oct. 10. King Charles I. dies- is succeeded 
by his nephew Ferdinand. 

Dec. 22. Roumania agrees to restore to Bul- 
garia most of the territory acquired after the 
second Balkan War. 

1915. July 7. Austro-Himgarian minister pre- 
sents proposals for neutrality and facilities for 
supplymg Turkey with mimitions of war. 

1916. March 2. Queen Elizabeth (Carmen Sylva), 
consort of Charles I., dies. 

Aug. 17. Secret treaty with the Allies, imder 
which Roumania is to enter the war; she is to re- 
ceive Bukowina and most of Himgary south and 
east of the Tisza, mcluding the B^ndt. 

Aug. 27. Roumania enters the war on the 
side of the Allies, but Ix'ing assailed by Austria. 
Bulgaria, and finally by German troops, is dis- 
astrously defeated. Large part of the country 
occupied by the enemy and resources looted before 
the end of the year. 

1917. Agrarian reform; aU estates larger than 
5CK) hectares to he divided. 

July 27. Cabinet is reorganized, Bratiano re- 
maining premier. 

1918. Feb. 17. Russian government demands the 
evacuation of Bessarabia and the right to trans- 
port Russian troops through the territory. 

March 5. Roumania. signing a preliminary 
peace with the Central Powers, agrees to surren- 
der Dobruja and to accept certain economic ar- 
rangements and frontier rectifications. 

May 6. Definitive peace with Central Powers 
signed at Bucharest : control of Black Sea coast and 
important passes lost. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: ROUMANIA — RUSSIA. 



137 



1918 (continued). 

July SI. Agreement with the Ukraine pro- 
vides that Bessarabia shall be incorporated with 
Romnania. 

1919. May 3S. Royal decree emancipates the 
Jews, making them citizens. 

Occupation of Hungary (see Hungary). 

Aug. 1. Crown Prince Carol renounces the 
tlirone rather than give up a morganatic marriage 
contracted on August 27, 1918. 

Aug. 20. Roumanian civil government is es- 
tablished in Bessarabia, where the Roumanians are 
in conflict with the Russian Bolsheviki. 

November. New " cabinet of generals," headed 
by Vaitolano. includes members from Bessarabia, 
Biikowina. and Transj Ivania. In general elections 
both Jews and peasants vote for first time. 

Nov. 1. Bessarabia is formally annexed. 

Dec. 9. Roumania finally signs the Austrian 
treaty of peace (see Atstria) : delay due to oppo- 
sition to the protection of racial minorities 
required of all the Eastern states. Siie is then 
permitted to sign the Bulgarian treaty. On the 
same day the Vaida-Voe\ed mini.stry is organized. 

1920. March 15. Averescu ministr>- succeeds the i 
Vaida-Voeved cabinet. 

March 17. Agreement with the Soviet govern- 
ment is reported, involving recognition of Rou- 
mania's right to Bessarabia and cessation of Bol- 
shevist activity within her territory. 



RUSSIA. 

Historical Outline. 

The history of Russia may be said to be^in in 862, 
when Rurik and his two brothers, who were prob- 
ably Northmen, entered Russia at the invitation 
of the Slav and Finnish tribes and founded a capital 
at Novgorod. They at once began to conquer the 
countr>'. and in two centuries had established 
themselves at Kiev, threatened Constantinople, 
checked the nomadic tribes of the steppes, and 
formed alliances with Poland, Hungary, Norway, 
and France- During this period, Russia consisted 
of a large number of independent principalities ruled 
over by the descendants of Rurik, of whicbNovgorod 
was the most important. 

From 123S to 1462 Russia was overrun by the 
Mongols and Tatars, one tribe of whom, kno^^-n as 
the ■' Golden Horde," built a capital at Sarai on the 
lower Volga. Their chief. Genghis Ivhan, created 
a vast empire stretching from China to the Danube. 
In 1380 a coalition of Russian princes under Dimitri 
Donskoi defeated the " Golden Horde " at Kulikovo 
and later (1462) the Russians under Ivan III. 
founded the czardom of Muscovj-, the first three 
rulers of which had a united reign of 122 years. They 
established an absolute autocracy on the Asiatic 
model and suppressed the independent principalities. 

Of these rulers Ivan IV., commonly known as Ivan 
the Terrible, niled for over fifty years and first took 
the title of Czar of all the Russias, He unsparmgly 
put down all movements toward independence within 
the empire and pushed the frontier eastward at the 
expense of the Tatars. Here was settled a class of 
Russian colonists whose descendants became the 
Cossacks, the best fighters in the Russian military 
force. Russia also attempted to expand to the west 
at the expense of Lithuania and tbus came in con- 
flict not only with the Lithuanians, but also with 
Poland and Sweden. 

Ivan was succeeded by his son, Feodor I., in whose 
reign the agricultural laborers were forbidden to mi- 
grate from one estate to another, thereby fixing on 
the coimtrj^ the institution of serfdom, There fol- 
lowed a period of civil war and disorder, ending with 
the election of Mikhail Romanov as Czar in 1613. 
who founded the Romanov d>Tiasty. This native 
djTiasty was much Germanized by marriages with 
Germans. In the reign of Alexis (1645-76), the 
successor of Mikliail. Russia intervened in the 
Ukraine, and as a result of the war with Poland 
gained territory to the middle course of the Dnieper 
Ri^'cr. which thus became the boundarj- between 
Russia and Poland. 

The great sovereign of the Romanov djTiasty was 
Peter the Great (16S2-1725). who more than any 
other monarch brought Western civilization to Rus- 
sia. With autocratic high-handedness he abolished 
some of the most cherished customs, and abandoned 
Moscow for his newly created capital of St. Peters- 
burg (now Petrograd). which was founded on the 
Neva to serve as " a window through which his peo- 
ple might look into Europe." In foreign afl'airs 
Peter the Great was an expansionist. At first he 
desired with the aid of the European powers to drive 
the Turk from Europe; but finding no response to 
this idea he turned his attention to the problem of 
reaching the Baltic. He made an alliance with the 
king of Poland by which Russia. Denmark, and 
Poland should acquire the Swedish provinces along 
the Baltic. But he had not counted upon Charles 
XII. of Sweden, who came to the defense of the 
Swedish possessions and carried on the Northern War 
for more than twenty years. Finally, by the Treaty 



of Nystad (1721). Peter acquired for Russia the prov- 
inces of Ingria, KareUa, Livonia, Esthonia, and part 
of Finland. 

On the death of Peter the Great without male 
heirs, the crown passed to several sovereigns in the 
female line who married Cierman princes, and Ger- 
man influence greatly increased. In 1762 Cather- 
ine II,, a German by bh-th. came to the throne and 
followed a strong and ruthless policy which caused 
Russia to be recognized as one of the great powers. 
Peter the Great had attempted to establish some 
essentials of good government, to introduce the arts, 
and to develop the natural resoiu-ces of Russia. 
Catherine did the same, and attempted to raise Rus- 
sia to an intellectual level with western Europe. 
Secondary' schools were foimded in the principal 
towns, an academy was established at St. Peters- 
biu-g, and a taste for French literature spread rapidly 
throughout Russia. 

In foreign atfairs Catherine pushed the frontiers 
of Russia south and west. Her first step was to ac- 
quire Kurland in 1795. She joined with Austria and 
Pnissia in the first partition of Poland in 1772 (see 
Poland); in the second partition of Poland, in 1793, 
by which Russia acquired the eastern provinces, in- 
cluding the Ukraine; and in the final partition, in 
1795, by which Poland disappeared from the map. 

To the south Russia also was successful in acquir- 
mg, by the Treaty of Klichiik Kamarja (1774). the 
liberation of the region of the Bug. of Crimea and 
Kuban, the opening of the Bosporus and Darda- 
nelles to Russian vessels, and the right of intervention 
in the Danubian provinces. Catherine had even 
more ambitious plans, and desired to partition Tur- 
key as Poland had been di^■ided. In alliance with 
the Emperor Joseph II., war was declared upon 
Turkey in 1787. Although Russia was successful. 
Austria signed a separate peace; and in 1792. by the 
Peace of Jassy, Russia gained additional territory be- 
tween the Bug and Dniester and privileges in the 
Danubian Principalities, although the Turks re- 
mained at Constantinople. 

When the French Revolution broke out Catherine 
abstained from joining the opposing coalition, hop- 
ing to be able to solve the Eastern Question unre- 
strained by other European powers. Before such an 
opportunity presented itself, she died and was suc- 
ceeded by her son, Paul, whose reign of four years 
left little mark on Russian histor>'. Paul was suc- 
ceeded by liis son, Alexander I. (1801-25), in the 
early part of whose reign, liberal movements took 
place, certain oppressive measures were repealed, 
and schools, colleges, and universities were founded. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

Alexander I., however, is best known for his oppo- 
sition to Napoleon. At first he believed that his 
aims were not irreconcilable with those of the First 
Consul, and made the Peace of Tilsit after the defeat 
of Austria in 1807. Russia would not carry out 
Napoleon's Continental system, and Napoleon in- 
vaded the country and was frightfully defeated in 
1812 in the memorable retreat from Moscow. From 
this time on Alexander was head and front of the 
coalition against the French emperor; and after 1814 
became, with Coimt Mettemich. the apostle of 
reaction in the restoration of Europe. ' 

During the reign of his successor, Nicholas I. 
(1825-55), Russia again attempted to settle the 
Eastern Question, but was thwarted by the interven- 
tion of Great Britain. France, and Sardinia in the 
Crimean War and forced to sign the Peace of Paris 
(1856), which ended her advance in that quarter. 

The reign of Alexander II. (1855-81) was an 
epoch of great reforms. The serfs were liberated, 
the courts reformed, the elected provincial and dis- 
trict councils were given charge of the roads, schools, 
and hospitals; the natural resources of the country 
were developed, and a considerable amoimt of lib- 
erty allowed to the press. These reforms, however, 
were all from above downward. The people had no 
share in their government, no representative assem- 
bly, and no one was safe from secret " administra- 
tive proceedings " which resulted in death or banish- 
ment. The courts, though an improvement over the 
old tribimals. did not always administer justice. The 
liberty of the press was dependent on the temper 
of police officials. Revolutionar>' societies were 
formed, spreading at first piu-ely academic doctrines, 
but later preacliing Nihilism. To meet this move- 
ment a secret police was organized, arbitrary arrests 
and banishments took place, and an era of oppression 
was established. After fretjuent attemjits upon his 
life Alexander was assassinated March 13. iss], on 
the eve of annoimcmg a representative constitution. 

In foreign policy Alexander attempted to expand 
both south and eastward. In the south he fought 
the successful Turkish War (1877-78) and dictated 
the Peace of San Stefano. in sight of Constantinople, 
but was deprived of the fruits of his victorj- by the 
Congress of Berlin, He was brilliantly successful 
in Asiatic expansion, and began a movement by 
which a large part of the Amur basin was acquired; 
then he made Russia master of practically all the 
territory between Siberia on the north and Persia and 
Afghanistan on the south. 



The reign of Alexander III. (1881-94) was one of 
reaction. The local self-government in the towns 
and villages was restricted, and the literalism which 
existed in his father's reign was suppressed. He at- 
tempted to estabhsh Russian nationality throughout 
his vast domains, and therefore suppressed the local 
institutions and. as far as possible, the native lan- 
guage of the various national groups wlijch went to 
, make up his empire, especially in P^inland and the 
Baltic Provinces. 

Russias foreign pohcy was also changed. Al- 
though at first Alexander joined the secret revival 
of the Dreikaiserbund, or Three Emperors' League 
(1884-87), he gradually tiuTied toward France, 
with which coimtrj' a military convention was made 
in 1894. Not until 1895, however, was the word 
" alliance " used of the imderstanding between 
France and Russia. In Asia he extended his influ- 
ence to the south, even entering Afghanistan, but 
was checked in that direction by the energetic prep- 
aration of the British, and a boundary convention 
was signed in 1887. 

Nicholas II. (1894-191S) was somewhat more 
liberal than his father, but he held the same ideas 
concerning the spread of Russian nationality. Thus 
he pushed to the extreme, but imsucce-ssfully. the 
attempted policy of Russificatiou in Finland. In 
the Balkan afl'airs Nicholas II. re\ersod the policy of 
aloofness and acted as the protector of the Balkan 
states. In Asia, however, he continued his father's 
policy of expansion, and by the construction of the 
Trans-Siberian Railway he attempted to dominate 
northern China and the little kingdom of Korea. 
Thus, in 1895 Russia deprived Jai)an of her con- 
quests in the successful Japanese-Chinese War (see 
China, Jap.^n), and subsequently acquired from 
China a lease of Port Arthur, which became a fron- 
tier fortress. As a result of Russian expansion 
Japan declared war 1904). The Russo-Japanese 
War (see Japan) was a defeat for the Russians, who 
were beaten at sea. driven from northern Korea, de- 
prived of Port Arthur, and pushed back in Man- 
churia. After peace was made Russia, by diplo- 
matic and peaceful means, attempted to acquire a 
doniinant position in Manchuria, but was thwarted 
by Japan. 

From its very beginning the war with Japan was 
denoimced by some Russians as the work of a small 
minority for their own benefit ; the sufl'erings of the 
war revealed the inefficiency of the government. 
The maintenance of peace and order within Russia 
was in the hands of the minister of the interior, de 
Plehve. who pitilessly prosecuted the Liberals every- 
where. In July. 1904, he was assassinated, an 
act approved by the revolutionary socialists, who 
maintained that in Russia violence was the only 
means possible to fight t>Tanny . The emperor some- 
what mitigated the policy of repression — allowed 
more freedom of the press and permitted the pro- 
vincial assemblies, the zemstvos, to send representa- 
tives to St. Petersburg to discuss the needs of the 
coimtrj'. The Liberals demanded a constitution for 
Russia by which the people should have a share in 
making the laws of the empire and should control the 
officials. These demands the czar refused to grant 
as a whole; but in December. 1904. he issued a mani- 
festo in which he granted some of them, but denied 
the right of a national assembly to frame a constitu- 
tion, i 

The agitation continued, and on January 22, 1905, 
occurred " Bloody Sunday." when an inmiense niun- 
ber of workmen imder the leadership of Father Ga- 
pon attempted to approach the palace and present 
their demands. They were attacked by the Cos- 
sacks and a great number slain under the eyes of the 
emperor. Disorders continued tlu-oughout the sum- 
mer, and on August 19. 1905. the czar announced 
that he would summon a Duma, to be merely a con- 
sultative lx)dy. Feeling that this concession was 
not sufficient the Liberals organized a general strike; 
and throughout the month of October Russia was 
cut off from the outside world, industrj' and com- 
merce were paralyzed, and the schools, stores, and 
courts were closed. 

Finally, on October 30, the czar annoimced that he 
would summon the Duma and would guarantee that 
no law should come into force without its approval, 
but he refused the popular demand for a consti- 
tutional assembly. Moreover, he instituted the 
Council of the Empire, which consisted largely of ap- 
pointed officials, as the upper chamber of the legisla- 
ture. Then, before the Duma met. he issued certain 
decrees, organic laws which were beyond the power 
of the Duma to alter. 

The Duma met May 10. 1906, and was in sessioD 
for two months before it was dissolved by the em- 
peror. It demanded amnesty for political offenders, 
reformation of the Coimcil of the Empire, the grant- 
ing of the town lands to the peasants on long-term 
leases, and, finally, the appointment of a ministrj* 
which should be responsible to it rather than to the 
emperor. This the czar refused to grant and dis- 
solved the Duma July 22, 1906. 

A second Duma was summoned March 5, 1907, 
but failed to satisfy the government, and sixteen of 
its members were arrested and many others uidicted 



138 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 



N 



U 



W 



for carrying on revolutionary propaganda. On 
June 16, 1907, tills Duma was dissolved and the 
czar contrary to Ills promise made on tlie summon- 
ing of tlie first Duma, altered tlie electoral law, 
tliereby giving to the landowners the power to choose 
a large" majority of the members. 

A third Duma was summoned November 14, 
1907, and continued until Septemljer, 1912; it was 
unsuccessful in clieclting the power of the autocracy. 
Its greatest act was the law of 1909, which broke up 
tlie historic form of coUective ownership of land (the 
mir) and substituted individual ownersliip. But 
neither the third Duma nor the fourth, which was 
summoned in 1912, were much more than consulta- 
tive bodies, the power of initiation remaining in the 
autocracy and the power to checli the acts of the 
Duma in the Council of tlie Empire. The policy of 
Eussiflcation steadily continued, and although cer- 
tain concessions were made in 1905 in Finland, and 
ancient liberties were restored in 1909, the Russian 
government deterrumed to end the autonomy of that 
country and to incorporate it within the state. 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 

On the outbreak of the World War, August 1, 
1914, domestic aflfairs were in imstable equilibrium. 
The government ordered mobilization in answer to 
the mobilization of Austria and let it be known that 
it was the champion of the Slavic states m the Bal- 
kans Refusing Germany's peremptory demands to 
demobilize, Russia accepted the war declared by 
Germany, invaded East Prussia, and won some mi- 
tial successes; but was defeated at the Tannenberg 
and after some success was driven back to Warsaw. 
Russia was more successful in dealing with Austria 
and captured Przemysl (March, 191S), but later m 
the same year was defeated to the north of Warsaw 
by Hindenburg and driven back in the south by von 
Mackensen, Warsaw and Vilno iDClng finally cap- 
tured. In 1916, imder Brusilov, a great oflfensive 
took place. Hungary was invaded and consider- 
able Austrian territory occupied. 

These reverses and these victories were accom- 
panied by great sacrifices and sufferings; and tlie 
government showed itself neither efficient nor free 
from German influence. The Duma, which just be- 
fore the war had been dissatisfied with the repressive 
measures of the government, in 1915 gained the 
right to choose five members of the mmistry and 
passed measures extending the franchise to tlie peas- 
ants. It was becoming extremely critical of the 
policy of the government, and on March 12, 1917, 
refused to dissolve on the order of the czar. This 
was the signal for revolution and the flrst complete 
change of government since the first Romanov. 

March 15 the czar abdicated. The Duma, in 
conference with the labor leaders, appointed a provi- 
sional cabinet headed by Prince Georges Lvov and 
Paul Miljiikov as ministers of foreign affairs, and 
Aleksandr F. Kerenski, a Social Revolutionary, as 
minister of justice. The provisional government 
announced a program of reforms wiiich included 
freedom of speech, universal suffrage, the election of 
a constituent assembly, and a general grant of am- 
nesty; and assurances were given the Allies that 
there would be no slacking on the part of Russia in 
the common struggle. A week later, however, the 
Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates de- 
cided to hold a peace conference in some neutral 
country, and in June appealed to the labor organiza- 
tions of the world for a peace without annexations or 
indemnities. They flnaUy declared the Duma abol- 
ished and invested Kerenski with unhmited powers. 
Kerenski attempted to carry on the war against 
Germany, but was thwarted by a decree of the Coun- 
cil on April 30, 1917, which vested the discipline of 
the army in soldiers' committees. Nevertheless, in 
July he launched an offensive along the Strypa and 
in three weeks captured 40,000 prisoners; but in the 
full flood of success the troops mutinied and fell into 
disorderly retreats. This was practically the end of 
the effective resistance of Russia to Germany. 

On November 8, 1917, the extreme Social Demo- 
crats — the Bolsheviki — who believed in carrying 
the doctrines of socialism to their farthest logical 
conclusions, overtiu-ew Kerenski and his govern- 
ment, and declared that the final public authority 
rested in the Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' 
Delegates. They promised immediate peace, dis- 
tribution of land among the peasants, and the con- 
vocation of a constituent assembly. November 10, 
Nikolay Lenin was made prime minister and Leon 
Trotski, who had been a journalist in New York, 
minister of foreign affairs. In order to accomplish 
tlieir first promise the Bolsheviki signed an armis- 
tice on December 17 and in March. 1918, signed the 
Treaty of Brest- Litovsk with the Central Powers, by 
whicli Russia gave up all claim to the Ukraine, Po- 
land, Kurland, Lithuania, Finland, and western half 
of Livonia and Esthonia. In addition Russia relin- 
quished the region of Batuni, Kars, and Erivan to 
the Turks. 

The promise of the Bolsheviki to call a constituent 
assembly was redeemed in January, 1918. How- 
ever, finding themselves outnumbered by the less 
radical elements, the Bolsheviki dissolved the as- ' 



sembly by force and forbade it to meet again. Tlie 
functions of the government were carried on by the 
" people's commissioners " supported by a congress 
of delegates from the Soviets. The actual power, 
however, was in the hands of Lenin and Trotski, who 
through their control of the treasury and the army 
ruthlessly suppressed all opposition. 

Before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Finland had 
declared its independence and it had been recog- 
nized by the Bolshevist government (January, 1918) . 
The Ukraine region did likewise, and its independ- 
ence was recognized later (May 23, 1918). Ger- 
many proclaimed an autonomous Poland and an in- 
dependent Lithuania. 

The Allied Powers, fearing that Germany might 
utilize the resources not merely of the ceded territory 
but of Russia itseff, dispatched troops to the Mur- 
man Region on the northern coast of the Kola 
peninsula, and American, Japanese, and Czecho- 
slovak troops, wlio occupied Vladivostok to protect 
the military stores, came in conflict with the Bol- 
shevilii. August 9, Lenin declared that Russia was 
at war with the Allies. Thus, for more than two 
years, Russia, shorn of some of her most important 
possessions, was cut off from the Western world and 
under the unchecked control of the most extreme 
adherents of Socialism, the Bolsheviki. 

Under the rule of the Bolsheviki Russia suffered 
ail the liorrors of a social revolution. Thousands of 
the upper and middle classes were executed, property 
both in the form of capital and real estate was ruth- 
lessly confiscated. Communism was attempted, 
the capitalistic industrial system was overthrown, 
and the theories of extreme socialization of Industry 
established. Cut off from the rest of the world, un- 
able to export her products and to import the neces- 
sary machinery, the transportation system in con- 
fusion, economic life was almost destroyed. Thou- 
sands upon thousands perished from starvation and 
in the disorders which attended the overtlirow of the 
old system. Possessing a paper constitution, ap- 
parently of the most democratic sort, and passmg 
many laws of a most liberal character, the power was 
concentrated in the hands of Lenin and Trotski and 
utilized for the fulfillment of their extreme social 
theories. 

Resistance to the Bolshevist government was or- 
ganized outside the center of the empire. In the 
east Admiral Kolchak, and in the south General 
Denikin, attempted to hold the fronts; while on the 
west the Poles, and farther north the Esthonians and 
Letts, attempted to check the Bolshevik power. In 
the extreme north the British troops on the Kola 
peninsula, and the Russian troops around Archangel, 
held their own. Yet at the beginning of the year 
1920 httle progress had been nia<ie in the overthrow 
of the Bolsheviki, and on January 2 the Esthonians 
signed a truce by wliich their independence was 
granted, thus recognizing the Bolshevik state. 
Soon after, the forces under Admiral Kolchak were 
dispersed and General Denikin was defeated; and on 
January 8 it was announced that the AUies would 
open trade with the cooperative societies m Russia. 
To this Lenin refused assent unless an armistice was 
granted. A center of resistance to the Bolsheviki 
stUI existed on the Black Sea coast, where Wrangel 
organized a force. 



Organization. 

Government. Before the Revolution of 1905 
the government of Russia was usually spoken of as 
an unlimited autocracy. AU power in theory origi- 
nated in the czar and was exercised according to his 
directions. Nevertheless, the emperor was Umited 
by certain fundamental laws and customs of the em- 
pire; as that the empire might not be partitioned, 
but must descend entire in order of primogeniture 
and by preference to the male heir; and that the em- 
peror and empress must be members of the Eastern 
Orthodox Church. Further Umitation on imperial 
power was the impossibility of one person exercising 
through such a vast domain aU powers of govern- 
ment. Ministries, councils, and organs of local gov- 
ernment, tliough nominally subject to the unchecked 
power of the emperor, carried out or neglected to 
carry out his will. The whole administration was 
honeycombed with corruption and there was a pow- 
erful German Influence Ui public and industrial life. 

In 1905 the emperor voluntarily limited his legis- 
lative power by declaring that no measure could be- 
come a law without the assent of the Duma. In 
1906 the Council of the Empire was establislied as 
the upper house of the imperial legislature, and its 
assent was necessary for the passage of any law by 
the Duma. Above both, however, was the emperor 
with the absolute power of veto and the right to pro- 
rogue or dissolve the Duma. The government from 
1906 to 1907 might well be described as a self-limited 
autocracy, tempered by revolution and strikes. 

The Council of tiie Empire (Gosudarstvenniy Somcl) 
consisted of 196 members, 98 of whom were nomi- 
nated by the emperor and 98 elected- Of the elected 
members, 3 were returned by the monks, 3 by the 
secular clergy, 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by 
the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by 
the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial coun- 



cils, 34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by 
those having no zemstvos, and 6 by Poland. 

The Duma (.Gosudarstvennaya Duma) after 1907 
consisted of 442 members chosen by a complicated 
process of indirect election so contrived that the 
wealthy and landed class should secure the prepon- 
derance. The members were chosen by electoral 
colleges, which m turn were selected by electoral as- 
semblies, elected by the three classes, landed pro- 
prietors, citizens, and peasants. The large landed 
proprietors sat in person ui the assembly while the 
small proprietors were represented by delegates. 
The largest taxpayers of the cities chose delegates 
directly to the electoral college, but the smaller tax- 
payers were scarcely represented. The peasant 
delegates were elected by the volosts, which con- 
sisted of delegates chosen by the nurs, which were the 
communes of the various viUages. Thus the peas- 
ants were represented only in the fourth degree, and 
would have received no representation in the Duma 
had not the law required that each class should be 
represented. 

At flrst sight the legislative powers of the Duma 
seemed large, but the legislative grant was subject to 
numerous restrictions. First, all measures dealing 
with the organization of the army and navy were 
outside of its province, bemg considered not as laws, 
but as administrative rules. Although the Duma 
had some power over the budget nearly one half of 
the expenditures of the country were beyond its con- 
trol. Moreover, if the budget finally voted by the 
Duma was not sanctioned by the emperor, that of 
the previous year remahied in force; and the govern- 
ment had power to levy new taxes to carry out new 
laws. Furthermore, the emperor had the power to 
issue ordmances having the force of law. Although 
these ordinances might not infrmge the fimdamental 
laws or statutes and must have been submitted to 
the Duma for its assent, yet, smce the emperor had 
power to prorogue or dissolve the Duma as often as 
he pleased, temporary ordinances might easily be- 
come permanent. Finally, tlie ministers were ap- 
pointed by the emperor and responsible to him, not 
to the Duma. In spite of these Umitations the third 
Duma succeeded in establishing its position and m 
making a return to the old undisguised absolutism 
impossible, 

Russia was divided into 78 governments, 21 prov- 
mces, and 2 districts. For the purposes of local gov- 
ernment there were: (1) the mirs, (2) the zemstvos, 
(3) the municipal Dumas. The mir, or the peasant 
village commune, a Slav institution which existed 
from time immemorial, was very interesting. After 
the freeing of the serfs in 1861. the mirs were relieved 
from the jurisdiction of the landholding nobility and 
consisted of the heads of the households of the vil- 
lage. A number of mirs were united into a volost, 
which had an assembly consisting of delegates of the 
mirs The powers of self-government of both the 
mirs and volosts were limited, however, by the ac- 
tion of the police commissionaries, representing the 
central absolute government. 

In " Old Russia " the 34 governments had provm- 
cial assemblies or zemstvos which consisted of a rep- 
resentative council and an executive board. The 
executive board was composed of five classes of dele- 
gates representing: (1) the large landed proprietors: 
(2) the smaU landholders; (3) the wealthy towns- 
men; (4) the less wealthy townsmen ; (5) the volosts_ 
The municipal Dumas were established in 1870 and 
consisted of delegates chosen from three groups of 
electors determmed accordmg to wealth. In the 
Duma the zemstvos, and the municipal Dumas 
alike, the representation was by wealth and classes 
rather than by population or territory. 

July 19 1918, the fifth All-Russian Soviet con- 
gress published a constitution for the Russian So- 
cialist Federal Soviet Republic. According to this 
constitution Russia is a republic of Soviets, or coun- 
cils composed of workers', soldiers', and peasants 
delegates; and all central and local authority is 
vested in these Soviets, The Soviets are thus indus- 
trial or social groups not based on numbers or terri- 
torial areas. Private property and ownership of 
land was abolished; all forests, mines, and waters, aU 
live stock model estates, and agricultural concerns 
became national property. The state owns all fac- 
tories, mines, railways, and other means of produc- 
tion and transportation. Every one is compelled 
to work, and a dictatorship of the proletariat was 
proclaimed. .... 

Freedom of conscience, freedom of opmion, free- 
dom of the press, and freedom of association are 
guaranteed bv this constitution. Universal military 
service is incumbent on all citizens, but the privilege 
of defending the revolution with arms is reserved to 
the laboring class only. The political rights of Rus- 
sian citizenship may be acquired without any for- 
malities by residing in the territory of the Russian 
Republic for the purpose of labor. The Ruf lan 
Republic is thus a socialistic community of aU the 
laboring masses of Russia. .„ „,„ 

The highest authority in the state is the All-Kus- 
sian Congress of Soviets, composed of representa- 
tives of town Soviets on the basis of one delegate for 
every 25,000 electors, and of provincial congresses 



1654-1718. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 



139 



of Soviets on the basis of one delegate for every 125.- 
000 iiiliabitants. The supreme lejiislative, adminis- 
trative, and controlling body in the republic is an 
elective AU-Russian Central Executive Committee of 
200 members, chosen by the All-Russian Congress of 
Soviets. This committee chooses the coimcil of peo- 
ple's commissioner^ for purposes of administration. 
The franchise is given to all citizens over 18 years 
of age who earn their liveliliood by producti\'e labor, 
without regard to religion, nationalit.w residence, or 
sex; and to sailors and soldiers in the Soviet army and 
navy. Thus the old political classes of landowTiers. 
professional and business men, and government offi- 
cials are totally excluded, so far as they still e.\ist. 

Industry and Labor. Most of the industries of 
Russia were still in the primitive stages of develop- 
ment till the twentieth century. It was ages before 
the European habits of life were substituted for the 
Asiatic. The lerem, or harem, was long a Russian 
institution. About ISSO rapid advances were made 
in the European factory system. In many large 
towns were enormous factories employing vast nimi- 
bers of workmen, which exemplified tlie wcirst and 
most dangerous features of modern indastrialism. 
The crying need in Russia's indiLstrial life is trans- 
portation, and although in 1'.I13 there were more than 
46.000 miies of railways and 153.000 miles of navi- 
gable rivers, canals, and lakes, vast regions of Russia 
were still in frontier conditions. Four years later 
the railroads were almost out of ser\"ice. 

In her natural resources Russia is one of the richest 
coimtries in the world. Her agricultural land is vast 
and much of it is still imcultivated. In 1913 it was 
estimated that over 300,000,000 acres were under 
cultivation, and the cereal crop was apparently Um- 
ited only by the lack of proper farm machinery and 
means of transportation. In central Asia and the 
Caucasus there are more than 1,800.000 acres imder 
cotton cultivation; and in 1911 there were more 
^than 200.000 acres of tobacco. There were about 
'550.000.000 acres of forests, which have always 
yielded a net profit. 

The country is rich in all kinds of ore, and the min- 
ing industry ste^iiy increased. Gold, platinum, 
silver, lead, zinc, copper, iron, coal, and salt are among 
the minerals found. The oil fields of Russia are va- 
ried and of imsurpassed wealth. In the Baku dis- 
trict alone, in 1913. 56,000,000 barrels were produced. 
Factories in 1915 numbered over 14.000 and em- 
ployed nearly 2,000,000 workpeople. The chief 
industries were the manufacture of woolen, silk, and 
cotton goods, leather, tallow, candles, soap, and met- 
als, and flax spinning. Russia ranks third among 
the coimtries of the world in the production of flsh 
and other sea food. In the year before the war the 
most valuable exports of RiLssia were cereals, lumber, 
wooden ware. Hax, eggs, dairy produce, fiu-s. leather, 
oils, and hemp; and exports of 1,420.949.000 rubles 
(about $731,789,000) were shipped to Germany. 
to the Unite<i Kingdom, Holland, France, and other 
coimtries. In the same year her imports amounted 
to 1.220.539.000 rubles (about $628,577,500). 

The condition of labor, whether peasant or in man- 
ufactories, is now desperate. The high taxes, lack of 
communication, and want of appliances keep the 
peasants miserable. In the large manufacturing 
towns the wages are low and the housing condi- 
tions wretched. Centuries of oppression have ill- 
fitted this class to enjoy poUtical Uberty or economic 
opportimity. 

Religion. The Orthodox faith was the estab- 
lished religion of Russia. The emperor was the head 
of the church and had full appointing power, al- 
though he delegated this generally to the Procurator 
of the Holy Synod. According to the latest census 
(1897), which is imperfect, the Orthodox Church in- 
cluded about two thirds of the population. There 
were 13.000.000 Mohammedans, 11,000.000 Roman 
Catholics, 5,000.000 Jews. 2.000,000 dissidents, and 
1.000,000 Armenian Gregorians. 

Education. Higher education was well cared for 
in Russia by 10 universities, to which should now be 
added two new universities established by the Bol- 
shevik!, and the school of technology. January 1. 
1914, over 1,800 middle schools cared for 700,000 stu- 
dents; and in 1910 over 2,000 special schools counted 
more than 223.000 pupils. Altogether, according 
to the Year Book of Russia of 1914, there were over 
7,000,000 in attendance at school, of which number 
6,000,000 were primary pupils. This is but a twen- 
tieth of the population, and mostly urban at that. 
Illiteracy is very high in Russia. In the central 
Asian pro-vinces only 6% of the people were able to 
read and write, in Siberia 16%, in the Caucasus 17%. 
in European Russia proper 30%. 

Defense. The frontiers of Russia, before the war. 
particularly in the west, were well fortified. Mili- 
tary service was universal and compulsorj-. extend- 
ing from the 20th to the 43d year and life service 
for the Cossacks, who are not a different race, but 
a group of military^ communities with whom the pro- 
fession of arms is hereditary. The peace strength of 
the armies of Russia in 1914 was above 1.300,000 
After the Russo-Japanese war. Russia reorgan- 
ized her navT, and in 1915 possessed a fleet of 6 
dreadnoughts, 8 predreadnoughts, and 117 destroy- 



ers, in addition to other vessels. By Januarj', 1920, 
thirteen armies were organized imder Bolshevist rule, 
astimated to number more than 700,000 infantry. 
Ser\ice was compulsory upon all citizens. 

Before the outbreak of the war the area of Russia 
was estimated at 8.247.624 square miles and its 
population about 166,561.000, including all the 
Asiatic possessions. Of these fully 20.000.000 per- 
ished in or as a result of the World War. 

FORMER RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS. 

By the Bolshevist revolution in 1917 the empire of 
Russia was broken up. Several independent or semi- 
independent states were formed or are in the process 
of formation. Of these Finland and Poland have been 
recognized by the 'United States and European jxjw- 
ers and are described elsewhere. The former Baltic 
Provinces are fully treated on page 143. The inde- 
pendent slates that have developed from them are 
treated separately (see Esthonia, Lat\'i.\, and Lith- 
uania). In Transcaucasia the Republic of Georgia 
has lieen erected out of former Russian pro\inces. 
aiitl the reiuiblies of Armenia and Azerbaijan have 
been formed in t lie regions south of Georgia, formerly 
held in part by Turkey and Persia (see Armenia, 
Azerbaijan, and Georgia). 

The I'kraine, still apparently a part of Russia, is 
treated below. Other states have at one time or an- 
other since 1917 set themselves up as independent. 
These, however, have now ceased to exist as states 
and form part of the present Russian SociaUst Fed- 
eral Soviet RepubUc. Some of the more important 
of these temporary states were : the RepubUc of North 
Russia; the Mumian. or Murmansk. Region ; the Don 
Republic; the Tatar-Baslikir Republic; the HcinibUc 
of White Russia; the Kurland Keijublie; the Tauride 
RepubUc; the Yakut-k Republic; tlie Republic of 
Eastern Karelia; and the Kuban Re|)ul.)lic. 

THE UKRAINE (UKRAINU). 
The Ukrainians, sometimes known as Little Rus- 
sians, and the Ruthenians, or Red Russians, occupy 
the plains stretching from Poland across the south of 
the former Russian Empire to the river Don. border- 
ing on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. They are 
also found in eastern Poland, in Galicia, and to a 
slight extent in Roumania. They settled this region 
during the early centiu-ies of the Christian Era, and 
in the 9tli century founded a strong kingdom around 
Kiev, which was the center of Russian life imtil the 
Tatar invasion of the 13th centurj-. At that time 
the kingdom of Llirainia was overthrown and the 
remnants in the west came under the Polish rule. 

On the decUne of the Tatar power Ukrainian colo- 
nists pushed eastward from Poland and resettled 
their country, founding a military republic. This 
was displeasing to the Poles, who attempted to over- 
throw them in a series of wars which lasted imtil the 
17th century. Not feeling strong enough to resist 
the Poles alone, the Ukrainians put themselves imder 
the protection of Russia, which attempted to Rus- 
sianize them and oppressed them as cruelly as the 
Poles had done. With the partition of Poland in the 
18th century Russia acquired practically all of the 
Ukraine territory. In the 19th century there was a 
revival of Ukrainian race consciousness and litera- 
ture, which by the beginning of the 20th ctntury had 
made great headway, in spite of Russia's attempt to 
suppress it. The language is a dialect of Russian. 

November 21, 1917, the I'krainian People's Re- 
public was proclaimed, and a constitution was adopted 
December 23, 1917. At first the hetman. the head of 
the state, was supported by the Germans; but on 
December 16, 1918. German influence was removed 
and a ministry, under Martos, was appointed (April 
25, 1919). The AlUe<i Powers recognized the inde- 
pendence of the Ukrainians in March, 1918. 

A large part of Ukrainia belongs to the " Black 
Soli " region of Russia, which yields large quantities 
of grain, particularly wheat, for export. Agriculture 
is tJhus the chief occupation. There are also valua- 
ble deposits of iron ore — the most available in Rus- 
sia. These iron deposits are within 2<M) miles of rich 
coal deposits which assure a profitable development 
of the iron and steel industry^ The other industries 
are sugar making, distilling, and tanning. In 1919 
there were 950.000 acres devoted to the sugar beet, 
yielding 3.200.000 tons of sugar. 

The territory claimed by the LTo-ainians embraces 
all the southwestern portion of former Russia, as 
outUned above, and also the Ivuban region between 
the Black Sea and the Caspian. The area of tliis 
territory is stated to be 498.000 square miles, and 
the population about 46,000,000. 

SIBERIA. 

Siberia was proclaimed as the Independent Re- 
public of Siberia, with its capital at Tomsk, Decem- 
ber, 1917. The first Siberian Duma, with 30 mem- 
bers, was opened February 5, 1918. On November 
IS, 1918, all the power was seized by Admiral Kol- 
chak, who summarily dealt with the attempts at 
democracy. In 1920 the Bolsheviki gained control 
of most of Siberia. The political status, however, of 
much of this former vast empire of Russia in Asia is 
still undetermined. 



DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA. 

Two states in Central Asia. Bokhara and Ivhiva. 
were, before the revolution of 1017. under the suze- 
rainty of Russia. The khanate of Bokhara, south 
of Russian Turkestan, was founded by the Usbegsin 
the 15th century, after Tamerlane had crushed the 
" Golden Horde." The ameer of the country pro- 
claimed a holy war against Russia in 1866, but was 
overcome, and in 1873 a treaty was signed by wliich 
Bokhara became virtually a Russian dependency. 
Silk, com, fruit, tobacco, cotton, aiid hemp are pro- 
duced as well as cattle, horses, and camels. The 
area of the state is 83,000 square miles and the 
population about 1,250,000, mostly Mohammedan. 

Khiva is a khanate lying west of Bokhara, and 
was also founded by Usbegs after the fall of Tamer- 
lane's empire A Russian expedition in 1872 over- 
came the khan and compelled liim to sign a treaty 
by wliich Khiva came imder Russian control. The 
area is 24,000 sq. miles; the population is estimated 
at 646.000. 

Chronology — Russia and Former Possessions. 

For earlier events, see Medieval Period. Chronology, 

and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 

For the former Baltic Provi-nces of Russia, 

see below, page 143. 

1654. The Cossacks, having revolted against Po- 
land, place themselves tmder the protection of 
Russia, by the petition of their leader, Chmiel- 
nicki, and a war between Poland and Russia 
follows. In the next year Charles X. of Sweden 
invades Poland; the Cossacks retiun to their aUe- 
giance to the PoUsh crown m 1056. and jom in de- 
tense of the country after the Treaty of Vllno 
has been concluded between Russia and Poland. 

1655. Charles X. takes Warsaw and Cracow. 

1656. Czamiecki leads the Poles m a series of suc- 
cessful campaigns, but they are overwhelmed in 
the battle of Warsaw, July 28 to 30. 

1657. Austria conies to the aid of Poland, and 
the elector of Brandenbiu-g also changes to the 
side of the Poles. Poland by the Treaty of Welilau 
relinquishes her suzerainty over Prussia. 

1660. Peace of Oliva puts an end to the war with 
Sweden, and by the Peace of Kardis Russia re- 
nounces aU claims to Livonia and Esthonia. 

1667. Treaty is made at Andrusovo with Poland, 
by which Poland loses the Ukraine east of th£ 
Dnieper and Kiev. In the foUowing year John 
Casimir of Poland ab<licates the tlirone; Michael 
Wisnioniecki is elected his successor in 1669. 

1670-1671. Great rising of the Cossacks of the 
Volga tmder Stenko Razin. 

1673. Peter (the Great) is bom. 

1674. Wisniowiecki having died in 1673, John 
Sobieski is chosen king of Poland. 

1676. Feodor III. succeeds to the throne of Russia, 
on the death of his father. Alexis. 

1681. By Treaty of Bakhchisaray Turkey recog- 
nizes Russia's new acquisitions in the Ukraine. 

1683. Feodor is succeeded by his brothers. Ivan V. 
and Peter, with their sister, Sophia, as regent. 

1683. Poles aid in war against Turks (.see Austria). 

1689. Peter marries Eudoxia Lopukhina. 
The Streltzi form a conspiracy under the direction 
of the regent, Sophia, to seize the government of 
Russia, but the scheme is thwarted by Peter, who 
assumes the sovereign authority. 

1690. Ivan V. dies, leaving Peter sole sovereign. 

1696. John Sobleski of Poland dies; in the fol- 
lowing year he is succeeded by Frederick Augustus 
I. of Sa.\ony, who takes the title of Augustus II. 
Peter the Great, m a war against the Turks, routs 
the enemy and captures Azov (see Turkey). In 
December, 1607. a truce is signed at Karlowitz. 

1697-1698. Peter's first visit to the West. He 
stays for some time in HoUand, where he works as 
a common laborer in a shipyard. 

1699. Peace of Karlowitz ends Poland's conflict 
with the Turks, and she recovers a part of Urkraine. 

1700. Russia and Poland jom in a war waged by 
Denmark against Sweden; the army of Peter the 
Great is vanquished by Charles XII. at Nan'a, 
November 30 {see Sweden). 

1703. Charles XII. makes a campaign in Warsaw 
and enters Cracow. 

1703. Peter the Great foimds St. Petersburg. 

1704. Augustus II. is dethroned by Charles XII. of 
Sweden, who secun« the election of Stanislas 
Leszczynski to the crown of Poland. 

1708. Russia is mvaded by Charles of Sweden, but 
in the foUowing year, July 8, Peter the Great 
crushes the Swedish army at Poltava and 
Charles becomes a fugitive. Augustus hereupon 
is restored to the tlirone of Poland. 

1711. Peter the Great is compeUed to make a dis- 
advantageous peace, by which the Turks recover 
Azov and other territories. 

1713. Peter marries his second wife, Catherine. 

1714. Russians defeat the Swedish fleet at Hango. 

1717. Peter visits 'Versailles. By the Treaty of 
Passarowitz (1718) peace is made with the Turks. 

1718. Peter's son Alexis dies, due, it is said, to pun- 
istunent inflicted for his treasonable conduct. 



140 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 



1721-1872. 



N 



U 



W 



1731. Treaty of Nystad puts an end to the war 

with Sweden; Livonia, Esthonia. Ingria, Karelia, 
and part of Finland are ceded to Russia. 

1722. Peter the Great wages a war against Per- 
sia, and in the loUowing year annexes a large ter- 
ritor>* in tiie Caucasus. 

17S5. Catherine I. succeeds her husband. Peter 
the Great, on the Russian throne. In the follow- 
ing year Russia joins with Austria and Spain in a 
triple allianee (see Austria and Spain). 

1J?J. t'attierlne I. dies; slie is succeeded by 
Peter H., grandson of Peter the Great. 

1730. Peter II. is succeeded by Anna, a niece of 
Peter the Great. 

1733. Augustus II. dies and Stanislas Leszczynskl 
is elected king of Poland. Frederick Augustus 
II.. claims tlie title of Augustus III. Russians 
emd Austrians support Augustus, while France 
under Louis XV. (son-in-law of LeszczjTiski) as- 
sists his relative. 

1735. By preliminary Treaty of Vienna the War 
of the Polish Succession ends in victory for Au- 
gustus III. Stanislas Leszczynski abdicates, but 
is granted the duchy of Lorraine. (See France.) 

1736. Russia and Austria renew the war against 
Turkey, and Azov is captiu'cd. 

1739. Russiaris under Miinnich make a victorious 
campaign and conclude the Peace of Belgrade. 

1740. Anna, empress of Russia, dies and is suc- 
ceeded by the infant Ivan VI., with Biron as regent. 
In 1741 Ivan VI. is deposed and the throne is taken 
by Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. 

1741. Russia again engages in a war with Sweden 
(see Sweden); a treaty between the two coimtries 
is signed two years later at Abo; Russia gets a con- 
siderable slice of southeastern Finland. 

1747. Elizabeth of Russia forms an alliance with 
Maria Theresa of Austria and sends an army to 
the aid of the Austrians. (See Austria.) 

1757. Russia participates in the Seven Years' 
War and. after a victory at Gross-Jagersdorf. over- 
runs East Prussia ; the army imder Soltikov assists 
the Austrians in crushing the army of Frederick 
the Great at Kimersdorf, August 12, 1759. The 
next year they enter Berlin with the Austrians. 

1761. Aug.-Stpl. Russians luider Buturlin. with 
aid of Austrians, attack Frederick the Great. 

176?. Jan. '2. Empress Elizabeth dies; she is 
succeeded by Peter III., of the House of Holstein- 
Gottorp. He changes the pohcy of Russia and 
supports Frederick the Great. Catherine II., 
German by birth, the wife of Peter III , usiu-ps the 
tlu'one, Jiily 9; July 17 Peter is assassinated; and 
the brief alliance with Frederick is broken off 

1763. Augustus III. of Poland dies; in the following 
year Stanislas Augustus (Stanislas II.), aided 
by Catherine II., is chosen as his successor. 

1766. Catherine calls a great Legislative Assembly 
at Moscow. 

1768. The Poles form the Confederation of Bar 
to resist the encroachments of Russia. At the 
same time the Turks begin a war against the Em- 
press Catherine II. 

1770. The Russians are victorious in Wallacliia 
and the fleet imder Orlov and Elphinstone over- 
comes the Tm-ks at Scio. 

1771. Russians under Dolgoruki attack the Unes 
of Perekop and gain possession of the Crimea. 

1773. Catherine II. of Russia, Frederick the Great 
of Prussia, ond Maria Theresa of Austria imite in 
first partition of Poland. A large territorj- on 
the Dvina and upper Dnieper is taken by Russia; 
Polish Prussia, except Thorn and Danzig, is ap- 
portioned to Prussia along with other tracts; a 
vast area on the borders of Himgary is added to 
the Austrian Empire and erected into the kingdom 
of Galicia and Lodomeria. The residue of Po- 
land, includmg Warsaw, continues as a king- 
dom imder the sovereignty of Stanislas Augustus. 

1773. The Russians in the war against Turkey 
advance through Bulgaria. 

Pugaehcv leads a great rising in southea-stem 
Russia. The revolt spreads through the whole Volga 
basm Ijefore the leader is finally captured (1775). 

1774. Negotiations for peace with Turkey; a 
treaty is made at Kiichilk-Kainarja, by which 
Turkey yields up her suzerainty over the Crimea. 

1780. Armed Neutrality of Russia, Holland, and 
other powers against Great Britain. 

1783. The Crimea is formally annexed to Russia. 

1787. Turkey again goes to war with Russia, and 
the following year Sweden also begins hostilities. 
Russia makes a commercial treaty with 
France. John Paul Jones, the American, be- 
comes a Russian admiral. 

1789. Russians with Austrian allies defeat the 
Turks at Foc?ani, and make an advance. Russia 
and Sweden conclude peace at Verela 

1793. January. Peace between Russia and 
Turkey is signed at Jassy. Austria having already 
concluded a treaty; Ochakov added to Russian 
domain and empire extended to Dniester. 

1793. Second partition of Poland; Russia ac- 
quires a large part of Lithuania, part of Volhj-nia. 
Podolia. and Polish LTkraine; Prussia annexes the 
western territory and Danzig, a free city since 1772. 



1794. General uprising of the Poles occurs, with 
Kosciusko as its leader, but Russia, Prussia, and 
Austria unite to suppress the insurrection; Kos- 
ciitsko is taken at Alaciejowlce, Oct. 10. Warsaw 
surrenders, Nov. 8, and the rebellion is at an end. 

1795. Polish kingdom is divided for the third 
time, and with this partition its independence 
definitely ends. Pinissia gains Warsaw, and Rus- 
sia annexes the rest of Lithuania and all of Kiir- 
land. Stanislas Augustus formally abdicates. 

1796. Catherine II. of Russia dies and is succeeded 
by her son Paul, November 17. 

1798. December. Russia forms an alliance with 
England agahist the French. 

1799. Suvarofr, commander in chief of the allied 
Russian and Austrian armies in Italy, defeats 
Moreau at Cassano, April 27 (see France). 

1801. Russia makes a treaty of peace with 
France in October. Gruziya, or Georgia, Is 
annexed to Russia. A conspiracy is formed in 
the capital against Paul; on March 23 he is assas- 
sinated; succeeded by his son, Alexander 1. 

1804. War breaks out with Persia and continues 
till 1813. 

1806. War with Turkey again breaks out 

1807. Russia joins Prussia in the war against 
France. After a defeat at Friedland, Jime 14, 
Alexander concludes with Napoleon the Treaty of 
Tilsit, by wliich the grand duchy of Warsaw is 
erected. Vast plans of world power are accepted 
by both potentates. 

1808. Finland is taken by Russia from Sweden 
l>y force of arms; in the following v-ear the con- 
quered territory is ceded to the czar. 

1809. Russia declares war against .\ustria. May 3. 
(See France, also Austria.) 

1810. In war with Turkey. KamenskI leads his 
army on a victorious campaign into Bulgaria. 
John Quincy Adams, received as first Amer- 
ican minister to RiLssia. He finds Russia begin- 
ning to turn against Napoleon. 

1811. Kutuzov makes a campaign against the 
Turks along the Danube. 

1812. On May 28 Russia concludes a treaty of 
peace with Turkey, at Bucharest, by wliich the 
Pruth is established as the boimdary between the 
two nations. June 22, Napoleon declares war 
against Russia and prepares to make an invasion. 
He is victorious at Smolensk in August. Kutuzov 
is defeated at Borodino, Sept. 7, and the French 
enter Moscow, Sept. 14. The city is fired by the 
Russians, and in October the French begin a re- 
treat; they are harassed by the Russians imtil 
the Grand Army is virtually destroyed. 

1813. By the Treaty of Gulistan Persia is forced 
to cede to Russia Dagestan. Shirvan, Baku, and 
other regions; these domains are formally trans- 
ferred by the Treaty of Tiflis, m the following 
year. Russia Joins Prussia and Austria in the 
great war against Napoleon. 

NirfETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1815. Congress of powers at Vienna, in Jime, 
confirms Russia in the possession of Finland and 
the bulk of Poland, which is granted autonomy 
In September of this year Russia imites with 
Austria and Prussia in forming the Holy Alliance 
(see Nineteenth-Century Period). 

1825. Alexander I. dies, Decemlwr 1. After a 
rising known as the ** December revolution *' 
(see Decembrist, in the Did.), he is succeeded by 
his brother. Nicholas I. 

1826. Treaty of Akerman with Turkey. Per- 
sians begin a war. lof the Greeks. I 

1827. Oci. 20. Naval battle of Navarlno, in aid! 

1828. February. Peace with Persia by which 
Persian Armenia is ceded to Russia. 

April. Russia imdertakes another war 
against Turkey. 

1829. Russians under Paskevich enter Adrianople 
September 14. and the Peace of Adrianople fol- 
lows. Turkey cedes to Russia the northeastern 
coast of the Black Sea and renounces the suze- 
rainty over the tribes of the Caucasus. Russian 
protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia is 
also permitted; the district of Aklialtsikli is ceded 
to Russia, and Turkey acknowledges the Inde- 
pendence of Greece. (See Turkey; Greece ) 

1830. A revolution begins In Poland, on Novem- 
ber 29, and the Russian troops withdraw from 
Warsaw. Chlopicki made dictator in December. 

1831. Chlopicki resigns in January. Czartoryski, 
at the head of the national government, proclaims 
the Independence of Poland, January 25. 
Warsaw capitulates. September S. and the liberty 
of Poland Is lost. In the following year the czar 
proclaims Poland an integral part of the Rus- 
sian Empire. 

1832. A new law code is published. 

1833. July S. Russia agrees to help Turkey against 
Meheniet All. and concludes the Treaty of Un- 
klar-Skelessl. 

1846. February. Polish Insurrection. The 
leader. Mieroslawski. is arrested by the Prus- 
sians. Peasants in Galicia rise against the Pol- 
I ish nobles; Austria aime.\es Cracow. 



1848. The Poles in P»sen rebel again imder 
Mieroslawski. but the movement collapses. 

1849. Russian expeditionary force under Paske- 
vich assists in suppressing revolution in Hungary. 

1853. March. The czar through liis special en- 
voy. Prince Menshikov. demands that a Russian 
protectorate shall be extended over the Greek 
Christians in Turkey. The demand is refused, 
and England and France prepare to aid Turkey in 
resistance. In Jmie the AJlied fieets of these 
powers are sent to Beslka Bay. In July the Rus- 
sians enter the Danubian Principalities. Three' 
months afterward the ships of the English and 
French sail tlirough the DardaneUes. Hostilities 
begin. November 4. the Russians are defeated at 
Oltenita. but the Russian fleet under Admiral 
Nakliimov annihilates the Turkish squadron 
at Sinope. November 30. In December, at 
Vienna, a protocol of the great powers is directed 
against Russia. 

1854. The fleets of England and France enter the 
Black Sea in January. In March the Baltic fleet 
of the English sails, under the command of Sir 
Charles Napier. Prince Gorchakov leads a Rus- 
sian army across the Danube. 

The English and French now formally declare war 
against Russia (March 27). thus precipitating the 
conflict historically knov\Ti as the Crimean War. 
In March and April the British and French armies 
are landed in Turkey, and the French fleet in the 
Baltic sails for the scene of war, in April. Odessa 
is bombarded by the allies. Bomarsimd forts in 
the Baltic surrender to tlie allies, August 16. Aus- 
tria presents an ultimatum to Russia demand- 
ing that she evacuate the principalities. Russia 
yields and Austria, by an agreement with Turkey, 
replaces Russia in Moldavia and Wallachia. 
September 14, the English and French reach the 
Crimea mider the command of Lord Raglan and 
Saint-Amaud (later underCanrobert); they defeat 
the Russians imdtT Menshikov in the battle of* 
the Alma, September 20. In October, the Allies 
besiege Sebastopol, which is defended by Tot- 
leben. The battle of Balaklava, in which the 
charge of the Light Brigade occurs, is fought 
October 25. November 5. the Russians are 
routed at Inkernian. 

An embassy is sent under General Perovski to the 
klian of Khiva; a treaty greatly in favor of Russia 
is negotiated, 

1855. Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia allies himself 
with France and England against Russia in Jan- 
uary. In March. Nicholas I, dies and is succeeded 
by his son. Alexander II. Gorchakov is sent to 
take command of the Russian troops in the 
Crimea. In April a protracted bombardment of 
Sebastopol is made by the allies, who are reen- 
forced by Sardinians. Marshal Pelissier succeeds 
Canrobert in the command of the French. Rus- 
sians move forward to relieve Sebastopol. but are 
defeated at the Chemaya. August 16. September 
8. the French storm the Malakoff and the English 
the Redan; Sebastopol falls. November 27, 
Kars surrenders to Muravev. 

1856. March 30. Treaty of Paris is signed, and 
with it the Crimean War ends. Black Sea is 
declared to be neutral. Russia cedes a part of 
Bessarabia and it is added to Moldavia; Russia 
also renounces her protectorate over the Danu- 
bian PrincipaUties. An international Danubian 
commission is instituted. New principles of in- 
ternational law are declared on April 16 by the 
Declaration of Paris. 

1868. May S8. By the Treaty of Algun with 
China. Russia acquires the region along the Amur. 

1859. Sept. 6. At Gimib. Schamyl, chief of the 
Caucasians, surrenders; by tins act authority of 
Russia over the moimtain tribes fully establislied. 

1860. Nov. U. By the Treaty of Peking, Chma 
cedes to Russia the whole coast region east of the 
Usuri River, south to where Vladivostok now stands. 

1861. March 3. Alexander II. issues a decree by 
which 22,000,000 serfs are freed. 

1863. Poles make a disastrous attempt to rise. 
The committee of the revohuion issues a summons 
callmg the patriots to arms ; those who respond are 
routed by the Russian troops. Insurrection ends 
(1864) in disaster to the patriots. 

1864. Russians complete the subjugation of the 
Circassians. [are Instituted.! 

Jan. 13. By imperial decree the zemstvos] 

1865. Tashkend captured by the Russians. 
1868. Samarkand Is subdued by Russia, and the 

emir of Bokliara becomes a vassal. 

1870. Ru.ssia declares her refusal to abide longer by 
the stipulations of the Treaty of Paris as to the 
neutrality of the Black Sea. In the following 
year a conference of the powers is held in London. 
Januarj' 17. to consider the question of the Black 
Sea. and a new treaty is formulated and signed. 
March 13. This second agreement omits the 
clause declaring the neutrality of the Black Sea. 
Ru.ssia reorganizes her immicipal government, 

1872. The emperors of Russia, Austria, and Ger- 
many reach an agreement known as the Drei- 
kaiserbund (League of tlie Three Emperors). 



1873-1908. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 



141 



1873. General Kaufmann leads an expedition 
against Khiva, which is taken (June 10). Peace is 
made in August. 

1874. Uuiversal military service is introduced. 

1875. Annexation uf Kokand. 

1876. Oct. :S0. The czar insists on Turkish reforms 
in the Christian provinces and issues an ulti- 
matum to the Porte tsee Turkey). 

18J7. April -?^. Turkish rejection of the czar's 
proposals leads Russia to declare war against 
Turkey (see Turkey). December 10. the Rus- 
sians take Plevna. In the following year the 
Russians, after a victorious campaign, occupy 
Adrianople, January 20. January 31. an armi- 
stice is signed, and Alarch 3, the Treaty of San 
Stefano is concluded isee Turkey). Discontent 
in Russia against tlie autocratic and oppressive 
government takes the form of an anarchical or- 
ganization advocating Nlliillsm. 

1878. Congress of the powers meets at Berlin on 
Jime 13, and the Treaty of Berlin is concluded 
on July 13. Russia receives the larger part of 
Turkish Armenia, with Kars and Ardahan, and 
also Batum and that portion of Bessarabia for- 
merly ceded to Moldavia. In general the terms 
are unfavorable to Russia. (.See Turkey.) 
General Mezentsov, director of the tliird section 
of the imperial chancellery, falls a victim to a plot 
of the Nihilists and is murdered. 

1879. Feb. 21. Krapotkin, the governor of Khar- 
kov, is assassinated. April 14, Soloviev tries in 
vain to kill Alexander II. December 1. the 
Niliilists endeavor to blow up the train on which 
the czar is going to Moscow, but are again foiled. 

1880. Feb. 1 7. Nihilists trj' to blow up the im- 
perial family of Russia in the Winter Palace- 
February 24. General Lx)ris-Me!ikov is made chief 
of a supreme eommlssion, with autocratic au- 
thority, to suppress Nihilism. Commission 
abolished in August. 

1881. Geok-Tepe is captiu-ed by the Russians on 
January 24. and in the following month a treaty 
with China is concluded, respecting Hi (Kulja). 
March 13, Alexander II. is assassinated by a 
Nihilist; he is succeeded by his son, Alexander 
III. In April, a persecution of the Jews begins. 
May 16. Ignatiev is appointed minister of the 
interior, to succeed Loris-Mehkov. 

1882. Count Dmitri Tolstoy succeeds Ignatiev 
as minister of the interior, 

1883. May 27. Alexander III. crowned at Moscow. 

1884. The czar meets the emperors of Germany 
and Austria at Skierniewice. September 15. for a 
conference of three days and revives the defimct 
Dreikaiserbund (League of the Three Emperors). 
Tekke-Turkomans of Merv yield their allegiance 
to Russia. 

1885. Russians gain possession of the Ztilfikar 
Pass on the road to Herat; England fears a Rus- 
sian charge on Herat and makes a settlement of 
the boundaries between Turkestan and Af- 
ghanistan to the advantage of Russia. 

1887. Russia and Germany conclude the so-called 
" Reinsurance Treaty." 

1888, Trans-Caspian railway is opened as far as 
Samarkand. 

1891. Trans-Siberian railway is begun. 

April 2'J. The go\'emment orders the expul- 
sion of the Jews from St. Petersburg, and they are 
later banned from the greater part of the empire. 
July. The French fleet arrives at Kronstadt 
and is accorded an enthusiastic welcome: at the 
same time a preliminary entente is signed between 
Russia and France. 

1893. Russia is afflicted with famine and Asiatic 
cholera; the latter breaks out again in 1S93-1S94. 

1893. May. Nihilist plot discovered and 1.500 
implicated in the conspiracy are sent to Siberia. 

October. Russian fleet visits Toulon, and is 
magnificently welcomed by the French. 

18*94. The Franco-Russian alUance is definitely 
concluded. Russia makes a commercial treaty 
with Germany. 

Nov. 1 . Alexander III. dies.; he is succeeded by 
his son, Nicholas II., who weds Princess Alix of 
Hesse on November 2G. 

1895. In conjunction with Germany and France, 
Russia effects a revision of the Treaty of Sbimo- 
nosekl, to Japan's disadvantage (see China). 

1896. Russia said to have concluded the so-called 
Cassini Convention with China. 

May S6. The czar is crowned at IMoscow. 
May 30. a panic among the crowds outside the city 
causes the death of more than 1,000 persons. 

1898. Wide suffering from famine prevails in nine- 
teen provinces. Russia leases the Liaotung penin- 
sula and Port Arthur from China for 25 years. 

1899. Feb. lo. Imperial manifesto annulling 
autonomy of Finland. In May. Peace Con- 
ference, at invitation of czar, meets at The Hague 
to consider int-emational disarmament, war re- 
forms, and arbitration (see Nineteenth-Centtry 
Period). 

1900. For Boxer rising, see China. 

July S. Imperial ukase abolishes, in large 
measure, banishment to Siberia. 



Sept. ss. Count Tolstoy, the author, is ex- 
communicated. 

December. A serious outbreak of students in 
Kiev. 
1901. Crop failure and resulting famine in western 
Siberia. 

Bogolyepov, minister of instruction, is fatally 
wounded by a student. The oflicial annoimce- 
ment of Tolstoy's excomimimication, March 9, 
arouses the students anew. The riots are sup- 
pressed with great cruelty by the Ct)ssacks. Pro- 
tests are signed by leading Russian writers. Re- 
forms in the scholastic system are granted in April, 
and the czar pardons the soldier students and 
other absentees from the universities. 

Feb. 16. Russia retaliates on the advance of the 
United States duty on Russian sugar by addi- 
tional duties on certain American goods. 

July. Another step in the denationalization 
of Finland is taken by abolishing Finland's na- 
tional army and converting it into a body of Rus- 
sian troops officered by Russians. 

Nov. S. Rail laying on the Northern Man- 
churian Railway is completed, giving tlirough 
rail service from Moscow to Vladivostok except 
for the break at Lake Baikal. 
190?. For Cliinese relations, see China. 

Continued disorders at the University of Kiev 
are accompanied by peasant outbreaks in South 
Russia. In April Shipjagin, minister of the inte- 
rior, is assassinated. Venceslas de Plehve is ap- 
pointed to replace him. 

1903. March 12. The czar, in a manifesto, 
promises to grant freedom of worship to his sub- 
jects; a degree of self-government in tlie com- 
munes; and opportmiity for the peasants to escape 
some commimal restrictions and taxations. 
April 19, the Russian Easter, taxes unpaid by the 
peasantry amounting to $100,000,000 are can- 
celed, and the peasants are in part released from 
service to the commune. 

April 19-20. At Kishinev a mob kills 45 
Jews, injtires nearly 500. and destroys 700 
houses. The government takes little action. 

May 20. Bogdanovich, governor of Ufa, is 
assassinated. 

May 29. Bicentenary of the foundation of 
St. Petersburg is celebrated. 
Antl-Jewlsh outbreaks occur at Tiraspol. 
Gomel, Lodz, etc., in ^lay and June. 

June. In Finland the sale of guns, ammuni- 
tion, and explosives is practically prohibite<i and 
numerous repressive measures are introduced. 
In July and August, strikes at Kiev. Odessa, 
Baku, Tiflis, Rostov, Nikolaev, and other towns; 
suppressed by the military with the loss of him- 
drcds of lives. [Japan. I 

1903-1905. For Japanese relations and war, seel 

1904. June 16. Bobrikov, governor-general of 
Finland, is mortally wounded by an assassm as a 
protest against Russian rule. The czar recon- 
venes the Finnish Diet. 

July 2S. Plehve, minister of the interior and 
an e.\treme reactionary, is assassinated. 
Prince Sviatopolk-Mirski succeeds him in Septem- 
ber, and adopts a more liberal policy. 

Aug. 12. A son and heir is bom to the czar. 

October. Russian fleet under Admiral Rozhest- 
venski en route to the Pacific fires upon a fleet of 
British fishermen off Hull, near the Dogger Bank, 
For a time Anglo-Russian relations are tense. 

Nov. 19. Zemstvo Conference, in session at 
St. Petersburg, signs a memorial to the czar ask- 
ing for various concessions, including a consti- 
tution. Intense excitement results. December 
27, the czar replies, ordering certain legal reforms, 
but declaring that the autocracy will be kept un- 
impaired. The year is one of marked internal dis- 
turbance and revolutionary- activity. The mobili- 
zation of troops causes disorder and distress, and 
industries suffer from the war. 

1905. The country is in a condition of upheaval the 
entire year. January 22, troops in St. Peters- 
burg fire upon strikers who are marching to the 
Winter Palace tmder leadership of Father Gapon 
to petition the czar for reforms. Thereupon St. 
Petersburg Is put under military rule, with 
Trepov as dictator. IMany hundreds of im- 
armed men. women, and children are killed. 
The massacre has far-reaching effects, as strikes 
and riots spread to other cities. Procurator- 
General Soininen of Finland is killed, February 6. 
February 17, Grand Duke Sergius* tmcle of the 
czar, is assassinated in IMoscow. These events 
have some effect on the authorities, and in April 
an exteiLsion of the zemstvo system is granted, and 
soon after concessions are made to Jews and Poles. 

May 6. A congress of zemstvos in Moscow de- 
clares for universal suffrage, as weU as freedom of 
the press and right of assembly. 

June 2S. The battleship Kniaz Polemkin is 
seized by its crew. Mutinies on other ships. 

Aug. 19. Manifesto for the reg^ilation of the 
national Duma, to meet in January. 1906. the 
powers of which, although much increased, are 
still very limited. This manifesto is accepteid by 



the conservative reformers as a first step, but the 
revolutionary party demands an assembly elected 
by direct and universal suffrage with much larger 
powers. As a means to bring this about, a strike 
Is organized in the large cities during the last 
week in October. The government thereupon de- 
clares the districts affected as in a state of war. 
Railway commmiication with St. Petersburg is 
cut off, and industrial Russia threatened with 
paralysis. 

Sept. 5. Peace of Portsmouth (see Japan). 
Coimt Witte persuades the czar to grant con- 
cessions, and. on October 30. a manifesto is issued 
extending the power of the Duma and promising 
" freedom of conscience, speech, union, and asso- 
ciation." It also promises that no law shall come 
into force witliout approval of the Dimia. It does 
not grant habeas corpus or constitutional govern- 
ment, and keeps from the Duma all control of 
army and navy. This is followed by the resigna- 
tion of the reactionary ministry and the appoint- 
ment of a cabinet with Count Witte as premier. 
On November 1, the Procurator of the Holy 
SjTJod. Pobyedonostsev. who has been the heart 
of the reactionary party, is succeeded by Prince 
Obolenski. A constitution is not granted, the 
revolutionary party still consider that the reforms 
are not liberal enough , and organize further strikes, 
without much success, however. 
November 4, a revolt In Finland results in the 
issuance of a manifesto restoring to Finland her 
constitutional rights and summoning the Finnish 
Senate, which meets Dec, 22. Later, terrible mas- 
sacres of Jews occur in Odessa and other cities. 

1906. Jan. 22. Aimiversary of "Red Sunday" 
passes quietly. January 26, a serious mutiny 
breaks out among the reservists at Vladivostok. 
In Januarj' and Februarj-, rioting occurs in the 
Baltic Provinces. Severest measures of repression 
employed. In April a new election law granted to 
Finland, assuring a larger degree of home rule. 

May 2. Count WItte resigns as premier, 
and on May 7, Goreniykin is appointed. The 
czar proclaims new " fmidamental laws" which 
the Duma must not alter, thus greatly restricting 
the latter's power. 

May 10. iVIuromtsov is elected president of the 
Duma. May 17, the Duma makes numerous 
demands: anmesty for political prisoners, free- 
dom of the press, of speech, and of meeting, the 
abolition of the Council of the Empire, a responsi- 
ble ministrj'. and tlu- t\i>ropriation of large land 
holdings for the Ixnelil of the peasantrj\ 

June 15. A savage massacre of Jews occurs 
at Bialystok. instigated by government officials. 

July 21. Czar dissolves Duma. Goremykin 
is removed as premier and Stolypin is appointed. 
Great excitement. 

July 2S. Many members of Duma meet at Vi- 
borg, Finland, and issue manifesto urging Russian 
people to refuse to pay taxes or submit to con- 
scription until Parliament is again given power. 

July 31. Garrison at Sveaborg mutinies, also 
the troops at Kronstadt. 

Aug. 25. A bomb is tlirown into the residence 
of Premier Stolypin during a reception, killing 27 
and woimding 34. [Syedlets.! 

Sept. S-9. A great massacre of Jews occurs at | 

October. The government grants further rights 
to the peasants and makes concessions to the Old 
Believers. 

1907. Jan 9. General van der Laimits. prefect of 
St. Petersburg, and General Pavlov, chief mifitary 
public prosecutor, are assassinated. 

March 5. Second Russian Duma is opened. 
Golovin. a Constitutional Democrat, is elected 
president. 

June 16. Duma is dissolved by the czar's edict, 
after accomplishing practically nothing. A new 
electoral law is established by imperial decree. 

July 30. Russia and Japan sign a treaty de- 
fining their position as regards China. 

Aug. 1-7. Czar meets the German emperor at 
Swinemijnde. 

Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian treaty on spheres in 
Asia; beginning of the entente cordiale. 

Nov. 14- Third Duma meets, having been 
elected imder such severe restrictions of the suf- 
frage that the " INIonarchists " and " Octobrists " 
are in a majority. Ivhomyakov, an Octobrist, is 
elected president. 

1908. Feb. 12. Finnish Diet reassembles. Fin- 
nish governor is replaced by a Russian. 

Feb. 20. Court-martial on the defense of 
Port Arthur condemns General Stossel to 
death, with the recommendation (later accepted) 
of commutation to imprisonment. 

Feb. 26. The Duma is received by the czar, 
who urges certain measures. 

March 15. The minister of justice asks an ap- 
propriation of 81,000,000 to enlarge the prisons. 

April It. Finnish Diet Is dissolved as a result 
of remarks made as to the Russian Revolution. 

April 23. Russia, Germany, Denmark, and 
Sweden sign a convention providing for the preser- 
vation of the status quo in the Baltic. 



142 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 



1908-1917. 



N 



U 



W 



1908 {continued). 

May Si. President and many members of 
the Duma arc arrested and conflned in prison 
until August 24. [Revel. I 

June 0-10. The czar and Edward VII. meet atl 

June 17. Duma offlcially censures minister of 
finance for negotiating a loan witiiout its consent. 

June i7. Coimcil of the Empire votes the bat- 
tleship bill which had been rejected by the Duma. 

Sepl. 4. Tlie czar issues an edict, ordering all 
imiversity professors to withdraw from opposition 
political parties. 

September. Outbreak of Cholera; 1,000 new 
cases are reported daily. 

Dec. 30. Duma imanimously rejects a minis- 
terial bill which mtroduces new regulations in 
land sales in Baku. 

1909. Jan. 31. Lopuldiin, a former director of 
police, is arrested on a charge of high treason. 
Opposition leadei-s in the Dtima sharply attack the 
government for this arrest. 

Feb. gg. Order from the czar dissolves the 
Finnish Diet. 

May 4. Russia decides to dismantle her forts 
on the Polish frontier. Ilievers. I 

May gs. Duma legalizes sect of the Old Be- 1 

1910. March 9. The trials of Nikolay Chaykovskl 
and Mme. Breslikovskaya for conspiring against 
the government result in acquittal of Chaykovskl 
and conviction of Mme. Breslikovskaya, who is 
exiled to Siberia. I Duma, resigns.! 

March IT. Ivliomyakov, president of the I 
June St. Construction of a new Southern 
Siberian railroad is proposed 

July 2.5. 8.000 Jews said to have been ex- 
pelled from Kiev. 

July 2S. Spread of cholera; 90,000 deaths re- 
ported during the summer. (Potsdam. I 
Nov. J,. Czar visits the German Kaiser at I 
Nov. £0. Coimt Tolstoy dies at Astapova. 

1911. Aug. 19. Germany and Russia reach an 
agreement on the Bagdad Railway and Persian 
questions. (theater at Kiev. I 

.Sepl. 14. Premier Stolypin is shot in a| 
Sept. 23. Kokovtzov, minister of finance. 

becomes premier. 

Dec. 22. Duma introduces a bill providing for 

a tariff war against the United States. 

1912. April. Russia agrees to recognize Italian 
sovereignty in Tripoli in return for support of the 
czar's Balkan policies. 

September. Duma, which has Ijeen sitting since 
1907, is dissolved, and new elections are ordered. 
Fourth Duma inaugurated November 28. 

Dec. SI. Treaty of 1832 with the United States 
goes out of existence by action of the United States, 
because of the refusal of the Russian government 
to recognize passports of American citizens of 
Jewish descent. 

1913. Jan. 1. Council of the Empire confirms the 
law passed by the Duma aboUshlng serfdom in the 
Caucasus. 

March. Bomanov tercentenary is celebrated. 
Amnesties are granted to various political offend- 
ers, including the exiled writer Maksim Gorki. 

April £3. Panslavists hold great demonstra- 
tion in St. Petersburg to celebrate capture of Scu- 
tari by Montenegrins. 

June 8. The Czar reminds Bulgaria and Serbia 
that he is the arbiter to whom they are to appeal 
on Macedonian controversy. (See Buloaria.) 

September. Busslflcatton of Finland pro- 
ceeds steadily against a storm of protest. 

October- Norember. Outbreaks of anti-Semi- 
tism occur during the trial at Kiev of Mendel 
BeiUss, a Jew. accused of ritual murder of a Chris- 
tian boy. Trial ends in an acquittal. 

A'oii. B. Russia and China conclude an agree- 
ment as to Mongolia. (See China for relations 
on Outer Mongolia ) 

1914. June-July. Repressive policy of the govern- 
ment toward the working class results in general 
strikes, notably in St. Petersburg. 

June gg. British squadron under Beatty visits 
Kronstadt. Evidence of secret imderstanding. 

July gs. Austrian ultimatum to Serbia 
which is recognized as a tlireat of war on Russia. 

July 29. Diplomatic mtercourse with Austria- 
Htmgary is suspended. 

WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 
1911. .411(7.2. Germany declares war on Russia. 

(See WoELD War for military events ) 

Aug. 15. Russia proclaims reconstniction and 
autonomy of Poland. 

Sept. 1. St. Petersburg is renamed Petrograd 
by imperial edict. 

Sept. 6. Russia, France, and England agree 
not to make peace separately. 

Oct. 21. Czar prohibits state sale of alcoiiol. 

December. In consequence of the Russian de- 
feats, disorders break out In Petrograd, neces- 
sitating the institution of martial law, measures 
against Socialists, closing of the imiversity, etc. 
191.3. Closing of the Dardanelles makes impos- 
sible the exportation of the wheat crop. 



Feb. 1. Appropriation for a government railroad 
to Aleksandrovsk, an ice-free port on the Kola 
peninsula. 

Feb. 9. Duma opens with a imanimous resolu- 
tion to carry on the war. 

March. Decree conferring upon Poland local 
self-government on the limited scale obtaining 
in Russia, and permitting the use of the Polish lan- 
guage in the local zemstvos thus established. 

May. Port of Archangel is closed to private 
business. 

Ju7ie 14-2B. Anti-German mobs in Moscow. 
Commission of six Russians and six Poles is ap- 
pointed to work out Polish autonomy. 

Aui). SI. Enlargement of the cabinet by 
ten members, five to be chosen by the Diuna and 
five from the Coimcil of the Empire. 

Sept. 7. Czar Nicholas takes command of the 
army, transferring Grand Duke Nicholas to com- 
mand of the army in t lie Caucasus, in consequence 
of defeats on the eastern front. 

Sept. 15. The czar proclaims an amnesty of 
all political prisoners. 

Sept. If). Duma is prorogued. Strikes follow 
and 18 Duma members are arrested. 

Oct. 11. Riots break out in Moscow. 

Oct. 17. A state of war is proclaimed. 

Oct. $4. Foreign credit loan of .$2,750,000,000 
is authorized. 

Oct. 31. Jewish relief societies report that in 
territory swept by Germans 1,. 500, 000 Russian 
Jews are without means of support, homeless, and 
starving. 

1916. Feb. 1. Stiirmer, an alleged pro-German 
reactionary, succeeds Goremykin as premier. 

Feb. 22. Duma opened with the czar attendmg 
for the first time in history-. 

Feb. 26. Kuropatkin appointed commander in 
chief of the Russian armies on the northern front. 
Duma passes a bill calling for four meatless days 
per week. 

April 20. Russian expeditionary 'force lands at 
IMarseiUes. More contingents arrive during the 
summer. 

July 2. Duma passes bill conferring upon peas- 
ants the same civil rights as other classes possess; 
since 1890 the peasants have not been entitled to 
elect deputies to the zemstvos. 

July 3. Duma is suspended till November 14. 

July 22. Foreign Minister .Sazonov resigns. 
Premier Stiirmer takes over the portfolio. 

September. Transfer of the Russian troops in 
France to the Saloniki front. 

Oct. 1. Protopopov succeeds Kivostov as 
minister of the interior. 

December. Women admitted to Moscow uni- 
versity in full equality with men. 

Dec. 2. Premier Trepov informs the Duma that 
the .\llies have agreed that Russia shall have Con- 
stantinople and the Dardanelles. 

Dec. SO. The Duma and Council of the Empire 
pass resolutions condemning the " Dark forces " 
opposed to victory. 

Dec. 31. For reply to German peace proposal, 
see "World Wab. 

1917. March 11. Food riots break out m Petro- 
grad and elsewhere. 

March 12. Duma refuses to dissolve on the 
order of the czar. It demands reforms, prose- 
cution of the war, and stamping out of pro-German 
influences. 

March IS. Czar Nicholas, under arrest, abdi- 
cates in favor of his brother Michael, who refuses 
tu accept the tlirone, unless authorized to do so by 
a constituent as.sembly. 

Duma in conference with labor leaders, appoints 
an Executive Committee, headed by Prince Lvov, 
with Miljoikov as minister of foreign affairs and 
KerenskI (Social Revolutionary) as minister of 
justice. 

March 16. The provisional government an- 
noimces a program of reforms including freedom 
of speech, imiversal suffrage, and the election of a 
constituent as.sembly. 

March IS. Miljiikov sends a circular to Rus- 
sian representatives declaring Russia's imalterable 
resolve to carry the war to a successful conclusion. 
The ex-czar retires to his estates in the Crimea 

March 21. Provisional government orders the 
arrest of the ex-czar and his wife. Constitution 
for Finland is confirmed. United States grants 
partial recognition to the new government. 

March 26. The government removes all the 
civil and political disabilities of the Jews. 

March 29. Women declared eligible for all 
government posts. 

April 4. Provisional government repeals all 
laws abridging religious freedom. 

April SO. Minister of war accepts new regula- 
tions, proposed by the soldiers, wiiich practically 
take the power of discipline out of the officers' 
hands and mtnist it to elected committees. 

May 1. Assurance is given to the Allies that 
" there will be no slackening on the part of Russia 
in the common struggle of the Allies." This 
I causes riots in Petrograd. 



May 11. Council of Workmen's and Sol- 
diers' Delegates decides to appeal to the peoples 
of the world. 

May 13. General Komilov resigns from the 
command of the Petrograd army. 

May 17. Guchkov and Milyukov having been 
forced out of the cabinet, four Socialists are 
given portfolios. Tills change marks the grow- 
ing radicalism of the revolution. 
KerenskI becomes minister of war and leader 
of the government upon the resignation of Guch- 
kov, who found liis hands tied by the Council of 
Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates. 

May 19. The government issues a declaration 
of policy rejecting " all thouglits of separate 
peace," but welcoming a general peace. 

June 2-3. Outbreaks of armed anarchists 
in Petrograd and elsewhere. 

June s. United States commission, headed 
by Eliliu Boot, reaches Vladivostok. 

June .5. Council of Workmen's and Sol- 
diers' Delegates, addresshig labor organizations 
tliroughout the world, appeals for a peace without 
annexations or indemnities. 

June 2S. Ukraine Military Conference calls 
on the Ukraine National Assembly to sever rela- 
tions with Russia. 

June 27. Coimcil of Workmen's and Soldiers' 
Delegates denounces " every policy tending to- 
ward the conclusion of a separate peace and ar- 
mistice." 

Provisional government abolishes the court-mar- 
tial. 

June 2S. Council of Workmen's and Soldiers, 
Delegates abolishes the Duma and Council of the 
Empire. 

July 19. Finland virtually proclainos her 
independence. (See Finland.) 

July 20. Socialists, forcing Prince Lvov to re- 
sign, make KerenskI premier in his place. 
Regiments affected by Bolshevist propaganda 
begin to desert from the front m large numbers. 

July '23. The Coimcil of Workmen's and Sol- 
diers' Delegates invests KerenskI with " unlim- 
ited " powers. 

July 2.'i. The death penalty for desertion is re- 
established. Komilov issues orders to fire upon 
deserters. 

Aug. 1. KornilOT succeeds Brusilov as com- 
mander In chief of the Russian armies. 

Aug. S. Provisional government declares that, 
without the consent of the Russian people, Fin- 
land cannot legally separate itself from Russia. 
General Gurko is arrested on the charge of spread- 
mg Bolshevist propaganda. 

Aug. 1,5. The ex-czar and his family are re- 
moved to Tobolsk, Siberia, after the discovery of 
a royalist plot. 

Aug. 23. General Soukliomlinov. former minis- 
ter of war, is placed on trial for high treason, be- 
ing accused of witliliolding ammunition from Rus- 
sian armies and commimicating information to 
the enemy; he is found guilty on September 26. 

Aug. 30. Kerenski annoimces the partial re- 
establishment of tlie death penalty. 

Sept. 10. Komilov marches toward Petrograd 
with armed forces. 

Sept. 13. Komilov movement collapses. Alek- 
syeev appointed commander In chief. 

Sept. 14. General Kaledin arrested and dis- 
missed for attempting to proclaim himself dictator 
of South Russia. 

Sept. 16. Provisional government of KerenskI 
proclaims Bussia a republic. 

Sept. 21. Increasmg chaos in the army leads 
Aleksyeev to resign as commander in chief. 

Sept. 27. Democratic congress from the Social 
Democratic and Social Revolutionary parties 
meets at Petrograd. 

Oct. 4. Kerenski forms a coalition cabinet, 
notwithstandmg the fact that the Democratic con- 
gress, by a vote of S13 to ISO, opposed coalition. 

Oct. 10. Kerenski leaves for the front. 

Oct. IS. In the municipal elections, with uni- 
versal suffrage and secret vote, the extreme So- 
ciahsts called Bolshevik! have little success. 

Oct. 20. Government dissolves the Fourth 
Duma and announces that the Constituent As- 
sembly will be elected on November 25. 

Nov. 8. Bolshevlkl having seized the tele- 
graph, tlie state bank, and public buildmgs. over- 
throw the Kerenski government and declare 
final authority to rest in the Coimcil of Workmen's 
and Soldiers' Delegates They promise immedi- 
ate peace, distribution of the land among the 
peasants, and the convocation of a constituent 
assembly. 

Nov. 10. Nikolay Lenin is made premier 
by the Bolsheviki; Leon Trotskl minister of 
foreign affairs. 

Nob. 12. General Kaledin temporarily as- 
sumes the govemment of the Cossack Territory 
and refuses to recognize the Bolshevist »Dvem- 
ment. 

Nov. 14. Kerenski escapes from Petrograd 
in disguise. 



1917 — 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA. 



143 



1917 (conlinued). 

Nov. w. The I'kralne proclaims itself a sep 
arate state. See Ukraine, under Kissia, above. 
Nov. 27. Delegation of Bolslieviki visit tlie 
German lines to arrange for an armistice of all 
belligerents. 

Dec. J,. Commander in chief Dukhonin, who 
has opposed negotiations with Germany, is killed 
by a Bolshevist mob. Officers and troops at the 
front recognize the Ukrainian Bepublic. 

Dec. 9. Kaledin, the Cossack hetman, and 
Koniilov lead a movement against the Bolsheviki 
in southern Russia. 

Dec. 17 Representatives of the Bolsheviki 
and Central Powers sign an armistice at 
Brest-Lltovsk. 

Dec. is. Russian delegates meet tlie delegates 
of the Central Powers and their allies at Brest- 
Lltovsk and begin peace negotiations. 

Dec. Si. By order of Kryleiiko, the com- 
mander m chief, all rank is abolished In the 
army. 

Dec. 30. Bessarabia proclaims itself a separate 
state as the Moldavian Republic. 
1918. Jan. 10. Republic of the Don is pro- 
claimed, with Kaledin as jircsident. 

Jan. 19. The Bolslieviki withdraw from the 
Constituent Assembly when they find themselves 
greatly outnumbered by less radical elements. 
Lenin then dissolves it. 

Jan. 2e. A congress of the Councils (.Soviets) 
of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates (625 in 
numlDer) meets at Petrograd, and on January .30 
adopts the constitution of the Russian Soviet 
Bepublic. [lations with Roumania. | 

Jan. 2S. Bolshevist government breaks off re- 1 
Jan. 30. Revolutionary movement gains 
headway In Finland in opposition to the govern- 
ment which declared independence from Russia. 
Feb. 1. Constituent Assembly of the Tatars 
meets and proclaims the Crimean Republic. 

Feb. 3. Lenin, at the head of the Bolshevist 
government, issues a decree separating church 
and state. 

Feb. 8. Bolshevist government ofBcially pro- 
claims its repudiation of the national debt. 

Feb. 9. The Ukraine signs a peace treaty — 
the flrst of the war — with the Central Powers at 
Brest-Lltovsk. 

Feb. 11. Government, declaring that war with 
the Central Powers is ended, orders complete de- 
mobilization on all fronts 

Feb. IS. Bolshevist government adopts the 
modem (Gregorian) calendar. 

March 1. Generals Kaledin and Kornllov 
are defeated by the Bolshevist forces at Rostov 
on the Don River. 

Russian government having recognized (Jan. 91 
the independence of Finland signs a peace treaty 
with the new stat« (see Fini..\.nd) 

March 3. Peace treaty signed at Brest- 
Litovsk whereby Russia submits to all Ciemiany's 
demands; cession of Riga, Kurland, Lithuania, 
and Poland; Esthonia and Livonia to be guarded 
by Germany until their self-determination; Rus- 
sians to evacuate Finland, also Erivan, Kars, 
and Batimi; the Ukraine recognized. 

March 11. President Wilson sends a message 
to the Congress of Soviets expressing sympathy 
with the Russian people. 

March 14. Congress of Soviets, sitting at Mos- 
cow, ratifies the peace treaty with Germany by 
a vote of 4.53 to 30. 

March IS. Premiers and foreign ministers of 
the Entent* countries, meeting at London, de- 
nounce the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Lltovsk, 
calling it " a political crime against the Russian 
people." 

April 5. Japanese and British troops land at 
"Vladivostok. 

Bessarabian National Assembly proclaims the 
union of Bessarabia and Roumania. 

April 10. The Russian commissioner of com- 
merce states tliat the treaty with Germany has 
taken away 300,000 square miles of territory, 
with 56,000,000 inhabitants (a third of the coim- 
try's popiUation), and one third of her railways, 73 
per cent of her iron, and S9 per cent of her coal. 
A pril 20. Silierian Provisional Duma proclaims 
the formation of the " Government of .Autono- 
mous Siberia." 

Armenia and Georgia, refusing to recognize the 
Brest-Lltovsk treaty, resist the attempts of the 
Turks to occupy Batum. Kars, and Ardahan. 

April 21. British and French troops land on 
the Murman Coast on the northern side of Kola 
Peninsula on the .\rctic Ocean. 

April 22. Federal Republic of Transcau- 
casia is declared, composed of Georgia, Azerbai- 
jan, and Russian Armenia. It dissolves in a few 
weeks, and the three sections form separate and 
conflicting governments. (See Armenia, Azerbai- 
J AN, Georgia.) 

May 14. Germany proclaims the independ- 
ence of Lithuania and assumes that, " being al- 
lied to the German Empire," the new state will 



" participate in the war burdens of Germany " 
(see Baltic Provinces Ijelow, and Lithuania). 
Caucasia proclaims its independence. 

May S3. Treaty of peace is signed with 
Ukraine: the Russian government recognizes the 
independence of the region. 

General Semenov sets up an autonomous govern- 
ment, opposed to the Bolsheviki. in Transbaikalia. 
July I. American forces land on the Murman 
Coast. 

July 4. New provisional government for 
Siberia is estabUshed, the Czecho-Slovaks (see 
Czecho-Slovakia) assisting; the program includes 
liberation from Bolshevist rule. 

July 6. Cotmt von Mirbach, German ambassa- 
dor, is assassinated at Moscow. 

July s. Counter-revolution in Moscow sup- 
pressed by the Bolsheviki with hea-\-y loss of life. 
July to. General Horvath forms" an anti-Bol- 
shevist government at Novo-Nikolaevsk, Siberia. 
July 10. The ex-czar and family are exe- 
cuted by order of the Ural Regional Council at 
Ekaterinburg, according to later well-estabUshed 
reports. 

July 29. Lenin declares informally that a state 
of war exists between Russia and the Allies. 

Aug. 3. United States amiounces its plan to 
aid the Siberian govenmients with a small force 
and a large amoimt of material, in cooperation 
with Japan, France, and Great Britain. 

Aug. 7. Chinese and French troops land at 
Vladivostok. 

Aug. 25. Estbonia declares its independence 
(see Esthonia). ■ 

Aug. 27. Three supplementary treaties be- 
tween Soviet government and Germany include 
provisions for great indemnity by Russia. 

.4115. 30. Lenin is seriously" wounded by a 
member of the Social Revolutionary party. 

Aug. 31. Bolshevist troops sack the British 
embassy at Petrograd. 

Sept. 4. American troops, landing at Arch- 
angel, join French and British troops in a march 
soiithnard to effect a junction with the Czecho- 
slovaks and maintam control of the trans-Silierian 
railway. Jimction is not made. 

Sepl. 14. United States gives out a series of 
documents obtained in Russia which, if authentic, 
show that the Bolshevist leaders, Lenin and Trot- 
ski, were in close relations with the German gov- 
ernment and receiving large sums of money from 
it. (Sisson documents.) 

Sept. 23. Directorate of five of the All-Russian 
Government results from a coalition of the pro- 
visional government of Siberia with other poUti- 
cal bodies. 

Sept. 26. Serious conditions In eastern Russia; 
imprisonment without trial, executions, and mas- 
sacres — fruit of Bolshevist rule. 

Oct. IS. Japanese troops arrive at Irkutsk. 
November. For Polish affairs, see Poland. 
Nov. IT. British forces occupy Baku on the 
Caspian and remam until the end of 1919, during 
which the formation of the republican govern- 
ment of Azerbaijan proceeds. 

Nov. IS. Kolchak, minister of war and marine 
■imder the Siljerian directorate, succeeds to the 
power of the directorate. 

Nov. SO. Republic of Lithuania proclaimed. 
Dec. 24. Allies decide against dispatching a 
large force to aid Russian opponents of the Soviet 
government. 
1919. History of Bolshevist Russia during 1919, 
so far as known outside, is chiefly one of retreating 
and advancing armies. 

Jan. 4. Bolsheviki capture Riga. 
Jan. 1.5. Peasant uprising against Bolshevist 
rule in interior reported ; due to excessive taxation 
imposed by " Committee for Fighting Poverty." 

March-April. Bolsheviki fighting on four 
fronts: in the north they oppose Russian and Al- 
lied forces advancing from Murmansk and -Arch- 
angel ; on the Baltic and PoUsh front the Reds are 
pushed back; in Ukrame and Caucasus (Denikin's 
Cossacks) their opponents have some aid from 
French and Greek troops, and also from Roumani- 
ans in Bessarabia, yet the Bolsheviki advance and 
take Odessa early in April ; in Siberia they yield 
before Kolchak, behind whose troops in Siberia 
are some 118,000 Allied and associated forces. 

April. L'kraine government appoints a minis- 
ter of Jewish affairs. 

May-June. Converging movement of the 

forces opposing the Bolsheviki advance on aU 

fronts; Fiims and Esthonians tlireaten Petrograd. 

June 12. Supreme CoimcU at Paris partiaUy 

recognizes Kolchak, promising aid and support. 

June 1.5. Last American troopson Archangel 
front are relieved and sail for home. 

June-July. Though the Finns continue their 
advance, the Esthonians are pushed back. In the 
south, Denikin, in a sustained advance, captures 
Ivliarkov. In the east Kolchak retreats to the Si- 
berian border. On the Archangel front the Allies 
prepare to retire, leaving the anti-Soviet Russian 
government to carry on the campaign. 



July-August. Denikin continues to advance 
and Kolchak to retreat. President Wilson in- 
forms Congress on July 23 that the presence of 
American troops in Siberia (8,400) continues 
to be necessary while the Siberian railway is in 
charge of American engineers tmder J. F. Stevens. 
August-September. A new government (ITude- 
nich) is organized over the northwestern prov- 
inces Hghting against the Reds, and there and on 
the Petrograd front the Bolsheiiki continue to 
retreat, but on August 27 capture Pskov from the 
Esthonians. The Allies blockade Baltic ports; 
the United States refuses to assist in tliis, but in- 
terdicts food exports to Soviet Russia. British 
forces in the north begin to withdraw. Denikin 
continues his success; he takes Odessa on August 
18 and Kiev on September 4. Reds continue to 
drive Kolchak. Representatives of the Allies and 
United States hold a conference at Omsk, the seat 
of Kolchak 's government, on his affairs. 

September-October. Yudenich's White army 
gets to the suburbs of Petrograd on October 18, 
but then retreats. Dcnikui gets within 175 miles 
of Moscow, but the L'krainians, whose independ- 
ence he opposes, harass his rear. 

October-November. Yudenich's force col- 
lapses, and the Esthonians begm to negotiate 
witli the Soviet govcrnnient (see E.sthonia). Fac- 
tions and rear attacks hinder Denikin, while the 
Reds drive Kolchak out of Omsk. 

November-December. Red advance Continues 
on all fronts; Kharkov and Kiev are taken from 
Denikin. 
1920. January-February. Georgia and .Azerbaijan 
form a defensive league against the Bolsheviki, 
who now tlireaien thtir territory, having regained 
almost complete control over European Russia, 
mcluding Odessa, and give evidence of a world- 
wide propaganda. Their success brmgs them to 
the Indian and Chinese border, and the control of 
the Siberian railway as far as Irkutsk, early in 
March. February 7, Kolchak who liad Ijeen suc- 
ceeded in command by Semenov, is executed by 
Tebels at Irk-utsk. February 20, Bolshevild oc- 
cupy Archangel. 

Jan. IS. Supreme Council at Paris recognizes 
Georgia and .Azerbaijan as de facto governments; 
but later revelations indicate Turkish sympathy 
and intrigue, if not attempted alliance. 

Jan. 16. Supreme Coimcil of the League of 
Nations annoimces permission to trade with the 
Bussian people tlirough their cooperative socie- 
ties, without, however, modifying its attitude 
toward the Soviet government. Bolsheviki, 
while desirous of opening negotiations, refuse to 
permit trade under such conditions. 

Feb. 1. Withdrawal of American troops and 
engineers from Siberia is ordered. Last leave on 
April 1 . Also the Czecho-Slovaks and other non- 
Russian Slavs in the Siterian forces are w ithdrawn . 
March 6. Reds begin a drive on Poland, but 
are repulsed; Poles aided by UTo-ainians advance 
and capture Kiev on May 8. 

April 8. Japan, deciding not to withdraw 
her forces from Siberia, seizes Vladivostok. 

FORMER BALTIC PROVINCES OF RUSSIA. 

Historical Outline. 

The Baltic Provinces are situated on the eastern 
shore of the Baltic Sea, touching on the north the 
Gulf of Finland. The " provinces " tmder Russia 
were Esthonia, Livonia, Kurland, and St. Petersbiu-g. 
.Ancient Lithuania was incorporated into Kovno and 
Vilno, no official district retaining the name. 

The liistory of this region begins with its conquest 
diu-ing the 12th century when the Teutonic ICnights 
of the Sword attempted to Christianize the fierce 
Lettish. Fiimish, and Esthonian trites. The result 
was the tstablishmcnt of an ecclesiastical state gov- 
erned hy the Teutonic order, wliich not only Chris- 
tianized the natives but imposed German civiliza- 
tion upon them The Teutonic element, though 
never composing more than a tenth of the popula- 
tion, has succeeded in dominating the economic and 
political life of the region, and in the towns consti- 
tutes the majority of the upper class. 

In the middle of the 16th century Ivan the Terri- 
ble attempted to wrest this region from the Teutonic 
order, but was unsuccessful. In 1721, however. 
Peter the Great, after a long struggle, succeeded in 
incorporating tlie provinces in Russia. Until the 
latter half o[ the 19th century the Baltic Provinces 
enjoyed a considerable degree of home nile, but with 
the grovi'th of Pan-Slavism the Russiflcation of the 
provinces was imdertaken and an attempt was made 
to set the Lettish and Esthonian peasantry against 
the German upper clas,ses. Tliis was tairiy success- 
ful, and by 1914 the Germans had lost their political 
supremacy. As a fiuther result of the movement 
the inhabitants became conscious of a nationaUty 
distinct from that of the Russians. 

In spite of the severe climate and poor soil, the 
peasants have succeeded in producing large crops, 
especially of rye. oats, bariey, and flax. The vast 
meadow lands make stock raising an important in- 



144 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: RUSSIA — SIAM. 



N 



U 



W 



dustry. The industrial life is centered at Riga, 
Libau, and Revel, and in the last half century numer- 
ous textUe and flax-spinning mills, tanneries, brewer- 
ies, sugar reflneries, and distilleries have been estab- 
Ushed 

The World War swept backward and forward over 
much of these lands; and fighting contmued at inter- 
vals for nearly two years after the armistice of 1918. 
The provinces resisted Russian attempts to form a 
consolidated province; and could not form a federal 
imion They were aCfectcd by the Bolshevist propa- 
ganda and even fought each other. The cliief com- 
mon interest was the determination to be neither 
Russian, Polish, or German. 

The combined area of the three Russian provmces 
— Esthonla, Kurland. and Livonia — was about 
35 CHIO square miles labout the size of Indiana) and 
the population lioforc the World War was 3,000,000. 
The native population of Letts and Esthonians was 
about 2,500.000. Tlie Letts of Kurland and part of 
Livonia are peasants and town worlimen of fairly 
high mtelligcnce, and with growing economic pros- 
perity are rapidly gaining poUtical power. The 
Esthonians are mostly peasants, sailors, and fisher- 
men, more steady and energetic and prosperous than 
the Letts, but not so quick inteUectually. They are 
devout Protestants. Withm this region were settled 
about 2 10.000 German and German-speaking people 
and about 142,000 Russians. 

Chronology. 

1030. Yurev (in Livonia) is founded by Russians. 
Inhabitants of Livonia, originally Livs. a Finnish 
race, are gradually displaced by Letts from the 
south and Esths (Esthonians) from the north. 
1168. Riga is founded by German merchants, and 
a century later becomes a part of the Hanseatle 
League, refusing allegiance to the bishop or the 
Teutonic Ivnights. 
1202. German Bretloren of the Sword, located at 
Wenden (Livonia). Ijegm a long-continued 
strife with the native Slavic Wends for the control 
of the region. 
1219. Danes conquer the Esths, a Finnish race, 

and found Bevel. Revolts are incessant. 
1237. Ducliies of Kurland and SemgaUen, inliabited 
by the Letts imder the Brethren of the Sword, 
pass to the Teutonic Knights. Virtual serfdom 
tmder feudal rule. 
1250. Mendowg. a cliief of the Lithuanians (a kin- 
dred ethnic stock to the Letts), accepts Christian- 
ity and is crowned king under protection of the 
Teutonic Knights. 
1325. Alliance of Poland and Lithuanians 

against the Teutonic Knights. 
1345-1S7J. During the reign of Olgierd. the Lithu- 
anian grand duchy extends as far as the Black Sea. 
1346. Danish king sells hisconquest to the Brethren 

of the Sword. 
1386. Feb. IS. Olglerd's son Jagello is crowned 
khig of Poland as Ladislas II. Tliis personal 
union of Poland and Litbuania contmues 
(except during 1401-1447). 
1410. Bishop recovers control over Riga, but his 
fief is aboUshed in 1566. Subsequently the Esths 
and Letts become Lutherans; the Lithuanians 
remain Roman Catholic. 
1521. Noljlcs and cities of Estlionia put coimtry 

under protection of Sweden. 

1561. Nov. 2S. Bretliren of the Sword and the 

bishop of Riga place Kurland and Livonia under 

Lithuania (Poland); but Russia has occupied 

Yurev region. ILitliuania.l 

1569. July 1. Organic union of Poland and! 

1621. Livonia is conquered by Sweden. 

1721. Aug. 30. By the Peace of Nystad Esthonia 

and Livonia are ceded to Russia. 
1772-1796. Lithuania passes to Russia in the 
various partitions of Poland; but the portions of 
the grand duchy especially considered as Lithua- 
nian, i.e., Kovno. Suvalki, and Vilno are tmder Rus- 
sian administration and do not remain as a part of 
Poland, though the nobles are Polish and also the 
langu;igiMX(c|itthat of the peasants. Theclergy 
are chielly responsilile for keeping the language 
and national spirit alive. 
1795. Nobles of the duchy of Kurland place the 
coimtn.' imder Russian control. The landholdmg 
nobility of the Baltic Provinces is mostly German, 
the government is in their hands, and though serf- 
dom is abolished in 1817 the condition of the 
peasants is Init little improved thereby. The 
privileges of the provinces are gradually curtailed 
and Russiflcation promoted. 
1863. Sept. 6. A decree permits the peasants to 
purchase and hold as hereditary property the land 
on which they have worked. This creates an in- 
termediary class between the German nobles and 
the landless peasants; the landless continue to 
constitute the btilk of the inhabitants. 
1886. Pan-Slavism and Russiflcation policy is 

greatly increased. 
1896. Yurev University is closed ; final step in forc- 
mg the use of the Russian language. Both 
Baits and natives resent the Russiflcation ; the lat- 
ter are forced by it into nationahstic movements. 



1905. Revolt throughout the provinces and Lithu- 
ania. In the provinces it is a desperate sociahst 
and landless peasant uprising; suppressed and 
followed by a reaction. The landlords, favoring 
Pan-Germanism, adopt the poUcy of bringing in 
and settling peasants from Germany, there 
behig none else to support them. In Lithuania 
the revolt is mild; a national assembly pronounces 
for autonomy. Russia raises the ban on the 
native language and adopts the pohcy of playmg 
the nationalists against the Pohsh nobles. She 
tries the same method of Pan-Slavism in the prov- 
inces; in neither case successfully. 

1914-1917. For the Baltic Provinces in the World 
War, see Esthonia, L.itvia, Lithuania, Poland, 
Russia, and World War. 



SAHARA, THE. 

See under France, page 96. 

SALVADOR. 

See under Central A.merjca. page 80. 

SAMOA ISLANDS. 

See under Germanv. page 105. and under the 
United St.^tes. page 210. 



SAN MARINO. 

San Marino is an mdependent republic situated 
near the Adriatic, in the northeastern part, of Italy. It 
has existed for over a thousand years. It has a leg- 
islature, made up of the Grand CouncU of sixty 
members and of another Council of twelve members 
Two of the Grand Councilocs are appointed every 
six months to act as Regents and exercise executive 
functions. The little army consists of 950 men and 
39 officers. The State has no public debt. Agricul- 
ture is the main occupation of the people. The chief 
exports are wine, cattle, and stone. Actually San 
Marino is a dependency of the kingdom of Italy. 
The population (1919) was 11,944 and the area 38 
square miles. 

885. Monastery of San Marmo exists; traditionally 
founded bv patron saint of same name. 

1631. Papacy, on acquirmg Urbino. recognizes the 
independence of San Marino, which has been 
gradually established tlu-ough several centuries. 

1797. Bonaparte respects the mdependence. at this 
time and later. 

1815. Congress of Vienna makes no attempt to dis- 
turb San Marino, and two years later the pope 
confirms the independence anew. 

1862. March 22. Treaty with Italy; undepend- 
ence recognized and protection given. Practi- 
cally a dependency of Italy 

SANTO DOMINGO. 

See Dominican Republic, page 91. 

SCOTLAND. 

See British E.mpiee. page 50. 

SENEGAL. 

See under France, page 96. 



Bangkok by the successful general Phaya Chakkri. 
In 1856 a treaty with Great Britam was negotiated 
by Sir Jolm Bowring, by the terms of which Siam was 
opened to foreign residence. The conditions ot trade 
were made conformable to the usages of civilized 
nations. 

The recent rulers of the kingdom have shown 
breadth of view and attainments. The reign of 
Maha Mongkut extended from 1852 to 1868. In the 
latter year he was succeeded by his eldest son. Chula- 
longkom I., whose long reign was marked by a broad 
pdlicy that attracted the attention of the Western 
peoples. 

The great misfortime of the kingdom is its weak 
geographical position, as Siam is wedged between 
British and French possessions in the East and both 
Great Britam and France occasionally " rectify " the 
frontier. France took in 1907 almut 7,iKio square 
miles. Great Britam in 1908 an cqiKilly large area, 
and in 1909 an additional area ot 15,000 square miles. 
By the last treaty British jurisdiction in Siam 
proper practically ceased, thus suggesting the aban- 
donment of exterritorial rights by the other Euro- 
pean powers. 

In recent years Siam has given great attention to 
internal reform. Two successive American advisers, 
Strobel and Westengard, received almost absolute 
power to estabhsh a proper financial system and 
to adjust difficulties with European powers. The 
government has lieen unified and trade expanded. 
A progressive railway policy has attracted to Siam 
European trade and capital. 



Organization. 



Government. The executive power is exercised 
by a king advised by a cabmet. The Legislative 
Coimcil consists ot the ministers of .the state and oth- 
ers, not less than twelve In number, appointed by the 
crown. The present number of the council is forty. 
It meets at least once a week and may promulgate 
laws without the royal assent incase of any temporary 
disabiUty of the crown. 

Religion and Education. The prevailing reli- 
gion is Buddhism. Very little mfluence upon the 
popular faith has been exerted by foreign intercourse 
and there are nearly 7.000 Buddhist temples with a 
total of 170.000 priests. In each province there is a 
commissioner of education and the government pri- 
mary schools in 1917. numbered 329. with more than 
25,000 pupils. There were more than 3,100 non- 
government primary schools, 1 16 government sec- 
ondary schools and six special governmental schools. 
Production, Industry, and Commerce. Forced 
labor is still demanded from the rural population, but 
this service is decreasing and Chinese coolies do the 
chief part ot both the skilled and imskilled labor. 
Waste tracts of land are bemg developed by irriga- 
tion. Tlie chief product of the coimtry is rice, which 
forms the national food and is the most important 
article of export. Other products are liides. cattle, 
cotton, and tmits. 

Defense. Universal UabiUty for mihtary service 
is now in force in all the provinces. The peace 
strength ot the army is 20,000 men. There is a navy 
of 21 vessels ot small size, but they have no flghtmg 
value. 

The area ot Siam is about 195.000 square miles 
and the population (1916) S.S19.6S6. ' 



SERBIA. 



See under Jcgo-Slavia. page 121. 



Chronology. 



SIAM. 
Historical Outline. 

The kingdom ot Siam is ancient, having a history 
reaching back to the early years ot the Christian Era. 
The city of Lampim is reputed to have been foimded 
in 575 A. d. Before this time, Siam is said to have 
been under the dominion of Cambodia. There are 
inscriptions antedating the close ot the thirteenth 
century, in which the boundaries of the country are 
declared. When the Portuguese and other Euro- 
peans reached southern Asia, the court ot Siam at- 
tracted them. 

During the eighteenth century, warfare was made 
upon the so-called Laos States on the north and 
northeast, and Siamese supremacy was established 
m these coimtries. The great cities of Luang Pra- 
bang and Wieng Chan were transferred to Siam m 
1828. Meanwhile, trade intercourse had sprung up 
between the kingdom and several of the Western 
nations. Commercial relations were begun with 
France as early as the close of the sixteenth century. 
About the same time, similar relations were estab- 
lished by the Japanese. The Dutch traders visited 
Siam, and m 1752 trade was opened with the Dutch 
factories in Ceylon. 

The present dynasty ot Siamese rulers was estab- 
I lished in 1782, when the capital was transferred to 



1350. Siamese have gained ascendancy over the 
whole country; beginning of national history. 

1611. First contact with western European 
traders, the Portuguese. Dutch and English 
East India companies follow in seventeenth cen- 
tury; but English factory discontmued in 1688. 

1782." Present dynasty is estabhshed by Phaya 

1826. Jti'ie 26. Anglo-Siamese treaty ot friend- 
ship and commerce; beginning of direct European 
contact. Similartreatieswith otlierpowers toUow. 

1855. April iS. Anglo-Siamese treaty provides 
for a consul at Bangkok, exterritorial rights, 
and other limitations on Siam's siizeramty. 
Similar treaties follow with other powers. 

1867. July IS. Siam recognizes French protector- 
ate over Cambodia. 

1868. Feb. S. Settlement ot the Burmese bound- 
an- line with Great Britain. 

Oct. I. Chulalongkorn becomes king. He 
adopts Western ideas and improves conditions in 
spite of foreign aggressions. Foreign (especiaUy 
American) advisers assist liim. 

1893. Contest with French Indo-Chlna over 
boundary on upper Mekong River. French block- 
ade Bangkok; Siam. October 3. yields to enlarged 
French demands, ceduig aU territory east ot the 
Mekong, with special privileges west of the river, 
and occupation ot Chantabon. 

1896. Jan. 16. Anglo-French agreement on 
Siam; neither nation to occupy, or permit any 
other power to occupy, the central portion of Siam, 
but the regions east and west of the Menam valley 
are within their spheres of Influence; advanta- 
geous to France, but also increases Siamese sta- 
biUty. 



Development of the World's Navy from the Earliest 

Phoenician Time. 



1. Chinese Junk. Propelletl by oars and by sails made from reeds matted 

together. Rudder so arranged as to be lifted out of the water when 
desired; decorations; flags, etc. 

2. Egyptian Boat. Reconstructed from a Bas-Relief on the walls of the 

Terrace Temple of Der-cl-bah'ari (West of Thebes) representing a fleet 
which was sent out by the Egyptian Queen, ]Makara-Ha-t-shop (17th cen- 
tury B. C). Sails colored, and decorated with cither religious or other 
emblems. Design and color of the sails copied from the tomb of Ramses 
III., at Thebes. F. Stcinitz, The Ship. Bench of rowers protected from 
enemy by broad gunwale. Boat steered by two steering oars, one on 
each side at the stern; Military mast, etc. Sir J. (i. Wilkinson. 

3. Phoenician Bireme. Reconstructed from a few remaming coins, ami 

from a relief in the Palace of Kuyunjik, built by King Sennacherib. Lay- 
ard, Monuments of Nineveh. 

4. Greek Galley. Battle of Salamis. Reconstructed from a Bas-Relief 

found near the Erechtheum, and a Bronze Votive Boat found at the 
same place. Stern, Icnnographic Encyclopcedici. 

5. Roman Trireme. Punic War. Reconstructed after a drawing by 

Lemaitre, and from relief found at Porto near the mouth of the Tiber. 
The special type shown here, known as "Navis turrita" (Winckelmann), 
carried attached to the yardarm of the military mast a heavy weight 
(dolphin) worked by rope and pulley, which by its sudden descent upon 
the deck of the enemy caused havoc there, the force of the fall often 
being sufficient to drive the weight through the ship and sink it. Board- 
ing bridges were also carried by these boats to enable the military force 
to get rapidly upon an enemy's deck when held to the ship's side b\' 
grappling hooks. Sails decorated with the Roman She-Wolf. The posi- 
tion of the Trireme in this picture was especiallj' cho.sen with a view of 
showmg the arrangement, of the three benches of oars, to which the galley 
slaves were chained. 

Conclu'Icd three paces in advaneo 




For description see previous page 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S NAV 




IFROM THE EARLIEST PHCENICIAN TIME. 



Copyright by G. & C. Merriam Co. 

Registered at Stationers* Hall. London. England. 



6. Drakar, or Norse Dragon. Reconstructed from: (a) the rock-cut pic- 

tures at Kyrkoryk and Bohuslan, and (6) the fragments of a vessel of the 
Viking period, taken from a tumulus near Fredrikstad, Norway; (c) 
the 30 oared boat found in the turf of Nydam, Slesvvick, and preserved 
in the Museum at Kiel; (d) the Gokstad, Norway, boat; (e) the Viking 
ship at Sandefiord, with (/) the Bayeux tapestry carefully considered. 
These Viking boats carried as many as sixty pairs of oars, had a length 
of 300 feet, a breadth of 32 feet and a depth of 10 feet. 

7. Venetian Galleass. With 26 oars. After Dorr's engraving in DiUich's 

" Kriegsschule," 16th century. Sail decorated with the winged Lion of 
St. Mark. Guns carried in the bow of the boat. 

8. French Man-of-War. Beginning of 14th century. Reconstructed 

from the model of the so-called "Nef." (A large table ornament for 
holding all manner of table utensils.) See Viollet-le-Duc " Mobilier fnnt- 
gais," and the MSS. " Statuis de Vordre du Saint-Esprit au droit desir, 1352.'' 
Sails decorated with the fleur-de-lis and the Cross of the Crusaders. Bow 
and stern of boat carry strongly fortified towers. First appearance of 
stern rudder in European seas. 

9. English Three-Master "Great Harry." One thousand tons, 122 

guns, built at Woolwich 1514, burned 1553, — after a painting in Wind- 
sor Castle. 

10. Ship of the Spanish Armada. Sails decorated with all manner of 

emblems. Saints, and Coats of Arms. Jdhns " Handbuch der Geschichte 
des Kriegswesens." 

11. Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson's "Victory" forcing her way through 

the French Men-of-War. 

12. Fight between the "Constitution" and the "Guerriere." 

13. "Monitor" and "Merrimac" in Hampton Roads. 

14. The U. S. Battleship "New Mexico." 

15. The Spanish Protected Cruiser "Vizcaya." 

16. U. S. Seagoing Monitor "Puritan." 

17. The Spanish Torpedo Boat "Pluton." 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SIAM — SPAIN. 



145 



1904. Dec. 9. Territory west of the upper Mekong 
and north of Cambodia is ceded to France. 

1907. MaTck 23. Territory north of Cambodia is 
ceded to France, some territory restored; exterri- 
torial rights modified. 

1909. July 9. AngIo-Siamesetreaty;8(amcedes 
suzerain rights over the four nonfederated 
Malay states; Great Britain renounces exter- 
ritoriality and other restrictions. 

1910. Ort. 'JS. Chiilalonglvom dies; succeeded by 
his son Maha Vajiravudh (Rama VI). educated 
in England and widely traveled. 

1913. March 14. Revolt against Rama's reforms 
is put down. Conscription for army and police 
is enforced. 

1917. July 22. Siam declares war on Germany 
under pressure from France and Great Britain; Ger- 
man refugees checked and German shipping seized. 

1919. January- June. Siam represented at the 
Peace Conference. 

June 2S. By Treaty of Versailles Germany 
recognizes that all her treaties and agreements 
with Siam. including exterritoriaUty are null from 
July 22, 1917. and waives claims for seized ships 
or other property. 



SIBERIA. 

See under Ri ssi.t, page 139. 



SIERRA LEONE, 

See under British Empire, page 67, 



SLAVONIA. 

SeeCroatia anrf S/aromci.uncler Jugo-Slavia, page 122. 



SMYRNA. 

See under Greece, page 111. 



SOCIETY ISLANDS. 

See under France, page 97. 



SOMALILAND. 



See British Somaliland, under British Empire, 
page 66; French Somali Coast, under France, page 
96; Italian Somaliland. under Italy, page 115. 



SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF. 

See under British Emtire, page G6. 



SOUTHWEST AFRICA, GERMAN. 

See under Germany, page 105. 



SPAIN. 
Historical Outline. 

The history of Spain falls naturally into four peri- 
ods. In ttie first, Spain was a frontier of Roman 
culture. In the second, Spain stood as the baiTior 
which defended Christendom against the assaults of 
the Moors, who were the advance wave of the Mos- 
lem power. The Moors at one time succeeded in 
conquering the cities of Spain, but the native popu- 
lation never surrendered and ultimately drove the 
Moors from the peninsula. \Mien Spain emerged 
from the conflict and became a united kingdom with 
the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of 
Castile in 1479, the Spanish character reflected the 
military characteristics of the age-long struggle. In 
religion the conflict made Spain the most Catholic of 
all European nations. 

The third period of Spanish history falls in the age 
of discovery and expansion. Here Spain, as a com- 
mercial and seafaring nation, played a leading part. 
She established the Spanish American Empire, which 
continued for over four lumdred years. Like Rome, 
Spain impre^ssed upon Iter conquests her culture, her 
language, her religion, and her political institutions 
and did more than any other European nation lo 
Christianize and civilize the natives. 

The wealth Spain derived from the gold and silver 
of the New World gave her the position for a time of 
the leading power in Europe. True to her tradition 
Spain remained passionately attached to the Catholic 
religion and Protestantism gained no foothold, (.in 
the contrary, Catholicism increased in fervor. The 
Inquisition had its stronghold there and such types 
as Loyola and Saint Tlieresa were there developed. 
At the battle of Lepanto (1571) the Spanish ships 
were the strength of tlie fleet which saved Europe 
from the Turks. But the same naval skill was in 
vain when she attempted to crush the heretics in the 
Netherlands and ia England. 

In 1516 Charles I. of Spain united in himself the 
Spanish kingdom, the archduchy of Austria, the 
duchy of Burgundy, and the kingdom of Naples and 
Sicily, and in 1519 he became Emperor of the Holy 
Roman Empire as Charles V. For nearly forty 



years he dominated the affairs of Europe and con- 
tended with his great rival. Francis I. of France. 
On his abdication in 1556 the imperial dignity 
went to the house of Hapsburg and the Spanish pos- 
sessions were ruled by his son, Philip II. of Spain. 

The fourth period of Spanish history begins with 
the unsuccessful wars with England at the end of tlie 
1 6th century, and with the decline of sea power. In 
tlie three generations following Charles V.. Spain 
steadily declined — partly from the stern exclusion 
of the skiUed Jews and Moors, chiefly from the bad 
economic system which was due to the influx of the 
specie of the New World. 

In 1700 Charles II. died and a long controversy 
arose over the succession. Philip of Anjou. grand- 
son of Ix)uis XIV. of France, had married the elder 
sister of Charles II. of Spata, and was backed by 
France. Ferdmand, the grandson of Leopold I. 
the Emperor, had married a younger sister of Charles 
II., and was supported by Austria. More important, 
however, than the legal claims of the aspirants was 
tlie question of the balance of power in Europe. 
England and Holland, the leadmg naval powers, re- 
solved that the strength of the Spanish monarchy 
should be imited with neither the power of France 
nor the power of Austria. Notwithstandmg the acts 
of disavowal made by Philip IV. and Charles II., 
by his will Charles left the crown of Spain to Phihp 
of Anjou. 

Louis XIV., electmg to follow the will rather than 
to be bound by the treaty he bad just signed, pro- 
claimed his grandson, Duke of Anjou, as Phihp V. of 
Spain and was resolved to seat him in a position 
which would have made Spain a dependency of 
France. This produced the Grand Alliance of Eng- 
land, the Netherlands, and the Emperor, and in- 
volved Europe in twelve years of war. From August, 
1704, to September, 1709. the aUies won the battles 
of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. 

In 1711, Archduke Charles became Emperor and 
thus ceased to urge his Spanish claims. Philip of 
Anjou was at last accepted as kmg of Spam in 17ia 
by the Treaty of Utrecht; but his country was m no 
condition to give aid to France. The recognition of 
Philip V. was balanced by the Spanish loss of Naples, 
Sardinia, Parma, Milan, and the remainder of the 
Spanish Netherlands. Sicily received Savoy and 
England gained Minorca and the title to Gibraltar. 

The reign of Phihp V was marked by a serious loss 
of the constitutional rights of the people in Spain. 
\Vliat was left of the old liberty that Aragon, Valen- 
cia, and Catalonia formerly enjoyed was now ignored. 
Meanwhile the ambitious queen. EUzabeth Famese, 
and her conspirmg mmister, Cardinal Alberoni, 
usurped the authority of the state. The political 
decay of Spain became apparent. After Philip's 
death in 1746 the crown passed to his son, Ferdi- 
nand VI., and then Charles III. held the throne. 
Naples was already in the power of Charles, who 
brought that dominion with him back to Spain. 

In 1761 Charles III , acting for Spain, entered into 
the Family Compact made by the Bourbon princes 
of Eiu-ope. He thus involved Spain as an aUy of 
France hi the Seven Years' War, terminated by the 
Treaty of Paris in 1763. As a result of this conflict 
France was driven from Canada and ceded to Spain 
the vast region west of the Mississippi known as 
Louisiana, but Spain lost the Floridas. Charles III. 
was supported by capable statesmen; commerce, 
agriculture, and the arts showed symptoms of re- 
vival, and there was a considerable mcrease in the 
population of the kingdom; yet tiiere was little sub- 
stantial and permanent gain. One of the notable 
events of the reign was tlie expulsion of the Jesuits 
from the Spanish dominions, in 1767. 

Charles IV. became king in 178S. He fell under 
the influence of his minister, Manuel de Godoy, duke 
of Alcudia, the astute " Prince of the Peace." At 
the outbreak of the French Revolution Godoy at first 
opposed the revolutionary government of France; 
but in 1706 he maj&o a league and entered into the 
Treaty of San Ildefonso. Hence Spanish fleets 
johied the French agauist the English . The fortimes 
of Spain swayed back and forth as those of France 
rose or fell, imtil Spanish independence was for a 
time extinguished. 

Napoleon formed an ambitious plan of restoring 
a colonial empire to France, and proceeded to con- 
quer Spain, expecting thus to acquire Spanish 
America. Hence at a conference at Bayonne in 
1.S0S. the French emperor forced Ferdinand VII. and 
the infantes, Don Carlos and Don Antonio, to resign 
their claims to the Spanish throne. A junta of 150 
subservient members offered the crown to Joseph 
Bonaparte, whom Napoleon entitled " King of Spain 
and India." The Spaniards as a nation never ac- 
cepted this arrangement. An anti-French party 
appeared m the kingdom, and was supported by Eng- 
lish forces under Moore and Wellington. England 
and her European allies henceforth strove to restore 
the Bourbon house, and early recognized the prince 
of Asturias as king (Ferdinand VII ). The Spanish 
colonies refused to accept French rule, and in 1803 
Napoleon's cession of Louisiana showed that he had 
given up his American plans. 

During this period the best patriotism of the peo- 



ple ralUed around their native prince as representing, 
at least, their national riglits as against the usurpa- 
tion of France. The Spaniards gave more or less 
effective support to Wehington, m Ills long, and at 
last successful, struggle with Napoleon's marshals in 
the Peninsular campaign. 

In 1814, when the French emperor was hard 
pressed, he agreed to recognize Ferdinand, on condi- 
tion that he would take an oath to support the re- 
formed constitution of 1812. This promise was not 
fulfilled and after Waterloo there was none to en- 
force it. Ferdinand was restored and became as 
arbitrary as he pleased. His reign, moreover, was 
marked by the revolt of the Spanish colonists m 
America and in 1821 the last Spanish colony on the 
mainland of America was lost. In 1819 Spain 
signed a treaty with the United States, by which the 
Floridas, temporarily recovered by Spain, were for- 
mally surrendered, 

Ferdinand VII. died in 1833 and was succeeded 
by his daughter. Infanta Isabella, with the queen 
mother as regent. Durhig the next seven years 
Spain was torn by revolts mtended to place DonCar- 
los, the brother of Ferdinand VII.. on the throne. 
In 1840, owing to a new revolution, Maria Christina, 
the queen mother, withdrew from Spam; General 
Espartero assumed control and in 1841 was ap- 
I»mted regent. Isal»lla II. was declared of age in 
1843. During her reign even the court of Spain was 
shocked by the scandals of the queen's private life. 
Revolutions broke out and in 1868 Isabella fled from 
Spam; in 1870 she formally abdicated the throne m 
favor of her son, Alfonso. From the departure of 
Isabella imtil 1874 Spain was m a state of msurrec- 
tion and also of civil war. The crown was offered 
to Amadeus. the son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, 
and for three years he attempted to exercise some 
authority, but abdicated m 1872. 

For two years Spain was a republic, and presidents 
followed each other in rapid succession. At length 
Isabella's son was proclaimed kmg under the title of 
.\lfonso XII. and some sort of order was established. 
During this period the island of Cuba had been in re- 
volt for ten years, but ui 1878 Spanish authority was 
once more established and in 1880 a measure was 
passed abolishing slavery there. 

Alfonso XII died November 25, 1885, and his 
wife, Maria Christina, l:iecame the regent for their 
son, who was bom May 17, 1886, and was given the 
title of Alfonso XIII. During the early years of his 
reign Spain lost the remains of her over-sea empire. 
In 1895 a revolution convulsed Cuba which the 
Spanish authorities foimd impossible to suppress, 
and in 1S96 insurrections broke out in the Philippine 
Islands, In both Cuba and the Philippines the 
Spanish authorities showed great cruelty in dealing 
with the revolutionists and were not always careful 
to distinguish American citizens from natives. 

The Ignited States remonstrated with Spain and a 
party in the United States demanded tlie recognition 
of Cuban uidependence. In 1898, because of the 
failure of the Spanish administratioti in Cuba, the 
United States demanded the immediate withdrawal 
of Spain from the island . War was declared. Ameri- 
can squadrons defeated one Spanish fleet in the Bay 
of Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands, and 
another at Santiago, Cuba. On July 14, Santiago 
surrendered, and on August 12 the war was ended. 

By the Treaty of Paris in the following December, 
Spain ceded Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam 
to the United States and withdrew her authority 
from Cuba. Cuba became nominally an mdepend- 
ent republic, but actually a protectorate of the 
United States. In the following year, Spain sold to 
Germany the Caroline, Pelew, and Mariana or La- 
drone Islands (excepting Guam) for ,S4,00O,000, and 
thus, after an experience of four centuries ceased to 
possess American or Oriental colonies. 

In 1902, Alfonso XIIL was enthroned and four 
years later married Princess Victoria of Battenlierg, 
"the granddaughter of Queen Victoria of England, 
Throughout his reign there have been frequent mani- 
festations of anarchy and he has twice narrowly es- 
caped assassination. The industrial condition of 
Spain has not been good and fre<iuent general strikes 
have led to the proclamation of martial law. Politi- 
cal historj' has been confused, ministry succeeding 
ministry with startling rapidity. Nevertheless the 
king has on the whole governed wisely and has shown 
that he has the interests of his people at heart. The 
agricultiu-al and industrial development have been 
greatly encouraged hi the kingdom. 

During the World War, Spain maintained a posi- 
tion of neutrality. Accusations were made that im- 
proper pro-German influence was determining the 
policy of the coimtry ; but the great object of the gov- 
ernment was to strengthen the internal condition of 
Spain and avoid at any cost being involved in the 
war. In this Spain was successful. As a neutral 
producing food and raw materials, Spain was en- 
riched by the war 

Organization. 

Government. Spain is a hereditary monarchy 
with a written constitution dating from 1876. The 
instrument defines the government as a constitu- 



146 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SPAIN. 



1648-1746. 



tional monarchy: the executive authority is vested 
M in the king exclusively, and the l^islative authority 

in the Cort«s and the king. 

The Cortes is a double body consisting of a Senate 
and Congress; the two houses are of equal authority. 
There are three classes of senators, the first two to- 
gether not to exceed ISO: senators by their ovn\ right: 
senators of life tenure (nominated by the crown ) ; and 
180 senators elected by corporations of the stale. 

OThe Congress or popular body is an elective as- 
sembly having one member apportioned to every 
fifty thousand of the inliabitauts. The electors 
must be twenty-five years of age. having full civil 
rights and antecedent citizenship of some municipal- 
ity for a period of two years. By the law of August 
8. 1907. voting is compulsorj^ for all males over the 
age of 25. Ten members of Congress may be chosen 
as representatives at large, provided each shall have 
P received a cumulative vote of ten thousand. There 

are in all 417 deputies, of whom 98 may be chosen in 
28 of the large districts on the principle of minority 
representation. 

The executive includes imder the monarch a coun- 
cil of nine ministers, as follows: President of the 
Council; Mijiistor of Foreign Affairs; of Justice: Fi- 
nance; Interior; War; Marine; Public Works; PubUc 
Q Instruction. 

Industry and Labor. From the beginning of the 
17th century until the end of the 19th century the 
industries as well as the pohtical uifluence of Spain 
were declining. The centuries of warfare with the 
Moors and the opportimities for wealth in the Span- 
ish colonial possessions brought about a distaste for 
labor among the upper classes. Though Spain is 
-^ naturally one of the most fertile countries of Europe. 

R nearly nine tenths of the land being productive, agri- 

culture is carried on by improgressive methods. 
Commercial and manufactiu'ing interests also de- 
clined and Spain was less affected than almost any 
other country of Europe by the manufacturing and 
industrial c'langes of the 19th century. 

One of the drawbacks to agricultural development 
lias bt'en the favor shown to the mesta or imion of 
O pnipriftors of the sheep ranches. Fine wool. l>eing 

^ the leading product of Spain since the Middle Ages, 

attracted the patronage of the government to the 
discouragement of agriculture. The silk interest 
ranked next to that of wool. This industr>- has been 
greatly improved and the excellence of both fiber 
and fabric is recognized throughout the world. 
Spain has large manufactories of cotton goods, prin- 
^ cipally in Catalonia, where in 1910 there were 2,600,- 

I 000 spindles. There are also large woolen manu- 

factories with nearly 9.000 looms. 

In recent years more attention has been paid to 
the development of the resources and indiistries of 
Spain. The production of wheat has. under the 
stimulus of the war, greatly increased. After wheat 
rank barley, com, and rye. The vineyard industry 
is extremely important and produced more than 
11 54(),(X)0,000 gallons of ordinary wines in 1919. 

More than :i. 800, 000 acres of land are devoted to the 
cultivation of olives which produce about 1,400,000 
tons of olives and over 255,000 tons of oil. Spain is 
very rich in minerals and in 1918 the more important 
productions were iron, copper, coal, lead, lignite, 
and zinc. 

Beligion. The Roman Cathohc Church if the 

V national church of Spain and practically the entire 

population are Catholics, with the exception of about 
30.000, including 7,000 Protestants and 4.000 Jews. 
The clergy and buildings are supported by the state 
and large sums are annually appropriated which the 
reformers are attempting to reduce. There are 3.800 
religious houses in Spain and the total number of 
monks is over 9.000. while there are over 38,000 
nims- There are 66 Spanish cathedrals, more than 
YV 1^0,000 parish chiu-ches. and 35.000 priests. 

Education. Spain at an early date was one of 
the foremost states in the matter of education. Her 
universities, in particular that of Salamanca, were 
famous. Under the Moors. Spain was the leading 
educational center of Europe. The spirit of Moor- 
ish art and learning was somewhat transfused into 
the Christian states. After the close of the Middle 

XAges, however, this educational preeminence was 
lost. Medieval methods were long continued in 
Spain until by the middle of the 19th century- Spain 
ranked in illiteracy as one of the most backward 
states in Europe. 

In 1H57 an elaborate system of primary education 
was established. Education was made compulsory 
and r. primarj* school was planned for ever>- five him- 
dred inhabitants, while instruction was to be on a 
Y rigidly uniform plan. This system, however, was 

not carefully enforced, although various improve- 
ments have been made. The country- is divided into 
11 educational districts with the imiversities as cen- 
ters. Since 1902 public and primary- schools have 
been supported by the government and most of the 
school children are educated without cost. There 
are 26.000 public schools and 5.000 private schools, 
^ with over 2.600.000 pupils. Secondary- education 

^^ is entrusted to " institutions." of which there must 

be at least one in ever>' province. Therti are 11 uni- 
versities attended by 23,586 students. The govern- 



ment also supports various special schools. Since 
1902 the government has sent scholars, teachers, and 
professors to study in foreign countries. In 1910 
there was establislit-d a Board of Scientific Research 
which oversi-cs ttiu work done abroad and the organi- 
zation of m-w !al>oratories in Spain. 

Defense. Military' service in Spain is compul- 
sory. The total length of service is 18 years, divided 
as follows: one year the recruits are kept at the miU- 
tary depot; three years in the active army (first 
standing); five years in the active army (second 
standing): six years in the reserve; three years in 
the territorial reserve. The peace establishment for 
1920 was 216,000 men and the total strengtii of the 
field army would be alx)Ut 300,000. The reserve 
troops amount to about 90,000. In addition the 
military police and constabulary amount to about 
30.000. The Spanisli navy consists of three dread- 
noughts built between 1912 and 1914. one old pre- 
dreadnought and seven cruisers, the most recent of 
wlaich was built in 1916. In 1915 a new program for 
six years was adojjted which provided for 4 cruisers. 
6 destroyers, 2S submarines, and 3 gunboats. 

Area and Population. The continental area of 
Spain is 190,050 sciuare miles, but tncludiuL' ttie Bale- 
aric and Canarj' Islands and the Spanish i><i>.s*ssii>ns 
(Ceuta. Melilla. etc.) on the African coast opposite 
Gibraltar, the total area is 194,783 square miles. 
The population of Spain is increasing very slowly. 
The total in 1910 was 19,950,817; estimated in 1918 
at 20.719,598. 

SPANISH COLONIES. 

Little remains to Spain of her former colonial em- 
pire except the Canary Islands and territoo' in Africa, 
wliichamoimt to about 128,000 square miles and have 
an estimated population of about 844.000. 

CANARY ISLANDS. 

The Can.\rie3 consist of seven larger and seven 
smaller islands. The principal are Teneriffe, Palma. 
Fuerteventura, and Ferro or Hierro. Their total 
area is about 2,800 square miles and it was estimated 
that in 1918 they supported 513.959 mhabitants. 
They are mountainous, of volcanic origin, and their 
coasts rocky and precipitous. They are supposed to 
be the Fortunatae Jnsulne of the Romans. Unvisited 
by Eiu-opeans until near the end of the Middle Ages, 
most of them were subdued by the Norman. Jean de 
Bethencourt, a navigator and adventurer, early in 
the fifteenth centurj-. The kingdom of Castile ac- 
quired them from his successor. Many geographers 
formerly reckoned longitude from Ferro as from the 
original meridian, dividing east from west. 

POSSESSIONS IN AFRICA. 

Spanish Morocco comprises a zone in the north 
of Morocco extending for about 200 mUes from the 
Algerian border to the Atlantic, with an average 
breadth of 60 miles. The rights of Spain to this re- 
gion were aclcnowledged in the Franco-Spanish 
treaty of 1912. The zone is administered by a Span- 
ish High Commissioner. Spanish Morocco uicludes 
the region known as Er Rif, but by the treaty of 1912 
Tangier and surrounding territor>' of about 140 
square miles was declared international. The area 
of Spanish Morocco is about 7,700 square miles and 
the population is estimated at 600.000. 

Ifni is a region of about 965 square miles and 20,- 
000 population in the southwestern comer of Mo- 
rocco on the Atlantic and was ceded to Spain in 1860. 

Rio de Oro and Adrar is the name given to an 
area of more than 109,000 square miles at the west- 
em end of the Sahara on the Atlantic Ocean opposite 
the Canar>' Islands. The population is urLknow^l 
but the region is tliinly settled. 

Spanish Guinea is a r^on of 9,470 square miles 
on the west Coast of Africa between Kamenm and 
French Congo. It includes also the island of Fer- 
nando Po in the Bight of Biafra. and several other 
smaller islands. Lying almost on the equator, the 
vegetation is luxuriant and there are vast forests; but 
the low. marshy coast and the entire lack of harbors 
have prevented the development of conunerce. The 
population, including the islands, is about 224,000. 

Chronology. 

For earlier events, see Medieval Period, Chronology, 
and Early Modern Period, Chronology. 

1648. Peace of Westphalia (Mimster) ends 
Thirty Years' War. Spain recognizes independ- 
ence of Holland, 

1659. Nor. 7. Treaty of the Pyrenees between 
Spain and France; Spain yields territor>- — Artois, 
Roussillon. Cerdana (Cerdagne). and the Spanish 
fortresses in the Netherlands. Pyrenees are fixed 
as the boundary l>etween the two kingdoms. 

1665. Sevt. 17. Philip IV. dies; his son, Charles 
II., succeeds. 

1667. Mail. French invade Spanish Netherlands. 
War of Revolution. 

1668. Man 2. Peace of Alx-la-Chapelle. 
1672. Spain joins Austria in a coalition against 

France. 
1675. Charles IT. assumes the government and 
takes as chief ad^^ser his half brother, Don John. 



1679. By the Treaty of Nimnegen fNijmegen) 
Spain surrenders Franche-Comte and her for- 
tresses in Flanders, Charles II. marries Maria 
Louisa, niece of Louis XIV. (See Early Modern 
Period.) 

1698. Oct. 11. European powers make a treaty of 
partition concerning Spain, to take effect on the 
death of Charles II. With him the Spanish line of 
the Hapsburg family ends. Three claimants are 
m the field: (1) Louis XIV, of France, as son of the 
elder daughter of Philip IV., although the inher- 
itance has been renounced. (2) Leopold I. of 
Austria, as son of tlie younger daughter of Philip 

III. and husband of the younger daughter of Philip 

IV. (3) Electoral prince of Bavaria, as great- 
grandson of Philip VI. and grandson of the 
yoimger sister of Charles II. 

1699. Charles II. of Spain, not having been con- 
sulted m the treaty of partition made by the pow- 
ers, makes the electoral prince of Bavaria his sole 
heir, but the prince dies, February 6. 

1700. March 13. Second treaty of partition by 
the other powers. November 1. Charles II. dies. 
aft«r making Philip of Anjou, the grandson of 
Louis of France, his heir; soon afterward Philip 
proclaimed as Philip V. 

1701. Sept. 7. Grand Alliance formed by the 
naval powers and the Emperor in order to secure 
the Spanish Netherlands and the territories in 
Italy. France forms an alliance with the elector 
of Bavaria. Prussia supports the Emperor. 
Troops of the alliance are led by Prince Eugene 
of Savoy, chief of the imperial army, and by the 
English Duke of Marlborough. The war is 
fought almost entirely outside of Spain, — in 
Italy. Germany, and the Netherlands. In Spain, 
the Duke of Anjou is recognized as king. Prmce 
Eugene invades Italy with an imperial force. 
Italian campaign indecisive. In the four years 
following the French have the advantage. 

1703. Prince Eugene moves on Germany: Marl- 
borough invades the Spanish Netherlands. 
The Archtluke Charles of Austria enters Cata- 
lonia. Imperialists are routed by the French j>nd 
Bavarians at Hochstiidt, September 30. 

1704. English capture Gibraltar. At battle of 
Blenheim, August 13, French and Bavarians t.re 
overwhelmed by Maiibort>ugh and Prince Eugene. 

1706. May JS. Marlborough defeats the French 
at Banilllies. Prince Eugene with the Prussiu.s 
routs the French at Turin, September 7, Lon - 
bardy submits and Charles is proclaimed kmg of 
Spain as Charles III., at Milan, and the French 
are expelled from Italy. (See France.) 

1707. April S5. Battle of Almansa. Archduke 
Charles ("Charles III,") loses Spain. 

1708. July 11. Allies again defeat the French at 
Oudenarde. [French at Malplaquet.j 

1709. Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough) defeat | 
1711. Emperor of Austria, Joseph I., dies, and tl e 

Archduke Charles succeeds him. whereupon the 
powers change their support from Charles to 
Philip of Anjou. the candidate of Louis XIV. 

1713. April 11. Peace of I'trecht; Philip V.. 
foimder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons, 
recognized as king of Spain. 

1714. Spanish force with French allies capti;rcs 
Barcelona: the city loses its liberties. Philip V. 
espouses Elizabeth Famese. 

1717, Alberonl, minister of Philip V., causes in- 
vasion of Sarduiia and (171S) of Sicily. As a re- 
sult Great Britain. France, Austria, and Holland 
form a quadruple alliance against Spain. 

1719. French army moves against Spain, and Philip 
dismisses All)eroni. 

1724. Philip V. abdicates the throne of Spain in 
favor of liis son Luis, but on the death of the latter 
he resumes the sovereignty. 

1735. Spain enters into an alliance with Austria, 
and a counter alllanre is formed by France, 
Great Britain, Prussia, and (1726) Bussia. 

1729. Nov. 9. Treaty of peace witli France and 
Great Britain at Seville. Gibraltar ceded to 
Great Britain. 

1731; Charles, son of Philip V. and Elizal3eth Far- 
nese. on the ending of the male line of the Famese 
family, receives Parma and Piacenza. 

1733. First Family Compact signed with France. 

1734. Spanish seize Naples. [Sicilies. I 

1735. July. Charles crowned king of the Two| 

1738. Nov. 18. Austria and France form a defin- 
itive treaty at Vienna, and a year later Spain ac- 
cedes to the conditions of this peace. 

1739. War declared by Great Britain; Porto 
Bello (America) captured by Vernon. 

1740. Spain claims a part of the territories of Aus- 
tria on the death of Charles VI and becomes in- 
volved in the War of the Austrian Succession 
(see Germ-iny. Austria, and France). 

1741. Spain joins France in support of the claims 
of the Elector Charles All>ert and in May con- 
cludes an alliance at Nymphehburg. 

1744. Spaniards with the FYench defeat the Sar- 
dinians near Cimeo (see France and Italy) 

174fi. July n. Philip V. dies; succeeded by his 
son, Ferdinand VI. 



1748-1914. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SPAIN. 



147 



1748. Oct. IS. By the Peace of Alx-la-Chapelle. 

which ends the War of the Austrian Succetision, 
Austria cedes Parma and Piacenza (seized in 
1746) to Pliihp, the brother of Ferdinand VI. 
1759. Ferdinand VI. succeeded by his brother, 
Charles 111., as king of Spain, and Ferdinand IV., 
son of Charles, becomes king of the Two Sicilies. 

1762. Spain becomes involved in the Seven Years' 
War (see Ger.m.\ny). Great Britain declares war 
against Spain, wliich attacks Portugal, the British 
ally. In August, the British capture Havana. 
October 5, Manila occupied by British and indem- 
nity demanded. 

1763. Feb. 10. Peace of Paris signed by Spain, 
France, Great Britain, and Portugal. Spain cedes 
Florida to Great Britain hi exchange for Cuba, and 
receives tby previous treaty, November 3, 1762) 
western half of Louisiana from France; British 
evacuate Manila. 

1767. Charles HI., under guidance of premier 
Aranda, banishes Jesuits. 

1775. Concessions made to Spanish American 
colonies m matter of trade. [alliance. 1 

1777. American minister vainly seeks Spanish] 

1779. June 16. While Great Britain is involved 
in war with her American colonies Spain declares 
war and unites with France m a siege of Ciibraltar. 

17H1, 1782. Two attempts to storm Gibraltar fail. 

1783. Sept. 3. Treaty of Versailles. GreatBritain 
restores Florida and Minorca to Spain, the Spanish 
having taken possession of Florida in 17S1. 

1786. Controversy with United States over navi- 
gation of Mississippi River (see United St.^tes). 

1788. Sept. 13. Charles III. dies; succeeded by liis 
son, Charles IV. [lution.l 

1789. Spanish relations disturbed by French Revo- 1 

1790. Oct. 2S. Nootka Soimd Convention with 
Great Britain for joint rights on Oregon coast. 

1793. War with France. 

1795. July 22. Treaty of Basel. French republic 
recognized. Santo Domingo ceded to France. 
Era of Godoy, " Prince of the Peace." 

Oct. 27. First treaty with the United States: 
commerce, boundary of Florida, and navigation of 
the Mississippi. 

1796. August. Spain and France make treaty of 
San Ildefonso; Spain l>econies French ally. 

October. Spain declares war on Great Britain. 

1797. Feb. 14- English fleet under Jervis defeats 
Spanish off Cape St. Vincent. 

1800. Oct. 1. Spain forced by Napoleon to cede 
Louisiana by second (secret) Treaty of San 
Ildefonso. 

1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens between France 
and Great Britain, includes also Spain and the 
Batavian Republic, the allies of France. 

1803. Spain drawn into war by Napoleon, who de- 
sires to use the Spanish fleet. [at Trafalgar. I 

1805. Oct. £1._ Spanish and French fleets defeated! 

1807. Napoleon resolves to conquer Spain. 

1808. March 17. ^harles IV. compelled, by ris- 
ing among his subjects, to abdicate; his son, Fer- 
dinand VII-. becomes king. [army. I 

March 23. Murat enters Madrid with a French] 
May 5. Conference at Bayonne. Charles and 
Ferdinand compelled by Napoleon to renoimce the 
throne, and are made state prisoners. 

June 6. Joseph Bonaparte declared king of 
Spain. The country rises and begins a guerrilla 
and regular warfare on the French. Napoleon 
presses the campaign in person. December, 
Madrid capitulates to his army. 

1808-1821. For revolts and independence of Amer- 
ican colonies, see South American states by name. 

1808-1812. Peninsular campaign in Portugal 
and Spain. British army imder ]Moore, and later 
Wellesley (Wellington), resists the French; aided 
by national Spanish government. 

1812. January. Wellington storms Cludad- 
Bodrigo. March, the Spanish Cortes promul- 
gates a liberal constitution. In April, Badajoz 
stormed by Wellington. July 22. he defeats 
Marmont near Salamanca; in the following 
month the British army enters Madrid. 

1813. June 21. Wellhigton defeats French at 
Vltoria, and drives them out of Spain. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1814. May. Ferdinand Yll. annuls the constitu- 
tion of the Cortes and enters Madrid. 

1815. June 9. By the Congress of Vienna Spain 
restored to the House of Bourbon. Lucca 
bestowed on the Spanish infanta, Maria Louisa, 
and her son, Charles Louis, she being the heiress 
of the last duke of Parma. 

1819. Feb. 22. Spain signs treaty with the United 
States for the cession of (West and East) 
Florida. Two years later the territory is form- 
ally surrendered. 

1820. Insurrection led by Riego breaks out in Spain : 
King Ferdinand is obliged to restore the abrogated 
constitution. 

1822. Liberal supporters of the constitution in 
Spain victorious over the Conseiratives. and a 
congress of the powers convenes at Verona to take 
measures for suppressing them. 



1823. Under mandate of the powers, a French army 
marches into Spain to restore the authority of the 
king. Enters Madrid in May. Cortes withdraws 
to Cadiz, where an armed defense is made. In 
August, the French forces storm the Trocadero 
and soon succeed in overthrowing the power of 
the Liberal party. 

1833. Sept. 2'j. Ferdinand VII. dies; his daugh- 
ter succeeds to the throne as Isabella IL, with 
Maria Christina as regent. Insurrection breaks 
out under Don Carlos, the uncle of Isabella, who 
declares himself king of Spain. 

1834. April 22. Great Britain. France, and Por- 
tugal unite in a treaty by which the claims of the 
Carlists are condemned. 

1836. August. Radical insurrection against the 
queen regent, Maria Christina; she is forced to 
swear allegiance to the constitution of 1812. 
Army, with aid of British allies, defeats Carlists. 

1839. Aug- 31. Espartero makes a convention 
with Maroto, leader of the Carlists, at Vergara. 
Power of Don Carlos broken and he flees to 
France, September 13. 

1840. Revolutionar>' spirit Ijreaks out again, and 
Maria Christina withdraws from Spain, Espar- 
tero assuming control of the government as her 
administrator, in October. 

1841. Espartero appointed regent by the Cortes. 
1843. Narvaez incites a risuig by which Espartero 

is deposed from the regency; the yoimg queen, 
Isabella II., declared to be of age. 

1846. Isabella II. marries Francisco de Asis; and 
her sister, Louisa, weds the Duke de Montpensier, 
Louis Pliilippe's youngest son. 

1848-1858. Affairs in Cuba (see Cuba). 

1854. June. New revolution. In July Espartero 
is restored to power. 

1856. Espartero succeeded by O'Donnell. who is 
attacked by insurrectionists and quells the insur- 
gents with severity. O'Donnell resigns and is 
succeeded by Nai^iiez; country agitated with out- 
breaks and insurrections. 

1859. War against Morocco declared by Spain, and 
in the following year Tetudn is compelled to capit- 
ulate, ending the war (see Morocco). 
Carlists attempt a rismg. 

1861. Spain joins coercion of Mexico (see Mexico). 
Santo Domingo, once a part of Spain, but now an 
independent republic, seized by Spain. A-Ction 
considered imfriendly by United States. After 
four years of effort, Spain gives it up, May 5, 1865 
{see Santo Domingo). 

1864-1865. Controversy and war with Peru and 
Chile (see Peru and Chile). 

1866. Jan. 3. IMilitarj- insmrection in Aranjuez, 
imder the leadership of Prim. Riots in Barce- 
lona break out, January 9, and New Castile, Cata- 
lonia, and Aragon, are declared to l>e in a state of 
siege. January 6-12. January 20, Prim takes ref- 
uge in Portugal. 

1868. September. Revolution breaks out again in 
Spain imder the direction of Prim and Serrano. 
September 28, troops of the queen defeated at 
Alcolea. Isabella II. leaves Spain, and Serrano 
becomes president of a provisional government. 

1868-1878. Insurrection in Cuba; complications 
with United States (see Cuba), 

1869. June. Monarchy decreed by the Spanish 
Cortes and Serrano established as regent. Ef- 
forts of the radicals thwarted. 

1870. Nov. 10. Prmce Amadeus, Duke of Aosta 
and son of Victor Emmanuel, chosen king by the 
Cortes; accepts December 4. 

Dec. 28. Prim attacked by an assassin; dies. 

December 30. Ilosas Charles VII. I 

187?. Carlists rise in force and proclaim Don Car-| 

1873. Feb. 11. Aniadeus abdicates the throne 
and a republican form of government insti- 
tuted. Figueras becomes president of a mun'stry 
in which Castelar is minister of foreign affairs 

June S. Cortes proclaims Spain a federal 
republic. Francisco Pi y Margall president of 
the executive- Revolutions in Andalusia and 
Valencia and much bloodshed caused by the ris- 
ings of the Internationals in Alcoy. July 10. July 
19. Nicolds Salmeron made the premier with a 
new cabinet. September?, Castelar president of 
the executive. Carlists continue their operations 

1874. Jan. 3. Castelar resigns, and Pavia exe- 
cutes a roup d'etat. January 4, Serrano again at 
head of government. 

Dec. 29-30. Son of Isabella II. proclaimed 
king by the armies, as Alfonso XII.; a ministry- 
for the regency is created, with Antonio Cdnovas 
del Castillo at its head. 

1875. Jan 9. King Alfonso reaches Spain. 

1876. Feb. 19. Carlists defeated; Don Carlos flees 
to France. 

1880. January. Cortes passes a measure for the 
abolition of slavery in Cuba within eight years. 

1881. February. Cdnovas del Castillo and his cabi- 
net resign; Praxedes Mateo Sagasta becomes 
premier. 

1883. Augtist. Revolts of the military. Resigna- 
tion of Sagasta, October: Jose de Posada Herrera 
becomes premier. 



1884. January. Canovas del Castillo supplants 
Posada Herrera. 

1885. NoL'. 25. Alfonso XII. dies, and his wife, 
Christina, becomes regent, with Sagasta as head 
of the administration. 

1886. May 17. Christina bears a son, who. imder 
the regency of his mother, becomes Alfonso XIII. 

1887. May. Negotiations with Italy and Austria- 
Himgary for a Mediterranean agreement. 

1890. Sagasta resigns and Canovas del Castillo 
agam becomes premier. 

1891. Extension of the Mediterranean agreement 
with Italy and Austria- Himgary for a period of 
four years. 

1893. Nov. 3. Cuban rebellion begins (seeCuBA). 
Nov. 22. One hundred anarchists arrested In 
Barcelona. 
1895-1898. Comphcations with United States, due 
to sympathy with revolting Cubans (see Cuba and 
United States). 
1896. Insurrection in the Philippine Islands. 
1898. War with United States over Cuba (see 
Cuba and United States). 

Dec. 10. Treaty of peace with United States. 
Cuba, Porto Rico, Philippines, and Guam lost 
(see United States). 
1903. Feb. 26. Great distmbances in Barcelona 
ended by troops. 

May 17. Alfonso XIII. enthroned. 
Nov. 14. Sagasta forms a new cabmet. 
Nov. 17. Supposed ashes of Christopher Co- 
lumbus, taken from Havana in 1898, deposited in 
Seville cathedral. 
1903. Controversy between Conservatives, who 
favor army and navy expenditures, and Liberals, 
who favor economic reform, causes numerous 
cabinet changes. June, Villaverde, a Liberal, 
becomes premier; m December another change. 

1905. Year marked by numerous cabinet changes, 
the result of political unrest. Spain acts in accord 
with France on the Moroccan question (see Mo- 
rocco and Nineteenth-Century Period). ICing 
Alfonso visits Paris in June; is received with great 
cordiality. President Loubet makes a return 
visit in October. 

1906. May SI. Alfonso XIII. and Princess Vic- 
toria of Battenberg. niece of King Edward 
VII., married at Madrid. Anarchist throws a 
bomb at their carriage, killing more than 20 
bystanders. 

Nov. 28. Moret mirristrj' resigns. 
Dec. 4. New cabinet is formed with Armljo de 
la Vega premier. 

1907. Jan. 24- Cabinet under Armijo de la Vega 
resigns: one imder Maura succeeds. 

May 10. Crown Prince Alfonso bom. 

1909. July 22. Rioting in Madrid over the send- 
ing of reenforcements to Morocco (see Morocco). 
July 26. fierce rioting at Barcelona. July 28, 
martial law proclaimed throughout Spain. 

Oct. 13. Professor Francisco Ferrer executed at 
Barcelona, after trial under martial law, as an in- 
stigator of sedition. [Liberal ministry. I 

Oct. 21. Ministry resigns and Moret forms a| 

1910. Jan. 14. Plot to overthrow ministr>-. 

Feb. 9. Moret cabinet resigns and is succeeded 
by a Radical and Anticlerical cabinet with Jos6 
Canalejas as premier; sustained in the elections. 

July 29. Rupture between the Vatican and the 
government, caused by pohcy toward the Roman 
Catholic orders, leads to withdrawal of the Span- 
ish ambassador to the Vatican. 

1911. April 2. Resignation of Canalejas and cabi- 
net follows a debate on the Ferrer controversy; 
later withdrawn. 

Sept. 19. Martial law declared throughout 
the kingdom on accoimt of revolutionar>' riots. 

1912. March 11. Canalejas cabinet resigns: re- 
constructed. March 12. 

Nov. 12. Premier Canalejas assassinated 
by an anarchist. 

Nov. 14. Count Alvarado de Romanones 
appointed premier. Conservative opposition 
forces him to resign. December 31: but support 
of the king ena]>les him to form a new ministry. 

Nor. 27. Franco-Spanish treaty signed, 
settling the Moroccan question (see Morocco). 

1913. Jan. S. Premier Romanones announces the 
government's decision to resume formal relations 
with the Vatican, interrupted in 19J0. 

April 13. King Alfonso narrowly escapes 
assassination while riding through the streets of 
M adrid . 

June 11. Romanones resigns a second time, 
because of disagreements among the Liberals. 
Jime 14, he forms a new Liberal cabinet. 

Aug. 7. General strike at Barcelona 
throws 75,000 men out of work and closes 260 fac- 
tories. August 22, strikers accept the govern- 
ment's terms and agree to return to work, 

Oct. 25. Romanones and his cabinet resign on 
refusal of a vote of confidence. October 27, E. Dato 
forms a representative Conservative ministry. 

1914. Feb. 13. Cortes dissolved. It has had the 
longest life of any parliament in 30 years. New 
Cortes openf in April. 



148 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SPAIN — SWEDEN. 



u 



w 



WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 
19U (conl.). At outbreak of World War Spain re- 
mains neutral, though suspected of sympathy 
with Germany. Great demand for foodstuft's and 
minerals makes country prosperous tliroughout 
war. , . , 

1915. June 4. Loan of $150,000,000 authonzed. 
Ju7ie 22. Cabinet resigns, failure of new loan 

being considered tantamount to a vote of lack of 
confidence, but resignation withdra^vn. 

Sept. 2. German government pays t« Spam 
indemnity for the deaths of seven Spaniards at 
Liege in August. 

Dec. 6. Cabinet resigns through a dispute on 
the priority of economic measures over miUtary. 
December 9, Romanoncs forms new ministry. 

1916. July. Industrial crisis caused by the 
proclamation of a general strike; martial law pro- 
claimed throughout the country ; strikers agree to 
refer their grievances to arbitration. 

Sept. 28. Spain protests to BerUn against the 
torpedoing of Spanish steamers by German sub- 
marines. Further protest. Decemlwr 29. 

1917. March 29. Martial law declared because 
of labor disturbances and a secessionist move- 
ment in Barcelona. 

April 19. Romanones resigns because of sedi- 
tious propaganda in military circles and imrest 
among the workmen. Succeeded by Garcia Prl- 
eto, a moderate Liberal. 

June 13. Dato, a liberal Conservative, suc- 
ceeds Prieto as premier, his poUcy being strict 
neutraUty in the war. 

Aug. H. Rioting and revolutionary move- 
ments occur in various cities during the course of a 
general strike. 

Oct. 7. In view of the continued political dis- 
turbances, the Dato cabinet resigns. 

Nov. 2. Coalition cabinet formed by Prlcto, 
Marquis of Alhucemas. 

1918. Jan. 0. Government discovers a new revo- 
lutionarj' movement inspired by army officers. 

Fch. 7. Protests made to Germany because of 
the destruction of the coastwise steamer Giralda. 

March 23. New cabinet formed by Maura. 

Aug. SI. Government decides to seize an in- 
terned German vessel in retaliation for tlie sinking 
of a Spanish ship caiiying coal from England. 

Oct. H- Government annoimces that Ger- 
many has ceded seven merchant vessels to re- 
place Spanish ships sunk by submarines. 

Noe. 17. Alhucemas forms a new ministry. 
December 5. Romanones becomes premier. 

1919. Jan. IT. Radical movements In Barce- 
lona lead to the suspension of constitutional guar- 
antees in that city. 

Feb. 2S. Martial law in Madrid results from 
rioting against profiteers. 

March S. Tunnel, nearly 20 miles long, under 
the Pyrenees between Puigcerda. eastern Spain, 
and Ax (or Da.x). France, completed. 

April. Maura forms a coalition cabinet. 
Disorders in Barcelona have figured in resignation 
of Romanones. [majority. | 

June 1. General election gives Conservative! 

July. Maura cabinet resigns; Sanchez minis- 
try succeeds. 

Aug. 17. Spain joins the League of Nations. 

Nov. 4. Lockout begins which Congress of 
Spanish Employers voted a month before. 
Affects over a million workers. Employers 
claim movement necessary to offset s^■ndicalism 
of General Federation of Labor. Agitation con- 
tinues through winter and spring, producing a con- 
dition bordering on anarchy in Barcelona. 

Dec. 12. Allende-Salazar ministry succeeds 
that of Sanchez; eighth ministry in two years. 
19^0. Jan. 20. Government orders dissolution of 
General Federation of Laljor and also termination 
of lockout; does not result in return to normal 
conditions. 



STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 

See under British Empire, page 65. 

SUDAN, ANGLO-EGYPTIAN. 

See under British Empire, page 68- 

SWEDEN. 



Sweden intervened in Germany in the Thirty Years 
War and made herself the strongest power m the 
north, acquiring coBtrol over Pomerania, the island 
of Riigen, and the bishoptics of Bremen and Verden. 
During Gustavus Adolphus' campaigns, liis great 
minister, Coimt Axel Oxenstiem, estabiished-a-SCPong 
and successful government at home. Gustavus 
Adolphus was succeeded by his daughter Christina, 
under whom a colony was planted on the Delaware. 
She was forced to abdicate m .1654 and was suc- 
ceeded by Charles X., who undertook a war with 
Poland which was at first successful, but later re- 
sulted m disaster. Charles also successfully crossed 
the frozen Belt and attacked Denmark and for a 
time controlled tliat coimtry. He was succeeded by 
Charles XI. in 1600, who maintained peace for six- 
teen years. War broke out m 1675 between Sweden, 
in alliance with France, and Denmark, supported by 
the elector of Brandenbm-g. For a time Sweden was 
hard pressed, but by the Treaty of Fontainebleau 
(confirmed by the subsequent Treaty of Lund) re- 
covered what it had lost to Denmark. 

In 1697 the cro^vn descended to Charles XII., one 
of the most remarkable characters in history. He 
plunged Sweden into a great northern war, in which 
he was successful against Russia, then tm-ned back, 
defeating the Poles and Saxons and placing liis candi- 
date on the Polish throne. In a second invasion of 
Russia he was successful imtU his reentorcements 
were cut off and his army surrounded and destroyed. 
In 1714 he returned to Sweden and faced an alliance 
of the powers hostile to liim. In 1718 he was killed 
on an expedition to Norway. By the Peace of Ny- 
stad (1721) the war was brought to an end. Sweden 
had to abandon all her conquests on the Continent, 
but western Finland was restored to her. 

The next sovereign was his sister Ulrica Eleonora, 
who turned her sovereignty over to Frederick of 
Hesse-Cassel, tmder whom some of the territorial 
losses were recovered. The power of the crown de- 
clined, however, and civil war broke out between the 
two parties of the nobiUty, the " Hats " and " Caps." 
Under several weak kings the royal power continued 
to decline. During the French Revolution peace 
was made with Russia by the surrender of Finland, 
and Russia induced Sweden to make peace with 
France and join the Continental system. Charles 
XIII. adopted and appointed as heir to the crown 
the French marshal, Bemadotte; and at this time 
Norway was added to the Swedish domam (1814) . 

In the struggle against Napoleon Sweden fiu-- 
nished an army of 30,000 men. At the Congress of 
Vienna (1815) Sweden retained possession of Nor- 
way, and no objection was made to Bemadotte 
when, in 1818, he succeeded to the throne imdcr 
the title of Charles XIV. He ruled until 1844 and 
under him prosperity began to revive. 

Oscar I. (1844-1859) attempted parliamentary 
reform, but failed and was succeeded by liis son 
Charles XV. mider whom genuine parliamentary re- 
form was established. In 1863 it was decreed that 
the Riksdag was to consist of two chambers; an up- 
per house, being a sort of aristocratic senate; and the 
lower house to consist of representatives elected bi- 
ennially by popular suffrage. 

Oscar II.. the brother of Oscar I., reigned from 
1872 to 1907. During his reign a system of protec- 
tive duties was established and caused dissatisfac- 
tion. From 1890 francliise reform was agitated and 
the final composition of the two chambers deter- 
mmed. Towards the end of Oscar's long reign came 
the separation of Norway and the estaljlislmient of 
that kingdom imder a separate sovereign (see Noh- 
wat). The franchise question was finally settled in 
1907 by the establishment of proportional repre- 
sentation for both chambers, tmiversal manhood 
siLffrage for election to second chamber, and the re- 
duction of the quaUfications for the first chamber. 
In 1907 King Oscar died and was succeeded by his 
son Gustavus. 

In 1909 the franchise was still further extended by 
^Tantmg the vote to all inhabitants over 24 years of 
age without distinction of sex. During this reign the 
general tendency has been towards a more demo- 
cratic, it not radical, policy. Like the other Scandi- 
navian coimtries Sweden remained neutral durmg 
the World War, and, although suffering from food 
shortage because of the embargo laid by the Allies, 
found a ready market for her siuplus products m 
Germany. 



roots (sugar beet and fodder roots), hay, potatoes, 
oats, and com. Minmg from tune inmiemorial has 
been one of the leading industries of Sweden and the 
Swedish iron ore is abundant and of the best quality. 
Although hampered by tine lacli of coal, the mitroduc- 
tion and use of electricity produced by water power 
liasqpened new possibUities. Woodworking is also an 
industry'-of great importance, the forests of Sweden 
covering more than half of the area and furnishing 
valuable timber. 

Religion and Education. Lutheran Protestant- 
ism is recognized gas tlie state religion. The king 
must be a member of tliis church. All other religions 
are tolerated. 

Education is well advanced in Sweden. Elemen- 
tary education is fpee and compulsory and in 1918 
there were more than 16,000 elementary schools be- 
sides many secondary schools and special vocational 
schools. The two imiversities of Upsala and of 
Ltmd have more than 3,700 students enrolled. 

Defense. There is universal service supple- 
mented by volimtary enlistment. Military lial)ihty 
extends from the age of 20 to the end of the forty- 
second year. The peace establishment in 1920 com- 
prised 86.000 men. The navy was eriginally in- 
tended entirely for coast defense. In recent years 
several cruisers of considerable speed and gun power 
have been added. ^ 

The area is 173,035 square miles and the esti- 
mated population in 1918 was 5,813,850. 



Chronology. 



Historical Outline. 

The authentic history of Sweden begins in the 
ninth century with the mission of Ansgar and the 
practical conversion of the people to Christianity. 
From the tenth century to the end of the fourteenth 
there were numerous civil wars, in which the free 
peasants practically disappeared. In 13S8 the no- 
bles deposed the king and offered the crown to Mar- 
garet of Norway and Denmark, and in 1397 Sweden 
joined Norway and Denmark in the Union of Kalmar. 

The Golden Age of Sweden, however, was in the 
seventeenth century under Gusta'-us Adolphus. 



Organization. 

Government. Sweden is a constitutional mon- 
archy; the king as executive exercises his powers in 
conjunction witli a coimeil of state, and has absolute 
veto upon legislation. The legislative power is in a 
Diet of two houses, both elected by the people. The 
first chamber consists of 150 members elected for six 
years by the provincial a.ssemblies. They must sat- 
isfy a high property qualification The second cham- 
l>er is composed of 230 representatives, chosen for 
three years by universal suffrage, men and women 
alike. There is proportional representation for both 
chambers. 

Industry and Labor. About half the popula- 
tion depend upon agriculture, the chief crops being 



For earher events see Medieval Period and Early 
Modern Periob, Chronology. 

1648. Oct. 24. By the Peace of Westphalia, 
Pomerania, RUgen, Bremen, and Verden ceded to 
Sweden. 

1664. July 6. Queen Christina abdicat«s; suc- 
ceeded by her cousin, Charles X. 

165S. Swedes overrun Poland. 

1657. Sweden in war with Denmark. 

1658. Brief peace at Roskilde. War renewed and 
Charles X. besieges Copenhagen. .Swedish fleet 
overcome by the Danes with their Dutch allies. 

1659. Charles routed by Frederick William of 
Brandenbtu-g. 

1660. Feb. IS. Charies X. dies; succeeded by his 
son, Charles XI., a child five years old. Peace 
with Brandenburg. Germany, and Poland, by 
which Livonia and Esthonia are ceded to 
Sweden.. Treaty with Denmark: Danish terri- 
tories in Swedish Scandinavia acquired. 

1669. Sweden joins England and HoUand in an 
alliance against the French. 

1673. Treatv of Stockholm signed with France. 

1675. Swedes invade Brandenburg; overcome by 
Frederick William, the Great Elector of Bran- 
denburg, at Fehrbellin, June IS. Foimdation of 
later Prassia. 

1679. Treaties with Brandenburg and Denmark; 
Louis XIV. forces the elector to yield conquests 
except East Friesland (see Earlt Modern 
Period). 

1697. Aprils. Charles XII. succeeds Charles XI. 

1700. Denmark joined l)y Russia and Poland m war 
against Sweden, but compelled to make the Peace 
of Travendal. Swedish troops rout the Russian 
army of Peter the Great at Narva, November 30, 

1701. Polish War. Charies defeats Poles and 
Saxon allies. 

1702. Charles enters Warsaw and occupies t racow. 

1703. Charles routs Augustus at Pultusk. 

1704. Charles deprives Augustus of the Polish crown 
and secures election of Stanislas Leszczynski. 

1708. Charles XII. Invades Russia. 

1709. July S. His army destroyed by Peter the 
Great at Poltava. Charies flees to Turkey, and 
the Danes invade Sweden. 

1710. Swedes imder Stenbock expel the Danes. 

1713. Stenbock smrenders at Tbnningen to allied 
Russians. Danes, and Saxons. 

1714. Charles XII. retums to Sweden. 

1715. War against Swden by Frederick William I. 
of Prussia, who takes Stralsund. m December. 

1716. Swedes invade Norway. 
1718 Charles XII. again mvades Norway; he 

perishes in the siege of Frech-ikshald. December 
11- his sister I'lrica Eleonora succeeds. 

1719! Ulrica inaugurates a liberal reign, but exe- 
cutes the prime minister, Gortz. Treaty with 
George I. of England (as Elector of Hanover) by 
which Sweden cedes Bremen and Verden 

1730 Treaty signed with Pmssia at Stockholm by 
wliich most of Hither Pomerania is yielded. 
Ulrica abdicates in favor of her consort, Freder- 
ick of Hesse-Cassel. New constitution strips 
the kmg of power, wliich faUs into hands of the 
nobles. Two parties: " Caps," favonng policy of 
peace; " Hats," favoring alliance with France and 
hostiUty to Russia. „ .. j -.,, t5„„ 

1721. Iwff 30. By Treaty of Nystad with Rus- 
sia Sweden loses Livonia, Esthonia, Ingna, and 
KareUa o "aW 

1741 War with Russia: peace at Abo. two yearsi 

175l'. March. Adolphus Frederick, Of the House 
of Holstein-Gottorp, succeeds Frederick. 



1755 - 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SWEDEN — SWITZERLAND. 



149 



1756. Sneden takes part of Austria In the Seven 
Years' War, but in 1762 withdraws (see Austria; . 

1771. Feb.l^. Adolplius Frederick dies; succeeded 
by his son Gustavus Ul. 

1773. By a coup d'etat, Gusta^nisputs tlirougha new 
constitution changing Sweden from an anarchical 
republic of nobles to a constitutional monarchy. 

1778-1786. Period of internal reform. 

17S8. War declared on Russia. 

1789. Feb. 1 7. King secures constitutional control 
of war, peace, and foreign affairs, becoming practi- 
cally an absolute monarch. 

1790. July. Gusta-vus wins success in the Gulf of 
Finland. August, treaty of peace. 

1792. March 29. Gustavus III. dies from woimd 
by an' assassin. His son, Gustavus IV. (Adol- 
ptius) succeeds. 

1807. Napoleon subjugates the Swedish territories 
in Germany (see France). 

1808. Finland conquered by Russia. 

1809. March 29. Gustavus IV compelled to abdi- 
cate ; the son being passed over, he is succeeded by 
his uncle, Charles Xlll. 

June 9. Charles signs a new constitution 
making Sweden a limited monarchy. 

Sept. 17. Treaty of Fredrikshamn : formal 
cession of Finland to Russia. 

1810. Jan. e. Peace of Paris with France. Swe- 
den joins the Continental system and receives 
Swedish Pomerania Bernadotte. a general of 
Napoleon, chosen as crown prince of .Sweden. 

1813. Sweden joins in the alliance against Napoleon. 

1814. Ja7i. 14. By the Treaty of Kiel with Great 
Britain and Denmark, Denmark cedes Norway 
to Sweden, receiving Swedish Pomerania in 
return. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 

1815. June 9. Possession of Norway is conflrmed 
to Sweden by the Congress of Vienna (see Nine- 
teenth-Century Period. For resulting personal 
union with Norway, see Norway). 

1818. Feb. S. Bernadotte succeeds to the tlirone 
of Sweden and Norway as Charles XIV. John. 

1844. March S. Charles XIV. John dies; suc- 
ceeded by his son, Oscar I. 

1855. Nov. 31. France and Great Britain sign a 
treaty guaranteeing Norway and Sweden against 
Russian aggression. Abrogated April 23, 1908. 

1857. Charles, son of Oscar I., becomes regent for 
his father. 

October. Decree of banishment against Catho- 
lics who have been converted from the Lutheran 
faith promulgated; but religious toleration in a 
modified form is allowed by the laws of 1860. 

1859. July S. Charles succeeds his father as 
Charles XV. (Charles XV I 

1872. Sept. IS. Oscar II. succeeds his brother, I 

1905. Sweden acknowledges the independence of 
Norway (see Norway). [Gustavus V.I 

1907. Dec.o. Oscar II. dies; succeeded by his son, 1 

1908. April -2.3. Joint declaration by Great 
Britain, Denmark, France, Germany, Nether- 
lands, and Sweden to maintain the status quo in 
territories bordering on the North Sea. Also 
similar one for the Baltic Sea by Denmark, Ger- 
many, Kussia, and Sweden. 

Aug. 27. Congress of International Patent 
Vnion meets at Stoekliolm. 

1909. Feb. 13. Bill pas.ses both houses, permitting 
all males over 24 years of age to vote, with pro- 
portional representation in the Diet 

.Auijust-September. Great strike paralyzes in- 
dustry- and commimication. 

1910. .4110. 1. Eighteenth Universal Peace Con- 
gress opens at Stockholm. Five himdred are in 
attendance from twenty-two nations. 

1911. Sept. 30. General election results in over- 
throw of the Lindman ministry, and establishment 
of Liberal government under Karl A Staaff. 

1912. July 1. Fifth revival of the Olympian 
games opens at Stockholm. At their conclusion, 
July 22, Sweden heads the lists with 133 points, 
United States is second with 129 points. Great 
Britain third with 76 points. 

1913. July 3. Old age pensions law passed. 

1914. Feb. 6. More than 30,000 peasants and 
landowners from all parts of Sweden parade before 
the king at Stockholm to demand an increase of 
armaments. Staaff cabinet regards as uncon- 
stitutional the king's free expression of political 
opinion on the armament question, and resigns 
Fehruaiy 10. 

Feb. 16. K. H. L. de Hammarskjiild forms 
new cabinet, succeeding the one imder Staaff. 

March 3. Parliament dissolved owing to the 
armament controversy, 

WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 
1914. At outbreak of World War Sweden remains 
neutral. Is throughout the war open to direct 
commerce with Germany, who obtains Swedish 
iron ore and other supplies. 

Dec. IS. King Gustavus, with King Haakon 
of Norway and King Christian of Denmark, meet 
at Malmo in regard to the World War. 



1915. May 5. Shipment of all kinds of war mate- 
rial across Swedish territory prohibited. Jime 3, 
raw cotton is added to the Ust subject to embargo. 

Ju7te SO. British official commission arrives in 
Stockholm to devise measiu'es to avoid the diffi- 
culties in regard to trade caused by British war 
regulations, 

Sept. 10. Government prohibits export of all 
meat, canned goods, and live stock. 

Sept. 20. Arrangement with Germany for small 
sale of goods in exchange for coal. 

1916. January. English mail for Russia detained 
in retaliation for Great Britain's interference with 
.Swedish mails and neutral commerce. 

Jan. 1. Tobacco becomes a state monopoly. 

Jan. 3. National Bank resumes payment of 
notes in gold, which has been suspended since Au- 
gust, 1914. 

Feb. 33. Understanding with Great Britain 
reached on subject of imports; tension relieved. 

1917. March a. Hammarskjiild cal>inet resigns 
when Parliament refuses to vote credits for the 
maintenance of neutrality. 

Oct. 2. Swartz cabinet resigns after a pro- 
tracted political crisis resulting principally from 
the revelation of diplomatic intrigues between 
Swedish and German agents in neutral coimtries, 

Oct. 19. -As a result of elections, showing radi- 
cal tendencies. Nils Eden forms a cabuiet with 
Hjahnar Branting, leader of the Social Demo- 
crats, as minister of finance. The cabinet includes 
six Liberals, four Socialists, and one Independent. 
1918-1919. For Sweden and Fuiland, see Finland. 

1919. May 26. Parliament grants women full 
national suffrage. 

Sweden sends note to Peace Conference asking for 
a plebiscite in the Aland Islands, wliich are con- 
tested for between Finland and Sweden. 

June 16. Swedish Congress of Independent 
Socialists at Stockholm votes to join the Third 
International of Moscow. 

1920. March J,. Decision to join the League of 
Nations. [of Socialists, formed I 

March 6. Branting ministrj-, composed entirely 1 



SWITZERLAND. 

Historical Outline. 

Switzerland has neither geographical, ethnic, lin- 
guistic, nor rehgioiis unity : yet it is a verj' individual 
countr>' with a positive nationality. Geographi- 
cally, the country consists of the upper valleys of the 
Rhine, Rhone, and Danube, with some outlying 
areas; and the whole country is embedded in the 
great masses of the Alps. Ethnically the Swiss con- 
sist of French. Gennan. Italian, and Romance-speak- 
ing people. The linguistic divisions are well marked 
and the constitution recognizes French, German, 
and Italian as the three national languages in which 
debates in the legislature may be carried on. In relig- 
ion there is a sharp division between the Roman Cath- 
olics and the I*rotestants w ho are the more numerous 

Most of Switzerland was Romanized and traces of I 
Roman civilization remain. Passing by the legend- 
ary histor>' with the names of such heroes as William 
Tell, the actual modem history of Switzerland began j 
in 1291. In that year a league was formed between | 
the men of Uri. Schw^-z, and Unterwalden for de- ' 
fense and the maintenance of their privileges. At 
once the confederates engaged in a struggle for exist- ' 
ence with the House of Hapsburg. In the famous ; 
battles of Sempach, Morgarten. and Nafels they won j 
their independence. This struggle lasted until 1412. 

During the 15th century the league expanded and, | 
after a civil war about 1450. adopted a constitution 
for the enlarged confederation of the " Eight Old 
Places." In the latter years of the 15th century it 
successfully fought Charles the Bold, and added 
some French-speaking districts to tlie Confedera- 
tion. In the 16th century Swiss infantr>-. tlien the 
best in the world, won glorious victories in the Italian 
wars, but were at last defeated at the battle of Marig- 
nano in 1515 and made a peace with France. 

During the Reformation most of northern Switzer- 
land was under the influence of Ulrich Zwingli. politi- 
cal and religious reformer, a rival and theologically 
an opponent of Martin Luther. He opposed the al- 
liance with France and desired to secure for Zurich 
and Bern the cliief power in the Confederation. 
The countn." sufTered little from religious wars, but 
was split into two religious camps. By the Peace of 
Westphalia in KMS. the indeperidence of Switzerland 
was formally acknowledged. 

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Con- 
federation was practically a dependency of France. 
The aristocracy of the cities continued, particularly 
in Bern. Lucerne. Freibin^ and Solothum. where the 
voting power was vested in the hands of a small class, 
which refused to admit any new burgher: and within 
the small voting class a'still smaller class monopo- 
lized most of the offices. 

During the French Revolution the troops of the 
republic overthrew the aristocratic parties causing the 
fall of the Confederation: and the Directory estal> 
lished the Helvetic Republic which was highly central- 



ized and ran counter to local independence in the 
Confederation. When the French troops were with- 
drawn, civil war broke out; and Bonaparte, by the 
Act of Mediation (1803), granted a constitution in 
which the federal system was partly reestablished. 

"While the rest of Europe was in war and com- 
motion, Switzerland enjoyed comparative peace, 
although party feeling ran high. The Congress of 
Vienna {1S15) accepted a revised constitution, sub- 
mitted by the Swiss Diet, by wliich the new cantons 
of Geneva, Valais, and Neuchatel were added to the 
republic. Switzerland was also enlarged on the side 
of France. The new constituiion set up a federal 
or central government, and a division of sovereign 
rights was made l^etween the powers of local govern- 
ment retained by t)ie cantons and the nat ional powers. 

The revolutionary movement which swept Europe 
in 1S30 affected Switzerland slightly and the people 
in several cantons compelled the authorities to give 
them more liberty. Religious differences led to the 
War of the Sonderbimd ( 1S46) , which brought about 
a new constitution in 1S4S: this lasted imtil 1S74, 
when the present constitution was adopted. 

Throughout her historj-, Switzerland has Ijeen the 
asyhmi of political refugees and at times the protec- 
tion given them by the government has led to pro- 
tests from other states. Particularly was this true 
in 1836 and in 1838 when Louis Napoleon sought 
protection. In 1844 and 1845. campaigns w^ere con- 
ducted against the Jesuits, who were finally expelled. 
Ten years later war was threatened by the king of 
Prussia to regain Neuchatel, but was settled by the 
intervention of England and France. In 1888 and 
1889 the Socialists and Nihilists were prosecuted and 
the latter were expelled from the coimtrj'. 

In recent times the institutions of Switzerland, 
both the federal and cantonal sj stems have become 
more and more democratic. Through the use of the 
initiative and referendum the people obtained direct 
mntrol, not merely over their legislation, but also 
over the constitution. Because of the protective pol- 
icies of France and Germany, Switzerland has been 
obliged to adopt a high tariff which has brought in a 
large revenue. This has been spent in the purchase 
of the railways and the extension of government ac- 
tivities in commerce, as well as in the physical im- 
provement of the cities through the erection of pub- 
he buildings. 

Until the outbreak of the World W^ar. Switzerland 
was contented poHtically and prosperous economi- 
cally. Although the federation was able to main- 
tain its neutrality, the great interruption of external 
trade prevented the importation of the necessary 
foodstuffs and dried up the main source of federal 
revenue. To maintain its neutrality the govern- 
ment felt obliged to mobilize the Swiss militia at a 
cost of more than $36,000,000, which had to be met 
by loans. 

Organization. 

Government. Switzerland is a federal republic. 
It consists of 22 cantons, three of which are politi- 
cally divided. These, like the states of the United 
States, possess sovereign powers in all fields which 
are not assigned to the federal government by the 
Constitution of 1874 or subsequent constitutional 
amendments. The government of the cantons 
varies both in structure and procedure; but each 
possesses its own legislature, executive, and ju- 
diciary. In four of the cantons, Uri. Unterwalden, 
Appenzell. and Glaras, the ancient democratic as- 
semblies (Landesgemeinden) are preserved. These 
assemblies are held in the open air in April or May 
and attended by the voters in person. They elect a 
sort of standing committee, like the selectmen of the 
New England towns, a chief magistrate, and a judi- 
ciary. In the other cantons there are representative 
councils which exercise the legislative fimctions. 
All the cantons save Freiburg have the referendtim 
and the initiative. 

The federal government is vested in two houses: 
the National Council, numbering at present 189, 
composed of deputies chosen for tliree years by direct 
manhood suffrage in the proportion of one to every 
20,000 or major fraction; and the second assembly, 
the Cotmcil of States, consisting of 44 members, two 
from each canton. Unhke the members of the Sen- 
ate of the United States, the qualifications for the 
members of the Swiss Council of States, as well as 
the teniue of office, are not regulated by the constitu- 
tion or by the federal authority, but are left entirely 
in the hands of the cantons. As a result the upper 
house lacks uniformity and morale and does not 
have the influence of the American Senate or of the 
Swiss National Council. 

The executive power is vested in a Federal Coun- 
cil of se\-en members, who act as heads of the execu- 
tive (iepartments and who are chosen by the two 
bodies of the federal legislature sitting together: one 
of the seven, chosen as President of the Confedera- 
tion, presides at its meetings, but has no independent 
executive powers. The Swiss executive does not 
hold itself pohticaUy responsible to the legislature, 
and hence does not resign when its plans are not 
adopted, but attempts to carr>' out the desires of the 
legislature. 



150 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SWITZERLAND — SYRIA. 



1648-1920. 



u 



w 



The most intbresting feature of the Swiss system 
is the control by the people of the affairs of the go\'- 
emment tlirough the initiative and referendum. On 
the demand of 30,000 citizens, or eight cantons, the 
Assembly is obhged to submit for popular approval 
any of its acts. An amendment to the constitution 
must also be submitted on the demand of 50,000 
voters In 1891 the Confederation also adopted the 
initiative which applies only to the constitution. 
By this 50,000 voters may propose an amendment, 
either in general terms to be drawn up by the As- 
sembly, or in specific terms to be submitted to the 
people The different cantons have adopted these 
institutions in different degrees. Zurich submits all 
the acts of the Coimcil to the popular vote at semi- 
annual elections, and any citizen may propose a law 
to the Council; if one third of tliat body votes favor- 
ably, it must be submitted to the people. 

Industry and Labor. The cUmate of Switzer- 
land favors a variety of products. Ticino enjoys the 
general conditions of north Italy. From this region 
the ascent to the Alps and to the more northern can- 
tons brings increasing cold imtil the range of snow 
and arctic climate is reached. 

The natural wealth of Switzerland lies singularly 
enough in its snows, wliich make superb pasturage 
m the summer and also attract the tourist. The 
agricultural products are those common to central 
Europe, but in no part of Switzerland is there op- 
portunity for wide or extensive cultivation. Every- 
thing is local and incidental. About two thirds of 
the productive soil is devoted to agriculture or graz- 
ing; tlie breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, and swme are 
of'tlie best, and the animals and dairy products 
are famous throughout Eiu-ope. Valuable standard 
products are cheese, condensed milk, and chocolates. 
The chief agrictUtural products are rye. oats, and 
potatoes, but the supply of these and of other grains 
is insufficient, and Switzerland is partially dependent 
for its food upon imports. The ciUtivation of sugar 
beets has recently been atU-mpted. The forests of 
Switzerland cover nearly a fifth of the territory and 
produce quantities of excellent timber. Of the min- 
eral products the most important is asphalt. The 
saline deposits along the Rhine are also of importaiice. 
Metals exist in Switzerland, but are hardly worked at 
all. True coal is entirely absent. Recently the gov- 
ernment has set out to make the waterfalls available, 
so as to furnish power and cut down the coal bills. 

In spite of the lack of coal, manufacturmg has 
prospered, and there are nearly 9,000 factories, the 
more important being engaged in the manufacture of 
machinerv, silk, cotton, and watches, for wliich 
Switzerland is famous. One of the industries of 
Switzerland is the entertainment of foreign visitors, 
which produces larger gross receipts (m 1905 over 
$33,000,000) than any other. 

Education. There is no central educational ad- 
ministration in Switzerland. By the constitution of 
1874 education was made obligatory and placed un- 
der the civil authority of the cantons. Primary in- 
struction is free. In 1916 there were 4,578 primary 
schools, with over 500,000 pupils, 548 secondary 
schools, with 50.000 pupils, and 126 middle schools, 
with 36,000 pupils. There are also commercial and 
teclmical schools and special vocational schools. 
Seven universities exist in Switzerland: Zurich, Ge- 
neva, Neuchatel, Bern, Lausanne, Freiburg, and Basel. 
Beligton. Religious freedom and perfect liberty 
of conscience and creed are guaranteed by the con- 
stitution. There is no established church. Since 
1874 legislation has been directed against the Catho- j 
lies, and in 1848 the Jesuits were expelled and pro- 
hibited from exercisuig their functions. More than 
half of the Swiss people are Protestants. 

Defense. Old-fashioned fortifications exist on 
the southern border and protect the St. Gothard 
tunnel. There is no standing army, but a national 
militia in which the ser\-ice is compulsory and uni- 
versal, extending from the twentieth to the forty- 
eighth vear. The traming is carried on in the re- 
cruits' schools for 65 days for the uitantry, 75 days 
for the artillery, and 90 days for the cavalry. The 
subsequent tra'inmgs occupy 11 days annually up to 
a total of about six montlis. Twelve years are spent 
in the first line, eight m the first reser\-e, and eight 
in the second reserve. Altogether, Switzerland can 
mobilize nearly 200,000 men, not including the sec- 
ond reserve, which amounts to about 60,000. 

The area is 15,976 square miles and the popula- 
tion in 1916 was 3,937,000 



1798. Switzerland overrun by French troops. An- 
cient Confederacy dissolved. April, France es- 
tabhshes the Helvetic Republic. Geneva (not 
part of Switzeriand) annexed to France. 

1799-1803. Switzerland a battleground for Aus- 
trian, French, and Russian armies (.see France). 

1800-1807. Napoleon constructs strategic roads 
across the Alps to Imk up Italy. 

1803. Feb 19. New Swiss federal constitution 
drawn up in Paris under Napoleons direction. 
Number of cantons increased to 19. 

1811. Switzeriand sends a force to the aid of the 
French, and the aUies agamst France enter Swit- 
zerland in 1814. 



Chronology. 



For earlier events, see Mediev.^l Period, Chronology, 
and E.iRLY Modern Period, Chronology. 

1648. Separation of Switzerland from the German 
Empu-e formally recognized. 
Switzerland devastated by a civil war, in which 
the oligarchical part.y is successful against the de- 
mocracy. During the remainder of the century 
the cantons retam their federative form of govern- 
ment, but are practically recruiting grounds and 
dependencies of France. 

1786. First ascent of Mont Blanc by Balmat 
and Paccard. [to the death. I 

1793. Aug. 10. Swiss Guard defends Louis XVI. I 



NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1815. By the Congress of Vienna the independ- 
ence of the countrj' is secured and the number of 
cantons mcreased to 22. New areas aimexed. 

Aug. 7. New federal constitution, without 
right of mterference by outside powers, (powers. | 
Nov. 20. Neutrality guaranteed by thel 
1830. More lilieral constitutions m several cantons. 
1839. A law to make education independent of the 
clergy passed and a series of civil strifes over re- 
ligious matters ensues. 

1843. Sept. IS. Seven Catholic cantons form 
separate. league, the Sonderbund [literally, " Sep- 
arate League"]. 

1844. February. The Sonderbund demands resto- 
ration of all monasteries. 

1845. December. The Sonderbund arms and pre- 
pares for war. 

1846. Effort is made by the CathoUc cantons to se- 
cure education by the Jesuits, but this is resisted 
by the Protestants. October 7, an insurrection in 
Geneva, and a provisional government estabUshed 
by the Protestants. 

1847. July 20. Diet pronotmces the Sonderbund 
Ulegal, and dissolves it. In September, an order is 
issued for the expulsion of the Jesuits. Sonder- 
bund makes an appeal to arms, October 21. In 
the civil war that follows, the forces of the Diet 
under Dufour are victorious near Lucerne, Novem- 
ber 23. November 29, the Sonderbund submits 
and consents to expulsion of the Jesuits and the 
secularization of the property of the monasteries. 

1848. Sept. 12. New constitution adopted, strong- 
' ly Influenced by the example of the United States, 
1850-1900. Switzerland becomes the vacation 

ground of Eiu-ope. System of scenic mountain 
roads, hotels, and moimtain climbing developed, 
which becomes a permanent soiu-ce of revenue. 
1857. Neueliatel controversy. The canton has 
long owed feudal allegiance to the kmg of Prussia, 
but disclaimed it in 1848. War threatened. 
Under mediation of Great Britain and France, the 
king renoimces liis claim. 

1860. Switzerland protests against annexation of Sa- 
voy to France; small force attempts to enter Savoy, 

1861. French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes. 
whereupon the Swiss declare their territorial rights 
violated. 

1863. Dec. S. Treaty with France; mutual ces- 
sions and no militan- works m the ceded territory. 

1864. Aug. 22. Geneva (Red Cross) Conven- 
tion for care of sick and wotmded in war [Bern | 

1865. International Social Science Congress atl 

1873. Geneva arbitration of the Alabama claims 
between the United States and Great Britain. 
(See Alab.^ma claims, in the Dict\onary.^ 

1874. Boundary dispute with Italy settled in favor 
of Italy, by award of American minister at Rome. 

May 29. New federal constitution caused by 
conflicts over personal status of the inhabitants 
and external commerce. Federal government 
much strengthened. Introduction of ■' Swiss sys- 
tem " of universal military service. Extension of 
system of referendimi, long practiced in some can- 
tons, to federal government. Initiative does not 
become a federal institution tmtil 1891. 

1877. Law regulating the hours of labor for 
women and cliildren confirmed by popular vote. 

1878. National elections for members of the Coim- 
cil result in the triumph of the Liberal party. 

1879. Act adopted by the Council restoring, at the 
option of the several cantons, death penalty as a 
punishment for crime. 

1880. August. Conference of the International 
Association for reform and codification of interna- 
tional law held at Bern. 

1883. Opening of St. Gothard tunnel and rail- 
way, cotmecting Italy with Germany. 
Question of pubUc instruction finally settled by the 
passage of a compulsory-education law, wliich 
is ratified by the people. 

1883. Pope renews his efforts to reverse the anti- 
Catholic legislation of previous years. 

1884. Elections result in a reaction in favor of the 
Conservative and I'ltramontane party. 
International Peace and Arbitration Association 
meets in Bern. 

1885. Sept. 7. International conference at Bern to 
promote a universal copyright among nations. 
Spread of anarchistic socialistic opinions not«d 
with alarm. 



1887. Movement for an international copyright 
law resiUts in the preparation of a projet; signed 
by representatives of Germany, Great Britam, 
Belgium, Spam, France, Haiti, Italy, Liberia, 
Switzerland, and Tunis. 

1888. Proceedings begun against the Socialists. 
Institute of mternational law is held at Lausanne. 

1889. A company of Niliihsts residing near Zurich 
expelled from country by the Federal Cotmcil. 

1890. Switzerland becomes the seat of administra- 
tion of mteniational trade-marks, posts, tele- 
graphs, etc., imder general agreements of nations. 
Religious agitations lead to riots in Ticmo. 
Insurrection restrains the aggressive policy of the 
Clerical party, September, and order restored by 
federal troops. 

1893. August. Session of the International 
Peace Congress held at Bern; a resolution passed 
for the creation of a confederation of the European 
states in the interest of universal peace. 

1893. Severe law for the suppression of anarchis- 
tic outrages passed. 

1896. May-October. National exliibition illustrate 
ing the various branches of Swiss trade and indus- 
try held at Geneva. 

1898. Federal government takes over most of 
the important railroads. Img people. I 

1899. Law for compulsory insurance for work-| 
1906. Jan. 25. First train passes through the 

Simplon tunnel. 

1908. June 20. Alps are crossed by the balloon 
Cognac, owned by the Swiss Aijro Club. 

1913. Feb. I,. Referendum is held on sickness 
and accident insurance bill: measure adopted. 

1913. April h. Federal Coimcil ratifies St. Goth- 
ard Railway Convention; also ratified by Ger- 
many and Italy. 

June 23. Lot schbere tunnel formally opened. 



WORLD -WAR PERIOD. 

1914. August. At outbreak of World War Swit- 
zeriand places her army on German frontier; her 
neutrality is respected. War almost destroys 
profitable tourist business, and Interferes with 
food supplies and exports. 

1915. Sept. 21. Expenses for mobilization to Sep- 
tember 1 amount to $28,000,000. 

1917. June 19. Hoffmann, a member of the Fed- 
eral Council, resigns when liis activities m promote 
ing a separate peace between Germany and Russia 
are exposed. 

1918. Feb. 2. Socialists demand immediate de- 
mobihzation of the army. 

1919. Feb. 4. Federal Council rejects overwhelm- 
ingly motion to reduce military budget for year. 

May 11. Vorarlberg provmce (Austrian) votes to 
join Switzerland. Not received. Supreme Coun- 
cil at Paris vetoes all secessions from dimmished 
Austria. 

June 28. Guarantee of Swiss neutrality con- 
tinued bv Treaty of Versailles. [plurality. I 

Oct 26. Elections give Radical Democrats al 
1930. May 16. Plebiscite favors joining the 
League of Nations. 

SYRIA. 

Stria is the strip of territory extending from the 
frontiers of Egypt northward to the middle valley of 
the Euphrates', along the Mediterranean Sea, geo- 
graphically includmg Palestme, though the two 
lands are now to be separated. As the natural high- 
way between Asia and Africa it has been many times 
swept over by conquermg armies from the Egyptians, 
Assyrians, and Persians to the Saracens and Turks; 
and has been part of the Mesopotamian, Greek, and 
Roman emph-es. It has like'wise been for long 
periods independent. 

Syria has been for ages the point of contact be- 
tween Eastern and Western commerce tlirough its 
famous ancient ports at Tyre and Sidon; and their 
proxhnity to Antioch and Damascus. It was also 
a meeting pomt for the civUizations of Africa and 
Central Asia. For ages it was traveled by visi- 
tors to the " holv places " of the Christian faith; and 
the crusades involved the conquest of Syria. 
SjTia passed mto the hands of the Turks and m 
1914 was still organized mto vilayets of the Moslem 

For niore than a centiUT France has shown a strong 
desire to acquu-e S>Tia. In the Worid War SyTia, 
because of its nearness to the Suez Canal, became a 
battlefield between Turkish and British troops, who 
drew into aUiance neighboring Arab tnbesmen. The 
new king of Hejaz has claimed S>-ria as a part of his 
countrv- but in 1920 France received from the AUies 
a " mandate " for Syria and her armies were seek- 
ing to pacify the land. The boundaries of the new 
state have yet to he determined, but if it extends to 
what, imde'r Turkish rule, was the northern part of 
SvTia. including the vilayets of Aleppo Zor Syria 
and Beirut, the estimated area will be about 106, i40 
square miles and the population about 3,000,000. 
Among manv race elements the people of Lebanon 
are a Christian community, which since 1864 has had 
1 a claim to protection from France. 



634 - 1920. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: SYRIA — TURKEY. 



151 



Chronology. 

631. Syria wrested from the Byzantine Empire by 

the Saracens. 
lOJO. S>Tia incorporated in the Seljuk Turkish 

Empire. 
1260. Tatar invasion. 
1291. Fall of Acre marks end of Christian Kingdom 

of Jenisalem (see Palestine). [pire.l 

1516. S jTia incorporated in Ottoman Turkish Em- 1 
1740. May -28. Capitulations with Louis XV-; 

Cliristians in Turkey (especially at " holy places ") 

to be under protection of French flag 
1774. July 21. By Treaty of Kuchtik Kainarja 

Russia given indefinite rights to protect Orthodo.x 

Christians in Turkish Empire. 
1798-1599. Napoleons army in Syria (see Egypt, 

under British Empire). 
1821. Beginning of Protestant missions. 
1831-181U. Mehemet Ali in 8>Tia (see Egypt, under 

British Empire); intervention of the powers. 

1860. Tlireatened inter\'ention l:»y France, due to 
massacre of Cliristian Maronites of Mt. Leb- 
anon by Mohammedan Druses. 

1861. Sept. 6. Autonomy granted to Lebanon 
under a Christian governor. 

1901. Porte recognizes French protection of Cath- 
olics in the East. 

1915. S>Tia base of Turkish attack on Suez Canal 
(see Egypt, under British Empire). 

Oct. 2i. British promise to recognize Arabian 
independence from Aleppo southward e.vcept Bag- 
dad and Busrah. for aid against Turkey (see Hej.^z. 
Chronology of Arabia ) 

1916. May 9-16. Secret agreements between 
FraDce and Great Britain; S>Tian coast north 
of Palestine assigned to France, with an Arabian 
state over the rest of the region, and to be divided 
into French and British spheres. 

1917. Oct. 31. Opening of British SjTian campaign 
from Egypt. 

Dec. 9. Allenby occupies Jerusalem; liis ad- 
vance assisted by Arabians. 

1918. Oct.l. Damascus captured by Allenby and 
Arabian Prince Feisal. (cut | 

Oct. 25. Aleppo captured and Bagdad railway I 

1919. Sept. 16. Annoimcemcnt of agreement 
between Great Britain and France; France 
as special protector of SjTian Christians to place 
French troops for British in occupation. Ex- 
change completed in November. 

1920. January-FebTuary. Turks massacre Ar- 
menians at Marash ; part of opposition to French 
occupation. French troops compelled to retire. 
Arabs farther south revolt. 

March 8. Pan-Syrian Congress declares 
Syria an Independent (Arab) state, including 
Palestine and northern Mesopotamia. Later in 
March, however, Feisal, presumptive king, re- 
ported to have renotmced his prerogative, as well 
as the independence of SjTia. 

April 25. Supreme Council at meeting at San 
Remo makes France mandatary for SjTia. 

M'iy II. Peace treaty handed Turkey provides 
for Independence of Syria, with France as man- 
datary; also for the independence of the Hejaz. 



TASMANIA. 

See under British Empire, page 75. 



TRANSVAAL. 

See under British Empire, page 66. 



TRINIDAD. 

See under British Empire, page 74. 



TRIPOLI. 

See under Italy, page 115. 



TUNIS. 

See imder Fr.ince, page 96. 



TURKEY. 

Historical Outline. 

The Ottoman Turkisii Empire had its origin in the 
migration of a Turkoman band in the 13th centurj-, 
from their home in central Asia. They founded a 
settlement at Erzerum. near the Black Sea. Their 
first leader was Osman I. (I2SS-1326). During the 
14th century they spread through Asia Minor, as the 
Seljuk Turks had spread before them, and attacked 
the Eastern Empire. This bulwark of Christendom 
and civilization was threatened when, in the 14th cen- 
tury, the Turks crossed the Bosporus into Europe 
and began the conquest of Thrace and Macedonia. 
Little by little they reduced the Empire to a small 
territory around Constantinople, They were a 
hardy race of peasants, well-adapted to military dis- 
cipline and capable of great endurance. 



I At first they had no standing army, but in 1330 
I the Janizaries were founded. This troop at first 
i consisted of Christian children who had Ix'en cap- 
tured and brouglit up in the Mohammedan faith, 
but was recruited later from various sources. As 
the Janizaries received no pay during peace, they 
were always ready and eager for war. and furnished 
a nucleus for the militarj- power of the sultan. 

In 1453 Constantinople, to the shame and woe of 
Christendom, was captured, and the Turks soon 
reached the Danube. The golden age of the Ttu-k- 
ish Empire was during the reign of Solyman II. ; 
(1520-1566). At this time the Turkish Empire ex- j 
tended from the frontiers of Germany to Persia, and , 
the Black Sea was a Turkish lake. The whole of the 
Euplirates valley and Bagdad was conquered, the 
Venetians were driven from Greece, and the whole , 
Balkan Peninsula, with the exception of the little . 
state of Montenegro and a little strip of the Dalma- 
tian coast, was in the hands of the Turks. In the ; 
Mediterraneail. Crete and Malta were still held by ; 
the Christians: but the northern coasts of Africa i 
from Egypt to Morocco were under the supremacy 
of the sultan, whose sea power was a factor to be 
reckoned with. Occupj'ing tliis position Turkey be- 
came an iiifluence in European pohtics and inter- 
vened not simply in eastern Europe, in the Balkans, 
and in Himgarj-. but at one time was allied with 
; France against the emperor Charles V. 
I The subsequent nistorj' of Turkey is that of grad- 
! ual decline broken only by momentarj- attempts 
i at reform and military' successes. Her position has 
! been maintained and her empire prolonged by the 
' jealousies of European states which feared that in the 
, disintegration of Turkey a general war might ensue 
which would alter the balance of power in Europe. 

In the 16th centurj', Turkey suffered her first 
great defeat at the battle of Lepanto (1571). Tur- 
key took advantage of the wars of the Reformation 
to push northward till Wallachia, Himgar>", and 
Croatia were occupied. Austrians, Russians, and 
Poles still stood against them. They failed before 
Vienna in 16S2 and at the Peace of Karlowitz (1699) 
were compelled to admit their losses. The Hun- 
garian provinces were restored : Azov went to Russia, 
Podolia and the Ukraine to Poland, and Morea (the 
Peloponnesus) and Dalmatia to Venice. 

During the first part of the ISth centurj', Ahmed 
III. attempted with considerable success to regain 
some of the lost territorj-. He succeeded in wresting 
the Greek peninsula from the Venetians, but failed 
disastrously tn his war with Austria and was obliged 
to cede Belgrade, Wallacliia. and Temesv^r. In 
1730 Mahmud I. came to the throne and captured 
Belgrade. In 1768 Txu-key declared war upon Rus- 
sia, but was defeated and by the treaty of Kiichlik 
Kainarja was obliged to surrender the Crimea. 

In 1789 Selim III. made heroic efforts to recover 
what his predecessors had lost. He instituted many 
internal reforms. He was successful in dealing with 
Russia and secured the Dniester as the frontier; but 
his pashas began to revolt, and the conquest of Egypt 
by Napoleon precipitated a war with France. In 
1S07 the Janizaries dethroned Selim and after an in- 
terim of a year placed Mahmud II. on the throne. 
In 1812 peace was made with Russia by the Treaty 
of Bucharest, and the Pruth was established as the 
boundarj' line, The acquisitions of Russia at the 
expense of Turkey aroused the jealousy of the other 
European powers, and from this date Turkey be- 
came the protege of the western powers and their 
pawn to check the advance of Russia. 

The disintegration of the Turkish Empire contin- 
ued rapidly during the 19th centur>'. In 1821 the 
Greek revolt began. Contrary to their policy of 
suppressing revolutions, European powers inter- 
vened, and the Turkish fleet was defeated at Nava- 
rino by a joint Western fleet in 1827. Russia took 
tills opportunity to declare war and in 1829 wrested 
some additional territor>' from the empire, while in 
1830 the independence of the Greeks was acknowl- 
edged. In 1832 Eg>-pt revolted and in 1841 l^ecame 
autonomous under Mehemet Ali as hereditary tribu- 
tary prince. 

Since 1829 the Turkish question has centered 
aroimd the attempt of Riissia to reach the Mediter- 
ranean and the efforts of the European powers to ; 
prevent Russia from disturbing the balance of power 
in the East. The first evidence of this policy and 
counter policj' was the Crimean War (1854-1856) 
wliich involved not only Russia and Turkey, but also 
France, England, and Sardinia as allies of Turkey. 
As a result of the Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856). 
Russia was forced to abandon her pretensions to ex- 
ercise a protectorate over the Christians in Turkey, 
and to the exclusive right of interference in the Da- 
nubian pro\inces. The navigation of the Danube 
was made free; the Black Sea was closed to warships; 
and Turkey was admitted to the concert of Europe. 
All the contracting powers pledged themselves to re- 
spect her independence and the integrity of her terri- 
tory. On her part Turkey made promises of a large 
measure of autonomy for the Christian communities, 
none of which were kept, and submitted to certain 
reforms in her internal administration intended to 
safeguard the holders of her bonds. \ 



In 1876 Abdul-Hamid came to the throne and pro- 
claimed a liberal constitution, not simply for the 
European provinces but for the whole Turkish Em- 
pire. In 1S78. however, he suspended the constitu- 
tion, which was never in operation, and established a 
despotism more efficient and oppressive than that of 
his predecessors. 

Russia took the occasion, along with Roumania, 
to declare war in 1877; and after sufTering some re- 
pulses she ovenvhelmingly defeated the Turks and 
concluded the Treaty of San Stefano (March 3. 1878) 
within sight of the minarets of Constantuaople. 
Bulgaria was declared an autonomous tributary 
principahty extending from the Black Sea to the 
-Egean ; and Turkey was forced lo recognize the inde- 
pendence of Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro, 
and to introduce reforms in Bosnia and Herzego\1na. 
To Russia Turkey ceded Bessarabia and the Do- 
bruja. This treaty aroused the jealousy of the Eu- 
ropean powers and a congress was called at Berlin in 
1878. as a result of which the Treaty of Berlin was 
signed. By this agreement the territorj- assigned to 
Bulgaria was greatly reduced; Montenegro. Serbia, 
and Roumania were declared independent; the Asi- 
atic frontier of Russia was adjusted; and Great Brit- 
ain received the control of Cyprus as a reward for 
standing by the Turk. 

On the restoration of peace, some attempt was 
made by the European powers to compel Turkey to 
fulfill her promises. Financial advisers were sent 
from Germany, English officers were engaged to re- 
form the poUce. and some attempt was made to re- 
establish order in Turkish finances. In 1881 the 
great powers compelled the sultan to consent to the 
establislmient of a public debt commission, to wliich 
was given the collection of certain taxes and the ad- 
ministration of certain portions of the finances. A 
large part of the Turkish debt was repudiated, and 
the remainder secured by revenues administered by 
the commission. Almost the only advance in agri- 
culture or industrj' which has taken place in Turkey 
during the 19th centur>- has been due to the activi- 
ties of tliis commission. 

The failure of the settlement of Turkish affairs by 
the Congress of Berlin was seen in the revolt of Crete 
in 1890 and the imsuccessful war of Greece against 
Turkey in 1897. Moreover, the condition of Mace- 
donia was intolerable. Here were found representa- 
tives of all the Balkan nationalities and representEi- 
tives of all religious sects, Cliristian and Moham- 
medan. The Turkish authorities could neither 
guarantee order nor control their officers, and Mace- 
donia was the scene of massacres and atrocities. 

The sultan, Abdul-Hamid, was a despot of Ori- 
ental type, cunning, cniel. and suspicious. He was 
an adept at balancing European nations against each 
other. He massacred Armenian subjects, tyran- 
nized over the Turks; yet was flattered and favored 
by European diplomats. Among the objects of his 
favor were the Albanians, nominally subjects, really 
independent. Abdul-Hamid alienated them and in 
1908 Albanians supported a successful revolution or- 
ganized by the Young Turks, a group holding princi- 
ples of constitutional government and animated by 
ideas of Western culture. They demanded that the 
constitution of 1876 be restored, including the prom- 
ised elective parliament with a responsible ministry, 
which could put an end to the despotic rule of the 
sultan. 

The sultan, overborne by force, granted their de- 
mands, and on December 17 a Tiu-kish parliament 
was opened. It was felt that this revolution would 
modernize and liberalize Tiirkey and that perhaps 
the old racial and religious feuds would disappear; 
but the Young Turks were not able to carry out their 
policies. 

The revolution, however, disturbed the delicate 
balance in the Balkans. Bosnia and Herzeg:ovina. 
since 1878 under Austrian control, were now defi- 
nitely incorporated into the Austro-Himgarian Em- 
pire, inasmuch as the Turkish suzeraintj' had ceased 
in the revolution. Bulgaria proclaimed her inde- 
pendence from the nominal Turkish suzerainty and 
Prince Ferdinand, the German sovereign of the state, 
assumed the title of Czar. Later, the Greek popula- 
tion of Crete declared for a union with Greece. 
These territorial changes constituted a breach of the 
Treaty of Berlin and strengthened Austria at the ex- 
pense of the Sla\ic Balkan states, thereby weakening 
Russia's influence. 

The new Turkish parliament met in December, 
1908. and refused to support the ministries appointed 
by the sultan. Meanwhile, AbduJ-Hamid plotted 
a counter-revolution, was thereupon deposed, and 
his brother placed on the throne with the title of 
Mohammed V. The Young Turks were in complete 
control but failed to take advantage of their oppor- 
tunity. Although they might be liberal in theory, 
in practice they oppressed the subject races as the 
old regime had done. >, Their policj- was " Turkey for 
the Turks." and they tried to suppress the liberties 
which had. been granted to the OrthodOK Greek 
Church and to reenJorce the Moslem element. In 
so doing they alienated not only the Armenians, but 
also the other large Christian elements — the Greeks^ 
Bulgarians, and Serbians. 



1663 — 1839. 



u 



w 



X 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: TURKEY. 

H thp old con- 1 1C84. Venice joins the aUies a«ainst the Turks^ 
In 1908 an imperial decree restored the old con lOM^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ defeated 



J A\ay^in 1 In 1908 an imperial aecree i^oi^w.^^ v.... — .1 tauR Turks are driven from Buda and deieatea m 
Italy chose this moment of unea^me^and^^^^^^^^ ^^, P „.,, ^^^^, «-^S' wi the ''t'eJZf 

tion to send her warships to Tnpoh « hich »r >ea ^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ parliamentary governn ent wa^ tne t 



tion to send her wat^hips to Tripoh which for^ean, ^tution o,^^^ parliamentary government wa^ the- 
she had desired as a possession on the northern , ^™ established. PracticaUy, however, a seU- 

coast of Africa to balance England s h" ■? o" ^gj^pt o^ ^, „, „,e Young Turks, of «hom the 

ind France's on Tunis and Algeria. Although iiai> , ut_ o i,,„,.„^ Pn..ha was the chief, were the real 

had no difficulty in obtaimng the coast cities, she 



naa no oimuun-j ■" ^^^ — — = ,— ; - . ^„_:„- to 
was imable to make progress in the ^f^^ ^° 
hrine Turkey to terms, she seized the 'fana oi 
Rhodes'^^d 'the eleven other Turkish islands whi^h 
with it constitute the Dodecanese. Tm;^' ^^Sch 
and on October 15, 1912. a treaty wa.s -'8^ ''^ ™^^' 
Turkey sun-endered Tripoli, a.ul Italy "greed W with 

draw her troops from the D™'^''*"';?"; ^'"S! ie^s^. 
ever, as late as 1920 had not been done. T e s^ 
niflcance of this war lies m the tact that the dis 
memterment of Asiatic Turkey had begnn and that 
Turkey was unable to protect its "itegnty 
. The Balkan War may be considered "1 the direct 
consequence of the failure of the Young Turks. An 
aman^e of Bulgaria. Serbia, and Oreece was formed 
to spite of raciil and religious differences and tern- 
tnrial iealousies. Premier \emzelos. a man ol 
Crefan bfrth who had been instrumental in r^.cumg 
Crete from Turkish control and Jommg it wi« 
Greece, was the soul of this combmation. In Octo 



l!S^r\SriiLhrv;r;^;S:f:'were the real 

"".TdustTrand Labor. The land laws of Tt.key 
are such that the greater part of 'he agricul m al land 
is held by the cro^™. another part by^^-l'l"'"^"^^ 
ders while freehold property is found chiefly m the 
to^s and neighboring villages. The agrictOttu-al 
methods are primitive and the natural '^^rtUit^y of the 
soil is not utilized by the tenant farme.^_ Moreover, 
the principal source of state revenue is tithti. on a«ri 
cultural produce. These are levied by contractors 
who bid for the privUege of coUecting rev^"^^'™"^ 
certain localities. The principal Products are to- 
bacco, which is everj-where found, cereals, cotton. 
Bgs. fruits, nuts, and coffee. Ki;=hori 

Eeligion. Mohammedanism^ is the^estabhshed 



Beligion. Mohammeaamsm i» i.uo \."r"r::;~ .r.g 
reUgion of the state, and tl^_,sulta. as caliph is the ^ in6. 



1687 Turks are routed at Mohacs by Charles of 
Lorrame; Venetians capture Athens. jBaden^i 

1691 Turks aredefeated at Slankanien by Louis otl 

1696". Russians take Azov (see Rissia). and in the 
foUowing year, Sept. 11. Prince Eugene of Savoy 
crushes the Turkish army in the battle of Zenta. 

1699 Peace of Karlowitz with Austria. Poland, 
and Venice Turks relinquish Hungary, between 
the Danube and the Tisza, and Leopold 1. receives 
Transylvania; Poland recovers a large portion of 
the Ukraine, and Venice receives the Morea. 1 ur- 
kev, once the terror of Austria, now gives groimd^ 
171l" Tiu-ks espouse the cause of Charles Xll. oi 
Sweden against Russia and recover Azov from Pe- 
ter the Great by Treaty of the Pruth (see Russn). 
1715. Turks capture the Morea from \ enice. 
Native rulers of Roumania are supplanted by 
Turkish governors. 



kisil guveiiiuis. , 

War with Austria breaks out, and the 



reUgion oi tne siaie. auu ^..^ =«. — — , ''.^ri The 
supreme head; but other religions are tolerated. The 
Mohammedans -Turks. Kurds, and other races 
are a majority of the PoptUaUonin Asiatic Ttirke^^ 



Crete irum iu.»j.j.. ^„..,.-. — - t„ octo- ' are a majority oi me yutJLuai-i-^ii ." . - 

Greece, was the soul of this combmation. ^ Octo , are a ^ ^ \ ,^^^,,.^^ „ave always been a decided 
ber, Montenegro, Serbia, BtUgaria, '^"d Greece de but u^^^ population. The Christian popti- 

clared war on Turkey, demanding autonomy for mmom ^ Cathohcs, Orthodox Greek 

Macedonia, Christian governors for *e provinc^ lations mem ^ Armenian Catholics, Ni^to- 

^?itf^Vr!!srrtra[,re,;^efminJtriurpVfrrl^ians, BtUgarian Cathohcs, Jews, and Protestant 

the aUies; Turkey made a peace (May 30, 1913) '»■ i ^ej "eation. Education is nominaUy compulsoo' 
which she lost practically all her European poss^- 1 ^^^Xdren of both sexes between the ages of 7 
sions save Constantinople and the territory m its im- ^o"- ^ ''h ^^^ ^^^g„ed to the mosque 

rh^^^^^s^bSacJd^c^iif :'^Ttilfr o^^^^^ o^r l :clk a large nm^iber of madrasahs or theologi- 



the r aims, out ^Niaceuui..* .,^^^. j" .„,„„:„ ,„ 

troversy whUe Austrian influence caused Albania to 
STded^ed an hidependent state, shuttmg off Serbia 
from any Adriatic port. Bulgaria opposed the de- 
t^ands of Serbia in Macedonia and the second BaU.an 
War broke out (July, 1913) . Dmnng this war Tur- 
key was allowed by Bulgaria to reoccupy Adrianople^ 
S Roumania attacked Bulgaria in the rear, fore ng 
a neace by wliicli Tiu-key received back some of the 
a peacL ui " H„i„Tm in tlie first Balkan War. 

territory eained by Bulgaria in Liie lust ijti 
'' Long^before the two Balkan wars Germany and 



'"DeTnsc'^The most important fortress in Euro- 
nean Turkey is Adrianople, while Constantinople is 
S'enl^ by the lines of Chatalja^ and the Bosport. 
and DardaneUes are strongly fortified. By the law 
of Febmary, 1917. universal mUitary service was 
etawShed between the agas of 20 and 45. with two 
N^are of active service in the line and the remamder 
upTo the age of 40 in the reserve^ Those between 
i,Biiii-u., so,,..... -.. ---=.- r-^-m^nv and 40 and 45 were enroUed in the temtorial army, ine 

Long before the two Balkan wars, Germany and 4"^™^^ ^ ^f j^g Turkish army should have been 
Austril-Hungary were extending the.r influence in peace strengwo^ _^^^ „,obiUzation should have 
the Turkish Empu-e at the e^Pct^«°' ^"f.^'^,,^^^ p^od^c^d 750,000. Under the terms of the arini- 
England and were checkmg the growth of strong i P™duce'i ^ ' igig. all Turkish ships and vessels 
Slavic states in the BaU^ans. Gennan caP'tal. tmder st'ce^Ucto ^^^^^^^ ,^ ^^^^ Allies. , ^ ^ . . 

favorable concessions, was poured '"to Turkey^ ol war ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^1 ^^^^ ^, Turkish 

The German embassy was all but the seat of Turkish " ^^ ^"^?^^° t^e World War was 613.724 square 
government. On the outbreak of the World War Ss and the population about 20.973.9(10. By 

^ntmen to the Black Sea and then^bom^bardee, fl^^t BalUan^^^^ar in an estimated area^f 438,7^.0 

square miles and a population ol l-^-^O^and wiU 
have remaining an area of only f °^ 1!,?,'0°° "'>""'''' 
miles and a population of about S.OOO.OOO. 

FORMER TURKISH POSSESSIONS. 

The empire of Turkey was once a vast area includ- 
ini-theeStern part of Austria-Hungary, large areasof 
Russia and an Uie Balkans, Egypt and tlie fo^ other 
North African states, Crete, and Cyprus^ Most of 
These territories were lost before 1914. Tripoli wa^ 



Odessa. Therefore (November 5) England, France, 
and Ru-ssia declared war upon Turkey. 

to Febmary and March, 1915. a British-French 
fle^ tried to force the Dardanelk^. but w^ re- 
Dulsed In April a landing was made on the^Galli- 
Si^ninsula and a foothold was maintamed until 
the end of the year. Then the AUies flnaUy aban- 
don^ the attempt at a direct capture of Constanti- 
noDte Farther east a composite British and Indian 
?or™ invaded Mesopotamia and after a disastrous 
s^^nder at Kut-el-Amara flnaUy captured Bag- 



surreimei .. ^ara flnaUy captured Bag- these terrenes «e,.->.-^^^ 

^d March 1 L 1917. Another force under Genend ceded to Itab. 9^^^^^^^^^^^,^^^^, i,aly continued to 
SfenKVanced through Palestine an^^^^^^ 



Tiu-ks are beaten at Petenvardein. August 5, by 
the forces of Prince Eugene. He overcomes the 
Turks at Belgrade, August IG, and enters the city 
two days later. ^ „ ~% 

1718 The Treaty of Passarowitz (Pozarevac) 
with Austria and Venice, July 21. Tmtey re- 
tains the Morea, but loses to Charles M, the 
Banat parts of Serbia and Bosnia, Belgrade and 
WaUacliia. Dahnatia ceded to Venice in return 
for the Morea. . 

1737 Austria renews the war against Turkey, but 
two years later agrees to Treaty of Belgrade, by 
wliich the Turks regain Belgrade and terntory in 
Serbia Azov granted to Russia on condition 
that Russians make no use of the Black Sea 
1768. Tiu-key declares war agamst Russia at tne 

titne of a Polish insurrection (see Russia). 
1774 The Russians besiege Shumla. and a peace is 
made at Kiichiik Kainarja, by wliich Turkey 
gives up her suzerainty over the Crimea and 
Sther Tatar territories. By famous Article V II. 
Russia is allowed an embassy chiirch '" Constan- 
tinople and becomes Protector of (he Orthodox 
Christians in the Ottoman Empire. 
1787. Turkey renews the war against Russia; Aus- 
trian force moves against Belgrade. 
1789. Turks are defeated by the Austrians and 

Russians at Focsani. and Belgrade is cap ured. 
1791. August. Peace with Austria is concluded at 
Sistova, and in January, 1792, with Russia at 
Jassy (see Russia). . t, 

1798. Bonaparte in Egypt (see Eff»p(,unde^Bm™H 

^'''"Tlne Treaty signed with France (seel 
... Czertiy Djordje leads the Serbians in a re- 
;;it agamst Turkey . Two years later Russia de- 
clares war (see Russia). . 

1807 Serbian rebels succeed in overcommg the 
Tm"kish authority. . __ . 

1808. Mahnuid II. ascends the throne of Turkey. 

181' A peace with Russia is signed at Bucharest, 
May 2S: by which the Pruth is made the bound- 
ary llni ^tween the two countries. Thus, Rus- 

Isl'r^TurS'succ^d in rei^stablishing their rule 
ov;r Serbia, but a second insurrection occurs t^w^ 
years later imder the leaderslup of Milos Obre- 
novic- 



tersai;r(DTcemi;;r, 1917): Damascus (October 1 
19m and Aleppo (October 25, 191S., thus shattering 
Jhe Turkish Empire in Syria. Arabia had long before 
revolted and founded the kingdom of the Hejaz. 

OctSier 31, Turkey withdrew from the war and 
announced her acceptance of any conditions the 
Alhes might propose. Warships appeared in the 
Bospoms and Allied troops landed in Asia Mmor 
For a year and a half in-egular hostilities went on; 
Italy Greece, and France seized Tm-kish temtorj-^ 
The Turks revived the massacres of Armenians and 
in March, 1920, AUied troops occupied Constanti- 
nople 



Organization. 

Government. Until the constitution of 1876, 
Ti^kev was an absolute despotism^ The riile of the 
siUtan: however, was tempered by tradition^ In 
Dractiie he appointed ministers who exercised the 
executive power in divan, but he could disavow them, 
„rtliem, or execute them. The great doctors 
of the Moslem law might exercise some restraint but 
there was no legislature or attempt to constih the will 
of the subjects. The constitution of 1876 would 
have provided for a Chamber of Deputies, one for 
every 6 000 electors, and a Senate of members ap- 
Sed byt.he sultan; instead, Abdul-Hamid es-tal> ' 
lished an autocracy even more complete than that of j 

his predecessors. j„;„„ ' 

From remote ages the Western merchants doing 
business in Turkey were entitled to Pr'V'lfges of ; 
exterritoriality under ^o-caUed " Capitula ion 
which relieved them from the junsdiction of Turkish i 
courts. These privileges, on which the citizens of 
the United States stand, were declared by the Turk- 
ish government to be nuUifled ui 1915. 



line UUiiev^aiii..^*-. ..•"-.- . 

occunv The Turkish rule in Arabia was disrupted 
bv the rise of the independent kingdom o Hejaz 
and shadowy rights over the interior of Arabia alone 
remahT toiler Tiu-kish control over Syria Pales- 
tine Cilicia. the Aidin region ,SmjTna). and Armema 
was threatened if not already lost. 

In the World War. Turkey took the losing side, 
and the emp're has been disrupted The following 
?erritorierhave been transferred to other countries: 
Tlirace to Greece; Aidin to Greece; Mesopotamia to 
Great Britain; Eg>-pt (under nominal suzeramty) to 

"'Tnlddlrio'S; the foUowing areas have been created 
to estabfch themselves as independent im.ts (winch 
seeV \rmenia (originally intended for American 
mandate which was decUned by the Um^ted States 
T^Zr Sejaz - formeriy the Turk^h province 
i^\lvet] of Arabia; Palestine (British mandate). 
Syria (French mandate). 

Chronology. 

166S. Kuprili leads the Turkish forces in an inva- 
sion of Hungary (see Austria). In the, loi 

i tow"ng year tlTey are defeated at St. Gothard. 
Anmst 1, bv Montecuccoli. 
1669 Candla is wrested from Venice by the Turks. 

i 1673 Tuikish invaders are repulsed at Kliotm by 
John Sobicski, afterward king of Poland. 
168? Turks become aUies of Himgarj. m the revolt 

^ a^Linst Austria (see Austria), In July of the 
Swing year the Tiu-ks imder Kara Mustafa be- 
s^egrvTe^na, which is defended by Stahremberg, 
but they are routed by the armies of Sobieski, 
Charles duke of Lorraine, and the electoi^ of Ba- 
varia andtaxony, September 12. Farthest ex- 
tent of Turkish power. 



NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1817. Milos Obrenovic is elected Prince o^ Serbia 

(see Serbia under Jugo-Slavia). [Greece) 

1821 1830. Greek war for independence (seel 
Use. Mahmud II. causes a massacre of the 

Janizaries, who have made themselves kmgmak- 

ers and that body is abolished. 

lireaty with Russia is signed at Aiennan by 

which the Black Sea is made free to aU navigation. 
18'8 ipr.i Reforais are promised in the Rou- 

18T'Xp'5"J7''a peace favorable to Russia is 
signed at Adrianople, by which Russia Promises to 
nrm^de the siUtan with troops hi case o need 
S Turkey agrees to close the Straits if the 

iZ"" indlpeii^ence of Greece declared by the 
poweHee GREECE) and is recognized by Turkey. 

IS-^r^TiSrs^arrrou^elrylbrahlm Pasha (see 

i«^i''**The Russians come to the aid of Turkey 
ag;iiJt Eg^pt but peace is established w th the 
^ceroy the sultan ceding Syria and other re- 
Sons A treaty is concluded with Russia at Un- 

■^Xjflr' convention of Miinchengratz (see 
Nineteentb-Centurv Period^ jhrahim 

1S19 Turkey renews war on Egypt. Ibrahim, 
!™ of Meliemet Ali, defeats the Tm-ks and makes 
s^chhea^ demands on the Porte that the powers 

I Sere and force Ibrahim to relinquish Crete 
and S5Tia (see Egypl. mider British Empire and 



1839 — 1909. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: TURKEY. 



153 



1839 iamtimied) . 

Nineteenth-Centcbt Period). War concluded 
in 1S41. 

July 1. Mahniud II. dies and Ls succeeded by 
Abdul-Mejid. 

Nov. 3. By the advice of Reshid Pasha, the 
sultan promulgates a hatii-sherij, proposing con- 
stitutional reforms within the empire. \ 

1811. Peace is made with Egypt and Meliemet j 
All recognized as a hereditary tributary prince 
(see Egypt) . A treaty with the powers ie also con- 
cluded by which the Dardanelles are closed to 
foreign warships when the Porte is at peace. 
Druses mm-der Maronitcs in Lebanon. 

1850. An insurrection breaks out In Bosnia, but it 
is quelled in the following year by Omar Pasha. 

1853. Montenegrins begin a war against Turks. 

1853. Omar Pasba conducts a campaign against 
the Montenegrins; interrupted by imminence of 
the Crimean War. Hostilities break out with 
Russia, Turkey having tlic support of Great Brit- 
ain and France (see these coimtries.) 

1854. England and FruTu-r sentl armies and navies 
to the Black Sea, and the Crimea becomes the 
principal seat of a war lasting for three years. 

1855. Feb, 18. Abdul-Mejid proclaims a haUi- 
humayun, a Statute promising administrative re- 
ferms and equal rights to all nationalities and re- 
ligions. 

March SO. Treaty of Paris terminates the Cri- 
mean War (see Russia). 

1860. Druses again massacre the Maronltes in 
Lebanon; many Ctiristians at Damascus are slain. 
The powers hereupon interfere and French troops 
are stationed in Syria. 

1861. Insurrection breaks out in Herzegovina, 
aided by the Montenegrins. In June, Abdul- 
Mejid is succeeded by Abdul-Aziz. At the de- 
mand of the powers a Christian is appointed to 
serve as governor of Lebanon. Montenegrins are 
defeated by Omar Pasha. 

ISK'J. Turks and Serbians in Belgrade wage a 
bloody war. 

1866. insurrection breaks out in Crete, but the 
Turks in the two years following vanquish rebels. 

1867. Turkish troops are withdrawn from Serbia 
after 500 years. 

An " Organic Statute " of government is granted 
but is too elaborate to work well. 
1871. May. Abrogation of certain clatises of the 
Treaty of Paris by which Russia had been refused 
the right to have vessels or fortifications on the 
Black Sea (see Nineteenth-Century Period). 

1875. July. Insurrection in Herzegovina; and 
(August) in Bosnia. 

1876. Jan. 31. Powers send a note to the Porte 
demanding reforms. Insurrection continues. 

May 6. ConsuI.s of France and Germany are 
murdered at Saloniki, and in the same month 
massacres oc(hu* in Bulgaria by bashi-bazouks. 
English people aroused (see Bulgaria). 

May 12. A revolution occurs in Constantino- 
ple, whereupon the Berlin Memoranduin is 
drawn up (May 14) by Gorchakov. Bismarck, and 
Andrdssy, proposing a mixed commission to in- 
vestigate grievances and propose reforms. Fails 
through the refusal of Disraeli to participate on 
behalf of England. 

May 29. The sultan Abdul-Aziz is deposed 
(later assassinated) and Murad V. is placed on the 
Turkish throne. July 2, war is declared by Mon- 
tenegro and Serbia. 

Aug. 31. IMurad V. is deposed, and is suc- 
ceeded by Abdul-Hamid II. 

October. The Serbians are conquered but are 
saved from utter ruin by Russia. 

Oct. 30. Russia issues an ultimatum to Tm*- 
key. and on the following day a general armistice 
is signed. December 19, Midhat Pasha is created 
grand vizier. 

Dec. 23. Constitution for the Turkish Empire 
promulgated. On the same day a conference of 
the great powers begins at Constantinople. 

1877. Jan. IS. The propositions of the conference 
as to reforms in Turkey are rejected. Two days 
later the conference ends. February 5. Midhat 
Pasha is dismissed from office. IVIarch 1, a peace 
with Serbia follows. The powers make a protocol 
at London, March 31, but the Porte rejects it. 
April 9. 

April 16. Russia and Roumania conclude a 
convention. April 24. Russia makes a declara- 
tion of war against Turkey. Russian troops in- 
vade Roumania and Armenia. 

May. Roumania becomes engaged in the war 
against the Porte, and on May 21 proclaims her 
independence. 

June 27. The Russians cross the Danul^e at 
Zimnicea (Simjiitza). July 9. Mukhtar Pasha 
compels the Russians to give up their siege of 
Kars. July 13 and 14, Gurko passes the Balkans, 
and on July 16, Nicopolis falls. 
Osman Pasha is victorious at Plevna, July 20. and 
on July 30 a part of the Grand Duke Nicholas's 
army is overcome before that city. August 21, 
Solyman attacks the Russians in the Shipka Pass. 



September S, Niksic yields to the Montenegrins, 
October 15, Mukhtar Pasha, routed in the battle 
of Alaja Dagh, retreats. November IS, Kars is 
stormed. December 10, Osman Pasha, evacuat- 
ing Plevna and making for Sofia, is attacked and 
surrenders. December 14, Serbia declares war 
against Tui'key. 
1878. Jan. 9. Turkish troops in Sblpka Pass; 
captured. 

Jan. 17. Army of Soiyman is utterly routed 
near Phllippopolls. 

Jail. 20. Adrlanople is occupied by the Rus- 
sians. The victors move toward Constantinople 
and an armistice is made, January- 31. The Brit- 
ish fleet enters the Sea of IVlarmora. February- 13. 

March 3. Treaty of San Stefano forced on 
Turkey. Montenegro is trebled in size, Serbia 
enlarged and granted an outlet to the sea, and the 
large new state of Bulgaria created. 

April. Great Britain enlists a division of se- 
poys at Bombay to ser\'e as troops against the 
Russians. Jmie 4. England concludes a secret 
agreement with Tiu-kej', by which she promises to 
maintain Integrity of tbe Turkish Empire in 
Asia, while the Porte permits occupation of Cyprus 
by British soldiei-s; results in annexation, 1914. 

July IS. Treaty of Berlin by a congress of 
powers. Roumania. Serbia, and Montenegro are 
declared to be independent principalities, while the 
larger part of Turkish Armenia, with Kars and 
Ardahan. Batum, and a portion of Bessarabia, go 
to Russia; Turks promise reforms in Asia Minor; 
not carried out. 

The Pact of Halepa makes another imsuccessful 
attempt to settle Cretan discontent 

1880. Ju}ie. Another conference of the powers is 
held in Berlin, and in September a naval demon- 
stration is made off the Albanian coast to enforce 
the decree of the Congress of Berlin. 

1881. May 12. French treaty with Timis; France 
to conduct foreign afl'airs. A virtual protectorate 
against which Turkey protests. 

1883. Policy of Abdul-Hamid, reorganization of 
liis empire on Islamitic principles, ends m failure 

1883. Troubles in Armenia Ijecome acute. The 
promise of the Porte to reform the abuses is not 
fulfilled. The oppressed Armenians, relying upon 
the active sj-nipathies of Russia and England, be^ 
gin agitation which breaks into an actual insiurec- 
tion. The Ottoman government destroys the in- 
surgents. 

A resolution is passed by the Cretan assembly de- 
claring that the land taxes known as the vacouf 
(wakf) shall no longer be paid to the Turkish 
government. 

Von der Goltz aUowed by Germany to go into 
Turkey as an adviser, chiefly military; the begin- 
ning of the growth of German ascendancy in the 
Ottoman Empire. 

1884. The efforts of Abdul-Hamid to nationalize 
his admhiistration bring him into fresh difficulties 
with his Cliristian subjects. Outrages are com- 
mitted by Mussulman fanatics in Macedonia. A 
rebellion occurs in Yemen. Difficulty arises on 
the frontier of Montenegro. 

1885. Insurrections in different parts of the em- 
pire, and foreign comphcations. especially the diffi- 
culty with Bulgaria, lead to the mobilization of the 
Turkish army and to the assembUng of the repre- 
sentatives of the great powers in a conference at 
Constantinople. In this conference, Great Brit- 
ain and Russia are brought into sharp controversy. 
An agreement is reached with England for the man- 
agement of Egyptian affairs by two commis- 
sioners appoint«l one by the Porte and the other 
by the British government. 

1886. An extradition and naturaUzation treaty 
with the United States. 

1888. The Christian party in Armenia agitates the 
Question of nationahty, invohing the reestablish- 
ment of the ancient kingdom of Armenia. Turk- 
ish administration answers with repressive meas- 
ures and cruelties. An appeal of the Armenians 
to Great Britain for protection is refused on the 
ground that interference is forbidden by the 
Treaty of Berlin. 

Oct. 29. Suez Canal Convention (see Egypt). 

1889. Turkish outrages In Armenia shock the na- 
tions. The Porte attempts to justify by necessity 
of suppressing insurrection. 

1890. Outrages in Armenia continue; the ques- 
tion becomes international. A campaign begins 
for the subjugation of the Dnises of Hauran. 

1891. Insurrection among the Asirs of Yemen; 
Turkey is influenced thereby to friendly relations 
with Russia ana France as against Great Britain. 

1893. The Armenian Nationalists establish com- 
mittees in the various capitals of Europe for the 
purpose of rousing public opinion. Political trials 
of the Armenians are prosecuted, and a measure 
of justice is secured under the criticism of Europe. 

1895. Reign of terror in Armenia breaks out 
with greater violence. The half-savage Kurds of 
the vilayets attack the Armenian towns. April 23, 
a commission is appointed by the sultan (who is 
protected by the Treaty of Berlin) which, driven by 



the civilized opinion of the world, begins its sittings 
in Constantinople to devise a scheme of adminis- 
trative reform. 

1896. A rebeUion headed by native revolutionists 
and other filibusters breaks out in Crete. Effort- 
is made by the National party to transfer Crete to 
Greece. The Porte promises reforms, and the 
consuls at Kanea are appointed a commission to 
carr>' them into execution. 

1897. Greece declares war on Turkey, on behalf 
of the Cretans, but is defeated. 

1898. WiUiam II. of Germany makes a second offi- 
cial visit to the sultan. From this time on, Ger- 
man officers and commercial agents reorganize 
Turkisli military and conmiercial life. 

1901. Owing tu long-continued delays in the settle- 
ment of French claims, France withdraws her 
ambassador from Constantinople, August 27, 
and late in October sends a fleet to enfoice her 
claims. It seizes Mytllene, November 5, and 
takes possession of the customs. Ttu'key then 
yields to all the French demands. 

Sept. S. Miss Ellen M. Stone, an American 
niissionarj', with Mrs, Tsilka, assistant, is cap- 
tured by brigands, in the moimtains between 
Bulgaria and Turkey. 

190?. Fco. 2S. MissStoneand Mrs. T?ilka released 
after the payment of ransom of neai'ly S75,U00. 

1903. Serious outbreaks in Macedonia, said to be fo- 
mented by the Macedonian committee in Bulga- 
ria. In Februar>-. Austria and Russia demand re- 
forms in the administration of jNIaccdonia, wliich 
the sultan pronuses to grant. April 30, the Otto- 
man bank at Saloniki is blown up and martial law 
declared. Powers, notably Russia and Austria, 
remonstrate both at Sofia and Constantinople and 
insist on reform measures. 

Marih 5. An agreement is made with Germany 
allowing the latter to build the Bagdad railway. 

1904. Jan. 6. Bulgaria complains that the prom- 
ised reforms in Macedonia are not being carried 
out. Januarj' 13, the Porte accepts Macedo- 
nian reform scheme of Austria and Russia 
(Miirzsteg Program). April S, the Tin*ko-Bul- 
garian convention pledges Turkey to tr>- the re- 
form plans and Bulgaria to check revolutionary 
movements in Macedonia. 

.4 ugust. American schools are granted the same 
rights as other schools, thus settling a long dispute. 
In bringing tliis about an American squadron is 
ordered to Smyrna. 

1905. May 8. Powers demand international con- 
trol of the finances of Macedonia. November 15, 
they present an ultimatum to the Porte de- 
manding financial reforms, with notice that re- 
fusal will be followed by naval demonstration. 
November 21. an international fleet is ordered to 
Pirajus. November 25, Mytilene is seized; the 
Porte formally yields, and. December 15, the fleet 
withdraws. 

1908. The Young Turks, a party headed by men 
educated in Western Europe, who beheve that 
Turkey can develop a strong national government 
on a more or less popular basis, secure the support 
of troops. 

July 2if. ReTOlutlon In Constantinople. 
The sultan yields in a panic and proclaims the re- 
vival of the Constitution of 1876. 

July 27. Sultan publicly takes oath of alle- 
giance to the constitution and orders the election 
of a parhament. In the election the subject Chris- 
tian races have little opportunity. 

Ang. 20. Turkey and Persia settle the bound- 
ao' dispute. All Austrian officers in the Turkish 
service are ordered home. 

Aug. 21. Government appoints a British ad- 
viser for the naval department and a French ad- 
viser for the finances. 

Aug. 22. Tui'kish representatives are recalled 
from Belgrade. Berlin, and Vienna. 

Sept 23. Turkey appeals to the powers against 
the occupation of the Oriental railway by Bul- 
garian troops. 

Oct. 10. Boycott is begun at Constantinople 
against German and Austrian goods. 

Der 17. Sultan opens the Turkish Parlia- 
ment amid general rejoicing. 

1909. J a n 1 2. Turkey accepts the offer of Austria- 
Himgary to pay S10.5(X),000 and grant certain 
concessions as indemnity for the annexation of 
Bosnia and Herzegovina. A protocol is signed on 
February 26. 

Feb. 13. Parliament votes no confidence in 
Kiami! Pasha, grand vizier, who at once resigns. 
February 14, the sultan instrticts Hilmi Pasha to 
form a cabinet. 

A pril 13. Garrison in Constantinople mutinies, 
forcing the resignation of the grand vizier, the 
minister of war, and the president of the Chaml>er. 
On the whole, the mutiny i.5 accompanied by little 
bloodshed. It is suppressed, April 24. 

April 14- Tcwfik Pasha as grand vizier forms a 
new cabinet. April 17. the " Committee of Union 
and Progress " influences the Third Army Corps 
to march on Constantinople from Saloniki. 

April 19. Turko-Bulgarian agreement is 



154 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: TURKEY. 



1909 — 1920. 



N 



U 



W 



X 



1909 (eonlinued). 

signed at Constantinople. Bulgaria agreeing to 
pav $16,400,000 for her independence. 

'April S4. Constantinople garrison surrenders 
to the troops from Saloniki. 

April 27. Abdul-Hamld II. is deposed, his 
brother, Mohamnaed Reshad, being proclamied 
sultan as Mohammed V. The next day the de- 
posed Siiltaii is removed witii a poriion of his 
harem to Saloniki, where he is liept a prisoner. 

April £9. Alter summary court-martial, 250 
persons are executed at Constantinople. Diu-ing 
next few days many other e.xecutions take place. 

May .5. Hilmi Paslia becomes grand vizier 
and MoUah Saliib, sheik ul Islam. Meanwhile 
there are riots and atrocities in Asiatic Tiu-key, 
especially at Adana. 

June 10. Turkey asks the powers to reconsider 
their decision to evacuate Crete at the end of July, 
which request is granted on June l-i, but on Jidy 
13 the four protecting powers notify the Turkish 
government that on July 26 they will withdraw 
their garrisons from Crete and station four war- 
ships in Cretan waters to maintain the slnius quo. 

1910. Jan. 6. The Porte sends a note to the pow- 
ers remonstrating against Cretan officials swearing 
allegiance to the king of Greece. 

Feb. 1£. Cretan government is cautioned by 
the powers; followed by an ultimatum on July 3. 

Oct S. Over 800 Druses killed by Turkish 
forces sent into northwestern Syria to collect arms. 

Nov. 9. Contracts for a loan of $22,000,000 
made with an Austro-Hungarian syndicate. 

1911. April 20. Eebelllon against Tiu-kish rule 
in Albania. The insurgents severely dealt with. 
To conciliate foreign opinion, the Turkish govern- 
ment in August concedes nearly all the demands of 
the rebels, and grants a general amnesty. 

September. War with Italy (see Italy). Trip- 
oli and Dodecanese conquered by Italy. 

Oct. 4. New cabinet is formed by Said Pasha, 
who resigns December 30. 
1913. For the war with Italy, see Italy. 

Jan. S. Cabinet is reconstructed by Said 
Pasha. 

Jan. IS. Chamber of Deputies is dissolved by 
imperial decree. 

Feb. 2S. Great Britain, France, and Russia de- 
cide to send warships to Crete; reported attacks on 
the Mohammedans by Christians. 

March. CretaB Assembly elects delegates to the 
Greek Assembly. Foreign warsliips prevent the 
delegates from reaching Athens. 

July. Albanians revolt; Albanian commis- 
sion is appointed and extensive reforms promised 
July 17. Said Pasha's cabinet resigns. Mukh. 
tar Pasha is made grand vizier, July 21. Army 
officers demand dissolution of deputies, July 25. 
Parliament is dissolved. August 5. 

Aug. 0. Martial law is proclaimed in Constan- 
tinople. 

Aug. 10. Great earthquake. Gallipoli prac- 
tically laid to the groimd, and many villages on 
the shores of the Sea of Jlarmora seriously dam- 
aged. 

Sept. SO. Critical situation in the Balkans cul- 
minates in tlie confederation of Bulgaria. Serbia. 
Montenegro, and Greece (Balkan allies) against 
Turkey, and in the mobilization of the allied armies. 
October. Balkan War breaks out. Monte- 
negrins formally declare war October 8. advanc- 
ing on Scutari, the capital of Albania. An identic 
note is presented to the Porte by Bulgaria, Serbia, 
and Greece, demanding autonomy for Macedonia 
and withdrawal of Turkish troops. October 17, 
Turkey declares war upon Bulgaria and Serbia 
October 18, Greece also declares war on Tiu-key. 
Fijihting now becomes general, the allies penetrat- 
ing thf OHoman territory and sweeping the Turks 
before thrm. October 25, the Bulgarians cap- 
ttire Kirk Kilise. October 31, Turkish army 
is routed in the great battle of Liile-Burgas. 
Greeks invade Macedonia. 

Oct. IS. Treaty of Lausanne with Italy (see 
Italy). 

Oct. 26. In the northwest the Serbians take 
tjskilp, the former capital of old Serbia. 

Oct. 29. Muklitar Pasha resigns and is suc- 
ceeded the next day by Kiamil Pasha, who for the 
fifth time forms a cabinet. 

Nov. 3. Porte asks the powers to mediate. 
Turks prepare to make their last stand at the 
Chatalja lines, which guard the approaches to 
the capital. Cholera breaks out in the ranks of the 
opposing armies. 

Macedonia is overrun by the allies. November 8, 
Greeks occupy Saloniki, and, November 10, the 
Serbian and Bulgarian forces also enter. King 
George of Greece enters amid great enthusiasm, 
November 12. 

Nov. n. Armistice is signed by Turkey and 
Bulgaria. 

Nov. 18. Monastir, the remaining Turkish 
stronghold in Macedonia, surrenders to the Ser- 
bians, (cess I 
Biilgarians attack the Chatalja lines without sue- 1 



Nor. 28. Serbia occupies the Adriatic port of 
Durazzo. in defiance of Austria and ignoring the 
Albanian declaration of independence. 

Dec. S. Armistice Is concluded between 
Turkey and Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro. 
Dec. IB. Peace conference opens in London 
attended by plenipotentiaries of Bulgaria. Serbia. 
Montenegro, Greece, and Tiu-key. 
1913. Jan. 0. Tlie peace conference in London 
breaks up, having reached a deadlock over the 
cession of Adrianople and the ^gean islands. 

Jan. 17. Collective note of Etu'opean powers 
is presented to Tiu-kish government, advising 
acceptance of terms of the aUies. 

Jan. 23. Young Turks seize reins of power. 
Led by Enver Bey they force Kiamil Pasha and his 
cabinet to resign, and Mahmud Shevket is ap- 
pointed grand vizier. The populace declares for 
war rather than give up Adrianople. Nazim 
Pasha, minister of war and conmiander in chief, 
is shot dead during the demonstrations. 

Jan. 29. Peace negotiations ate finally broken 
off by the plenipotentiaries of the allied Balkan 
states, and next day the armistice is denounced. 
Feb. 3. Tlie Balkan War is resumed. Adri- 
anople again bombarded. Severe fighting on the 
Gallipoli peninsula, the allies trying to open the 
Dardanelles for the Greek fleet. 

March 6. The Tm-kish fortress of Janlna near 
the Greek border capitulates to the Greeks. 

March IS. Balkan allies offer to accept media- 
tion by the powers upon condition that the ^Egean 
islands and all the Eiuopean territory except the 
Gallipoli peninsula are ceded by Turkey. 

March 2S. The powers deliver ultimatum that 
war must cease. 

March 26. Adrianople is taken by Bulgarians 
and Serbians after a five montlis' siege. 

March 29. Bulgarian forces press the attack on I 
the Chatalja lines. In Albania the Montenegrins 
carry on the siege of Scutari, taking the outlying 
fortress of Tarabosh on April 1. The powers, in | 
deference to Austria-Himgary, agree to incorpo- 
rate Scutari in an autonomous Albanian state and 
to grant Serbia commercial access to the Adriatic 
over a neutral railway. The northern and eastern 
boundaries of the new Albania are agreed upon 
March 26, thus relaxing the Austro-Russian ten- 
sion. (See Montenegro, under Jdgo-Slavia.) 

Ai>ril 1. Turkey accepts the terms of peace 
proposed by the powers, the Eiu-opean boundary- 
being fLxed in a line from Enos to Midia. 

April 19. Armistice Is signed by all the bel- 
ligerents except Montenegro. 

April 23. Scutari surrenderstoMontenegrins 
after a six months' siege with aid from Serbia. 

April 27, Essad Pasha. Turkish defender of 
Scutari, proclaims himself King of Albania, but he 
is ignored. 

May H. Scutari is imwillingly evacuated by 
Montenegrins, and occupied by an international 
force from the blockading fleet. 

May 30. Treaty of peace is signed in London 
by representatives of Turkey. Bulgaria. Serbia. 
Monteneijro. and Greece, ceding to the allies all 
territory west of the Enos-Midia line, as well as 
Crete; the future of Albania and the /Egean islands 
left to the adjudication of the powers, and financial 
questions to the decision of an International Com- 
mission at Paris. This treaty is short-lived. 

June 11. Mahmud Shevket Pasha, grand vizier, 
is assassinated at Constantinople. He is suc- 
ceeded by Prince Said Halim. 

July 20-22. Taking advantage of the war of 
Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, and Roumania, 
Turkish forces reoccupy Adrianople. 

Sept. 29. Treaty of Constantinople is signed, 
settling tlie Turko-Bulgarian boundary question. 
Turkey regaining Adrianople and siurotmding 
territory. 

Following the conclusion of the Balkan 'VVar, 
elaborate plans are perfected for the construction 
of a new Turkish navy. 

Dec. 13. Euphrates barrage from Hindieh 
north to Bagdad is opened. It is the first com- 
pleted part of the irrigation scheme designed fqr 
the Ottoman government by Sir 'WiUiam Willcocks. 



■WORLD -'WAR PERIOD. 

1914. At outbreak of the World War Turkey is 
imder German influence, against which the Allied 
Powers struggle in vain. 

Sept. 10. The sultan annotmces his intention to 
abrogate the conventions known as the Capitula- 
tions, imder which foreigners have been exempt 
from local jtu-isdiction and have enjoyed other 
special privileges. 

Oct. SO. Turkish warships, led by the Goeben and 
Breslau imder German officers, intercept Russian 
merchantmen in Black Sea and bombard Odessa. 

Nor. S. War is declared against Turkey 
by England, France, and Russia. (See Would 
W'ar.) 

Dec. 24. German General von der Goltz be- 
comes adviser general to the Turkish army. 

1915. Feb. 27. At a cabinet council in Constan- 



tinople it is decided to transfer the seat of govern- 
ment to Brusa in Asia Minor when necessity arises. 

March. Appallmg conditions in Armenia (see 
Armenia). 

April 27. Appeal for relief of Armenian Chris- 
tians is made by United States. 

May 23. A joiait official statement issued by 
Great Britain. France, and Russia, states that 
Kiu-ds and Turks are massacring Armenians 
with the connivance and help of the Ottoman au- 
thorities: AUied governments announce that they 
will hold all members of the government, as well 
as such of their agents as are implicated, person- 
ally responsible for such massacres. 

Oct. 3. Committee of distinguished jVmericans 
makes public a report of its investigations into 
charges of Turkish atrocities in Armenia; more 
than 800,000 Armenians have been done to death 
by the Turks and Kiu-ds since May, 1915. 

Oct. J,. Messages from United States secretary 
of state urging tJiat steps Ije taken by the Turkish 
government tor the protection and humane treat- 
ment of Araienians. 

1916. February. Chamber of Deputies votes to 
adopt the Gregorian calendar. (See calendak, in 
the Dictionary.) 

May 9, 16. Secret Anglo-French agreement on 
the partition of Turkey (see Syria). 

June. Arab revolt (see Hejaz). 

June-July. Wholesale executions of Syrians at 
Damascus and Beinit. 

Dec. 26. For reply to President Wilson's 
" peace note," see World War. 

1917. Jan. 1. Ottoman government repudiates 
the treaties of Paris (1856) and Berlin (1878); 
Insists on all the rights and prerogatives of an en- 
tirely independent government. 

Feb. 10. Cabinet crisis results in the ministry of 
Talaat Bey. Enver remains minister of war. 

Aug. IS. Secret Anglo-Franco-Italian agree- 
ment, by wliich Italy is to participate in the parti- 
tion of Turkey (see Smyrna, under Greece). 

1918. Jvly 3. Moharanled V. dies; succeeded by 
his brother as Mohammed VI. on July 6. 

Oct. S. Talaat mmistry retires; Tewfik Pasha 
heads a new one. 

Oct. 14. Turkey informs Austria that she will be 
forced to conclude a separate peace with the enemy. 
Turkish imperial government requests President 
Wilson to take immediate steps for cessation of 
hostilities. Turkey accepts as a basis for negotia- 
tions the program laid down by the President in 
his message to Congress of January 8. 1918. and 
in his subsequent declarations (see United States). 

Oct. 30. Armistice signed; Turkey agrees to 
open the Straits to the Allies, demobilize army, 
surrender all warships, surrender Asia Minor gar- 
risons, and permit AUied occupation of strategic 
points. 

1919. Great meetings in Constantinople protesting 
against the expulsion of the Tiu-ks from Europe. 

March 7. New cabinet is organized, headed l)y 
Damad Ferid Pasha, and composed of men not 
coimected with earlier politics. Some 500 officials 
of the old regime are removed and Constantinople 
ordered cleared of seditious persons. 

July 11. Court-martial sentences to death 
Enver, Talaat, and Djemal. pro-German Young 
Turks. All were supposed to be in Germany at 
the time. 

October. Damad Ferid ministry succeeded by one 
tmder Mustafa Reshid Pasha, maintaining the ter- 
ritorial integrity of the empire in Europe and Asia. . 
Mustafa Kcmal with a large and growing force 
sets up a Nationalist goverrmient at Konia, and 
dominates much of Asia Minor. He is especially 
inimical to the British. 
1930. Jan. 21. Massacre of Armenians at Ma- 
rash (see Syria). 

Feb. 15. Coimcil of premiers decides to leave 
the Turks in Constantinople, while putting the 
Straits imder uitemational control. Attitude of 
Moslems in British and French possessions largely 
instrumental in the decision. 

March 16. Because of the intrigues in favor of 
Kemal and other dangers to the existing govern- 
ment, tlie Allies occupy Constantinople, forc- 
ing the resignation of the just-formed Salih minis- 
try, which is pro-Kemal. 

May 11. Treaty of peace is handed to the 
Turkish delegates. Constantinople remains the 
seat of the Tiu-kish government and the caliphate, 
but with an international force there as well as in 
control of the Straits. Thrace and rest of Turkey 
in Eiu-ope, except region hi immediate vicinity of 
the capital, is given to Greece, as also the control 
of Smyrna. Various yEgean islands go to Greece 
and tlie Dodecanese to Italy. Turkey recognizes 
the independence of the Hejaz. and of S^Tia. Meso- 
potamia, and Palestine under mandates. All 
claim to Egj-pt is renounced, and French protec- 
torate over Morocco and Timis is recognized. 
Independent Armenia is to have such bounda- 
ries as President Wilson assigns to it. (See Ar- 
menia. Hejaz. etc.) 

May 20. Treaty signed. (See Italy.) 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UGANDA— VENEZUELA. 



155 



UGANDA. 

See undtT BHixitsu Empire, page 65. 



UKRAINE (UKRAINIA), 

See under Rossia. page 13'J. 



UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA. 

Sue under British Empire, page 66. 



URUGUAY. 

Historical Outline. 

Uruguay wasorigiiially settled by a Spanish colony 
from Buenos Aires. Portugal claimed the territory, 
to which it abandoned pretensions only after being 
defeated in war by Spain. After tiie overthrow of 
Spanish authority in South America, Brazil, as heir 
of Portugal, by force asserted rights to the country. 
The war lasted two years. CJreat Britain intervened 
and peace was secured by the cession to Brazil of the 
territory called the " Seven Missions." Then came 
a bitt'Cr war with Buenos Aires. This time both 
Great Britain and France interfered and a treaty of 
peace was made At last, in 1859. both Brazil and 
the Argentine Confederation recognized the inde- 
pendence of Uruguay. The state was dragged into 
war with the dictator Lopez, but othenvise in the 
last fifty years there has been little in its liistory that 
is important to the rest of the world. 

Organization. 

Govornment. The constitution {last amended 
in 191S) establishes universal male suffrage at the 
age of 18, with proportional representation. The 
legislative power is vested in a Parliament consisting 
of a Senate of 19, one senator for each department 
chosen for six years by an electoral college, one third 
retiring every two years;. and a Chamber of Repre- 
sentatives chosei) for three years in the ratio of one 
to every 12,000 male adults who can read and write. 
The present number is 90. The executive power is 
divided l)etween the president and a national ad- 
ministrative council. The president is elected for 
four years by direct vote. The National Council 
consists of nine members chosen by direct popular 
vote, six from the majority party and three from the 
largest minority party; three retiring every two 
years- 

Religion and Education. State and church are 
separate, and there is complete religious liberty. The 
majority of the people are Roman Catholics. There 
is a university at Montevideo; and there are prepara- 
tory and secondary schools, and more than a thou- 
sand primary schools, at which attendance is com- 
pulsory. There are also many religious seminaries 
throughout the republic, and a imiversity for women. 

Industry. The chief occupations are agriculture 
and cattle raising. The main crops are wheat, barley, 
oats, and flaxseed. Wine is produced; also, tobacco 
and olives. 

Several gold mines are worked, and silver, copper, 
lead, magnesium, and coal Oignite) are all found to 
some extent. 

Defense. The standing army has a peace strength 
of 10.000 and a nominal war strength of 50.000. The 
National Guard is a militia, service in wliich is com- 
pulsory, and numbers 15.000 to 20,000 men. 

The navj' consists of tliree vessels. 

The area is 72.153 square miles and the estimated 
population (191S) 1.429.5S5. 

Chronology. 

1516. SoUs discovers Rio de la Plata for Spain. 
16'i4. First permanent Spanisii settlement, on 

Rio Negro. Portuguese enter region from Brazil 

and claim it. 
17^3. Portuguese fortify Montevideo. Spanislt 

capture it. Contest continues intermittently 

during the century. 
1810. Uruguay revolts with Buenos Aires, but 

foimds a separate state vmder Artigas. 
1817. Brazil captures Montevideo and reclaims the 

region (Cisplatine, Banda Oriental). 
1826-1828. Struggle for Independence from 

Brazil. In 1S27 Argentina assists Uruguay. 

Brazil. ls2S, recognizes independence of Uniguay. 
1830. Reptiblica Oriental del Uruguay organ- 
ized: Rivera first president. 
1835-1851. Civil war between Rivera and Oribe 

factions, aided by Argentina and Brazil. Rivera 

party fhially triumphs. 

1854. Flores elected president. 

1855. Renewal of domestic strife between Colo- 
rado and Blanco parties. Continues with fre- 
quent armed outbreaks for more than 50 years. 
Coloratios usually in power, 

1864. Brazil intervenes; establishes order and re- 
stores Flores. 

1865-1870. War with Paraguay (see P.\r.\guat). 

1868. Frb. 9. Revolt against Flores. He is as- 
sassinated, February 19, but revolt crushed. 
Lorenzo Batlle t>ecomes president, March 1. 



1872. March 1. Gomensoro inaugurated presi- 
dent. 

1873. March 1. Ellaurl becomes president. 

1875. March 1. Varela becomes president, fol- 
lowing a conspiracy of Latorre against EUauri. 

1876. March 10. Latorre retires Varela and pro- 
claims himself dictator. Later he is formally 
elected president. 

1880. March. Latorre resigns. Vidal succeeds. 
March 15, as Santos's figurehead. 

1882. March 1. Santos elected president. 

1883. April 20, Treaty with Paraguay (see Para- 
guay). 

1886. Sov. IS. Santos's arbitrar>' and plimdering 
rule finally turns his own party, the Colorados. 
against him. He resigns, and is exiled later. 
Tajes succeeds. 

I8H9. Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress meets 
at Washington (see United States). 

1890. March 1. Herrera y Obes becomes presi- 
dent, continuing Colorado control. 

1894. March I. Borda inaugiu"ated president. 

1896. Blancos rise mider Saraiva against Borda. 

1897. Aug. 2.5. Borda assjtssinated. Cuestas, 
president of the Senate, succeeds and a pohtica! 
truce is efi"ected, with promises of reform; but mi- 
rest continues. 

1903. Feb. 28. On election of Jose Batlle y Or- 
donez as president. Blancos start another civil 
war; but it is finally suppressed. 

1907. March 1. Willi man becomes president. 
Social and economic reforms inaugurated. 

1911. March 1. Batlle y Ordonez l)egins a second 
term as president. Economic progress. 

1915. March 3. Viera inaugurated president. 

1916. March 17. Elght-bour-day law goes into 
effect. 

1917. October. Diplomatic Intercourse with 
Germany severed on general principles. 

1918. Jan. 3. Constitution of the republic 
amended; to go into effect in March, 1919. 

1919. Jan. IS. Uruguay has a delegate at the 
Peace Conference at Paris. 

March 1. Brum is seated as president. 
Radical constitutional change goes into operation ; 
dual executive, president and commission, both 
popularly elected, and with division of powers; per- 
manent committee of Congress represents it dur- 
ing recesses; Congress may interpret and expand 
constitution. 

May 15. Old-age-pension law goes into effect. 

Oct. 15. House of Representatives ratifies the 
Treaty of Versailles. 



VENEZUELA. 

Historical Outline. 

Venezuela was the first part of the mainland of 
the New World sighted by Columbus on his third 
voyage. 1498. In the following year Ojeda and 
Amerigo Vespucci traced the coast line and finding 
houses built on piles called it Venezuela (" Little 
Venice "). Las Casas, the missionary to the Indi- 
ans, founded a little colony at Cumand, wliich was 
destroyed by the natives in 1522. Caracas was 
founded in 1567 and became the seat of the captaincy 
general. The pro\Tnce itself was attached to the 
viceroyalty. New Granada, and this relation was 
maintained during the Spanish American rule. 

In ISIO Venezuela revolted, and a democratic 
government was about to 'oe established imder the 
leadership of Miranda, when a great earthquake 
(March 26, 1812) destroyed Caracas. The people 
believed that the earthquake was a divine judgment 
on account of their rebellion and for a time the patri- 
otic movement subsided. The patriots rallied, how- 
ever, obtained control of the state, and made it a 
part of the Colombian imion. Simon Bolivar, him- 
self a Venezuelan, was elected president ; but the 
Spanish authorities did not yield imtil Bolivar won 
the battle of Carabobo (June 24. 1821). Venezuela 
seceded from the confederation (December 8, 1829) 
and during the next fifteen years, although there 
were attempts at revolution. Venezuela was less dis- 
turbed than Colombia because of the control of Gen- 
eral Pdez. who exercised practically dictatorial power. 

From 1849 to 1870 there were frequent revolu- 
tions till the supreme power came into the hands of 
Guzmdn Blanco, who for the next twenty years was 
" elected " president at every alternate election, 
while nominating and electing an adherent of his 
own for the inter\ening term In 1SS9 a revolt oc- 
curred wliich resulted (1892) in the triumph of Gen- 
eral Joaquin Crespo, who became president in 1894 
and for four years dominated the state. 

The boundary dispute with Great Britain is the 
most significant recent event in the history of Vene- 
zuela, Definite boundaries had never been drawn 
between it and British CUiiana and in 1835 the Royal 
Geographical Society authorized Robert H. Schom- 
burgk to draw a map of the British possessions, 
based on his explorations. He made the river Ama- 
curo the northern boundary and the Cotinga the 
divisional line from Brazil. This map Great Britain 
subsequently claimed as correct and authoritative. 



Venezuela, alarmed at the British claim, pre- 
sented the counterclaim of the republic (1S41). In 
1882 Venezuela, hoping to end the long dispute, pro- 
posed arbitration and asked the good offices of the 
ITnited States, but Great Britain refused to arbi- 
trate. The government of British Guiana laid 
formal claim to the disputed ten-itory and Venezaela 
seemed miable to defend her rights. In 1S95 Presi- 
dent Cleveland of the United States interfered and 
in a message to Congress, in whicli he invoked the 
Monroe Doctrine, practically stated that any at- 
tempt on the part of the British government to 
enforce its claims on Venezuela without resort to 
arbitration would It considt-red as a cas\is belli. 

The UTiitfd Siiiics apiminted a commission to de- 
termine what were tlu- triK' t)Oimdaries of Venezuela; 
but before it reported Great Britain agreed that the 
matter should be decided by a court of arbitration. 
In 1899 an award was made wliich practically con- 
firmed the British claims as embraced in the Schom- 
burgk line. 

In 1S99 General Cipriano Castro, as the result of 
a successful revolution, became president and was 
the dominating figure in Venezuela until 1909. His 
administration was challenged by domestic rebel- 
lions and threatened by the condition of foreign 
affairs. 

In 1902 Germany. Great Britain, and Italy united 
in demanding an early settlement of the claims for 
indemnity to their nationals who had suffered at the 
time of the revolution. President Roosevelt forbade 
the Germans to occupy territorj'; some ports were 
blockaded, but the claims were submitted to an 
arbitral commission which made its award in No- 
vember, 1903- There were also disputes with the 
United States because of failure to satisfy American 
claims, and for a time diplomatic relations were 
broken off. In 1908, while President Castro was in 
Germany, a revolution put an end to his rule, and al- 
though he attempted to return and start a counter- 
revolution in 1913 his party was defeated. 

Venezuela did not take any part in tlie World War, 
even to the extent of severing diplomatic relations 
with Germany, but in 1920 joined the League of 
Nations. 

Organization. 

Government. The constitution (1914) vests the 
legislative authority in a Congress, consisting of a 
Senate of 40 members elected for three years, two for 
each Venezuelan state, and a Chamber of Deputies 
elected for tliree years, consisting of one deputy for 
every 35.000 inhabitants in each state and one more 
for an excess of 15.000. The executive power is in 
the hands of a president, elected by Congress for 
seven years, who acts through his cabinet ministers 
practically as a militarj' despot. 

Production and Industry. There are three dis- 
tinct zones in Venezuela; the agricultural, in which 
coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, corn, and cotton are pro- 
duced ; the pastoral, whicli affords fine grazing 
groimds for large herds of cattle; and tlie forest zone, 
m which caoutchouc, baiata la gum resembling nib- 
lier). tonka beans, and vanilla growing wild are 
worked by the inhabitants. Venezuela is rich in 
minerals, chief among which is gold, although cop- 
per, coal. salt, and asphalt are also produced. The 
asphalt is exported to the United States, the output 
for 1918 being 46.4.53 tons. The principal exports in 
1917-18 were coffee, cocoa, hides, gold, cattle, and 
baiata and rubber, named in order of value. 

Education and Religion. Roman Catholicism is 
tlie state religion, but all faiths are tolerated. The 
educational system vas reorganized in 1915. so that 
free and compulsory education from the age of seven 
to the completion of the primary grade was estab- 
lished, and a imiform course of study for all grades 
in the schools and state examinations provided. 
The central university is at Caracas and the uni- 
versity of Los Andes is at Merida. 

Defense. The active army consists of 9.600 and 
the naval force of an armored cruiser and several 
small vessels. 

Area and Population. Venezuela has an area of 
398,594 square miles and an estimated population 
(1917) of 2.844.618. This official estimate, however, 
has been much questioned and probably 2,250.000 is 
more nearly correct. 

Chronology. 

1498. Columbus discovers South American main- 
land at the delta of the Orinoco. 

1499. Coast of Venezuela (" Little Venice ") devel- 
oped and probablj- named by Ojeda and Vespucci. 
Settlements along the coast follow. 

1523. Second settlement at CumanA (first destroyed 
in 1522) , under the name of NuevaToledo. by Diego 
Castellon. The oldest existing European settle- 
ment on the South American continent. 

1528-1555. Exploration of the region by the Welser 
family. German bankers, who have a grant from 
Charles V. 

1567- City of Caracas founded. 

1718. Venezuela a province of viceroyalty of New 
Granada (Santa Fe). 

1731. Captaincy general of Caracas erected. 



156 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: VENEZUELA — YAP. 



1806 — 1920. 



N 



1806. Miranda's unsuccessful fllibustering expe- 
dition from United States. 

1810. April Hi. Rising at Caracas against 
Franco-Spanish rule. Jiuita controls. Commis- 
sions sent to United States and Great Britain. 

1811, July 5. Independence of United Prov- 
inces of Venezuela declared. Miranda and 
Bolivar leaders: Miranda dictator. 

1813. March 26. Great earthquake destroys Ca- 
racas. 

July 25. Capture of Miranda by Royalists. 
Bolivar continues the struggle. 

1819. Venezuela unites with New Granada and 
Ecuador (Quito) to form Republic of Colombia. 

1831. June 2^. Independence won at battle of 
Carabobo. 

1830. Jan. 13. Union dissolved. Venezuela in- 
dependent state; Paez first president and practi- 
cally dictator until 1S46. 

1847. Monagas becomes president: he asserts his 
independence of Paez. Civil war results. 

1849. Aug- IS. PAez imprisoned; later he leaves 
the coxmtry. Monagas rules arbitrarily, but civil 
war continues Ix^tweeu the Unionists and Feder- 
alists. 

1854. Slavery abolished. 

1858. Monagas forced to abdicate. 

1859. Man 6. Boimdary treaty with Brazil. 
Delimitation not started imtil ISSO. 

1863. Falcon becomes head of the government. 

18B4. New constitution is triumph for Federalists. 

1868. A ugusf. Monagas drives Falcon from jiower, 
but dies on November 18. Civil war continues. 

1870. December Federalists finally secure com- 
plete control of territory. Guzman Blanro, 
president during alternate terms, but the real ruler 
at all times, continues in power for almost 20 
years. 

1881. Sept. lit. Treaty with Colombia for arbitra- 
tion of boimdary by king of Spain. 

1889. OH. 2. First Pan-American Congress con- 
venes at Wasliington (see United St.^tes). 

1890. Feb. 20. Following a revolt against Presi- 
dent Rojas Pai'il, Guzmdn Blanco's deputy, Pala- 
cio is elected president. 

1891. March 16. Colombian boimdar>' award by 
Queen regent of Spain. Not accepted. 

1893. Crespo drives Palacio into exile. 

1894. March 5. Crespo becomes constitutional 
president. 

1895. April. Crisis in the long-standing bound- 
ary dispute with British Guiana, which Great 
Britain has refused to arbitrate. United States 
intervenes. 

Dec. 17. Message of President Cleveland of 



1 United States on Venezuelan-Guiana boundary 

I (see United States). 

' 1897. Feb. 2. Boundary arbitration treaty with 

I Great Britain. 

I 1898. March 4. Andrade succeeds as president. 

! 1899. Oct. 3. Guiana boundary award; most of 
disputed territory given to Guiana. 

Oct. 21. Castro Ijecomes provisional president, 
ha\ing driven Andrade from power. He assiunes 
a dictatorship. 
1901. Strife with Colombia. 

1903. Civil war, in which the insurrectionists are 
headed by Matos, continues durhig most of the 
year, but is suppressed. (claims. I 

April. Agreement for arbitration of French | 
Dec. 7. Coercion of Venezuela by Germany 
and Great Britain, who issue an ultimatimi on 
private clauns of their subjects. United States 
declines to protect Venezuela against just claims 
but refuses to permit occupation of teiTitorj-, so 
that the coercion is hmited to a naval demonstra- 
tion. Venezuelan vessels seized, some sunk. 
" Peaceful " blockade instituted. Deceml:)er 10, in 
which Italy joins. Puerto Cabello bombarded, 
December 13. Customhouses seized. 

1903. Feb. 13. Through good offices of I'uited 
States protocols signed with coercing powers. 
Provision for immediate payments and later in- 
stallments, for which customs receipts are pledged. 
Hague Tribxmal to decide whether claims of coerc- 
ing powers shall have preference o^'er other foreign 
claims. Blockade raised. Febniary 15. 

1904. Feb. 22. Hague Tribunal ' decides that 
claims of coercing powers have preference. 

April 27. New constitution adopted. 
1905-1908. Castro continues to irritate various 
foreign nations, includmg United States, by action 
toward foreign concessions. 

1907. Oct. IS. Convention of Second Hague Con- 
ference limits use of armed force to recover con- 
tract debts, an outgrowth of the coercion of Vene- 
zuela. 

1908. June 23. Diplomatic relations with United 
States severed. 

November. Castro leaves for Europe for medi- 
cal treatment. 

December. Breach with Netherlands over 
commercial restrictions, during which (July) 
Dutch minister is expelled, culminates in a Dutch 
naval demonstration on tlie Venezuelan coast, 
wliich United States permits, and seizure of vessels. 

Dec. 21. Following popular manifestations 
against Castro, Vice President Gomez dismisses 
Castro's cabinet. Better foreign relations are 
now sought. 



1909. Feb. 13. Claims protocol with United States. 

March 23. Castro suspended from presidency 
and threatened with arrest if he returns. Neigh- 
boring countries refuse to receive him and he re- 
turns to Europe. July 12, he renounces claim 
to presidency; Gomez succeeds. 

June 2. Bases signed with Colombia for bound- 
ar>' agreement. Never made final. 

1913. July. Castro attempts an insurrection; 
speedily put down. 

1914. April 9. Bustlllos elected provisional 
president, Gomez having Ijecome commander of 
the army. New revolt breaks out. 

1915. May 3. Gomez elected president. He 
does not take the oath, but remains in command 
of the army. Bustillos continues to act as presi- 
dent. Revolt is suppressed. 

19^0. March 13. Venezuela joins the League of 
Nations. 



VICTORIA. 

See under Briti.^h Empire, page 75. 



WALES, 

See under British Empire, page 50. 



WEIHAIWEI. 

See under British Empire, page 65. 



WEST AFRICA, BRITISH. 

See under British Empire, page 67. 



WEST AFRICA, FRENCH. 

See imder Fr.\ni k, lui^e 90. 



WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 

See under British Empire, page 75. 



WEST INDIES, BRITISH. 

See imder Briti.'^h Empire, page 74. 



WINDWARD ISLANDS. 

See under British Empire, page 74 



YAP. 

See under Germany, page 105. 



u 



w 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Historical Outline. 

Discovery of America. The ftr^ record of the 
discovery of the Western Continent is found in the 
Icelandic Sagas, handed down for centuries by oral 
tradition. In S74 a Norse colony was established 
in Iceland and in 985 Eric the Red discovered and 
then settled a barren land which he called Greenland, 
hoping that a pleasant name would attract settlers. 
The Sagas tell of a voyage made by Leif Ericson in 
the year 1000 beyond Greenland, where he discov- 
ered an unknown land on which grew " grapes " and 
" self-sown wheat." whence he called it Vlnland 
and where he established a little trading post. No 
authentic remains of these explorations and occupa- 
tions have been foimd. but there is no reason to 
doubt that Norsemen landed on the Atlantic 
Coast of North .America, south of Labrador. 
Enthusiastic archgpologists thinii they have identi- 
fied Vinland with the Massachusetts Bay region. 
There is also a tradition that two Venetian brothers, 
Zeno by name, made two vo>'ages from the Orkneys 
just previous to 1400 and foimd new land in the 
West. 

The actual practical discovery of America was 
due, however, not so much to chance voyages as to 
the economic, intellectual, and political condition 
of Europe at the end of tfie fifteenth centiuy. The 
outlook of Europe was toward the East, toward 
India and far Asia, from wliich came products, such 
as spices, silks, and precious stones, greatly desired 
by Europe since ancient times, and since the Cru- 
sades in popular demand. A small supply of these 
products trickled into Europe through the overland 
caravan trade for ages, but by the fifteenth century 
Turkish conquest had all but closed this trade. 
Constantinople fell into the hands of the Tiu-ks in 
1453: and trade with the East was much impeded in 
that city and the other termini of trade routes in 
Asia Minor, in which European traders were estab- 
lished. To tlnd a new route for this commerce 
was a compelling motive which brought about the 
age of discovery. 

Another reason for penetrating the Western seas 
was the revival of learning in Europe, which stimu- 
lated men's thoughts and imagination. Keen minds 
roused by the Renaissance did not hesitate to ques- 
tion the mysteries of unknown seas, wliile the use of 
the compass and the invention of rude nautical in- 
struments made voyages possible far off the coast. 

A third influence was the improved condition of 
western Europe, which had emerged from the dis- 
orders of the Middle Ages and was organizing into 
strong national xmits. Conscious of themselves, 
these seafaring people were ready to seek new outlets 
and acquire new resources. 

Portugal first initiated the search for a sea route 
to India. The sailors dispatched by Prince Henry 
the Navigator and his successors began a systematic 
exploration of the west coast of Africa, which re- 
sulted in the passing of the Cape of Good Hope in 
14S7 by Bartholomeu Cias and prepared the way 
tor the first sea voyage from Europe to India by 
Vasco da Gama in 1497. 

The actual historic discovery of America was 
made by Christopher Columbus, in 1492. Colum- 
bus, son of a Genoese wool carder, was bom in 1446 
or 1447 and after some slight education went to sea. 
As a result of his voyages, his reading, his study, and 
the tales of sailors, he became convinced that the 
world was roimd. and that the eastern coast of Asia 
was not far from the western coast of Europe. He 
was strengthened in his theory by the writings of the 
ancients and the teachings of the geographers of his 
time, but he alone of the sailors of his time was ready 
to put his theor>' to a test. He vainly sought support 
for his idea and backing for his voyage in Italy, in 
Portugal, and in England. Finally he persuaded 
Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of the re- 
cently united kingdoms ©f Castile and Aragon. to 
become his patrons. 

He sailed from Palos. Spain, August 3, 1492. with 
a little fleet of tliree vessels, the largest of not more 
than 100 tons biu-den. In spite of the discontent 
of his crew, almost resulting in mutiny, he pushed on, 
and on October 12. 1492. landed on a small island 
wliich in pious gratitude he named San Salvador. 
He continued his voyage to the coasts of Cuba and 
Haiti, and on liis return it was declared that he haa 
found a short route to the Indies. Although he 
made tliree other voyages, reached the north coast of 
South America, and touched the borders of Nicp,- 
ragua and Honduras, he died with no conception that 
he had opened up two unknown continents, but con- 
vuiced that he had reached land and islands off the 
coast of Asia. 

In 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian sailing under 
the authorization of Henry VII. of England, reached 
the northern coast of North America, perhaps at 



Newfoundland. In 149S, with his son Sebastian 
Cabot, he made another voyage which may have 
traced the coast as far south as Carolina. 

The name America was suggested by an Alsa- 
tian geographer, Hylacomyius, from Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, who claimed in 1497 to have discovered a 
large section of the western coast of South America 
and probably the coast of Central and North Amer- 
ica. He described this and later voyages in hvely 
style in accounts printed before the narrative of 
Columbus's later voyages. The name was gradually 
extended to all South America and thence by popu- 
lar usage to the northern continent. 

The coast of North America was slowly deter- 
mined. In 1506 Jean Denys, of Honfleur, ex- 
plored the Gulf of St. Lawrence; in 1512 Ponce de 
Leon discovered Florida. In 1513 Balboa crossed 
the Isthmus of Darien and discovered the Pacific 
Ocean, and in 1519, the fleet of Magellan started 
on a tliree years' voyage to South America, sailed 
tlirough the Strait of Magellan, and across the Pa- 
cific Ocean. One of the vessels rounded the Cape of 
Good Hope, and thus proved by experience that the 
earih is round, and that a vast ocean separated the 
newly discovered continents from Asia. 

In 1524 Verrazano explored for France long 
stretches of the coast of what is now the United 
States. In 1535 Jacques Cartler sailed up the St. 
Lawrence. By this time it was established that the 
land was continuous from the Strait of Magellan to 
Labrador. 

Now began an era of interior explorations. In 
1540 De Soto, on an overland expedition, passed 
from Florida tlirough the region now occupied by 
the Southern States, crossed the Mississippi, and 
penetrated as far north and west, as Arkansas. In 
1540 Coronado, setting out from Mexico, explored 
what is now New Mexico, went as far north as Okla- 
homa, and .sent on an advance party wliich reached 
the center of Kansas. In 1579 Sir Francis Drake, 
the English sea dog. coasted South America, and 
bore up northward as far as California. From 1^>03 
to 1608 the French under the leadership of the inde- 
fatigable Champlain explored the St. Lawrence, 
foimded Quebec, and determined the coast line of 
New England. In 1609 Henry Hudson made his 
way up the river which has smce bonie his name. 
I Thus, the coast line of the Americas was determined 
as far as 45° north latitude. 

The First Colonies. The first settlements made 
by Europeans in North America were made by the 
Spaniards, and the oldest town within the limits of 
the United States which has had a continuous exist- 
ence is Saint Augustine, Florida, founded in 1565. 
The Spaniards were attracted by the richer regions 
of Central and South America, in which they estab- 
lished a great colonial empire that enriched the home 
coimtry with its precious metals. Another current 
of civiUzation wasthe French in Canada. Cham- 
i plain and hissuccessorsestablished posts at Quebec 
and Montreal, on the St. Lawrence, and in Acadia 
I at Port Royal. Ventiu-esome explorers, priests, and 
I traders reached the Great Lakes, pushed across 
the watershed, explored the Mississippi in 16S2, 
and foimded Louisiana in 1699. thus giving France 
good title not merely to the St. Lawrence region, but 
to the Great Lakes and the whole central plain be- 
tween the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains. 

English Colonization. What proved to be the 
most significant colonizing movement came from 
England. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth there 
sprang up a national jealousy of Spain and a con- 
test against the Spanish claim to exclusive rights in 
the New World- The Elizabethan seamen, chief of 
whom were Hawkins, Drake, and Raleigh, harried 
Spanish commerce in illegal and in open wars and 
roused the interest and enthusiasm of the English- 
In 15S4 Raleigh sent out an expedition which ex- 
plored a stretch of the Atlantic coast now called 
Virginia for the " Virgin Queen." In 15S5 a settle- 
ment was maintained at Raleigh's cost on Roanoke 
Island for a year, and in 1587 a second Raleigh col- 
ony was founded, all trace of which was lost. 

The defeat of Spain's Invincible Armada in 15SS 
opened the way for the i)ermanent settlement of Vir- 
ginia. Tills was carried out not by gentlemen ad- 
venturers of the Elizabethan Age, but by a group of 
capitalists, headed by Sir Thomas Smythe. From 
the Queen they received a charter for the Virginia 
Company, which in 1607 planted the tirst perma- 
nent English settlement at Jamestown. The early 
life of the colony was beset with difficulties and dan- 
gers and death. The colony was almost starved out, 
but a profitable crop for export was discovered in 
tobacco, and slowly the little colony became self- 
sustaining, though never profitable to the founders. 

In 1620 a little band of religious exiles, the '* Pil- 



grims," who had fled from England to Holland to 
escape persecution, planted a second English colonial 
nucleus at Plymouth, the first settlement in New 
England. Because of the endurance and persever- 
ing nature of these settlers, and the abundant natu- 
ral resources of timber and fish, they were able firmly 
to establish an important colony. 

English emigration to America on a large scale 
began in 1630, when a powerful company sent the 
" Great Emigration " to Massachusetts. These 
were Puritans, men of wealth and substance, who 
settled first on the coast aroimd Boston under a 
royal charter giving them practical self-government. 
Other Puritan settlements were made in New 
England, both from England directly and from col- 
onies already established in Massachusetts, and 
these resulted in the colonies of Maine. Connecticut^ 
New Haven, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. 

The southern colonies were increased by Mary- 
land (1632) and later by the Carollnas (1663) with 
similar conditions, except that the Carolinas fur- 
nished ■* naval stores," rice, and indigo. Slavery 
flourished in them all. fed by a slave trade from the 
West Indies. 

Between the northern and the southern group of 
colonies a middle group was slowly developed, after 
the Dutch were dispossessed (1664): New York on 
the basis of the former New Netherland; then East 
and West New Jersey (1665). afterward united; 
then in 16S2 the magnificent colony of Pennsyl- 
vania, founded by William Penn. which soon became 
the most prosperous and richest of the colonies, with 
a population drawn from the Welsh. Scotch-Irish, and 
Germans, as well as from the English. 

Colonial Growth. In the main the economic 
foimdation of all the colonies was agriculture. In 
the South tobacco, rice, and indigo could be raised 
on large plantations worked by Negro slaves. In 
the middle colonies, where the winters were more 
severe, slavery took root in a milder form. The 
rich soil of Pennsylvania and the sober, hardy, 
and industrious character of the settlers soon made 
tliat Stale the largest grain-producing colony. In 
New England, where the soil was less fertile, the 
fisheries provided food and an export of dried fish 
which developed a trade with the neighboring con- 
tinental colonies, the West Indies, and even with 
Africa. An important trade was built up with the 
Indians, from whom were obtained furs and skins, 
especially heaver skins. 

Although all the colonies on the Atlantic seaboard 
were either founded or conquered by the English, 
there was always a non-English element in the 
population. Huguenots and, latei, Acadian French 
were found in New England, South Carolina, and 
elsewhere. In New York the Dutch were long the 
dominating element, and in Pennsylvania there were 
Swedes. Scotch-Irish, French, and a large German 
element, which also settled along the Mohawk Val- 
ley in New York. In all the colonies there was some 
Negro population, which was largest in the South, 
and in South Carolina was more numerous than the 
white population. Although representing difi'erent 
races, nearly all the colonists were Protestants and 
held similar ideas concerning personal liberty and 
self-government. English political institutions and 
the English common law, with all its safeguards, were 
easily transferred to this western England. 

Government of the Colonies. The colonies 
were classified according to their form of govern- 
ment into tliree groups. The royal colonies or 
provinces had no charter and took the government 
framed for them by the English authorities. The 
proprietary colonies were held by a charter granted 
to an individual or group and hiherited by their fam- 
ilies. The proprietor arranged the colonial govern- 
ment. The charter colonies had a documentary 
grant to a stock company which, in the case of the 
New England colonies, was made up of the colo- 
nists themselves. 

Notwithstanding these variations, all the colonies 
developed similar political institutions. In each 
there was a governor, appointed by the king in the 
royal colonies, by the proprietor in the proprietary 
colonies, and elected by the company in the chartered 
colonies. In each there was a legislature, consisting 
of a Council appointed in the royal and proprietary 
colonies and elected in the chartered colonies; and a 
lower hotise elected in all colonies by the freehold- 
ers. Suffrage was nowhere universal; property 
and tax qiialifications and religious tests much lim- 
ited the voters. 

These colonial legislatures claimed for themselves 
much the same powers in colonial affairs that Parlia- 
ment exercised in the Enghsh system. This gave the 
colonists invaluable training in self-government, and 
they did not hesitate to brave their governors and 

(157) 



158 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



even disputed with the EngUsh authorities. They 
^J stood by the English principle of the control of the 

legislatures over local taxes and appropriations; this 
power of the purse to a large extent made them mak- 
ers of the policy of their government. 

In local aflfairs there were three systems of govern- 
ment. In the South the county system, with a 
board of justices appointed by the governor. In 
New England the township, with the meeting of 

Ofroemen in a primary assembly, known as the ** town 
meeting." In a few of the places in the middle 
colonies was a borough or city government. In 
all cases the control of the local government was 
never far from the people governed. 

English Control. To the English government 
the colonists were Englishmen across the sea who 
had no representation in Parliament. England ex- 
P ercised her control over these scattered subjects, first 

by the right to grant ownership and control of lands; 
then tlu'ough the appointment of governors for the 
royal provinces and pressure upon the proprietors 
of the proprietary- provinces; then by instructions to 
the governors. At the time of the Revolution only 
Connecticut and Rhode Island were full chartered 
colonies outside the sphere of royally appointed 

Q officials 

Besides the governor England appointed officials, 
inspectors of customs, collectors of revenue, and the 
like, to enforce or to inspect the enforcement of the 
laws. Appeals could be, and sometimes were, taken 
from colonial courts to the Privy Council in England. 
As for legislation, the charters were generally held to 
be l>eyond the authority of Parliament; and Parlia- 
__ ment passed no local laws for individual colonies, but 

R in matters of trade and the foreign policy of the 

mother country an act of Parliament was binding 
on all the colonies. 

Indian and Colonial Wars. The three prmcipal 
nations, the Spanish, the French, and the English. 
who settled in America, had each its own methods 
with the Indians. The Spaniards practically en- 

O slaved and baptized the Indians; the French baptized 

the Indians, traded and intermarried with them; the 
English crowded them out of their hvmting gi'oimds 
and avoided them, and only now and then a man, 
like Jolin Eliot, attempted to Cliristianize them. The 
French soon gained an ascendancy over the Indians, 
who proved invaluable allies in the stem conflict with 
the English. ^ 

•— In almost every English colony the relations 

I with the Indians were the same. At first the na- 

tives looked on the settlers with tolerant curiosity. 
Later, when it was foimd that the English took 
rather than shared the himting grounds, war broke 
out. In these wars, whether the Pequot War of 
1637 or the terrible fights of 1622 in Virginia, the colo- 
nists were everywhere successful, except against the 
Five Nations of the Iroquois, who held their own 

11 till the Revolution of 1775. 

The second stage came in each colony twenty to 
fifty years later and was far more serious. In Vir- 
ginia in 1644 Opechancanough led a successful raid, 
while New England was scourged by King Philip's 
War in 1675. In Virginia in 1676, under the leader- 
ship of Nathaniel Bacon, the Indians were finally de- 
feated. Of a similar sort were the Tuscarora War 
Vin North Carolina and the Yaraassee struggle in 
South Carolina. 

Intercolonial Wars. In the series of European 
wars from 16S9 to 1763. the English colonies were 
always drawn in against the French on the north and 
the Spaniards on the south. During King Wil- 
llam*s War Port Royal. Acadia, was captured, but 
returned to the French by the treaty of 1697. In 

yV 1701 began the War of the Spanish Succession, called 

in America Queen Anne's War, which included In- 
dian raids upon the New England settlements, the 
second capture of Port Royal and. by the Peace of 
Utrecht (1713), the transfer of all Acadia, thereafter 
known as Nova Scotia. The Austrian Succession in 
Europe led to King George's War in America 
(1744). in which the French fortress of Louisbui^ on 

V Cape Breton Island was taken (1745). 

■^ In 1754 the outbreak of the French and Indian 

War was the first gim in the European Seven 
Years' War. One of the episodes was the expedition 
against Fort Duquesne (modern Pittsburgh) and the 
defeat of General Braddock (1755). Fort Du- 
quesne was later captured, and also Quebec (1759t 
and Montreal (1760), By the Treaty of Paris 

y- (1763) France surrendered to Great Britain all 

I claims to territory east of the Mississippi, while to 

compensate her ally. Spain, for sharing the war and 
losing the Floridas, France transferred to her western 
Loui.siana. including the city of New Orleans. Thus, 
by the middle of the eighteenth centur>' the English 
had eliminated all foreign claimants to the region 
east of the Mississippi and from Hudson Bay to the 
Gulf of Mexico. 

Movements toward Union. The English col- 
onies in America were individualistic. Many of 
tliem were founded by small religious sects, others 



by mercantile companies, but all had a keen sense of 
their own interests and significance; nevertheless, 
the idea of colonial imion was in the minds of the 
colonists as early as 1643, when a union was formed 
between Massachusetts. Plymouth. Comiecticut, 
and New Haven. Ttiis New England Confedera- 
tion, as it was called, aided the colonists in their 
struggles with the Indians and controversies with 
the Dutch, but was looked upon with disfavor by the 
Enghsh government and came to an end in 1684. 
The difficulties of colonial intercourse tended to put 
each colony back upon itself for its own protection 
and defense. The home government forced the New 
England colonies to consolidate under the tyranny 
of Andros, and in 1686 New York was joined to this 
government. But at the " Glorious Revolution '* 
of 16S8-S9 this temporary imion fell apart. 

During the struggles with the French and Indians 
from 1689 to 1763 the British government attempted 
to bring about cooperation in military affairs; but 
the colonists were jealous of their own prerogatives 
and were slow to come to one another's aid. In 
1754. at a Congress of Commissioners called at Al- 
bany, Benjamin Franldin presented a scheme fori 
colonial miion called the Albany Plan. , This was 
objected to by the colonists because it gave the king 
too great power and by the Enghsh authorities be- 
cause it was felt to l^e too democratic. Not imtil the 
Revolutionary era did the colonists succeed in sink- 
mg their internal differences and forming an effec- 
tive union. 

The Revolutionary Era. The causes for the 
American Revolution begin to api)ear distinctly soon 
aftt-r tlie accession of Cieorge III-, in 1760. The 
English government had always claimed legal 

supremacy. An act of Parliament was superior to 
all colonial statutes in general matters, especially in 
trade. The so-called Acts of Trade w^ere meant to 
restrict the commerce and manufactures of the colo- 
nies. In local matters the danger from the French 
in Canada made the home government cautious im- 
til England was better able to enforce her ideas upon 
the colonies. Both home British and colonial Brit- 
ish looked upon England as the center and head of a 
great colonial empire. ' The only central authorities 
were a hereditarj- king and a Parliament in which 
the colonists could have no representation. 

By the colonial system embodied in the Acts of 
Trade Great Britain had long sought to secure for 
home merchants the profits of the colonial empire 
and at the same time to grant protection to all of its 
members. This policy was first put into the form of 
law by the Ordinance of 1651 and the subsequent 
navigation acts down to the Molasses Act of 1733 
and the Sugar Act of 1764, By this policy the 
colonies were protected against competition in the 
British markets m certain products; but were com- 
pelled to make their direct purchases only from the 
home or colonial members of the empire. Thus. 
Virginia was given the tobacco monopoly as against 
tobacco farms in England, but had to buy hardware 
and cloth from England. Thus, New England had a 
profitable share in the carrying trade of the British 
Empire, but was compelled to buy its molasses only 
from English colonies. With certain exceptions all 
commerce with foreign nations must go through 
Great Britain, and was there subject to taxation. 
The execution of this policy was lax, and smuggling 
and other forms of illegal trade were habitual in the 
colonies. In 1763 Great Britain felt the enormous 
cost of the war with France and thought it reasonable 
to divide the cost of the military protection of the 
colonies. 

The policy as adopted included taxation to be 
laid on the colonists by act of Parliament — the 
proceeds to he used for colonial defense. Opposi- 
tion at once arose in the colonies. For years they 
had enjoyed forbidden trade with the French West 
Indies, the Spanish possessions, and with the Dutch. 
Under the protective Sugar Act the English M'est 
Indies were able to raise the price of sugar and mo- 
lasses, upon which there were taxes, while Etiropean 
goods coming through England both cost more and 
were also taxed. The colonists felt that since they 
maintained at their own expense their colonial gov- 
ernments and had burdened themselves with debt in 
the wars with the Indians and French, which were 
for the defense of the British Empire as well as their 
own protection, they had contributed their share to 
the imi>erial expenses, 

A second ground of colonial opposition lay in the 
fact that the British government was proi)osing, not 
simply to enforce this commercial policy, but to use 
the proceeds of the taxes for the payment of British 
officials in the colonies. As has been shown, the 
colonists, through their control of local taxation and 
appropriations, directed the action of their govern- 
ments and of the officials. If the officials were paid 
from taxes levied by Parliament they would be sub- 
ject to English rather than colonial control. 

The issue was brought to a head by the passage of 
the Stamp Act (176o), which laid stamp duties on 
deeds, notes, bills, and other docimients. Local op- 
position appeared in every colony, and 28 delegates, 
representing nine colonies, assembled in New York 



at the Stamp-Act Congress. There a Declara- 
tion of Rights was adopted, wiiicn claimed for 
the colonists freedom from all internal taxes not laid 
by their representatives. Intense opposition to the 
Stamp Act caused its repeal, but the reiieal act re- 
asserted a right of taxation. It was then deter- 
mined in the Townshend Acts (1767) to raise rev- 
enue by duties on colonial imports, thus avoiding the 
issue of internal taxation without representation. 
The answer of the colonies was unmistakable. 
Massachusetts sent a circular letter to the other 
colonies which, while disavowing any desire for in- 
dependence, suggested concerted action. The \'ir- 
ghiia Assembly passed resolutions asserting that the 
Virginia Assembly had the sole right to lay taxes 
upon the i>eople. These theoretical statements re- 
ceived practical force by the establishment of Non- 
Importation Agreements, by wiiich the colonists 
agreed not to use the taxed goods. Thiis the Towii- 
sheud Acts were defeated. 

Committees of Correspondence (fh-st organ- 
ized by New York in 1764) were aijpointed by Massa- 
chusetts and Virginia in 1772 and 1773 respectively. 
Tlirough the means of these conmiittees the different 
colonies were informed of public opinion in the other 
colonies, and a solidarity of mterest was created. 

Although the Townshend Acts were partially re- 
pealed, a light duty was maintained on tea, wliich 
was sold cheaper than in England. The colonists 
refused to purchase the taxed tea Ix-canse it would 
then become an admission of the right of Parhanient 
to tax the colonies. The tea in Boston was de- 
stroyed in a riotous gathering known as the Boston 
Tea Party (1773). The English answer to this de- 
fiance was aimed directly at the people of Massachu- 
setts. The port of Boston was closed by statute, 
the charter of Massachusetts was suspended, trials 
outside the colony were provided for, and the quarter- 
ing of British troops sanctioned within the province. 

The colonial reply was the First Continental 
Congress, summoned at Philadelphia, September 5, 
1774. Tliis assembly, representative of twelve col- 
onies, formulated in the name of all the colonies a 
Dei^laratlon of Rights. It accepted and drew up 
the Association, which was in effect a boycott of 
British goods and slaves, including an article against 
taxation without representation. 
' Great statesmen in England, including Lord 
Chatham, worked for conciliation The king and 
his subservient ministers stood for repressive meas- 
ures and the majority in Parliament supported 
them. Collisions occiured between the British 
troops and tiie citizens of Boston. Military stores 
were collected by the leaders of the people at Con- 
cord and elsewhere. 

The Revolution. The first armed clash of the 

Revolution took place at Lexington and Concord, 
April 19, 1775. At Lexington the minutemen stood 
firmly tmtil fired upon by the British, when they re- 
tired; at Concord, a few hours later, they rallied and 
their force, now augmented, drove back the British 
to Boston- On Jime 17. 177.5, the colonists, attempt- 
ing to fortify Bunker Hill, were finally driven from 
tlie field. It was a dear victorj\ for it cost 1,000 
British troops and pro\ed that militia could hold 
regulars. 

The Second Continental Congress assembled 
May 10, 1775, at Philadelphia, and at once placed 
itself at the head of military and naval affairs. 
George Washington was chosen Commander in 
Chief of the American army and took command 
at Cambridge. On March 17. 1776. he forced the 
evacuation of Boston by the British. On July 4, 
1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, in which it declared the colonies inde- 
pendent of Great Britain and stated their ctise to the 
European nations. 

The Revolutionary War lasted for seven years, 
during which time Gieat Britam employed not only 
English troops, but also hired Hessians from Ger- 
many. During the first period of the war the con- 
flict centered lietween the Hudson and the Dela- 
ware. New York was capttired in 1776 and Wash- 
ington was obliged to retreat across New Jersey. 
Philadelphia was captured by the British in 1777. 

In 1777 the British mider Burgoj'ne marched 
south from Canada, but were defeated, and surren- 
dered at Saratoga. As a result the French govern- 
ment, in 1778, recognized the independence of the 
VnUed States and made a treaty of alliance by 
which supplies, troops, and above all, the French 
fleet, were sent to aid the colonists. 

The last period of the conflict was in the South. 
Here the British were at first successful, but by a 
series of masterly engagements General Nathanael 
Greene cleared the territor>'. Comwallis returned 
to Yorktown; and while a French fleet held up the 
British relief expedition, a consolidated American 
and French army besieged him and captured his 
whole army. By the Treaty of Paris (1783) Great 
Britain acknowledged the independence of the 
Vnited States and agreed to formulate boundaries; 
on the north, substantially as at present; on the west, 
the Mississippi: on the south, the Floridas, which the 
Spanish had regained during the war. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



159 



The Critical Period, Although the colonies 
had achieved independence, they had not secured 
stabiUty. They were burdened with debt, their 
trade disorganized, their ciurency hterally "not 
worth a ' Continental.' " as the bills of credit issued 
by Congress were called. During the war the Sec- 
ond Contmental Congrfss framed Articles of Con- 
federation 11777), wliirli |)ri.\ ided for a league lie- 
tween the colonies and whieli made a division be- 
tween the powers to be exercised by Congress, repre- 
senting the central government on the one hand, and 
the States, representing the local governments, on 
the other. 

Several faults revealed themselves in this plan : 
It operated not upon citizens, but upon States; it 
gave Congress no power to tax individuals, but only 
to make requisitions upon the States; it did not au- 
thorize a general regulation of foreign or interstate 
commerce; it could not be amended without the 
unanimous consent of all the States, nor could Con- 
gress pass important legislation without the assent 
of tliree fourths of the States. AVeak as this instru- 
ment was, several States delayed to adopt it in defi- 
nite form until 1781 ; nor could they be persuaded to 
amend it by gi\ing Congress more power in the years 
wliich followed. 

Tlie Constitutional Convention of 1787 was 
simimoned ostensibly to propose amendments to 
the Articles of Confederation. Actually, after four ; 
months' debate it produced a new constitution, 
by wliich the confederation or league was trans- 
formed into a federal state. 

The question of federal power was adjusted on a 
new basis. Neither Congress nor the States were 
recognized as sovereign, but the great doctrine of the 
sovereignty of the people of the United States was 
assured by the first words of the preamble, " We the 
people of the United States . . . ordain and establish 
tills Constitution." No longer could States enact 
laws in conflict with the Constitution or acts of Con- 
gress, for, by Article VI.. " This Constitution, and 
the Laws of the United States which shall be made in 
Pui'suance thereof; and all Treaties . . . shall be the 
supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in ever>- 
State shall be boimd thereby, any Thing in the Con- 
stitution or Laws of any State to the Contrarj- not- 
withstanding," 

In the specific division of powers between the fed- 
eration and States, Congress was given the power to 
levy taxes, to control commerce, to raise an army 
and a navy, and to declare war, — in fact all powers 
necessary for the regulation of foreign affairs and 
most concerns which affected the nation as a whole. 
The States were forbidden by explicit proliibitions to 
interfere in some of these spheres. 

Congress was to consist of a House of Repre- 
sentatives and a Senate. In the Senate each State 
has equal representation — two senators — and no 
State may be deprived of this equality of representa- 
tion in the Senate without its consent. Thus State 
pride is satisfied, and the fear that the small States 
may be oppressed is removed. In the House of 
Representatives the people are represented in pro- 
portion to the population in each State, as shown by 
the decennial censuses. 

The head of the executive branch of the govern- 
ment is the president, who has great power, since he 
possesses a suspensory veto over legislation ; may ap- 
point the principal officers with the consent of the 
Senate; directs the foreign relations; instnicts diplo- 
matic representatives; controls the negotiation of 
all treaties; commands the army and navy; and 
above all. enforces the laws of the United States. 

At the summit of the judicial department is a 
Supreme Court and below it inferior courts, all of 
which uphold the laws of Congress and the Constitu- 
tion of the United States against all infringements, 
even those by the States themselves. 

By amendments (I.-X.). which were quickly 
added to the Constitution, the great Anglo-Saxon 
rights of personal liberty — such as freedom of speech, 
press, religion, and the right of jury trial — are guar- 
anteed against usurpation by Congress; and the 
States are forbidden to deprive any person of life, 
literty, or property without due process of law. The 
Supreme Court of the United States therefore acts as 
a reviewing authority upon State legislation. Two 
other amendments iXI.-XII.) were added to the 
Constitution in 1798 and 1804, respectively, but 
after these no other amendments were adopted up 
to the time of the Ci\1l War. 

The Convention at Philadelphia transmitted this 
Constitution to Congress with the recommendation 
that it be submitted to conventions called within the 
various States and l>e declared in force when ratified 
by nine States. The campaign for ratification was 
bitter and during it many political pamphlets were 
WTitten: the most famous, appearing serially in a 
New York journal and later published as The Fed- 
eralist, were composed by James Madison, Alexander 
Hamilton, and John Jay, and are still the most 
authoritative interpretation of the document., On 
June 21, 17S8, New Hampshire, the ninth State, rati- 
fied the Constitution. Virginia and New York fol- 
lowed soon, but North Carolina delayed imtil 1789, 
and Khode Island until 17^10- 



Organization of the Government. During 

the campaign for the ratification of the Constitution 
those groups which were in favor of the Constitution 
and the extension of the powers of a central govern- 
ment were known as Federalists. Those who be- 
lieved in maintaining the States as the chief agencies 
of government and who were thus opposed to a fed- 
eral state were called Antifederalists. In these 
differences is found the germ of the first two great 
political parties. 

The coimtry was imanimous in choosing George 
Washington as first president, and Jolm Adams 
received 34 of the 69 electoral votes for vice president 
During Wasliington's first administration he at- 
tempted to sink party differences and called to liis 
cabinet men of such diverse opinions as Thomas Jef- 
ferson and Alexander Hamilton. In spite of the at- 
tempt to ignore parties, both domestic and foreign 
questions revealed a genuine difference of political 
opinion and strengthened tlie party spirit. Thus the 
question of the assumption of the debts of Congress 
and of the States was favored by Hamilton and his 
group, who also favored the establishment of a na- 
tional bank and a mildly protective tariff. These 
measures, however, were oppo.sed by Jefferson and 
the Antifederalists. Little by httle Washington was 
forced t-o l^ecome a party president and liis second 
administration was frankly Federalist. 

Foreign affairs disturbed the coimtr>' and drew 
party lines tighter. The outbreak of the French 
Revolution (17S9) and the later war of France with 
Great Britain forced a decision as to whether the 
United States should aid her former ally. France, and 
thus subject her commerce to Britisli reprisals, or 
attempt to stand neutral. Wasiiington, Ilamilton, 
and the Federalists, while favoring England, believed 
that the best interests of the United States required 
absolute neutrahty. Thus this position, never be- 
fore so clearly stated, set forth the true principles and 
established the proper rules of neutrality which later 
have become a part of international law. In order to 
settle the controversies between the United States 
and England, Washington authorized a treaty with 
England known as the Jay Treaty, wliich after a 
bitter struggle was ratified in 1795. In strong and 
powerful language Washington in the Farewell 
Address (1796) put before his comitrymen the de- 
sirability of keeping out of European complica- 
tions. 

During the administration of John Adams (1797- 
1801) the parties were still more thoroughly divided; 
and the impossibility of avoiding a share in the 
troubles of Europe was shown by a brief naval war 
with France (1799). Thomas Jefferson was chosen 
president in ISOO, after a contest over a tie with 
Burr. The Jeffersonian party, the old Antifederal- 
ists, now called the Democratic Republicans, were in 
control of the government, but attempted no serious 
changes. They took over the national government 
as they foimd it organized, and applied their own 
pohcy to it, rather than to attempt to alter the es- 
tablished sj'stem. The army and navy were re- 
duced and the money saved was expended for the 
pa>-ment of the debt. On the other hand, Jefferson, 
in 1803. boldly purchased the Louisiana Territory 
from Napoleon, thus extending the power of the pres- 
ident and enlarging the territory of the United States 
beyond all expectation of the framers of the Consti- 
tution. 

The renewal of war between England and France 
in 1803 again showed that the United States could 
not live for itself alone, for its commerce suffered 
from both belligerents. The paper blockades de- 
clared by the Emperor Napoleon upon the English 
ports, the French decrees for seizing neutral sliips, 
and the equally illegal orders in coimcil issued by 
the British, caused the capture of 1.500 American 
vessels. In addition, Great Britain insisted upon 
her right of search and impressment, which 
greatly irritated the United States. Moreover, her 
cruisers, reacliing the coast of the United States, 
attempted to enforce her pretensions in American 
waters. The United States attempted to meet these 
aggressions by a boycott policj' which shoidd avoid 
war; it was expressed by the embargo (1S07) and 
the Nonintercourse Act (1S09). Both were 
failures. 

In Madison's administrations (1S09-1817) the 
United States tried to balance one aggression against 
the other, only to be tricked by Napoleon and 
ignored by Spain. For several years the United 
States seemed on the brink of war with Great Brit- 
ain. As no redress was obtained for the British cap- 
tures till the last moment, and thousands of Ameri- 
can citizens were held by British action, the United 
States declared war on England, June 18, 1812. 

The War of 1812. On land the United States set 
out to capture Canada, but was unsuccessful. On 
the other hand. Maine was invaded and Castine 
occupied by the British. The capital, Washington, 
was burned by a small British force in 1S14, and the 
distant settlement of Astoria was occupied. 

On the sea the United States was more successful 
and the victories of the ConstituHon over the Guer- 
ri^re, the Wasp over the Frolic, the United States 



over the Macedonian, the Constitution over the Jaia, 
and the Hornet over the Peacock in naval duels did 
much to raise the prestige of the United States. 
American privateers harried British commerce and 
captured 1.344 prizes. 

The final battle of the war was at New Orleans, 
January 8. 1S15, after the treaty of peace had been 
signed. In this, General Andrew Jackson was over- 
whelmingly successfid. In the meantime negotia^ 
tions for peace were in progress at Ghent; a treaty 
was signed which, although omitting mention of 
impressments, restored the American territorj' occu- 

I pied by British troops and provided for the appoint- 
ment of commissions to settle disputed pomts 1 1814) . 
-Vithough the United States was not successful in 

1 winning her contentions, the end of the European 

I wars put an end to the issues of neutral trade and 
impressments; and she had shown herself ready to 

' fight for her rights and had won the respect of Eng- 

' land and the European nations. 

From the close of the War of 1812 imtil the elec- 

, tion of Andrew Jackson, in 1S2S. parties were disor- 

, ganized. The hve domestic questions were the 
protective tariff and internal improvements, while 
the most pressing foreign question was over the recog- 
nition of the recently re\olted South American re- 
pubhcs. In dealing with this question Monroe, on 
the advice of Jolm Quincy Adams, his secretary of 
state, enunciated the Monroe Doctrine in IS23. 
In this he dedlared that the American continents are 
not open to further colonization or to the extension 
to this hemisphere of the European system of gov- 
ernment. By implication, the United States re- 
served the Western Hemisphere as her field of influ- 
ence and renoimced interference in European affairs. 
Tliis doctrine has l>ecome the comer stone of AjiiCri- 
can foreign pohcy; for although the United States 
has not been able to avoid intervention in European 
affairs, it has stood by its original position that in 
both Americas it was to be the determining influence. 
In 1820 the slavery question for the first time 
became an issue in national politics. The question 
arose over the admission of Maine and Missoiu-i as 
States. If Missouri, wliich was in the same geograph- 
ical belt as the three we.stem free States, were made 
fi-ee, the slavery power would begin to decline. If 
Missouri became a slave State the two sections — 
free and slave — would be perpetuated in the West. 
After an acrimonious debate the question was settled 
by compromise ('* Missouri Compromise"): 
Maine was admitted as a free State. Missouri as a 
slave State; but otherwise the territory in the Louisi- 
ana Purchase, north of .36° 30' {the southern bound- 
ar>' of Missouri) was ■" forever " to be free. 

Social and Economic Development of the 
Country. Between 1783 and 1830 the rising United 
States was transformed from a narrow strip of terri- 
tory between the Allegheny ISIountains and the 
Atlantic Ocean to a country stretching as far west as 
the Rockj' Mountains; and from a small nation of 
3.500,000 to one of over 12.000.000. The most re- 
markable and significant featiu*e of this growth was 
the development of the West. 

In 1790 a civilized population of 109.000 lived 
west of the Alleghenies. In 1815 there were ten 
times that number of inhabitants and from 1815 to 
1830 the Western population increased to 2,300,000. 
Cheap pubUc lands and the opportunities to de- 
velop homes on the fertile soil attracted immigrants 
from all the Eastern States. Thus there developed 
a democratic society different from that of the East- 
em communities. The frontiersmen were substan- 
tially equal in wealth, and to all equal opportimity 
was open. Land was inexpensive, easy to obtain, 
and quickly brought imder cidtivation. Thus even 
the poorest immigrant, who had the necessary en- 
ergy, withhi a short time could become the equal of 
his neighbors in possessions and importance. 

Tliis social and economic equality produced politi- 
cal ideas of absolute democracy, which were funda- 
mentally different from those of Eastern industrial 
organization. The economic conceptions of this 
frontier society were crude ; land and food were plenty , 
but there was no transport obtainable for long dis- 
tances; surplus products were hard to dispose of, 
and money was scarce. Like all pioneer commu- 
nities the Westerners demanded cheap and abun- 
dant money, and resented the paj-ments they were 
forced to make to Eastern capitalists. They were 
intensely patriotic, sure of themselves, and of the 
futui'e of the countrj'. Thus, with Henrj' Clay as 
their spokesman, they were impatient at the timid- 
ity of Madison's government and enthusiastically 
supported the War of 1812. As the population in- 
creased through this region, they became a force to 
be reckoned with in national politics. They nearly 
turned the scale in 1S24. and in 1828 triumphed in 
the election of their candidate, Andrew Jackson. 

Industrial Development. Wliile these changes 
were going on in the West a new society was develop- 
ing in the East. In the South the best land, includ- 
ing much that was not suitable for the cultivation 
of rice or tobacco, was turned to cotton. This crop, 
at first of small importance, became through the in- 



160 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



N 



U 



W 



vention of the cotton gin by Eli Wliitney in 1793 
the leading export of the United States. The new 
type of cultivation transformed Southern society. 
Slavery in many parts of the South was still patri- 
archal and unprofitable. The slave system on the 
rich cotton lands tended to become capitalistic. 
Many great plantations in the Southwest were culti- 
vated by gangs of slaves under hired overseers, and 
the demand for more land suitable for the cultivation 
of cotton and the extension of tlie slaverj- sjstem be- 
came intense. The Southern planter, moreover, was 
dependent on imports wliich came either from the 
industrial North or from Eiu-ope. He desired cheap 
imports and resented the protective tarifT which 
increased the cost of his goods; and he frequently 
found himself politically aUied with the Democratic 
frontiersmen of the West. 

The Industrial East. Diu-ing the early years 
of struggle between England and France. American 
shipping was highly profitable, notwithstanding 
the losses by captiu-es. Under the restrictive acts 
after 1S07 it somewhat declined, but it recovered 
after peace in 1.S14. Another significant develop- 
ment was in manufacturing. In England, beginning 
with the invention of Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 
1767, which was followed by the power loom and 
other similar developments, the textile industry was 
transferred from cottages to factories. The same 
thing happened in other industries; and by 1800 the 
modem factory system was weU established in Eng- 
land. 

In America the development was slower. In 1793 
Samuel Slater and Moses Brown set up in Paw- 
tucket the flrst successful cotton factory. Be- 



nonprotective basis. Jackson was successful in main- 
taining the authority of the union ; and tlie nullifiers 
succeeded in upsetting protection. In a slightly 
different form the nullification idea was the basis of 
the later secession movement. 

A party was already rising made up of " Anti- 
Jackson men," which grew in l)oth the South and 
North and slowly coalesced. The mainstay was the 
manufacturers and the capitalists of the East, who 
desired a national bank as against the wildcat banks 
and high protective duties and far-reacliing internal 
improvements. Webster and Clay were the great- 
est leaders of this group. In 1832 these men united 
as National Republicans to support Clay, who was 
defeated by Jackson. In 1835 they formally 
adopted the name of Whigs. From its very natiu-e 
and its geographical support the WTiig party was a 
party of compromise on the question of slavery. It 
elected two presidents by nominating military he- 
roes. William Henry Harrison in 1840 and Zachary 
Taylor in 1848; then it declined and, in 1856, disap- 
peared. 



tion, the old Continental Congress had by the Ordi- 
nance of 1787 forbidden slavery in the Northwest 
Territory. Again, in 1820 the Missouri Compro- 
mise excluded slavery from other territories north 
of 36° 30'. But Congress made provision for the 
capture of fugitive slaves and left slavery in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. With tills compromise the South 
was for a time content. The great unsettled areas, 
especially in the Southwest, apparently afforded 
ample room for expansion and the establishment of 
their " peculiar system." 



Territorial Expansion. The territorial expan- 
sion of the United States began with the treaty of 
1783, by which the western boundaries of the posses- 
sions which Great Britain had fixed in 1763 at the 
Appalachian Mountains were extended to the Mis- 
sissippi. In 1803 Jefferson added the vast Louisiana 
Territory acquired from France. In 1812-1814 
West Florida was aimexed by conquest, and in 1819 
East Florida was acquired from Spain, while the 
southern and western boundaries of the Louisiana 
Purchase were determined In 1836 Texas became 



ginning in 1807 the nonimportation acts, and later independent of Mexico and existed as the Lone- 
the war with England, gave American manufacturers Star State untU 1845, when it was annexed to the 
temporary monopoly of the home market. The United States. 



effect was startling. In 1807 there were 8,000 spin- 
dles in the cotton industry, in 1809, 80,000, and simi- 
lar progress was made in other lines. At the close 
of the war these Eastern manufacturers demanded a 
continuance of tlie protection that their Industries 
had received; and thus foimd themselves in sharp 
opposition to the planters of the South and the fron- 
tiersmen of the West. 

This industrial growth transformed society. The 
factory system produced a class of workmen, con- 
stantly recruited by immigration from Europe, very 
different from the old colonial type The city popu- 
lation increased. Between 1800 and 1820 the popu- 
lation of Boston almost doubled, and that of New 
York more than doubled. This working class was at 
flrst debarred from political life by property qualifi- 
cations. When at last they received the vote they 
natiu'aUy aligned themselves with the more demo- 
cratic element in the conmiimity and opposed the 
Federalists and then their successors, the Whigs. 

Political Issues and Parties. From 1816 to 
1824 was an era of personal politics. By 1824 the 
democratic movement of the West, South, and East 
became powerful and by 1830 was almost everywhere 
successful. Andrew Jackson was its spokesman. 
Coming from the West, where substantial equality 
prevailed, he held the theory that no man had a 
vested right to office. Therefore he made wholesale 
removals of the federal officers and fastened the 
spoils system upon American political life. As a 
spokesman of the Western democracy he distrusted 
the second United States Bank, which was used to 
strengthen the financial system of the United States, 
but had not always kept clear of politics. He di- 
rected the removal of the deposits wliich the gov- 
ernment had made in the bank, and successfully 
exerted his influence to prevent a new charter. 

An era of wildcat banking had already set in, 
during which many State banks issued currency 
wliich proved wortliless. A financial panic oc- 
curred in 1837, due to loose banking based on spec- 
ulation in land. 

Protective tariffs were adopted in 1816 and again 
in 1824. In 1828 came the so-called tariff of abomi- 
nations, with still higher duties, some of which were 
modified by the Tariff of 1832, which, however, re- 
tained the protective system. In the South and es- 
pecially in South Carolina this policy was resented. 
The leaders of that State, headed by John C Cal- 
!K)un, therefore expoimded the theory of nullifica- 
tion, — that is, that a State without withdrawing 
from the Union might by a solemn act " nullify" an 
act of Congress beyond the powers granted by the 
Constitution. A State convention which was sup- 
posed to represent the sovereignty of the State de- 



War with Mexico Ijegan in 1846 becau,se Polk de- 
sired California and was glad to make use of the Texan 
claim to all the territory as far south and west as the 
Rio Grande. In this war the United States was suc- 
cessful; not only was the disputed territory annexed, 
but also California and New Mexico, being all the 
region south of the 42d parallel and west of the 
Louisiana Purchase, were conquered. This territory 
was rounded out by the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. 

In Oregon joint occupation with Great Britain 
was renewed in 1827, but terminated in 1.S46. By a 
boimdarj- treaty the disputed region was divided 
and the part, south of 49° was confirmed to the United 
States. In 1842 the dispute over the Maine bound 
ary was settled by the 

Treaty. Thus, in the seventy years following the 
Revolution, tlie territory was quadrupled, and the 
United States obtained fronts on the Atlantic, Gulf, 
Pacific, and Great Lakes. 

Problem of Slavery. Back of the various politi- 
cal problems and policies of expansion was the ques- 
tion of slavery. Before the Revolution, slavery 
existed in every colony North and South. At the 
time of the adoption of the Constitution all of the 
New England States and Pennsslvania were on the 
high road toward imiversal freedom. 

The Constitution of 1787 had to recognize an in- 
stitution which then existed in eight of the States; 
two of the great compromises of the Constitution 
and several other provisions dealt with slavery . In 
the apportionment of taxes and of representation, 
slaves were to te counted as tliree fifths of their total 
number. Congress was forbidden to prohibit the 
foreign slave trade until 1808. But Congress had 
power to regulate slavery in the territories, and even 
in the District of Columbia, and dealt with the ques- 
tion of fugitive slaves. The word " slave " was 
a\oided, for many Northerners and some Southern 
leaders looked to the final extinction of slaverj-. 

The causes for the decline of slavery in the North 
were partly moral, partly political, and partly eco- 
nomic. Its sudden and imexpected growth in the 
South was due to cotton. In the North neither the 
soil nor the climate favored the increase of slavery 
and manufactures gave emplo>-ment to a class of 
laborers more intelligent than the slaves. In the 
South the invention of the cotton gin greatly stimu- 
lated the growth of cotton, for it was a staple which 
could be easily cultivated by ignorant and unskilled 
slave labor employed most of the year. Statistics 
show that in New England the slaves decreased from 
3 763 in 1790 to about 200 in 1820. In the Middle 
States from 45,000 in 1790 to 18,000 in 1816. In the 
South on the other hand, there was an increase from 

^_,^ ^__ ..^ _ ,648,651 in 1790 to 3.9.53,000 in 1860. Of the 

clared'the tariff acts null and'void, and prohibited | Southern States, Maryland showed a decrease of 
the payment of the duties levied under them, 16% between 1830 and 1860, Virginia an increase of 

only 4%, North Carolina an increase of 35%, but in 
Jackson met the issue squarely. In his nulli- ' Georgia and the Gulf States during the same period 
flcation proclamation of 1832 he declared " The the increase was 276%,. This declme of the border 
laws of the United States mast lie executed," and : States as farming commiuiities and the mcreaas of 
appealed to Congress to enlarge his powers so that | work and prosTierity in the South, led to a rift of m- 
he might enforce the law. The South Carolinians, terests and feeling within the South, 
realizing that lie was in earnest, held an informal j Federal Legislation concerning Slavery. 
meeting to suspend the operation of the nullification | Congress acted upon tlie implied permission in the 
ordinance. Meanwhile, Clay and Calhoun effected : Constitution and as eariy as possible passed laws 
a compromise tariff which was adopted by Congress, first restricting and then forbiddmg the foreign slave 
providing for the gradual reduction of duties to a I trade. Even before the adoption of the Constitu- 



The Abolition Movement. The AboUtion 
movement began in the colonics as early as 1700 and 
never ceased until its purpose was accompUshed. 
From 1775 to 1830 it was strong in the northern tier 
of slave States. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison 
founded a paper called The liberator, devoted to the 
abolition of negro slavery and established active 
antislavery societies. In the same year a slave In- 
surrection, headed by Nat Turner, broke out in 
Virginia. Although there was no connection be- 
tween the antislavery movement and this insurrec- 
tion, still the Southerners became apprehensive and 
the Southern abolition movement vanished. The 
Southern resentment at the discussion of slavery by 
the North was such that the legislature of Georgia 
offered a reward for Garrison's arrest and conviction. 
Because of fear of insurrections, tlic system of re- 
strictions on the Negroes commonly called the 
Black Code was now revised and made more drastic. 
From 1816 to 1S4S States were admitted to the 
Union in pairs, one Southern, one Northern. Thus 
when Texas was admitted to the Union as a slave 
State in 1845 it was soon counterbalanced by Iowa 
(1846). By the war with Mexico the United States 
gained the immense areas of New Mexico and Cali- 
fornia. The South confidently expected the new 
territory to be divided by the 36° 30' line. Hence, 
when, in 1846, the measure known as the Wilmot 
Proviso passed the House stipulating that in the 
new territory to be acquired from Mexico " neither 
slavery nor involimtary servitude shall ever exist in 
any part of said territory, except for crime, whereof 
the party shall first be duly convicted — " there was 
an uproar. 

The question was solved by the accidental dis- 
covery of gold In California in 1848. Within two 
years more than 80,000 emigrants entered the cotm- 
try. Most of these " Forty-Nlners " were North- 
em or Southern men who with their own hands la- 
Weli's'ter-Ashburton 1 bored for gold and had no intention of competing 
with slaves. In November, 1849, a convention was 
held under the advice of President Taylor which 
drew up a State constitution prohibiting slavery and 
applied for admission to the Union as a free State. 
No force in Congress could resist this action of the 
Cahfomians. 

For a time the opposition to slavery conducted by 
the Abolitionists was mainly outside the political 
parties. In the election of 1840 the growing senti- 
ment of the North began to take the form of votes. 
The agitation over the Wilmot Proviso led to the 
fomiation of the Liberty party (1840). Its succes- 
sor, the Free-soil party, m 1848 nominated Van 
Buren for president and cast nearly 300,000 votes, 
out of about 3.000.000. 

The successful candidate in 1848 was General 
Zachary Taylor, a Whig from Louisiana, owner of 
slaves and father-in-law of Jefferson Davis. Taylor 
liecame convinced that the aggression was from the 
South. He planned to hasten the admission of Cal- 
ifornia and New Mexico as eitlier free or slave States 
as the people of each territory might determine. 

In the meantune Henry Clay was called from his 
retirement to attempt, as he had done in 1820, to 
settle the matter by compromise. Taylor died in 
July, 1850, and the scheme put forward by Clay and 
supported by Webster was adopted. By tliis Com- 
promise of 1850 California was admitted as a free 
State extending from Mexico to Oregon; New Mex- 
ico and Utah weue organized as territories without 
the Wilmot Proviso, but with a dubious promise that 
the " rights of property " were to be decided by the 
Supreme Court Utah was plainly destined to be- 
come a free State, but it was hoped that slaves could 
be introduced into New Mexico. The South also 
gained a new fugitive slave law, which was to be en- 
forced by Federal commissioners. 

This compromise was a makeshift. It could not 
control the sentiments of tlie people, and the at^ 
tempt to enforce the law in Boston caused indigna- 
tion and disorder. Popular feeling was still more 
aroused bv the publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by 
Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852, Although its pic- 
tiu-e of slavery was not the average, its description of 
laiown and probable horrors gave it mipnccileiUed 
success, more than 300,000 copies being sold in a 
single year. It exercised an influence in politics be- 
yond that of any other book ever written in America. 
In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced 
into the Senate the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, wluch 
provided for the organization of the Louisiana Pur- 
chase north of 36° 30" and west of Missouri and 
Iowa into the two territories of Kansas and Ne- 
braska. Provision was made that the States formed 



EARLY TYPES OF 

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MET REQUIREMENTS USA SIGNAL CORPS 
JULY 27. 1909 



LOUIS BLERIOTS MONOPLANE 

FIRST AEROPLANE TO CROSS ENGLISH CHANNEL 



HENRY FARMAN S AEROPLANE 



WON ARCHDEACON PRIZE BY SAILING A 
KILOMETER IN A CIRCLE 




ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONTS MONOPLANE -DEMOISELLE" 

REMARKABLE FOR ITS SMALL SIZE 



ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONTS DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIP 

FIRST GAS BAG TO SUPPORT A MOTOR 





DIRIGIBLE AIRSHIP 

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BUILT BY CAPT. THOMAS L, BALDWIN 



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SPAD (FRENCH) SINGLE-SEATER COMBAT 
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EQUIPPED WITH RENAULT MOTOR 





NIEUPORT (FRENCH) SINGLE-SEATER BIPLANE 

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12 CYLINDER LIBERTY MOTOR 



ACE T,PE AMERICAN BIPLANE 
IN AERONAUTICS WHAT THE FORD CAR IS IN AUT0M06ILING 



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PFALZ (GERMAN) BIPLANE 

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HALBERSTADT (GERMAN) BIPLANE 
WITH 160 h:;p:' MERCEDES MOTOR 




AMERICAN BUILT HANDLEY-PAGE BIPLANE TWO LIBERTY MOTORS 





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NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



161 



out of this territory should be free or slave " as their 
constitution may prescribe at the time" This was 
the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty or Squatter 
Sovereignty. It left to the people the decision as 
to who should first organize the State government. 
It was directly contrary to the spirit and principle of 
the Missouri Compromise on the specious argimient 
that the Missouri Act was repealed by the '■ princi- 
ple " of the Compromise of 1S50. Immigration so- 
cieties were organized in both the North and the 
South, and settlers were hurried to Kansas. The 
North was more successful, and aft^r a period of vio- 
lence and even civil war. Kansas was admitted as a 
free State in IS61. In 1S56 the political party op- 
posed to slavery took the name of Republican 
party and nominated Fremont. " the Patlifinder," 
for president. Great enthusiasm was shown, and 
Fremont polled only 500.000 votes less than the suc- 
cessful Democratic c-andidate, Buchanan. 

In 1S57 opinion in the North was still further in- 
flamed by the decision in the Dred Scott Case. 
The Supreme Court held: (1) that a slave or the de- 
scendants of a slave could not be a citizen and, there- 
fore, had no standing in the United States Courts; 
(2) that the restriction of territorial slavery by the 
Missouri Compromise was imconstitutional; (3) that 
slave owners could carry their slaves and property 
into any territory. The Republicans were thus m- 
formed by the highest court of the land that the po- 
litical principles for wliich their party was formed 
were unconstitutional and impossible of accomplish- 
ment, and that even the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 
which embodied Douglas's principles, was misoimd. 

Two years later John Brown, an intense anti- 
slaverj'man and agitator in Kansas, thought he saw. 
in the possibility of Negro insurrection, a weak spot in 
the system of slavery. He. therefore, with a score of 
followers raided the United States arsenal at Harpers 
Ferry and tried to bring in the slaves in the neighbor- 
hood. He was captured and hanged for treason. 
Although his plan involved civil war and destruction 
and his sentence was legally just, he was con\inced 
that he was doing a great service to himianity. 
Public opinion in the North raised him to the rank of 
a martyr. The South was not terrified, but for the 
first time realized the extent to which the Abolition- 
ists were readj- to go. 

In the presidential campaign of 1860 four candi- 
dates appeared. The Democratic party spUt and 
the Northern wing nominated Douglas; the Southern 
wing put forward Vice President Breckinridge. A 
remnant of the old Wliigs organized the Constitu- 
tional Union party and nominated Bell and Everett 
on the platform of the Constitution and the Laws. 
The growing Republican party nominated Abra- 
ham Lincoln. In the election Lincoln received 
930.000 popular votes fewer than his combined op- 
ponents, but his majorities and phu-alities in all the 
free States except New Jersey gave him 180 electoral 
votes, and he was elected. In Congress the Repul> 
licans elected nine members less than a majority of 
the House. 

Secession. On the news of the election of Lin- 
coln the legislature of South Carolina summoned a 
convention which declared (Dec. 20, 1860) that 
" the union now subsisting between South Carohna 
and other States, under tlie name of ' The United 
States of America,' is hereby dissolved." Other 
Southern States followed. On February 8. 1861, 
delegates of South Carolina. Georgia, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, and Florida — a little later 
joined by Texas — met in convention at Montgom- 
erj-, Alabama, and established a provisional consti- 
tution for *' The Confederate States of Amer- 
ica.** Jefferson Davis was choSen president and 
Alexander H. Stephens vice president. 

President Buchanan, a State-rights man, a Demo- 
crat, and a lifelong defender of slaverj'. advised Con- 
gress that secession was wrong, but that the anti- 
slavery men had provoked it, and that the Federal 
government had no right to coerce a State. He 
took no measures to prevent secession or to maintain 
the Federal control of the forts, mints, and custom- 
houses witliin the Confederate States. All efforts 
in Congress to find a basis of compromise failed: 
neither secessionists nor Republicans would jield. 

March 4. 1861, Lincoln was inaugurated. His 
address was conciliatory, assuring the South that 
slavery would not be assaulted in the slave States 
and that fugitive slaves ought to be restored; but he 
uncompromisingly asserted that the Union was per- 
petual and secession impossible. As to the forts and 
customliouses. he maintained that they must be held 
by the Federal authorities and that it was liisduty 
to enforce the laws throughout the territoo' of the 
United States. 

Major Anderson, the commander of Fort Sum- 
ter in Charleston Harbor, refused to deliver the fort 
to the State authorities and April 12, 1861. the Con- 
federate forces opened fire on the fort. After a two 
days' Iximbardment it surrendered; but the North, 
which had refused to believe the tlireat-s of the 
South, was arou-sed and gave an enthusiastic support 
to the President's call for 75,000 volunt^^ers. This 
outbreak precipitated political action in those parts 



of the South which had not yet seceded. Virginia. 
North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee at once 
joined the Confederacy. Delaware. Maryland. 
Kentucky, and Missouri remained in the Union, al- 
though in Kentucky and Missouri there were armed 
factions. 

The Civil War. It was plain that the region on 
the border between the two sections would l>e the 
scene of the conflict. Both the Northern and South- 
em armies hastened to secure tiie most advantageous 
positions, especially in the area south of Washing- 
ton. Richmond had been made the capital of the 
Confederacy and Northern public sentiment de- 
manded an attack upon it. A hastily gathered force 
marched southward from Washington and en July 
21, 1S61. fought the battle of Bull Run, called in 
the South the first battle of Manassas, in which 
the Union army was defeated and in panic retreated 
to Washington. This event stimg the North and 
made clear the terrible gravity of the struggle. Lin- 
cohi issued a call for half a million men. Jefferson 
Davis also called for troops and both sides prepared 
for a bitter conflict. 

The fail of 1861 was spent by both armies in per- 
fecting their organization and disciplining their 
troops, and no important general action t.ook place 
in the East. In the West a struggle took place in 
Missouri wiiere. although the Southern troops were 
generally successful in the field, the State was pre- 
vented from joining the Confederacy. 

April 19, 1861, Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of 
the Southern ports. Tliis was practically a recogni- 
tion of formal war and at once involved the United 
States in complications with Eiu"opean powers. The 
long coast lijie of the Confederacy made the blockade 
difficult; but after a few months it was tightened, and 
many captures were made, though blockade nonners 
continued to enter the Southern ports till the end of 
the war. Lincoln's action on the blockade brought 
the great naval powers of France and England face 
to face with a decision as to the nature of the strug- 
gle. May 13, 1861, Great Britaui properly recog- 
nized the war as an actuality and issued a proclama- 
tion of neutrality; but then and thereafter refused 
to recognize the independence of the Confederacy. 

Relations witli Great Britain, however, were 
brought almost to the breaking point by the seizure 
of Mason and Slidell, the Confederate commis- 
sioners, from the British steamer Trent (1861). A 
conflict was avoided by the prompt retiuu of Mason 
and Slidell and the disavowal of the capture on a 
technicality by Lincoln. Nevertheless, a large party 
in England openly cr secretly favored the cause of 
the Confederacy and exerted such influence that the 
British government neglected to enforce its neutral- 
ity, and several vessels under directions of Confeder- 
ate agents were built or altered to serve as commerce 
destroyers, and were allcwed to leave British ports. 
The most dangerous were the Alabama. Shenandoah. 
and Florida, which preyed upon Union commerce. 
In 1872 Great Britain arbitrated the claims arising 
out of her negligence and paid for the damage done. 

The Western campaign of 1862 was favorable to 
the Union. General Grant captured Fort Henry 
on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cum- 
berland. Two months later New Orleans was 
captured by Admiral Farragut. While the Union 
forces were still di\ided. Grant was attacked on April 
6th by General Albert S. Johnston at the terrible 
battle of Pittsburg Landing or Shlloh. The first 
day's fight was a defeat for Grant, but the Confeder- 
ate general was killed and Buell's army came to the 
rescue just in time. Two months of cautious ma- 
neuvering on both sides followed. 

In the East General George B. McClellan spent 
the spring in preparation and finally transferred his 
army to the peninsula between the York and James 
Rivers, aiming at Richmond. April 4. the Army of 
the Potomac began to move from Fortress Monroe, 
and for three months the campaign went on. closing 
with a series of engagements within sight of Rich- 
mond, in wliich the more brilliant successes were 
won by the Confederates. General Jackson, known 
familiarly as *' Stonewall*' Jackson, especially dis- 
tinguished himself . The battle of Malvern Hill held 
the Confederates in check while McClellan withdrew 
to the protection of liis gunboats. 

In Augu.st General Lee. now in command of the 
Confederate forces, moved toward Washington. A 
terrible battle, known as the second battle of Bull 
Run or Manassas, was fought on August 29 and 
30, in which the Union army under General Pope was 
severely beaten. McClellan was summoned to 
Washington and his forces joined with the remnants 
of Popes army. Lee crossed the Potomac, but was 
checked at the battle of Antietam, called Sharps- 
burg in the South. No other decided action took 
place until December 13, when General Bumside, 
who had been appointed in McClellan's place, en- 
gaged Lee's army at Fredericksburg and met with 
great loss. 

On the Atlantic coast the Union forces were in pos- 
session of important ports. Diu-ing the peninsular 
campaign the new ironclad Mcrrimac. or Virginia. 
as the Confederates called her, entered Hampton 



Roads and destroyed the Union ships, Cumberland 
and Congress; but the next day she was attacked by 
the Federal ironclad, the Monitor, " a cheese box on 
a raft," designed by John Ericsson and constructed 
within a hundred days. This first battle between 
ironclads ultimately revolutionized naval warfare. 
The Eastern campaigns of the Union forces had been 
imsuccessful. but the victories of p-arragut and Grant 
had more than compensated for these defeats. 

Emancipation. Early in the war Congress, ig- 
noring the Dred Scott decision, prohibited slavery 
in the District of Columbia and the territories. 
September 23. 1862, President Lincoln issued a pre- 
liminar>' proclamation which was followed on Janu- 
ary' 1, 1803, by a formal emancipation proclama- 
tion, freeing all slaves within the territory held by 
the Confederate States. This action was based upon 
the power of the President to conduct the war and to 
weaken the Southern forces by reducing slave labor. 
Up to this time the Republican party, or the Union 
party, as it was sometimes called, put in the fore- 
ground that it was fighting for the preservation of the 
Union; and slavery was not directly affected in the 
foiu* lojal border slave States. By the Thirteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1865. 
slaverj- and involuntarj^ servitude were prohibited 
tluoughout the United States and all places subject 
to its jurisdiction. This was the first amendment to 
be added since 1804. 

The Western war in 1863 turned to the advantage 
of the North. The battle of Murfreesboro, Ten- 
nessee (January 1. 1S63), left the Union force in pos- 
session of the field. The great object in the West 
was now the opening of the Mississippi, and General 
Grant began a series of operations for the capture of 
Vlcksburg. which surrendered on July 4, 1863, so 
that the Mississippi ran. as Lincoln said. " unvexed 
to the sea." Meanwhile, under General Hooker, the 
Army of the. Potomac in the East suffered a great 
reverse at ChancellorsTille (iSIay 2-3, 1863); and 
Lee shortly after invaded Pennsylvania Meade 
was placed at the head of the great Union force which 
confronted Lee at Gettysburg. 

During the first three days of July was fought 
what is generally regarded as the decisive battle of 
the war. Lee was repulsed and fell back across the 
Potomac. In the West the Union army commanded 
by Rosecrans was badly defeated at Chlcbamauga 
(September 19-20). Grant was placed at the head 
of the Western armies and organized a powerful 
movement which led to the battles of Lookout 
Mountain and Missionary Ridge and drove the 
Confederate forces out of southern Teimessee. 

Grants success led to his appointment as lieuten- 
ant general and commander of all the Union forces, 
leaving the Western army in command of Sherman, 
Grant opened the campaign in the East by attacking 
Lee's army in the terrible battle of the Wilderness, 
May, 1864. During the next six weeks Grant fought 
a series of battles which resulted in heavy losses, es- 
pecially on the Union side. Lee was driven back to 
Petersburg, the key to Richmond, but held his tines 
for many months. But the Union losses could be 
replaced by fresh troops, while the strength of the 
Confederate army was permanently diminished. 

In the West Sherman started a movement south 
from Chattanooga. He was opposed by Johnston, 
a general second only to Lee in ability. After three 
months of almost continual fighting Sherman suc- 
ceeded in reaching Atlanta. On November 16 began 
his famous ** March to the Sea" across Georgia, 
ending at Savannah, December 21. Sherman's 
campaign cut the Confederacy in two. besides devas- 
tating some of its most fertile territory. 

February" 1. Sherman started northward, while 
Grant, whose army had been strengthened, attacked 
Lee. Hoping to divert Grant. Lee dispatched Jubal 
Early with a body of Confederate troops through the 
Shenandoah Valley across the Potomac, and they 
reached the defenses of Washington, but were halted 
there. Grant dispatched Sheridan to flank Early 
and devastate the Shenandoah Valley. 

Early in April Lee was forced to abandon his de- 
fenses, and a few days later was stopped and sur- 
rounded by Grant and Sheridan at Appomattox 
Court House. Here Lee. seeing further resistance 
hopeless, surrendered his whole army. April 9. A 
few days later Johnston surrendered to Sherman 
(April 26) . The terms of surrender were such as had 
never before l)een granted to the defeated party at 
the end of a great civil war. The Confederate sol- 
diers were required to lay do\vn their arms and to 
cease from hostility. Grant generously allowed the 
men wiio had horses to retain them. 

Reconstruction. At the outbreak of the war 
Lincoln and the Republicans generally denied that a 
State could secede and leave the Union. The war 
forced the seceding States to accept the contention of 
the North as a physical fact ; but the emancipation of 
the slaves was a profound change in the social and 
economic conditions of the South, both in the Confed- 
erate States and the loyal slave States. The Thir- 
teenth Amendment put both regions on an equality 
in this respect ; but three other questions pressed for 



162 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



N 



settlement: (1) the status of the seceded States; (2) ' expecting to make a test case for the Supreme 
the status of the Southern whites; (.3) the status of ' Ootut. For tliis Johnson was impeached by the 
the Negroes. j House of Representatives, but after a long trial was 

Were the secedmg States out of the Union? Or acquitted by the Senate. His real offense was in 
were they simply regular States in wliicii insurrec- i obstinately differing with the party m power, 
tions had occurred and unlawful governments been j The Fourteenth Amendment went into force in 
founded? If they were States then tlie a-ssent of 27 July, 1868. General Grant, the Kepubhcan candidate 



u 



w 



states was necessary for the ratification ol the Thir- 
teenth Amendment. If the States were out of the 
Union and had been reduced to a territorial basis. 
Congress might require them to ratify as a requisite 
for readmission. 

President Lincoln held that the discussion of the 
question of whether the States were out of the Union 
or not was " bad as the basis of controversy and good 
for nothing at all." The States in question were 
" out of their practical relation with the Union " and 
the sole object of the government should lie " to get 
them into that proper practical relation." 

His plan for reconstruction, proposed in 1S64, also 
took accomit of the personal status of participants 
In the Confederacy. He offered amnesty to aU per- 
sons (except certam classes) who would take the oath 
to support the Constitution and the new state of 
things. Whenever one tenth of the voters m any 
State should organize a genuine republican form of 
government, the president was ready to recognize 
them. Tile tw^o houses of Congress, however, could 
not be denied the privilege to act as sole judge as to 
whether they would admit senators and representa- 
tives from such State governments. 

It was a frightful misfortime to both North and 
South when (April 14, 1805) President Lincoln 
was assassinated by the agent of a band of con- 
spirators embittered by the failure of the South. 
The immediate result was to deepen a sense of the 
peril wliich still lay in the system of slavery. 

The presidency went to the vice president, An- 
drew Johnson. He had l)een a Democrat before 
the war and still believed in State sovereignty, but 
he beheved also in the Union. He was a man of 
great courage, with good intentions which he ex- 
pressed with such violence that he alienated many 
who would othenvise have supported him 

President Jolmson worked on the lines of Lincoln's 
reconstniction policy and had succeeded in most 
States. By the time Congress assembled ( December, 
1865), Johnson had ready a new group of Southern 
State governments which had joined in ratifying the 
Thirteenth Amendment, so that slavery was extinct 
throughout the United States. 

At first the large Republican majorities in both 
houses were inclined to proceed in harmony with the 
President. But the radicals, under the leadership of 
Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, caused Congress 
to break with the President and omitted from the 
roll call the names of the newly elected representa- 
tives from the recognized Southern States. The 
Republicans held a two-thirds majority in both 
houses and were therefore able to override any presi- 
dential veto- 

They turned their attention especially to the 
status of the Negroes, whom they feared the recon- 
structed States would keep in a conditicn of vassal- 
age. These fears were strengthened by the passage 
of State " Vagrant Acts " which discriminated 
against the Negroes. To protect the Negroes 
Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, 
which declared that " all persons bom or naturalized 
in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction 
thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the 
State wherein they reside." This directly reversed 
Taney's decision in the Dred Scott Case. 

Still further to protect the freedmen the amend- 
ment included clauses forbiddmg any State " to 
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of 
the United States; or to deprive any person of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law." 
This removed the protection of the freedmen from 
State to Federal courts. This Fourteenth Amend- 
ment, which was based on a previous Civil Rights 
Act, was proposed to the States in Jime, 1866, but 
was rejected by all the Southern States except Ten- 
nessee. 

Congress was ready in the spring of 1867 with 
a comprehensive plan of reconstruction passed 
over the President's veto. The act of 1867 divided 
all the late Confederate States (except Tennessee) 
into military districts under the command of army 
officers. Under their direction white and black 
alike (except those classes excluded by the Four- 
teenth Amendment) were admitted to vote for dele- 
gates to State constitutional conventions, wliich 
must frame a ccnstitution including Negro suffrage. 
When this was done the voters could choose a legis- 
lature, which must ratify the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment. When this process was completed the State 
was to be allowed to return to the Union. 

President Johnson, who had attempted by vetoes 
to check every step in this congressional plan for re- 
construction, was distnisted by Congress lest through 
his power of appointment and removal he might 
thwart its plans. To insure success Congress passed 
the Tenure of Offlce Act, which made removals con- 
tingent upon the approval of the Senate. John- 



for the presidency, was elected on a platform ap- 
proving the congressional pohcy of reconstruction 
In 1869 the Fifteenth Amendment was proposed, 
which declared that " The right of citizens of the 
United States to vote shaU not be denied or abridged 
by the United States or any State on accoimt of race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude." The 
ratification of this amendment, as well a.'^ the Four- 
teenth, was made a conchtion for the readmission 
of Virgmia. Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia. Al- 
though the Fifteenth Amendment was declared in 
force March. 1870, it was not until 1871 that the last 
of the Confederate States was restored to its full 
rights. 

The congressional policy of reconstniction ex- 
pected Republican supremacy in the South ttoough 
the Negro vote, which became the prey of imscnipu- 
lous leaders and some of the governments there 
organized fell into extravagance and corruption. 
State debts rapidly increased and State credit de- 
clined. The Southern whites, although reluctantly 
accepting the Foiuieenth and Fifteenth Amend- 
ments, resolved that the Negroes should not control. 
They organized a secret poUtical organization 
tliroughout the South, called Ku-Klux Klan, to ter- 
rorize the blacks, and speedily regained control of 
most of the State governments. This disturbance 
continued throughout the administration of Presi- 
dent Grant. 

The election of 1S76 was in doubt for more 
than four months. The imquestioned electoral 
vote:S stood 184 for Tilden, Democratic candidate, 
and 166 for Hayes, Repubhcan The IS votes cf 
Louisiana, Florida, and South Carolina and one 
vote in Oregon were disputed. No method of ter- 
minating the dispute was provided by the Consti- 
tution and Congress fuially created an Electoral 
Commission which declared, by a majority of 8 to 
7 on all critical questions, that Hayes was elected. 

President Hayes withdrew the troops from the 
South (April, 1877); henceforth the freedmen were 
left to their own resources and to the courts to ob- 
tain their civil and political rights. 

Congress, which was now Democratic, attempted 
to repeal the various laws wliich protected the Ne- 
groes in their right to vote. In this attempt they 
were partially successful, but the last of the Force 
Laws were not repealed tmtil 1890. A new method 
of assuring white supremacy was now proposed. 
Complicated voting systems and registration and 
poU taxes disposed of most of the Negro vote. 

In seven States other steps were taken to assure 
the control of tlie whites. The first was the Missis- 
sippi Constitution of 1890, ordamed and established 
without reference to the voters for ratification, 
which set up alternative conditions for voting, one of 
which was that the voter should be able to read or 
understand any section of the Constitution. Provi- 
sions of this sort when applied by white registration 
officers effectually disfranchised most Negroes. 
Since an educational qualification might be en- 
forced upon the whites, Louisiana, in 1896, adoi)ted 
a *' Grandfather Clause '* whereby a person who 



by grants of money, credit, and land by State and 
local governments. This expansion included fraud 
and corruption, in wliich some pubUc officials were 
mvolved. The building of these roads was often a 
great speculation, and fortunes were made; but in 
many instances the small investors were wiped out. 
After the period of construction there followed a 
period of combination. Begiiming in 1869 with 
the union of the Hudson River and New York Cen- 
tral lines, great systems were brought together 
in both the East and West. This was also an era 
of Inventions wliich revolutionized transportation 
and mdustry. For example, air brakes. Pullnian 
cars, and railway signals were introduced; Bell's tele- 
phone was put in operation in 1875, arc lights m 

1879, incandescent lights in 18S2; and electric street 
railways were in successful operation in 1885. 

Social Transformation. This economic revo- 
lution brought about a transformation in society, 
which included several significant elements. The 
first was industrial capital which, as contrasted w ith 
agricultuie, increased enormously m amount and in 
poUtical power. The second was a new distribu- 
tion of the population. The majority were no 
longer foiuid on farms, but were wage workers. 
The drift to the cities checked the normal growth 
of the rural regions. In 1890, 31.6% of the popula- 
tion lived in towns of over 2,500; in 1900, 40 5% ; in 
1910, 46.3% ; m 1920. over one half. In the forty 
years after the Civil War, New York tripled in pop- 
ulation, San Francisco uicreased more than sixfold, 
Chicago more than tenfold. 

Another altering force was the eflect of demand 
for labor m stimulating immigration. In 1870 
387,000 unmigrants arrived in the United States ; in 

1880, 457,000; in 1882, 788.000; while to the three 
yeai-s between 1905 and 1907 more than a million 
came each year. In oil more than 33,000,000 immi- 
grants came to the United States between 1820 and 
1920. Great Britain and Ireland furnished more 
than any single country, s.000,000 in all; Germany 
came next with more than 5,000,000, and the Scandi- 
navian immigration added 2.000,000. 

About 1900, Russia, Italy, and the southern 
European coimtries began to send large numbers; 
and in all more than 3,000,000 have come from the 
coimtries imder the control of the former Austro- 
Hungarian Monarchy, 3,000,000 from Russia, and 
3.000,000 from Italy. On the Western coast about 
200,000 have come from Japan and 288,000 Chinese 
arrived liefore the Exclusion Act of 1883. 

The industrial revolution and foreign immigration 
acted together to force large numbers of people into 

prbietarlat, a large population living in tene- 
ments and rented houses, suffering povertj- and deg- 
radation. The emploj-ment of women and children 
in factories on the one hand, the organization of 
the working class into trade-imions and other 
groups on the other, led to demands for legislation to 
mitigate the evils. At length the opposition to the 
labor system reached the form of an attack on the 
industrial system itself. 

As a result of tliis social and economic revolution 
the industrial class liecame a political factor. 
Trade-unions, which came into existence about 
1800, were organized in many lines of industry and 
included millions of members. The Labor Reform 
party appeared in 1872, and a few years later the 
Knights of Labor attempted a consolidation o! 
all trades and classes of workers, and demanded 



voted in 1867 or before, or the son or grandson of i an eight-hour day and other reforms. In 1877 the 
such a person, might vote. The Supreme Court first great railroad strike occurred, and Pittsburgh 
held in 1915 that a similar clause in the Oklahoma i for a time fell almost completely into the hands of the 



constitution was unconstitutional, but tliroughout 
the Southern States the whites remain in pohtical 
control. 

The Economic Revolution. Long before the 
Civil War steam and machinery transformed large 
portions of the North into manufacturing regions, 
and the creed of protection was made a political is.sue 
for the benefit of these industries. In tlie fifty years 
following the Civil War the advance in industry 
and commerce was tremendous. In 1905 over 
twelve billion doUars was invested in factories; and 
the total value of the manufactured products was 
more than fourteen billion doUars — fifteen times 
the amoiuit turned out in 18ti0. As late as 1882 
hundreds of thousands of tons of steel rails were im- 
ported annually into the United States, but ten 
years later mere than fifteen thousand tons were an- 
nually ex-ported. 

Railway construction advanced even more 
rapidly than the growth of the population and the 
increa.se in manufacturing. In the decade between 
1860 and 1870 the mileage of railroads increased by 
more than two thirds. In the next two decades it 
increased fivefold; and in 1910 there were 242,000 
miles of railroad, more than eight times the mileage 
of 1S60. The early railroads were constnicted on 
the important lines of transit; but they soon were 
pushed Into the West, where there were no large 
cities. 

This rapid expansion was not due solely to private 
enterprise, but was aided and stimulated by lavisli 



son nevertheless removed Stanton, secretarj- of war, ' grants of pubUc land by the Federal government and 



strikers. From this time on strikes, often accom- 
panied by violence, were a regular part of the strug- 
gles between the employer and the employee. 

The most significant result of the industrial trans- 
formation was the rise of enormous combinations 
in transportation and industry. The largest and 
most profitable lines of business were passing from 
individual to corporate ownership. The next step 
was to combine the corporations mto still larger 
imits, commonly called trusts, wliich possessed 
greater resources and exercised greater uifluence. 

In 1882 the Standard Oil Trust was organized, 
and the stocks of several competing corporations 
were placed m the hands of tnistees, who managed 
the properties as a whole and distributed the profits 
pro rota. This method proved attractive and was 
followed by similar organizations in cotton, oil, Ih:- 
seed oil. lead, sugar, whisky, and cordage. Where 
the tnist method was not followed, vast new corpora- 
tions were formed which purchased the securities of 
other coiiiorations and thus controlled their proper- 
ties and managed the industry as a wkole. By this 
method enormous amounts of securities were issued, 
oftentimes upon purely fictitious values, which en- 
couraged sj^eculation of the wildest sort. 

jNIoreover, in the necessity for paying dividends 
upon these securities the corporations attempted to 
crush competition and to control, if not to increase, 
prices. Special privileges were demanded from 
legislatures, and corporations were in a position to 
exercise political influence. Attempts were made 
on the part of the States to regulate and control the 
trusts, but with little success. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



163 



Development of the West. In 1876 the Far 
Western States. Oregon. California, and Nevada, 
were separated from tlie States of tlie Middle West 
by a l)road wedge of territories: Wasliington, Idaho. 
RIontana, Wyoming. Utali, Arizona. New Me.xico. 
Dakota, and the Indian Territory. In 1S70 the 
combined population of these territories was under 
lialf a niilhsn. This region was devoted almost en- 
tirely to cattle raismg. but the small farmers were 
Ijegiimmg to take up government land and to fence 
off the more fertile fields and watercourses. The 
building of the great transcontinental railroads 
opened up this region to settlement, and the territo- 
ries developed more rapidly than the older States had 
dene. From 1889 to 1S96. seven new States were 
formed from this area. 

Tile Economic Development of the South. 

The emancipation of the slaves and the devastation 
wrought by the Civil War made it necessary to re- 
constmct the industry of the South. The few re- 
maining old plantations of large size were mostly 
subdivided. In 1860, the average holding of land in 
the Southern States had been 335 acres: in 1880 it 
was 153. and in 1900 it had fallen to 138. The fluid 
capital of 1860 was invested in Confederate seciui- 
ties, which became wortliless: and the demand for 
new capital could only be satisfied by large amoimts 
from the North. Railroads were reiiuilt, cities ex- 
tended, and cotton factories, blast furnaces, and ii'on 
and steel works set up. For the first time the South 
became an industrial region. 

In 1860, there were but 300,000 cotton spindles in 
that section: in 1900 there were 4.000,000, while the 
number of employees had increased tenfold and the 
value of the output nearly twelvefold. In West 
Virginia and Alabama coal and iron and steel indus- 
tries developed so rapidly that Alabama, which had 
stood tenth among the i)ig-iron producing States in 
1.880. ranked third in 1890. The social effects of the 
industrial change w*ere significant: political leaders 
began to be di"awn from industry- :ukI business as well 
as from agriculture. Thi^ rapid industrial growth 
and mutual cooperation in l)u>ine'^s and investments 
did much to heal the breach between the North and 
South and to imite the country. 

Changes In Politics and Law. This economic 
and industrial development in both sections brought 
in a new type of public otflrial. Statesmen like 
Clay, Webster, and Callioun were succeetled by men 
of the type of Conkling, Piatt. Gorman, Quay, and 
Blaine. Congress was more and more composed of 
practical men who either had organized or had as- 
sisted m the organization of great railways and indus- 
tries and other enterprises which contrnlltd nutnral 
resources and franchises. They were con\ iiicrl that 
the prosperity of the coimtry depended upon the 
development of these industries and resources. 
They demanded the widest possilile extension of the 
rights of private property and the narrowe.=t re- 
striction of the State. They believed that the nat- 
ural resources of the coimtry should be transferred 
to private ownership, and that intangil^le assets like 
franchises should be transformed into private prop- 
erty. They supported their theory of property by a 
theory of law and politics, which, while protecting 
property against disorder and furnishing public aid 
for private enterj^rises, regarded State interference 
with this property as an evil to be resisted. 

Judicial Review under the Fourteenth 
Amendment. For many years the only attempts 
to control or regulate the industrial and economic 
system were made by the States. Some years after 
the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, efforts were 
made to apply its terms to restrict the actions of the 
States. The words " No State shall make or enforce 
any law which shaU abridge the privileges oi- immu- 
nities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any 
State deprive any person of life, lilierty. or property, 
without due process of law: nor deny to any person 
within its jirisdiction the equal protection of the 
laws " were supposedly framed to protect the Ne- 
groes against injustice by the States. The amend- 
ment certainly transfeiTcd a great area of power to 
the Federal government. 

Hence, property owners appealed to it to protect 
their interests. Thus, the word " person " was held 
to include artificial persons, such as corporations, 
which, therefore, could not be deprived of property 
without due process of law. Due process of law 
gradually came to mean that the Supreme Court of 
the United States would make it a practice to review 
State legislation and to test its reasonatilene.ss. A 
serious question was that of rates charged by public- 
service corporations. The courts held that rates 
which were so low as to make any retxim impossible 
were confiscatory and thus against due process of 
law; then, that rates which deprived the owners of a 
" customarj' " return were likewise deprivations of 
property. Gradually it became a settled doctrine 
Miat all State legislation affecting private property 
was subject to judicial review, and that private prop- 
erty should be free from all interference, except 
such as might be allowed by the Supreme Court of 



I the United States. This was in reality a novel doc- 
trine: but the alternative was the regulation of prop- 
erty and busmess rights by forty-eight different 
State legislatm-es, which would have led to uidustrial 
and economic anarchy. 

The power of judicial review has been applied not 
only to property, but also to social and remedial 
legislation. Thus, the Supreme Court has asserted 
its right to review and occasionally to reverse the de- 
cision of the State courts and State legislatiu'es upon 
the hmitations of hours of labor and other laws at- 
tempting to alter or remedy social and industrial 
conditions. 

Parties and Party Issues from 1877 to 1896. 

From 1861 to 1889 was an era of Kepublican control. 
Diu-ing it the Democrats held the presidi'ncv- for only 
four years out of twenty-eight. Tlie Republican 
party, originally a minorit>' party of protest, was 
transformed by the Civil War hito the majority 
party, which felt sure that on its success depended 
the preservation of the Union and the salvation of 
society. The liigh tariff required by the financial 
necessities of the Civil War was graduaUy raised to 
a party doctrine and was supported by the influence 
and campaign subscriptions cf the con^orations 
affected. The skillful and honest management by 
Republican officials of the national debt caused by 
the war attracted fuianciers; and the farmers of the 
West owed their homes to the generous public-land 
policy ol the Republicans. 

The Democratic party fcr a time seemed dis- 
credited by the Civil War. bi|t its principles had such 
vitality that it succeeded in gaining a majority in the 
House of Representatives in 1874, and it almost 
gained the presidency in 1876. The administration 
of Hayes was colorless, and he was hampered by a 
Democratic House of Representatives. In 18.80 a 
section of the Republicans vainly tried to nominate 
General Grant for a third term, to revive their wan- 
ing popularity. The next Republican president, 
James A. Garfield, of Ohio, received a popular vote 
only 7,000 greater than that of his Democratic rival. 
General Hancock. After Garfield's death by assas- 
sination in 1881, he was succeeded (September, 1881) 
by the vice president, Chester A. Arthur, who ad- 
ministered the office with dignity and ability, but 
could not make headway against the rising distrust 
toward the Republican party. 

In 1.884 the Republicans nominated James G. 
Blaine, of Maine, a man of ability who had had a 
brilliant career in the House of Representatives and 
was possessed of a magnetic personality. Unfortu- 
nately, he had used his political power for the private 
ends of some of his friends. The Democrats nomi- 
nated Grover Cleveland, governor of New York. 
Many reform Republicans, commonly caUed "mug- 
wumps," refused to support Blaine and went over to 
the Democratic candidate. Cleveland was elected, 
though the shifting of a thousand votes in New York 
woidd have given the victory to the Republicans. 

Cleveland's first two years were negative rather 
than positive. He used the veto more freely than 
any other American president, chiefly to check pri- 
vate pension bills. He succeeded in recovering more 
than 80,000,000 acres of public land from illegal 
claimants. He was the first to treat the labor prob- 
lem in a special message. The most significant 
.statute passed in his administration, the Interstate 
Commerce Lawof 1.887, was not a partisan measure. 
Throughout his admmistration he was hampered by 
a Republican Senate and by the divisions within Ids 
own party in the House of Representatives. 

Cleveland became satisfied that the tariff was 
dangerous to the coimtry. and in 1887 he made it an 
issue on which he hoped to imite his own party and 
defeat the Republicans in the campaign of 1888. 
The Repulilicans nominated Benjamm Harrison, 
whose campaign was managed by a political boss and 
by a capitalist who raised a large sum from the inter- 
ests protected by the tariff. Harrison was elected 
by an electoral plurality of 65, although Cleveland 
polled a greater popular vote; and the Republicans 
.succeeded in gaining control of both houses of Con- 
gress. 

Their narrow majority in the House of Represent- 
atives caused Speaker Reed to " coimt a quonim," 
a practice thereafter embodied in the rules. Thus 
organized, the Republicans at once prepared a bill 
called the McKlnley Tariff, after the man who had 
charge of it. The tariff of 1890, based upon the the- 
ory of high protection, was the Republican answer 
to Cleveland's demand for tariff reform In the 
same year, in response to the outcry against the big 
corporationsandtruststhe.'ihernian Antitrust Law 
was passed. An attempt was made to hold the West- 
ern States and the silver wing of the party by the 
passage of the Sherman Act, which provided for the 
purchase of 4,500,000 oimces of silver each month, 
to be paid for in notes redeemable in silver or gold at 
the option of the government. 

In the campaign of 1892 both parties renominated 

the candidates of 1888, but Harrison was decisively 

defeated. For the first time since 1872, a third 

party polled a significant vote — 1 ,000,000 votes cast 

i for the Populist candidate. Weaver. 



Cleveland's second administration began in 1S93 
with what appeared to lie an era of prosix^rit.y; but 
beneath the surface were serious financial and indus- 
trial difficulties. The revenues were declining and 
the government was facing a deficit at a time when 
there was a stringency m the gold market. The 
gold reserve, which the government maintained 
to redeem United States notes, diminished rapidly. 
Finally, on October 30, 1893, the Sherman silver law 
was repealed and some relief obtained. 

The industrial condition of the coimtry was also 
bad. Never l^efore had the evil of imemployment 
been so widespread in the United States; and 
Coxey's Army of the luiemployed. which plaimed 
to march to Washington as a protest, was felt to be 
a dangerous symptom. Reduction in wages pro- 
duced strikes, chief of which was the Pullman 
strike of 1894 at Cliicago, which for a time para- 
lyzed the raih-oads and led to the interference of 
Federal troops against the protest of Governor Alt- 
geld of Illinois. In this strike the Federal courts 
granted an injunction against the president of the 
union, Eugene V. Debs, who went to prison for per- 
sistmg in the direction of the strike contrary to the 
commands of the court. 

The most important piece of legislation was the 
Wilson Tariff of 1894, including an income tax 
designed to make up for loss of revenue by a reduced 
tariff, a provision which in 1895 was declared imcon- 
stitutional by the Supreme Court. The tariff bill 
was so altered in the Senate that President Cleve- 
land refused to sign it, but allowed it to become a law 
without his signature. 

Minor Parties. WhUe the two great parties 
attempted to concentrate public attention upon the 
tariff other issues, especially social and economic 
problems, were constantly being discussed and re- 
forms urged. Since these questions were ignored by 
the old parties, minor parties took them up, beginning 
in the Reconstriiction period. 

The Greenbacli Party. During the Civil War 
there were issued about 84.50,000,000 in United States 
notes, popularly known as greenbacks. Begiiming 
in 1866, an attempt was made to redeem these, but 
tills was checked by Congress within a year. The 
arguments in opposition to the retirement of the 
greenbacks were those which have always beeii used 
for the expansion of the currency: to reduce the cir- 
culating medium would increase the value of coin 
and cause prices to fall. To pay ah the greenbacks 
a bonded debt must be substituted, thus increasing 
the interest charges, and causing increased taxation. 
The debtor class would suffer, while the holders of 
bonds or other obligations paying a fixed income 
would receive relatively much more. 

In 1.876 a National Greenback convention was 
held and Peter Cooper, of New York, was nomi- 
nated for president. The Greenbaekers differed 
from the old parties, not only on monetary questions, 
but also on social and economic legislation. Thus, 
in 1880, when their candidate received over 300,000 
votes, they advocated labor legislation of an ad- 
vanced type, Chinese exclusion, and the regulation 
of interstate commerce for the benefit of the shipper. 
This party ceased to e.xist after 1884, but the discon- 
tented elements which went to make it up were ab- 
sorljed by the newly formed People's party. 

The 16-to-l Silver Men held ideas similar to the 
Greenbaekers'. In 1792 gold and silver were coined 
at the ratio of 15 to 1 : this proved too low for gold, 
which was driven out of circulation. In 1834 the 
ratio was established at 16 to 1, which proved an 
overvaluation for gold, so that little silver was of- 
fered for coinage. In 1873, when silver had practi- 
cally ceased to circulate, silver was demonetized and 
the gold dollar made the basis of the monetary sys- 
tem. Meantime, the production of silver increased 
immensely, while its use in coinage was discontinued. 
The result was that the price of sliver declined 
and the silver-mine owners demanded that a govern- 
ment which protected manufactures should give 
them aid by resuming the coinage of silver. These 
demands were rei^nforced by those of the debtor 
class, who demanded cheap and abimdant money 
with which to pay their debts. The West was in 
debt to the East and believed that the gold standard 
worked against them and for the banker. 

Both the Republicans and Democrats were di- 
vided on this issue. In 1878 the Bland-Allison 
Act provided that the secretary of the treasury 
should buy not less than two million dollars' worth 
of silver each month, to be coined into silver dollars. 
This was altered by the Sherman Act of 1890, 
which required the purchase of 4,500,000 ounces of 
silver a month. Silver was overproduced and stead- 
ily fell in price — gold went almost out of circular 
tion. and it was with great difficulty that Cleveland 
accomplished the repeal of this act (1893) which 
threatened to empty the treasury. 

Labor Parties. The organization of labor began 
as early as 1865. In 1870 labor reform parties 
nominated candidates for governor m Massachusetts 
and New Hampshire. In 1872 a candidate for the 
presidency was nominated by a national convention. 
These attempts to utihze the political influence of 



164 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



u 



labor failed and the labor reformers were absorbed 

Nby the Greenback party. 
The Socialist Labor party was organized In 
1892, but has never recei\'cd a large number of votes, 
the maximum being 39.000 in 1900. It was the 
most radical of all parties and because of its verj- 
radicalism has failed to unite the working class. 

The Socialist party, which first nominated can- 
didates in 1900, is less radical than the Socialist 
_. Labor party and has attracted far wider support. 

O In 1900 it received 87,000 votes: in 1908. 420,000; in 

1912, 900,000. It has succeeded also in electing oc- 
casional representatives to Congress, but has had 
no appreciable effect in presidential campaigns, 
since it draws its strength from both of the great 
parties- 

The Populists. In the sixties was organized a 
secret society called the " Patrons of Husbandry," 
P commonly known as the " Grangers," which at- 

tempted to improve the conditions of tlie farmers. 
Of itself it accomplished much in the way of State 
railway legislation, but on national issues it united 
with the Greenbackers. The first national focus of 
agrarian discontent was the People's, or Populist, 
party, which was the combination of the National 
Farmers' Alliance, tlie Industrial Union, organized 

Qin Texas in 1875, and the National Farmers' Alliance 
of Illinois, organized in 1880. 

The aggregation grew very rapidly and in 1890 
claimed a membership of over tliree million. The 
People's convention of 1S92 put lonvard the most 
radical platform ever adopted by any American 
party. Among the planks were free and unlimited 
coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 : additional 
United States notes imtil the circulating medium 
J^ should amoimt to 8,^0 per capita: and a graduated 

income tax to compel holders of wealth to contribute 
their proportional share to the expenses of the gov- 
ernment. In the campaign of 1892 they cast a mil- 
lion votes and chose twenty-two electors, and the 
party was represented in Congress by three senators 
and eleven representatives. 

SThc Campaign of 1896. Gradually these irregu- 
lar movements came together for the campaign of 
1896. During his second administration. President 
Cleveland failed to held the confidence of his party 
and was bitterly attacked by the radical wing. In 
the Democratic convention of 1896, this wing gained 
control and adopted a platform favoring the free and 
imrestricted coinage of silver, denoimcing the tariff, 
and attacking the Supreme Court for its decision on 
^ the income tax case and the lower Federal courts for 

the use of injimctions in labor disputes. This plat- 
form was enthusiastically supported by William 
Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, in his famous 
" Cross of Gold " speech which won for him the 
nomination of the party. The Populist party also 
nominated Bryan. 

The Republican convention was controlled by the 
conservatives and, although nearly a himdred dele- 
gates who favored the free coinage of silver seceded, 
a platform favoring the maintenance of the gold 
standard was adopted. The Republicans hoped to 
focus the attention of the campaign upon the tariff, 
but the radical nature of the Democratic platform 
and its frank appeal to class prejudice, divided the 
parties sharply along class lines. The gold stand- 
ard was made the most prominent issue. The 
V Republican campaign was ably managed by Marcus 

A. Hanna, who introduced into the political cam- 
paign the efficiency he had shown in business. The 
Republican candidate, McKlUley, was elected by 
a popular majority of less than 500.000 over the 
Democrats and all other parties. For Congress, the 
Republicans elected a safe, but by no means imited, 
majority. Although the conservatives triumphed, 
»A/ the large popular vote which the Populist and Demo- 

'■■ cratic candidates secured showed that new issues 

were entering into political life; but the solution of 
these questions was postponed by the Spanish Amer- 
ican "War and the resulting imperialism. 

United States as a World Power. The Civil 
"War altered the international position of the United 
-- States. It showed that the military and naval re- 

7v sotirces of tlie nation were so great that no other 

state was likely to challenge it. It left several diplo- 
matic controversies with Great Britain. The long 
dispute over the northwestern boundary was finally 
settled by the award of the emperor of Germany in 
1872. More important was the question of Great 
Britain's liability for the damage done to American 
commerce by the Alabama and other Confederate 
•y cruisers built or altered in Great Britain and allowed 

■ to use the colonial ports. Finally, by the Treaty of 

Washington (1S71) Great Britain practically ad- 
mitted Iter responsibihty ; tiiese claims were referred 
to an arbitration commission wliich met at Geneva, 
and in 1872 awarded the United States $15,500,000. 
"With France the United States became involved 
because of the attempt of Napoleon III. to defy the 
_ Monroe Doctrine and to establish an empire in Mex- 

JL ico, imder Maximilian. At the close of the war, 

France listened to the warning of the United States 
and withdrew her support, and the short-lived Mexi- 



can Empire fell. Again in 1895 affairs with Great 
Britain were strained by President Cleveland's asser- 
tion that the Monroe Doctrine was international law 
for the world, and applied to a boimdary dispute in 
Venezuela. Great Britain was at last aroused to 
the necessity of an imderstanding with the United 
States for the safety of the empire. Arbitratiop was 
accepted, but far beyond tills peaceful adjustment 
was the changed tone of British statesmco and peo- 
ple toward the United States. 

In 1895 the Cubans revolted against the oppres- 
sion of the Spanish governors; this rising interfered 
with the business between the United States and 
Cuba and also forced our government to take strin- 
gent measures to maintain neutrality. The Span- 
iards were imable to suppress the revolt, and adopted 
cruel measiu-es in dealing with the revolutionists, 
who in their turn depended on guerrilla warfare and 
destruction and could not win sufllcient success to 
warrant recognition even as belligerents. In 1898 
the American battleship, Maine, was destroyed in 
the harbor of Havana, by what agency was never re- 
vealed; and the demand for intervention became ir- 
resistible. April 19. 1898, Congress adopted a reso- 
lution recognizing the independence of Cuba, de- 
manding the immediate withdrawal of Spain from 
the island, and authorizing the president to use the 
military and naval forces to carry out the resolution 
On April 25 Congress declared that war had existed 
since April 21, the day on wiiich the American am- 
bassador was dismissed from the Spanish Court. 

The war was brief, and resiUted ui an overwhelm- 
ing victor-y for the United States. On May 1 Com- 
modore Dewey attacked and destroyed the Spanish 
fleet in Manila Bay. May 25. the American fleet 
blockaded Santiago and on June 10 the invasion of 
Cuba was begun at Ciuantanamo Bay near Santi- 
ago. Jitly 1-2, the outer defenses of Santiago were 
captured by the American fleet and the ne.xt day Ad- 
miral Cervera's fleet was destroyed by the Ameri- 
can fleet imder command of Admiral Sampson. 
The only niilitarj- officer who attracted public atten- 
tion was Theotlore Roosevelt, who seired as colonel 
of a cavalry regiment popularly called the Rough 
Riders. Santiago surrendered July 17. and General 
Miles began the easy conquest of Porto Rico; while 
on August 13 the city of Manila surrendered to 
General Merritt and Admiral Dewey. 

The taking of Manila occurred the day after a 
protocol was signed at Wasliingtou suspending hos- 
tilities, and on December 10, l.s'.i.s, the Treaty of 
Paris was signed. By this treaty Spain relinquished 
all sovereignty over Cuba, and ceded to the United 
States Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands, 
while the United States agreed to pay to Spain 
$20,000,000. 

As a result of the war with Spain the United 
States assumed a new position in international 
affairs. It was in possession of Asiatic territorj% 
the Piiilipplies. It had become sponsor for the in- 
dependence of Cuba, and for law and order in that 
island, thereby establishing a protectorate. E\"en 
more important, the United States by inter\'ention 
departed from the traditional policy of isolation and 
was soon involved in European affairs. February 4. 
1S99, the Filipinos attacked the American forces at 
Manila and began an aimoying guerriUa warfare 
which lasted until 1902. 

The Panama Canal. During the war with 
Spain the spectacular voyage of the Oregon from 
California around South America to Cuba showed 
the inconvenience and danger of having the Ameri- 
can fleet separated by the continent. Demands 
were made that the isthmus should be cut by a canal 
which the United States should control. The Clay- 
ton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 with Great Britain pre- 
vented this, for it recognized the equal interests of 
the United States and Great Britain in the construc- 
tion, use, and neutrality of any canal on any route. 
During the eighties there were frequent diplomatic 
negotiations with Great Britain, looking to the ex 
tension of the privileges of the United States in that 
region, but nothing was accomplished. 

In 1901, however, the Hay-Paunccfote Treaty 
aimulled the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and allowed 
the United ,states to construct and control the canal. 
The United States of Colombia, of which Panama 
was a province, refused to ratify a satisfactory agree- 
ment, and Panama revolted in 1903 and established 
a republic. This republic was recognized by Presi- 
dent Roosevelt, and a treaty was negotiated by 
which the United .States is given full sovereignty 
over a strip of land ten miles wide. 

In the Orient, the influence of the United States 
was lent to the preservation of the integrity of the 
Chinese Empire, and Secretary Hay in notes sent to 
London, Berlin, and Saint Petersburg urged that the 
" open-door " policy be accepted, by which no 
foreign power should gain exclusive rights in the em- 
pire. The dangerous condition of China was empha- 
sized by the Boxers in 1900, when the European 
powers, Japan, and the United States were obliged to 
send troops in order to protect their legations. The 
most serious danger, however, was experienced in 
the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). which was 



brought to a close through the mediation of Presi- 
dent Roosevelt. Japan retained control of Korea 
and the Russian fortress of Port Arthur. 

"With Latin America the United States had as- 
sumed new relations. The Monroe Doctrine as in- 
terpreted by the United States prevented European 
nations from interfering in the affairs of the South 
American repubUcs. As interpreted by President 
Roosevelt, it made the United States the sponsor for 
their good behavior, and in three instances — 
Santo Domingo, Nicaragua, and Haiti ^protector- 
ates were established in order to preserve order and 
compel the states to make reparation. In the cases 
of Cuba and Panama the United States felt that 
their interests were so c!o.sely botmd up with those of 
the United States that it was justifled in assuming 
virtual control. Pan-American conferences have 
been held, the last in 1915, in order to cement the re- 
lations between the Western republics and to re- 
move causes of misimdcrstanding. 

With Mexico, relations have licen strained almost 
to the point of war. In 1910 Porflrio Diaz was in- 
augurated president for the seventh consecutive 
term, but was compelled by a rising tide of re-\olu- 
tion to resign, and Madero was elected president. 
He was deposed and miu-dered by General Huerta, 
whose administration the United States refused to 
recognize. In 1914 American forces landed and 
took possession of Vera Cruz, and Huerta resigned. 
The United States finally lent its influence to the 
party of Carranza, who succeeded in establishing a 
government, which, however, was imable to main- 
tain peace in the face of the rebellion of Villa. In 
1916 the United States dispatched a punitive expedi- 
tion into Mexico, and war seemed likely, but al- 
though affairs remained in an unsatisfactory state, 
the United States allowed the Mexicans to attempt 
to solve their own problems. 

Prosperity and Discontent. The period from 
1S96 to 1912 differs remarkably from other periods 
of the political and economic life of the coimtrj' in 
two respects. First, large economic interests, or 
" big business," very frankly attempted to control 
the government. Second, this attempt was met by 
coimtcrmoves to control business, first by the ordi- 
nary constitutional legislative method, and finally by 
the attempt to make radical changes in the system 
of government. 

From 1896 to 1907 the coimtry was very prosper- 
ous. In 1897 the RepubUcans used their majority 
to pass the Dinglcy Tariff, which aimed not merely 
at a large revenue for the government, but was a re- 
turn to the McKinley policy cf stimulating manu- 
factures and raised the duties still higher. Foreign 
trade rapidly expanded, while manufacturing and 
business more than kept pace. The destruction 
caused by the Spanish War created a demand for 
new commodities and fresh capital, but the real tm- 
derlying reason for expansion lay in the fact that the 
coimtry was in an era of rapid expansion of business. 

The most characteristic feature was the continued 
organization of trusts. New combinations of rail- 
roads were also made, and in the attempt to pay 
dividends on the inflated capital and watered stock, 
rates for transportation were increased. Business, 
moreover, meddled in politics, not merely for the 
general good, but for special privileges, which were 
sometimes gained by tlie use of cortupt mea.ns. 
Thus, in spite of the superficial prosperity the coun- 
try was enjoying, there were warnings of trouble and 
symptoms of public discontent with its methods. 

The demand for the regulation of the rail* 
roads, begun in the Granger movement espoused by 
the Greenbackers, was partially solved by the pas- 
sage ol the Interstate Commerce Law of 1887. 
Tliis law forbade rebates and special favors and 
'created a commission to carry out the statute, but 
its supposed power to regulate rates was denied by 
the Supreme Court. 

Prohibition of monopolies was attempted by the 
Antitrust Law of 1890. which declared illegal every 
combination in the restramt of foreign or interstate 
commerce. Little conscientious effort was made to 
enforce either law imtil the second Roosevelt admin- 
istration. The Interstate Commerce Law was 
amended by the Hepburn Act of 1900 which specif- 
ically gave the commission the power to prescribe 
reasonable rates for railroads and interstate carriers 
which were declared to include telegraph and tele- 
phone companies, pipe lines, express and sleeping- 
car companies, bridges, ferries, and railway terminals. 
During Roosevelt's administration, moreover, sev- 
eral prosecutions of large corporations were initiated 
imder the Antitrust Law, especially the Northern 
Seciu-ities Case of 1904. These attempts, however, 
failed to satisfy the demands of constantly increa-sing 
elements in both parties for more radical regulation. 

The election of 1900 triumphantly retunied to 
pow^r the Republicans under IVlcKinley and seemed 
to have ended the possibility of serious tlireats from 
the radicals who composed the Populist party. In 
both parties the conservative elements were in con- 
trol and showed little sj-mpathy with the demands 
made either by the radicals or the liberal elements. 
The assassination of President McKinley and the 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1G5 



accession of President Roosevelt in 1901 made little 
difference for a time in the power or policy of the 
organization of the party. The tact that President 
Roosevelt was able in some measure to obtain legis- 
lation and to initiate policies lookuig toward more 
stringent government control failed to satisfy the 
discontented elements. 

Since neither of the great parties would adopt a 
thoroughgoing policy of governmental control, and 
since the radicals had learned from bitter experience 
the futility of dependence upon State legislation, 
they proposed schemes to shake the control of the 
party organization and to give the people a more di- 
rect participation in the y {fairs of tlie government. 
These measures grouped themselves aroimd the 
Initiative, referendum, and recall: bin they also 
include movements for direct primaries in place of 
nominating conventions, tlte subjecticn of party or- 
ganizations to law, and the limitation of the use of 
money in political campaigns. 

Most radical of all was an attack tipon the power 
of the courts to declare statutes unconstitu- 
tional. Tliis arose from the feeling that the courts 
in the exercise of their power of judicial review were 
more ready to protect property and private interests 
than to allow the state legislatures t,o iiass sucli regu- 
latory and remeiliul legislation as the>- felt nei-tssar>'. 
especially in labor cases To subject the courts to 
popular control, the device ot the recall of judges 
or the recall of judicial decisions was proposed, and 
the former was adopteil by se\'eral Stiitt-s Most of 
these movements originiitcd in the West, but they 
spread ea~stward so rapidly that conservative poli- 
ticians were thoroughly alarmed. 

President Roosevelt's administrations (1901-1909) 
postponed the conflict. His personal popularity was 
so great and many of liis policies so satisfactory 
to the liberals that no open division appeared in 
the Republican party, which easily elected Mr. 
Roosevelt's candidate, William Howard Taft (No- 
vember, 1908). The administration of President 
Taft failed to satisfy the discontented elements. The 
question of the revision of the tariJT, which Roose- 
velt had avoided, was met l^y tlie Payne-Aldrlch 
Bill of 1909, but the duties were not substantially 
lowered. During tliis administration many antitntst 
prosecutions were successfully concluded, and the 
Standard Oil Trust and the American Tobacco Trust 
were dissolved. Many wise and lilieral laws were 
passed, but the Republican party was still divided. 

In 1910 discontent in the Republican ranks was 
reflected by the cutting down of the power of Speaker 
Cannon, a " standpatter." The Progressives, as 
the more radical element was called, demanded a solu- 
tion of the economic and social questions wliich was 
unacceptable to the leaders of the party. President 
Taft himself, although lil)eral as regartis particiiliir 
measures, was resolutely opposed to any eliaimt-s in 
the constitutional or legal framework of the go\eni- 
ment which would result in a more democratic con- 
trol. The second Congress of his administration 
(elected 1910) was Democratic, thus showing the 
trend of popular discontent. 

The presidential campaign of 1913 was inter- 
esting in many respects. Direct primaries were tried 
for the first time in many States, thus allowing the 
voters the opporttmity to express their preference 
directly in the choice of delegates; and such dele- 
gates were generally pledged to a particular candi- 
date. Mr. Roosevelt, who felt that the Republican 
party had abandoned his policy and was pursuing 
a course which would lead to disaster, contested the 
nomination with President Taft. Roosevelt ol> 
tained the majority of the delegates chosen by the 
primaries, but Taft was strong in States where the 
delegates were chosen by conventions. After a 
bitter struggle, in which nea\ ly all the contests were 
settled in favor of Taft delegates, the Republican 
national convention nominated Taft. Roosevelt 
and his supporters therefore seceded and formed the 
Progressive party, which nominated Roosevelt. 

The Democrats nominated Governor Wilson, of 
New Jersey, on a platform advocating a tarifT for 
revenue, dissclution of the trtists, and criminal 
prosecution of the officials of the tmsts. together 
with such additional legislation as to make private 
monopoly impossible. 

The three-cornered campaign was very lively. 
Taft had 3,484,000 popular votes and 8 electoral: 
Roosevelt polled 4,119,0(X) popular and 88 electoral 
votes; Wilson was elected with t5.293,0(X) popular 
votes and 435 electoral votes. Notwithstanding tlie 
Democratic and Progressive platforms, which called 
fcr legislation that up to this time had been considered 
socialistic, the Socialist party more than doubled its 
vote over 1908. obtaining 900.000 popular votes. 

The Democratic party in 1913 wa.s in a tetter con- 
dition tlian at any time since 1S96. By inviting 
Bn,'an to tecome his secretary of state. President 
Wilson succeeded in gaining the support of the Bryan 
wing of tlie Democracy for the imi)ortant measures 
he desired to pass. Tlie first of tiiese concemeil the 
tariff. By tlie ITnderwood Tariff Bill, adopted 
Octoter 3, 1913, many of the duties were reducefl 
from a protective to a revenue basis, although con- 
siderable protection was still accorded. To meet 



the loss of revenue an Income tax was provided. 
This was made possible by the ratification in 1913 
of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution 
of the United States, which allowed Congress to lev}' 
ta.xes on income witliout apportinnment according 
to the population. Tlie main friii tires of tliis first 
successfid law were: (1) moderate rtites: (2) exemii- 
tion of incomes under $3,000; (3) a shding scale nm- 
ning from 1% to 6%. 

The next steps were fmancial. The Owen-Glass 
Currency Bill estabhshed a Federal Reserve Bank 
system, which put the control of the nicmlier banks 
under a national board resembling tlie Interstate 
Conunerce Commission. The purpose was to con- 
centrate the banking resources of the comitry and to 
provide an elastic currency. 

Next came the Federal Trade Commission 
Bill, by whicii a commission was estalilished to 
prevent unfair competition in commerce and to in- 
vestigate tlie affair's of corporations other than Iianks 
and common carriers. 

In tlie same direction was the Clayton Antitrust 
BUI, wliich attempted to codify the various haws and 
court decisions concerning monopoly and unlawful 
restraints of trade. The legislative program was in 
fulhllinent of the Democratic platfnrni and proved 
satisfactory, both to the more radical rlniirnts ot the 
country and to the large economic interests. 

During the first years of President Wilson's admin- 
istration there was serious industrial depression ; but 
with the outbreak of the World War in 1914 the de- 
mands of the telligerents stimtilated manufacttire 
and trade to a startling degree. Wliereas. in 1913 
the United States had imported Sl..^(K).ii00.l)00 
worth of products and exported $2.4(Ki.t)O(;,0U0 
worth, in 1917 the imports amoimted to .S2,t;0U.000.- 
000. while the ex-ports reached the stupendous total 
of S6.290.0(XI.OOO. In addition, the necessities of 
the Allies forced them to sell in the American mar- 
ket the American securities they had lield. and the 
interest which formerly had been sent abroad was 
available for investment in the United States 
Moreover, the Allies floated issues of bonds in the 
American market, the interest on which was also 
added to the American resources. 

Thus, within five years, the United States tecanie 
tile financial center of the world, controlled the larg- 
est proportion of the gold supply, and liecame the 
great creditor nation whose products and wlio.se 
capital alone were capable of satisfying foreign de- 
mands. During the year and a half of war, the 
United States issued 319.000,000,000 worth ol Lib- 
erty Bonds, which were taken up by all classes of 
the population. 

During the war immigration declined, and there 
was a shortage of labor, which was increased by the 
enlistment in the United States army of over 3,000,- 
0(111 men Labor was not slow to take advantage of 
tills situation and demanded tetter conditions and 
increase after increase in wages. During tlie period 
when the United States was in active participation, 
the National War Labor Board did much to pre- 
vent widespread or long-continued strikes. 

With the end of hostiUties. labor continued to de- 
mand the high wages it enjoyed during the war, and 
in many instances even higher. The high cost of liv- 
ing was made the reason for these demands. More- 
over, during the war the National War Labor Board, 
had, wherever possible, recognized and negotiated 
with the labor imions ; and union lalxir now demanded 
recognition in more and more industries, together 
with the right of collective bargaining. In some 
regions still more advanced demands were made, 
looking toward the nationalization of the railways 
and even. the control ot industry by labor. On No- 
vemter 1, 1919, a strike in the bituminous coal fields 
began, which the government cliecked through the 
utilization of the war powers it still had the right to 
u.se. 

A part of the war legislation dealt with tlie con- 
servation and distribution of food; and the president 
was authorized to prohibit the use of food prodticts 
for the manufacture of liquors. In the meantime an 
aniendntent to the Federal Constitution to iiroliiliit 
the manufacture or sale of alcoholic liquors as bev- 
erages was in 1917 stibmitted by Congress to the 
States for ratification. On January 16, 1919, this 
amendment was ratified by the necessary numiier 
of States, and proclaimed as the Eighteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution; it went into 
effect January 17, 1920. 

United States in the World War. AUliough 
the country sympathized with Belgium and France 
in 1914, the President issued a proclamation of neu- 
trality at tlie outbreak of the World War, and tmtU 
1917, in tlie face of fireat difficulties and in spite of 
the promptings of large numbers of the people, main- 
tained this neutrality. Tlie position, which was 
difficult enough tecause of the extensions which 
Great Britain made in the telligerent rights of block- 
ade and contraband was made still more difficult by 
Germany througli the destmction of iioth lielliger- 
ent and neutral commerce by her submarines. 

The destniction of the Inaitaina, May 7. 1915, 
brought a strong protest from President Wilson, 



which was the begiiming of negotiations looking 
toward the restriction of submarine activity. The 
destruction of the Sussex, March, 1910, was followed 
by a qualified pledge of Germany to give up subma- 
rine warfare, at least against neutrals. January 31, 
1917, Germany declared unrestricted submarine 
warfare on all commerce within certain zones off the 
coast of Great Britain and France. Within three 
days diplomatic relations witii Germany were sev- 
ered; and war was declared April 6, 1917. 

By vohmtary enlistment tlie military forces of 
the United States were increased from 121, 0(X) regu- 
lars to 475.000, and the National Guard from 76,000 
to 400,000- On May 18, 1917. conscription was 
adopted, all men tetneen the ages of 21 and 31 lieing 
Uable; on August 31, 1918, the age limits were ex- 
tended to mclude those Ijetween 'the ages of IS and 
45 ; and about two million men were sent to France. 
The war was fuianced by means of the sale of Lib- 
erty Bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and thrift 
stamps. Heavy increases in taxation, particu- 
larly the income and excess-profits taxes, yielded 
$2,314,000,000, and other taxes made the total rev- 
enue over five billion. 

Even before the United States entered the 'war. 
President Wilson annoimced that he would urge the 
United States to enter a World Ptato Federation 
to guarantee and enforce future peace. During the 
war, partly because of the disinterested posit ion the 
United States occupied, and partly because he 
commanded the resources necessary tor the AlUes' 
success, the President was able to secure acceptance 
of his ideas. The Treaty of Versailles, signed 
Jime 28, 1919, wliich terminated tlie war, included 
the covenant for a League of Nations. 

When the treaty reached tlie Senate strong oppo- 
sition appeared to some parts of it, especially the 
transfer of the Chinese province of Shantung to 
Japan Still more bitter was the objection to the 
League of Nations. Several senators were op- 
posed to any international imion, many others would 
not accept this particular text, others were ready to 
accept the league with " amendments " or "reserva- 
tions." President Wilson would accept no altera- 
tions, and the treaty (including the league) failed 
of ratiflration. 

In 1920 the Nineteenth .\mendnient, abolish- 
ing sex qualification for the suffrage, was ratified 
by 37 States and took effect in the presidential elec- 
tion of that i ear. 

The Land. 

The Country. Tlie development and history of 
a people are influenced, if not largely determined, by 
the physical characteristics of the country they in- 
habit. The United States of America occupies the 
territory south of the Great Lakes and the 40th par- 
allel, and north of the Gulf of Mexico, the Rio 
Grande, and Mexican territory, stretching from the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Its area is 3,026,789 
square miles, which is more tlian tliree fourths as 
great as that of all Europe. Within this territory 
there are all varieties of climate and kinds of soil, 
and most of the products that are found in Europe 
exist here in abimdance. 

Temperature and Climate. In tlie various 
parts of the territory of the United States there ar- 
great variations of temperature. This is parti 
due to the effect on the Eastern coast of the col 
Labrador Ciurent and on the Western coast of the 
wann Japan Current; while the vast plains extending 
from the Arctic circle to the Gulf of Mexico permit 
currents of warm or cold air to circulate freely. 
Thus. Arkansas has the winter climate of Edinbtu'gh 
and the stmimer climate of Spain , while in Minne.sota 
the summers are those of Venice and the winters 
those of Norway. In like manner tlie summer cli- 
mate of Maine is like that of France, while the winters 
are literally as " cold as Greenland." These varia- 
tions m climate make possible products similar to 
those distributed from northern Africa to Norway. 
The occupations of the people are equally varied. 

In all parts of the United States except the area 
extending from the eastern front of the Rocky Motm- 
tains. and their southern extensions, westward to the 
Sierra Nevadas. the rainfall is sufficient for farming. 
Portions of this area, and regions in and near the moim- 
tains, may te reclaimed by irrigation, but tliere are 
large areas which can never support a population. ^ 

Physical Characteristics. East of the barrier 
of the Rocky Moimtains the territory of the United 
States is singularly uniform. The Atlantic 
coastal plain is narrow, but is not broken by im- 
passable rivers. The Appalachian Motmtalns. 
wliich in central New York and in Georgia sink to a 
low level, can be easily traversed throughout their 
extent. Most of the vast interior of the coimtry 
consists of the valley of the one great river system 
— that of the Mississippi and its tributaries. The 
rivers, instead of i^eing barriers, furnish easy means 
of commimication. The western motmtain regions 
of the Rockies, the Sierra Nevadas, and the Coast 
Ranges are steep and difficult, but have all been 
pierced by railroads. 



166 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Natural Resources. The Vnited States has 
been greatly aided in its development by its vast 
natural resources. The early explorers and colo- 
nists were attracted by the Xur trade and the abun- 
dant timber. The fisheries greatly aided, especially 
in New England, where they made possible the early 
development; wliile the rich soil of the South was 
suitable for profitable crops of grain and tobacco. 
Almost everywhere in the United States, save in 
New England, the soil is fertile, and the early set- 
tlers, once past the initial stage, had no fear of scar- 
city, but producedasurpluswliich the easy commimi- 
cations made a solid basis of agricultural prosperity. 

The staple crops are cereals: wheat, com, rje, 
oats, barley, and buckwheat. In the warmer re- 
gions of the south rice and even sugar cane are 
profitably cultivated, while for many years " Cotton 
was King " in the seaboard States. The prairie re- 
gions of the interior proved rich for com, and the 
plains of the Southwest are unrivaled ranges for 
cattle. In southern California and in Florida the 
climate makes tropical fruits profitable. 

Minerals in great variety are abundant in the 
United States, especially noteworthy being the rich 
coal deposits extending from Alabama to New 
York along the slopes of the Allegheuies and as far 
west as Iowa. The United States possesses one 
square mile of coal-bearing strata for every 10 
square miles of territory; whereas in Europe the pro- 
portion is one to every 18S. This coal, together 
with the immense deposits of iron, a-ssures the 
United States an imrivaled position in industrj-. 
This of late has been increased by vast oil fields and 
a seemingly inexhaustible supply of oil-bearing and 
gas-bearing shales. The precious metals gold and 
silver are abimdant and widely distributed. Cop- 
per, zinc, lead, and tungsten all are available. 

The rapid-tlowing streams of the Atlantic coast 
furnish a good supply of water power, while the 
larger rivers of the South and the interior and the 
swift streams of the moimtain regions promise a vol- 
ume of water power tor electrical energy which has 
hardly been appreciated. 

The Aboriginal People. When America was 
discovered it was inhaljited by a race whom the dis- 
coverers called Indians. Whence they came or how 
long they had been in North America cannot be de- 
' finitely stated. It is probable that Asia and North 
America, and jierhaps even Europe and North Amer- 
ica, were once joined, and that human life, wherever 
it originated, fiowed from one hemisphere to the 
other. Human remains, deeply biu'ied in geological 
strata, are proof that man has existed in America at 
least 30.000 years, perhaps much longer. 

The Indians. The aborigines of North America 
all belong to one ethnic imit and all reached about 
the same degree of culture; none of them were ut- 
terly savage, none civilized. Those in the southern 
part of North America and the westem part, of South 
America were in the middle stage of barbarism ; they 
nad no phonetic alphabet, nor any idea of the private 
ownership of landed property, which marks tlie 
beginning of civilization. Thanks to Indian com, 
they Imew a rude but productive agricultiu^. They 
still were in that stage of culture in which the family 
is inferior to the clan or gens as a recognized group. 
All things Ix'ing owned by the clan,-all members of 
the clan and gens traced their descent, not tlu-ough 
their fathers, Ijut tlirough their mothers. For pur- 
poses of war and government the clans were united 
into tribes and some of the more advanced tribes 
into larger imits. 

The United States Bureau of Etlmology divides 
the Indians of the United States into 59 families, 
tlie most important of whicli were: Tlie Algonquian 
family, which included the Ojibwas. Ottawas, Crees, 
Algoiiquins, Micmacs. and Blackfeet; the Iroquoian 
family, the most important members of which were 
" The Five Nations"; the Muskhogean family, ivhirh 
occupied most of Georgia; the Siouan famih-, t lie rliief 
group of which lived west of the upper Mississippi ;ind 
the upper Missouri valley: the Shoshonean family, 
the most important tribes of which were the Coman- 
ches and Utes. Yet they were few in total numbers 
— perhaps half a million, within the limits of the 
present United States. 

Contact, with the whites caused the Indians to 
dwindle in the East. Wherever the whites settled, 
the story is the same. Early uprisings were fol- 
lowed by more severe straggles in which the trilies 
were broken or driven westward to contend with the 
tribes already on the land. French neighbors in the 
North and Spanish in the South used the Indians 
against the English, till the English were so firmly 
settled that there could be but one outcome to the 
struggle. Through later frontier wars and Indian 
massacres the whites triumphantly moved westward, 
and the Indians were either exterminated or 
confined to reservatlonswhere they lost their inde- 
pendence, while the govemment attempted to raise 
them to civilization by education and paternal care. 

Organization. 

National Government. The United States is a 
federal constitutional republic, consisting of forty- 



eight States. The national Constitution went into 
force in April, 1789. and has been amended on ten 
occasions, the total number of amendments being 
nineteen. Ultimate sovereignty resides in the " peo- 
ple of the United States," who by the action of three 
fourths of the legislatures of the States can amend 
the Constitution, thereby adding tc the powers of the 
national government cr hmiting the powers of the 
States. 

The legislative power is vested in a Congress 
consisting of two liouses: a Senate with two senators 
from each State, chosen for sLx years, one tliird of 
whom retire every two years; and a House of Repre- 
sentatives (435 in 1919) chosen for two years in pro- 
portion to the population of the States. No bill can 
become a law tmtil it has passed both houses of Con- 
gress and is signed by the president. The president 
may allow it to Ijecome a law by default, or may sign 
it, or may veto it, in wliich case it may be passed 
over the veto by a two-thirds vcte of both houses. 
The legislative power of Congress, as set forth in the 
Constitution, includes broad national powers of tax- 
ation and appropriation, control of foreign and inter- 
state commerce, military and naval legislation, dec- 
laration of war, creation of offices, the monetao' 
system, weights and standards, and finally the gen- 
eral power to pass all " Laws wiiicii shall be neces- 
sary and proper for carryuig into Execution the fore- 
going Powers, and all other Powers vested by this 
Constitution in the Govemment of the United 
States, or in any Department or Officer thereof." 
Besides these positive powers, negative protection is 
given tlirough prohibitions laid upon the States which 
prevent them from Interfering with Congress in the 
exercise of these powers, and thiough the review of 
State legislation by the Federal courts. 

The executive power is vested in a president, 
who, with the vice president, is chosen by special 
electors for a term of foiu- years. Each State is en- 
titled to a number of presidential electors equal to 
the ntiml)er of its senators and representatives com- 
bined. These electors may be chosen in any way the 
constitutions of the States may provide, but at pres- 
ent are all chosen by popular election (see elector, 
n., 3 and electoral college, in the Did.). The 
president is commander in chief of the army and 
navy, negotiates treaties — wliich require ratification 
by two thirds of the Senate — and appoints most of 
the important officers. The president, moreover, is 
charged with the faithful execution of the laws of the 
United States and may utilize the army and navy to 
fulfill his obligation. 

He is assisted by ten heads of ten departments — 
the secretaries of State, of the Treasurj', of War, the 
Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, the secre- 
taries of the Navy, of the Interior, of Agrictdture, of 
Commerce, and of Labor, These officers sit in an 
informal coimcil. not designated by law, usually 
called the cabinet. They are subject to the direc- 
tions of the president mider the law, but are in no 
way responsible to Congress in the sense of being 
compelled to resign by adverse vote. Other portions 
of the executive power are placed in the hands of ad- 
ministrative commissions and boards. 

The judicial power is vested in the Supreme 
Court of the United States and " such inferior 
Courts as the Congress may . . . establish." The 
Supreme Coiu^ consists of a chief justice and eight 
associate justices. This cotut has original jiu'isdic- 
tion in cases affectmg ambassatlors, other public 
ministers and consuls, and cases to which a .state 
shall be a party. In all other cases, the jurisdiction 
of the Supreme Cciu't is appellate. 

The mferior courts of the United States by acts of 
Congress consist of a Circuit Court of Appeals, 
divided into 39 circuits and 89 district courts, a 
Court of Claims, and a Court of Customs Ap- 
peal. The jurisdiction of these courts extends to 
all cases in law and equity arising under the Consti- 
tution, the laws of the United States and treaties; 
to controversies to which the L'nited States shall be a 
party; and between citizens of different States. 

Two consequences of the American theory of judi- 
cial power have developed during the life of the Fed- 
eral republic. From an early date the Supreme 
Court has constmed its power to receive appeals 
from the liighest State courts on Federal questions 
as justifying the annulment of State laws whenever 
it finds that tiiey contravene the C^onstitution. And 
since 18,57 the Supreme Court has set aside nu- 
merous Federal statutes on the same ground. 

State Government. Each of the 48 States by 
its own constitution determines its frame of govern- 
ment, except as it may be limited by the Constitu- 
tion or laws or treaties of the United States. Each 
State has a governor . a legislative body of two houses, 
and a judiciary (see States by name, page 195 IT.). 

Production and Industry. The United States, 
from the variety of its soil and climate and the vari- 
ety and extent of its resoiu'ces, is at once the leading 
agricultural and the greatest manufacturing coimtry 
of the world. In 1919 the value of the agricul- 
tural products was estimated at $24,900,000,000 
There were produced 2.900,000,0(50 bushels of com, 
1,200,000,000 bushels of oats, 940,000,000 bushels of 
wheat, 857,000,000 bushels of potatoes. 165.000.000 



bushels of bariey. 91,600,000 tons of hay. 41.000.(X)0 
bushels of rice. 1,701,000 pounds of sugar, 11,030,(:kX) 
bales of cotton, 1,389.000,000 pounds of tobacco. 
The value of the mineral products of the United 
States was more than .S7,679,000,000 in 1918. The 
value of the metallic products amoimted to more t han 
$2,000,000,000, the production of pig iron bemg val- 
ued at more than 31,180,000,000; copper at $471,- 
(X;0,000; zinc at $89,000,000; lead at $76,000,000: 
and gold at $68,000,000. Of the nonmetaUic prod- 
ucts, bituminous coal was mined to tlie value of 
$1,465,000,000; coke nearly $200,000,000; petro- 
leum, more than $690,000,000; and anthracite coal, 
$336,000,000. 

In 1915 there were 275,791 manufacturing es- 
tablishments, with a total capital of more than 
$22,000,000,000, employhig more than 8,000,000 
persons and with protlucts to the value of $24,- 
000.000,000. Of these, food and kindred products 
amoimted to more than $4,000,000,000; textiles. 
$3,400,000,000; iron and steel, $3,220,000,000; 
chemicals and allied products, $2,000,000,000. 

Keligion. The original colonies were settled by 
people of various beliefs, many of whom desired to 
perpetuate (heir own peculiar doctrines to the exclu- 
sion of all others. Gradually, religious toleration 
won the day. and by the Federal Constitution Con- 
gress was prohibited from makuig any law concern- 
ing religion. Freedom of worship is also guaranteed 
in the various State constitutions. There is thus no 
estabUshed or state church anywhere in the l'nited 
States, and all religious denominations are repre- 
.sented. The Roman Catholics are the largest re- 
ligious body, with 16,000,000 (1917) comnnmicants 
(mcluding the confirmed children). The Baptist 
bodies with 7,236,000 (mostly adults), and the 
Methodist with 7,165.0(X), have each about as many 
persons in the families reported as the Catholics. 
The Lutheran bodies comprise 2.460.000 commimi- 
cants; the Presbyterian. 2,260.000; the Protestant 
Episcopal Chiu-ch, 1 ,000,000. There are also 360.000 
members of Jewish congregations. The Church of 
Christ Scientist has 319,000 adherents. 

Education. From early colonial days great 
stress has been laid on common-school educa- 
tion. All States now provide actually or nominally 
free elementary' and secondary instniction, but the 
systems vary. In some States attendance between 
certain ages is compulsory, in others it is optional. 
In .some, public education is provided only tlirough 
the high or secondary schools; but all the States 
maintain some imiversities and schools which give 
collegiate instraction. In 1916 the 281.000 State 
common schools coimted more than 20,000,000 pu- 
pils. In this group were more than 12.000 public 
high schools, with over 1 ,000,000 pupils ; more than 
2,000 private high schools and academies, with 
155,000 pupils; 574 tmiversities, with 259,000 stu- 
dents. In addition tiiere were mmierous profes- 
sional schools of theology, law, medicine, dentistry, 
pharmacy, veterinary medicine, as weU as increasing 
numbers of teclmical and vocational schools. Spe- 
cial schools are established for the deaf and blind 
and feeiile-mindcd. 

Defense. Before the World War, the military 
forces of tlie United States consisted of the Regular 
Army recruited by volimtary enlistment, and a Na- 
tional Guard, also recruited by vohmtarj' enlistment 
under the direction of the various State govemments, 
but subject to Federal control ui case of war. The 
peace footing of tlie Regular Army was 137,203, and 
the total enlisted strength of the National Guard, 
July 30, 1916, was 8,589 officers and 123,605 men. 

Wlien war was declared on Germany in 1917. 
conscription was introduced. The object was to 
insure at least 4,000,000 men available to send to 
France by June, 1919, In November, 1918, the 
Regidar Army consisted of 3,665,000 men, of whom 
about 2,000,000 were in France. Some of the im- 
portant ports of the United States are piotected by 
an elaborate system of coast defense. 

At the outbreak of the World War, the United 
States ranked below Great Britaui and fitTmany, 
and possibly Japan, in its naval establishment. 
In 1916-1917 a great expansion was begmi, and a 
three-year program of shipbuilding adopted. On 
the entry of the l'nited States into the war, this 
program was greatly accelerated, and in 1920 the 
United States ranked second only to Great Britain 
in naval strengtii, having 36 battleships as com- 
pared with Great Britain's 55, 8 cruisers, 13 light 
cruisers, 4 coast-defense vessels, 105 torpedo-boat 
destroyers, and 84 submarines. There were build- 
ing or projected 13 battleships. 9 cruisers. 238 tor- 
pedo-boat destroyers, and 74 submarines. These 
official figures show that the United States ranks 
second among the five great naval powers, being far 
exceeded by Great Britain, but far surpassing both 
France and Japan. The German navy, second in 
1914, has disappeared. 

T'ne United States maintains a military academy 
at West Point and a naval academy at Annapolis 
for the training of officers for the army and navy. 

Area and Population. Statistics showing the 
area and population will be found on pages 220- 
222. 



1492—1685. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



167 



Chronology. 

DISCOVERIES. 
Uat. Auij. 3. Columbus sails on Ms first voy- 
age. On October 12 (Discovery of New World) 
Columbus lands on San Salvador, probably the 
island now olten called Watling Island. Later he 
discovers Cuba and Haiti, which he considers a 
portion of Asia. 

1493. .U.iH S. 4. Pope Alexander VI. issues two 
bulls of demarcation dividing the exclusive 
right of discovery and trade of tlie unknown world 
between Portugal and Spain. The line is mo<lified 
by the Treaty of Tordesillas on Jime 7, 1494, 
which, with explorations, becomes the basis of 
Spain's claim to all of .America except Brazil. 
Columbus makes his second voyage. 

1497. Juiieg4. John Cabot .sights land, probably 
in the region of Newfoimdland, and sails south- 
ward along the coast. 

I49S. He makes a second voyage, possibly as far 
south as the Carolinas. These voyages become later 
the basis of Enctland's claim in North America. 
Columbus makes a third voyage, touching the 
mainland of South America at the Orinoco. 

1499-1500. For Spain, Ojeda and Juan de la Cosa 
voyage to the region of Guiana aiid Venezuela. 
Nino covers a similar route. Pinzon coasts the 
shore farther south, discovering the Amazon, and 
Lepe parallels liim. Amerigo Vespucci accom- 
panies Ojeda and is probably also with Lepe, 

1500. April 21. The Portuguese Cabral sights 
the coast of Brazil. A year later another Portu- 
guese captain, with whom Vespucci sails, develops 
the southern coast of Brazil. 

1500^1503. The Cortereals. imder the Portuguese 
flag, explore the coast between Labrador and 
present northern United States. 

1502. Columbus makes his fourth voyage, 
skirting the coast of Central America. These 
various expeditions cause the conjecture of a vast 
New World between Asia and Europe. 

1504-1505. Amerigo Vespucci's letters on his 
voyages are published and attract wide attention 
throughout Europe; he is given undeserved credit 
for discoveries. 

1507. Amerigo or America is first suggested as the 
name for the new world covered by Vespucci's ac- 
count; that is, for the southern lands. It spreads 
gradually to include both continents. 

1510. The Spanish make at Darlen the first per- 
manent settlement on the mainland, the West In- 
dies having been earlier colonized and made the 
base for further exploration. 

151*2. April 2. Ponce de Leon discovers Flor- 
ida. Ho sails around most ot the peninsula and 
later attempts a colony. 

15IS. Sept. 29. Balboa discovers the Paciflc 
Ocean at the Isthmus of Panama. The di-covei y 
emphasizes the existence of a new world and en- 
courages voyages to find a strait C" Northwest 
Passage ") northward aroimd it. 

1519. Pineda explores the Gulf coast lietween 
Florida and Mexico; must have passed the mouth 
of the Mississippi. 

IS'JO. Not. 29. Magellan enters the Pacific 
Ocean, having discovered and traversed the 
Strait of Magellan. The first circumnavigation 
of the earth by his expedition reveals the probabil- 
ity that the New World is separate from Asia, 
previously suggested by Balboa's discovery, 

1531, 1535. Ayllon sends out two expeditions to 
the Atlantic coast north of Florida. 

1534. Verrazano, sailing for the king of France, is 
on that part of the coast which later becomes the 
Middle Atlantic States and New England. 

1535. Gomez continues Spanish exploration in the 
neighborhood ot Nova Scotia. By this time the 
cod fisheries o£f Newfoundland are regularly fre- 
quented. 

1536. Ayllon attempts a Spanish colony, probably 
near Cape Fear River. See 1531, above. 

1538. Narvftez explores the Gulf coast by land and 
sea from Tampa to Texas. One of his men, Ca- 
beza de Vaca, captured by the Indians, wanders 
tlirough Texas and northern Mexico; the first 
Eiu-opean to cross the continent. 

1534-1541. Jacques Cartier makes tliree voyages 
to the St. Lawrence gulf and river, going as far as 
Montreal. He attempts a colony, which fails, but 
his exploration is the basis of the French claim in 
North America. 

1539-1543. Coronado and his lieutenants march 
from Mexico through New Mexico and Arizona i 
and into Kansas. j 

1539-1543. Hernando de Soto heads a great 
Spanish expedition which explores the southeast- 
em portion of the later United States. He reaches 
the Mississippi, May 8, 1541. 

1543-1543. Cabrillo and Ferrer for Spain sail along 
the coast of California and Oregon. 

1563. Coligny's Huguenot colony is foimded by 
Ribault at Port Royal, S.C.; it fails. 

1564. Coligny's second Huguenot colony is founded 
by Laudonniere on St. Johns River (Florida) 
Is destroyed by the Spaniards in 1565. 



1565. Menendez foimds St. Augustine, Florida, 
the first permanent settlement within the pres- 
ent limits of the United States, 

1578-1580. Sir Francis Drake sails along the 
Pacitlc coast to Oregon, and then circumnavi- 
gates the globe; first EngUshman on the Pacific, 

15831 Espejo renews exploration of New Mexico. 

1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, tmder royal patent, 
attempts an English colony at Newfoimdland ; fails. 

1584. March 2.5. Sir Walter Raleigh receives a 
royal charter of trade and colonization in America. 
He sends out Amidas and Barlow, who explore 
Pamlico and Albemarle soimds. On their enthu- 
si,istic report Queen Elizabeth names the country- 
Virginia. 

1585-1587. Raleigh's attempts to settle Roanoke 
Island fail. A relief expedition (1591) finds no 
trace of his colonists, 

1588. The destruction of the Spanish Armada 
by England's navy opens the way for English set- 
tlement of North America. 

1598. The Spanish settlement of New Mexico be- 
gins. Santa Fe, its center, is fomided about 
seven years later. 



It 



COLONIZATION. 

1603. May 25. Gosnold discovers and names Cape 
Cod. His expedition attempts, imsuccessfully, 
the first English colony in New England. atCutty- 

• himk. 

1605. De Monts's colony. Port Royal, Nova Sco- 
tia, the first permanent French settlement in 
America. 

1606. April 10. Grant of the first Virginia char- 
ter to the London and Plymouth Companies for 
trade and settlement. The lx)imdaries conflict 
with Spanish and French claims. 

1607. Popham for the Plymouth Company sends 
out a colony to Maine, which fails. 

May 14. Virginia settled at Jamestown by 
the London Company; the first permanent 
English settlement. The settlers are promised 
all the rights of Englishmen. 

1608. Champlaln plants a French colony at 
Quebec. He begins the strife between French 
colonists and Iroquois Indians which vitally 
affects colonial Iiistory in North America. 

1609. May S3. A separate charter is granted to 
the London (Virginia) Company. The botmda- 
ries of Virginia are extended to the Pacific Ocean. 
This and similar grants in other charters originate 
the later western claims of the States. 

September. Henry Hudson explores the Hud- 
son River. This voyage forms the basis of Dutch 
claims in North America. 

1613. Tobacco is first planted by colonists in Vir- 
ginia. It becomes the main staple; and the eco- 
nomic and social life of the soutliem colonists cen- 
ter around its production. 

Dutch fur traders Iwgin to frequent Manhattan 
Island. The post is named New .*msterdam 
and tlie region New Netherland (1614). 

1614. Captain JohnSmitliexploresandnames the 
New England coast. 

1619. First colonial assembly in America is held. 
July .30. at Jameston-n, Va. A Dutch vessel 
brings to Virgmia 20 Negroes, who are sold as 
slaves. 

1630. Nov. S. The Council for New England is 
chartered as the successor of the Plymouth Com- 
pany. Its grant covers New England and con- 
flicts with French claims in Acadia and Canada. 
It makes various suhgrants which result directly 
or indirectly in colonies, liut dissolves in 1635. 

December. Plymouth colony is foimded by 
the Pilgrims, coming in the Mayfloirer. They 
touch at Provnncetown , November 21 (N,S.), and 
land at Plymouth on December 21 (llth OS.). 
This first permanent colony in New England 
is based on a frame of government adopted by the 
colonists; later it receives a patent from the Cotm- 
cil for New England, but no royal charter. 

1631. Junes. Dutch West India Company char- 
tered and given control over New Netherland. 

1633. .Aug. to. Grant by the Council for New Eng- 
land to IMason and Gorges of the Province of 
Maine, between the Merrimac and the Sagadahoc. 
Between this date and 1635 there are numerous 
conflicting grants to these men and others in this 
region, including one of November 7, 1629, of 
New Hampshire to Mason. LTnder the grants, 
or independent of them, settlements are made 
from 1623 on. Mason (1635) and Gorges (1639) 
obtain royal charters, but Massachusetts extends 
her jurisdiction over most of the towns. 

1634. June 16. The charter of Virginia is annulled 
by judicial process; the colony becomes a royal 
province, the king appoints the governor, but the 
Assembly continues to be repre.sentative. 

1639. March i. Massachusetts Bay Company 
receives a royal charter; the company is trans- 
ferred to America and becomes itself the colony, 
instead of a ruling body resident in England. 
John WInthrop is the leader. 

July 19. Quebec captured from the French, 
but restored by the peace ot March 29, 1632. 



1630. A fleet of vessels bearing immigrants arrives 
in Massachusetts, there being already settlements 
at Salem and elsewhere. 

Sepl. 7. The cliief settlement is named Boston. 

1633. June 20. Maryland is granted to Sir 
George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) as a proprie- 
tary colony. 

1634. March 27. The settlement of Maryland 
begins at St, Marys, The first settlers are Roman 
Catholics; later, Puritans and others are admit- 
ted ; factions develop and much strife results, 

1635-1636. Settlements are made on the Connecti- 
cut River at Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield 
b.v emigrants from Massachusetts, They form a 
colony called Connecticut. 

1636. Harvard College is founded at Cambridge, 
Mass,, by the General Court ot Massachusetts. 

June. Providence Plantation (Rhode Island) 
is founded by Roger Williams, an exile from Mas- 
sachusetts. 

1637. Pequot War in New England. 

1638. April 23. New Haven colony (Connecti- 
cut) is founded. 

April. Swedes settle on the Delaware, near 
Wilmington; colony called New Sweden. 
Rhode Island Plantation is founded by exiles 
from Massachusetts. 

1639. Jan. 14. The Connecticut River tcwns. 
having no charter, adopt the Fimdamental Orders, 
the first written constitution in iVmerica made 
by representatives of the people. 

1643. May 19. New England Confederation, 
the first union ot colonies, is founded by Mas 
sachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
Haven. This league promotes united action and 
lasts until 1684. It acts under the first written 
federal constitution In America. 

1644. March 14. A parliamentary- patent unites 
settlements at Providence and on Rhode Island as 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 

1651. First English Navigation Act, restricting 

and regulating colonial conmierce. 
1655. Conquest of Jamaica by England, the 

first Enghsh colony in the West Indies. The 

island colonies later exercise a governing influence 

over English colonial poUcy\ 

Civil war in Maryland. 

September. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 
1660. Second Navigation Act renews the earlier 

one and begins the system of " enumerated goods " 

which can be exported to England only. 
1663. April 20. Connecticut is given a royal 

charter, which includes New Haven colony. 

1663. March 24. Carolina is granted to certain 
courtiers. The Imundaries conflict with the ac- 
tive Spanish claim. Settlements already exist in 
North Carolina. 

July S. Rhode Island gets a royal charter. 

1664. The country between the Delaware and Con- 
necticut rivers is granted to the Duke of York. 
On August 29 New Amsterdam surrenders and 
the town and colony become New York. 

June 24. New Jersey, ah-eady settled, is 
granted by the Duke of York to Berkeley and 
Carteret; later, it is divided. 

1670. Settlement ot South Carolina begins on 
Ashley River near later site of Charleston. 

.1/(1?/ 2. Royal charter is granted the Hudson's 
Bay Company. 

July s. In the Treaty of Madrid, Spain ac- 
knowledges the right of England to all lands in 
the West Indies and America which she does " at 
present hold and possess." which includes Carolina. 

1671. Sept. IS. Batts and Fallam cross the sum- 
mit ot the AUeghenies and reach a west-fiow-ing 
river (New River, or Kanawha). 

1675-1676. King Philip's War in New England; 

colonists put down a final attempt by the New 

England tribes to check the colonies. 
1676. Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia; an tmsuc- 

cessful uprising against the misgovemment ot Sir 

William Berkeley. 

1678. March (.5. Massachusetts fi.xes her control 
in Maine by purchase of the Gorges grant. 

1679. New Hampshire made a royal province. 

1680. Charleston, SC, is foimded. 

1681. March If. . Pennsylvania is granted to Wil- 
liam Penn as a proprietary colony. 

1682. The colony includes previous Swedish and 
other settlers and receives a large immigration 
of English Quakers and others. Philadelphia is 
founded. 

La Salle descends the Mississippi to its mouth, 
takes possession of the whole valley for France and 
names it Louisiana. 

A ug. 24. The Duke ot York deeds to Penn the 
Lower Counties on the Delaware. They are 
united to Pennsylvania on December 7. 

1684. Oct. 2S. Massachusetts charter annulled 
by judicial process. 

1684-1687. La Salle sets out from France to estab- 
lish a colony on the Mississippi, but lands instead 
at Matagorda Bay, Texas. Colony fails, but a 
claim to Texas as part of Louisiana is later set up. 

1685. Feb. e. The Duke of York becomes king and 
New York a royal province. 



168 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1685—1776. 



1686-1689. The Dominion of New England, 

M including New York and New Jereey, is ruled by 

Sir Edmund Andros with autocratic powers and 
no representation. 

1688. April IS. Germantown Quakers protest 
against slavery; beginning of antiiilaver}' move- 
ment. 

1689. Blslngs In the colonies (oUow the revolu- 
tion in England. Andros is overthrown and the 

Oold governments restored. The proprietary gov- 
ernment m Marjiaiul is also overtlirown. 
1689-1697. King tVilliam's War between the 
French and Engli-sli colonists, a colonial offshoot 
of a European struggle. Frontier settlements are 
destroyed by Indian raids. Treaty of Ryswick 
(Rijswijk), September 20, 1697, restores all colo- 
nial conquests. 

1690. il/.ij/J;. Port Royal. Acadia, taken by New 
P Englanders; later restored. 

1691. Oct. 7. Massachusetts is granted a second 
charter, including Plymouth and Maine; but the 
king appomts the governor, so that the colony is 
akin to a royal province. 

169?. Salom witchcraft trials. 
1693. William and Mary College is foimded at 
WiUiainstnirg, Va. 

Q1698. The Board of Trade and Plantations 
succeeds various committees. It is the main in- 
strument for the English government of the col- 
onies tlu"ougli the Pri\^' Coimcil. 
1699. Louisiana is settled at Biloxi; later, Mobile 
■ / is foimded. 

■ ■•'»00. June IS. Samuel Sewall, of Boston, pub- 
lishes The Selling of Joseph^ an antislavery tract. 
^ 1701. Yale College is foiuided; first location is at 

R Saybrook; moved to New Haven, 1717. 

Detroit is settled by the French. It is in the 

chain of forts, missions, and settlements linking 

Canada and Louisiana, other important points in 

which are: Arkansas Post (founded 1685); Caho- 

kia (about 1700). Kaskaskia (about 1700). and 

FortChartres (1720) in Illinois; Vincennes (1727), 

in Indiana. They give control of the great 

O valley and threaten to confine the English settle- 

'^ ments to the Atlantic slope. The I^rench push 

their explorations toward the Rocky Mountains. 

170?. New Jersey is reimited as a royal province. 

Queen Anne's War, the colonial share in the 

War of the Spanish Succession, begins. Indian 

raids are resumed. 

1703. Delaware becomes a separate colony, 

T though with the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

1704. April 3i. Boston News Letter, first regu- 
larly published journal m the United States, 
established. 

1707. May 1. England, Scotland, and Wales are 
united as the Kingdom of Great Britain; terms 
" Briton " and " British " henceforth commonly 
used. 
1710. Port Boyal, Acadia, is captured by the Brit- 
M ish. and named Annapolis. Fu^t post-offlce 

system for the colonies established. 
1713. Sept. 14. Crozat's patent defines Louisi- 
ana as the whole valley of the Mississippi, 
1713. March SI. Treaty of Utrecht ends Queen 
Anne's War. Great Britain acquires Nova .Scotia 
(Acadia) from France and a definite title to New- 
foundland and the Hudson Bay country. 
V171S. Proprietary is restored in Maryland, 
1718. New Orleans is founded and becomes the 

capital of Louisiana. 
1729. North and South Carolina are separated 
and become royal provinces. 
Baltimore is foimded. 
1733. Feb. Si (11th O.S.). Bhn.h of George Wash- 
ington, [ony of Georgia I 
Jii7>e 0. Proprietary charter granted for col-l 
VV !'"• Feb. IS. Georgia Is settled by OglethoriJe 
at Savannah. 

May 17. Molasses Act is passed by Parlia- 
ment, an attempt to confine, by prohibitive duties, 
the West Indies trade of the mainland colonies to 
the islands imder British control. It is considered 
a grievance and systematically disregarded. 
1739. Oct. 20. War begins between Spain and 
A^ Great Britain. In the colonies there are resultless 

'^ contests between Georgia and Florida. The 

colonial fights merge in King George's War. 
1741. Bering sails along the coast of .Alaska, reach- 
ing Cape St. Elias on Kayak Island (see p. 20, 
1728) ; beginning of Bussian intere.st on the main- 
land of America. Ho is followed hj- fur traders, 
and Russian settlement begins in 1784 at Kodiak. 
Sitka is founded 1799. 
Y !'**• The Verendrye sons, French fur traders, see 

a range of the Bocky Mountains. 
1744-1748. King George's War is the colonial 
phase of the War of the Austrian Succession. 

1745. June 17. Louisburg is captured by the Eng- 
lish colonists and British navy. 

1746. CoUege of New Jersey founded (later Prince- 
ton University). 

-y 1748. Oct. IS. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restores 

^" all colonial conquests. 

1749. Celeron de Bienville voyages down the Ohio 
River, taking possession for France. The English 



explorers and fur traders have penetrated into the 
Ohio valley and English settlement west of the 
crest of the Appalacliians has begun on the upper 
New River. The French begin a chain of forts 
from Canada to the Oliio to check this advance; 
most important is Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh 
May 10. Ohio Company is chartered to be- 
gin the English settlement of the valley. 
1751. June S5. Parliament passes an act forbid- 
ding the New England colonies from making pa- 
per money a legal tender. 

1753. Pennsylvania College founded (Philadelphia; 
later L'niversity of Pennsylvania). 

Noaember. Virginia claiming the region of the 
Ohio valley under lier old charter. Gov. Dinwiddle 
sends George Wasliington to remonstrate with the 
French at the new posts. 

1754. Georgia becomes a royal province by the 
surrender of the charter. 

King's College founded (New York city; later 
Columbia University). 

June 19. A colonial congress is held at Al- 
bany to consider Indian affairs and plans for the 
expected war with the French. A plan of union, 
drafted by Benjamui Franklin, is adopted, but is 
rejected by both the colonies and England. 

July 3. Washuigton, sent with a Virginian 
force to the Forks of the Ohio (Pittsburgh), sur- 
renders to the French at Fort Necessity; the be- 
ginning of the French and Indian War. 

1755. July s. British force imder Braddock ad- 
vancing against Fort Duquesne is routed by the 
French and Indians. Washmgton escapes. Ex- 
peditions against the French positions at Niagara 
and Crown Point also fail, as do all attempts 
against the French during the next two years. 

Septejnher. Removal of the Acadians from 
Nova Scotia by British troops. 

1756. May IS. Great Britain formally declares 
war on France; the American struggle is thus 
merged into the European Seven Years' War. 

1758. July S. British attack mider Abercrombie 
on Fort Ticonderoga is repulsed. 

July 26. Amlierst captures Louisburg. 

Aug. S7. Colonials, under Bradstreet, take 
Fort Frontenac (Kingston, Ont.). 

Noji. 23. E.xpedition under Forbes occupies 
Fort Duquesne. 

1759. July. Montcalm abandons Forts Ticonder- 
oga and Crown Point before Amlierst's advance. 
Fort Niagara surrenders to British and Indians 
imder Johnson. Except the far-western posts, noth- 
ing is left to the French but Quebec and Montreal. 

Sept. 1.3. Battle of the Plains of Abraham 
before Quebec, a French defeat. The opposing 
commanders, Montcalm and Wolfe, are killed. 

Sept. 17. Quebec surrenders. 

1760. Sept. S. Montreal surrenders to Amherst: 
practical end of American war. 

1763. Feb. 10. Treaty of Paris is signed. France 
cedes to Great Britain Canada and Louisiana 
east of the Mississippi River, excepting Isle d'Or- 
leans including the city of New Orleans. She also 
cedes New Orleans and the western portion of 
Louisiana to Spain, and so ceases to hold colonies 
on the North .\merican mainland. Spain cedes 
Florida to Great Britain. 

Oct. 7. British proclamation of 1763, part of a 
new policy of stricter control, forbids the Atlantic- 
slope colonies to make settlements west of the 
watershed; and Indian affairs are placed under 
direct royal control. The policy is resented; the 
proclamation is disregarded; exploration and set- 
tlement push westward, especially into Kentuck-y 
and Temiessee; and new western colonies are pro- 
posed. 
1763-1765. Pontiac's Conspiracy, a revival of 
the war against the British by the western Indi- 
ans, former allies of the French. 

REVOLUTION AND CONSTITUTION. 

1764. St. Louis is foiuided by the Spaniards. 
April .5 Sugar Act of Parliament revives the 

earlier Molasses Act, with modifications to make 
it practical and a revenue producer; active meas- 
ures to stop forbidden trade with foreign West- 
Indies and smuggling. 

April 19. Parliament prohibits the making of 
paper money a legal tender in all the colonies. 

1765. March 22 British Stamp Act, having for 
its puriMse the raising of revenue within the colo- 
nies. Object is to have the colonies share in the 
expenses of their own defense; but as they con- 
sider any internal taxation an infringement upon 
the principle " No taxation without representa- 
tion," they see m the plans for a standing army and 
other phases of the new' imperialistic policy a cur- 
tailment of the practical self-government they 
have so long enjoyed, and under which they have 
prospered. Public sentiment and mob violence 
prevent the operation of the act. 

Oct. 7. Stamp Act Congress meets at New 
York; delegates from nine colonies The right of 
Parliament to tax the colonies is denied. 

1766. Queen's College founded (New Brunswick, 
N.J. ; later Rutgers College). I 



March IS. Stamp Act is repealed, but in the 
Declaratory Act ParUament reasserts its right to 
tax the colonies. 

1767. June 29. Townshend Act lays duties on 
tea, glass, paper, etc., imported into the colonies. 
This is met by nonimportation agreements, formal 
protests, and vigorous pamphlets. 

1768. Feb. 11. Massachusetts Assembly sends a 
circular letter, ATitten by Samuel Adams, to the 
other legislatures, suggesting combined action 
agamst the new duties. 

Sept. 27. British troops arrive at Boston to 
enforce customs laws; this is the ministry's answer 
to the Assembly's action. 
1768-1771. War of the Regulation in North Caro- 
lina; a frontier protest against grievances. 

1769. Spanish settlement of California Ix'gms at 
San Diego. 

Discover}- of San Francisco Bay. 
Daniel Boone begins his explorations of Kentucky. 
Watauga settlement in eastern Teimessee begun. 
Foundation of Dartmouth College (N!h.). 

1770. March 5. The so-called Boston Massacre: 
Soldiers kill members of a mob attacking them. 
Popular indignation forces the withdrawal of the 
troops from ]3oston. 

April IS. Duties of the Townshend Act, except 
tea, are repealed. 

Not. 2. Local Committees of Correspondence 
come into existence m Massachusetts. "The prac- 
tice spreads tliroughout the colonies; similar inter- 
colonial committees, inaugurated later by Vir- 
ginia, are an important unifymg factor. 

1773. The king determines to assert his authority 
by protecting the importation of tea and collection 
of duty. At Boston, on December 16, the tea is 
thrown overboard by the " Boston Tea Party." 
At other ports it is sent back, or stored without 
payment of duty. 

1774. March SI. Boston Port Act interdicts all 
commerce there. 

May SO. Massachusetts Government Act 
practically nuUifies the charter, centralizes the 
government, and limits town meetings. These 
coercive acts are pmiishment for the leadership of 
the colony in opposing the imperiaUstic policy. 
Troops again garrison Boston, and General Gage 
is made governor of the province. 

June22. Quebec Act is passed, extending that 
colony over the region north of the Ohio River and 
west of New York and Pennsylvania, establishing 
the Catholic religion, and making no provision for 
representative government; mistakenly considered 
by the other colonies a menace to them. 

Sepl. B-Oct. 26. First Continental Congress 
meets at Philadelphia. Twelve colonies are rep- 
resented. It sends out in various forms the colo- 
nial side of the controversy, and adopts the " As- 
sociation," a nonimportation agreement, against 
British goods. The local committees enforce this 
against the Loyalists, who later are greatlj' per- 
secuted, exiled, and their property confiscated. 

Oct. 10. Battle of Point Pleasant; defeat of 
western Indians. 

1775. April 19. Defeat of a British force at Lex- 
ington and Concord inaugurates the American 
Bevolution. The Massachusetts militarj- begin 
the siege of Boston, receiving reenforcements 
from other ccionies. 

May 10. Second Continental Congress 
meets at Philadelphia; it continues until 1781 as 
the national government. Without formal au- 
thorization it takes charge of the mihtar>', finan- 
cial, Indian, and foreign affairs of the revolting 
colonies. 

May 10. Allen and Arnold take Ticonderoga 
(American victory). May 12: Crown Point 
taken by the .Americans. Jime 15: Washington 
is made commander in chief by Congress. 
Jime 17: Battle of Bunker Bill (British Pj-rrhic 
victory). July 3: Washington takes command of 
the army before Boston. November 13: Mon- 
treal is taken by IMontgomery. December 31: 
Battle of Quebec; Montgomerj' is killed. 
Pennsylvania Society for the .-Xbolition of Slavery 
is organized. 

1776. Spanish presidio and mission at San Fran- 
cisco are foimded. 

Jan. 6. New Hampshire adopts the first writ- 
ten constitution for a State of the Union. 
During the next four years all the States do like- 
wise, except Rhode Lsland and Coimecticut, which 
adapt their old charters. 

March 17. Boston is evacuated by the Brit- 
ish. June 18: Canada is evacuated by the Ameri- 
cans. Jime 28: British attack on Fort Moultrie 
at Charleston is repulsed. 

July /f. Declaration of Independence of the 
United States of America (drafted by Thomas 
Jefferson) is adopted: signed by John ITancock, 
president of Congress. Other signatures added 
August 2 and later. 

Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island; the British 
under Howe defeat Washington's army. 

September. Commissioners are sent to France 
to obtain aid. 



1776 — 1795. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



169 



1776 {continued). 

Sept. IS. British troops enter New Yorli. 
October 28: Battle of White Plains (indecisive) 
November 16: Fort Washington is taken (British 
victory). November-December; Washington 
retreats tlirough New Jersey. December 26 : Bat- 
tle of Trenton (.American victory) ends the retreat. 

1777. Slavery, which exists m aU the States, is 
abolished in the imrecognized State of Vermont. 
By 1S04, all the other seven northern States have 
adopted immediate or gradual emancipation. 

Jan. 3. Battle of Princeton (American vic- 
tory). Lafayette arrives in U. S. and is appointed 
major general (July 31). August 13: Battle of Oris- 
kany; American victory which checks an invasion 
down the Moliawk. August 1(5: Battle of Ben- 
nington; American victor}- against Biffgojue's 
army invading from Canada. September 1 1 : Bat- 
tle of Brandywine, between Howe and Washing- 
ton (British victor}'). 

Sept. 19. Battle of Bemis Heights or Sara- 
toga (indecisive). Septemter 26: Pliiladelpliia is 
taken by Howe. October 4: Battle of German- 
town (British victory). October 7: Battle of 
Saratoga (American victory). October 17: 
Burgoyne surrenders to Gates at Saratoga. 

Nov. 15. Articles of Confederation are 

adopted by Congress and sent to the States for 

ratification. 136.300.000. | 

1777-17.S3. France lends the United StatesI 

1778. James Cook explores the Pacific coast from 
Oregon northward ; a basis tor the British claim to 
this region. 

Feb. 6. Independence of the United States is 
recognized by France, and two treaties made, one 
of aUiance and one of commerce. 

April. British commissioners cpme to America 
to negotiate terms of peace (unsuccessful). 

Jime IS. PhUadelpliia is evacuated by the 
British. June 2S: Battle of Monmouth (Ameri- 
can victor}') ; the British retire to New York, and 
W;isliington resumes his position on the Hudson. 
July 3: ^Massacre at Wyoming by Indians. 

July 10. France declares war against England. 

July 39. French fleet under d'Estaing arrives 
in Narragansett Bay. December 29: Savannah 
is taken by tlie British; beginning of the attempt 
to conquer the South, which continues to be the 
main military factor for three years. 
1778-1779. George Rogers Clark and a Virginia 
force conquer the British posts of Cahokia, ICas- 
kaskia, and Vincennes, giving control of the south- 
ern half of the Northwe.st. This occupation is the 
basis of claims to the region in the later peace ne- 
gotiations. 

1779. June IS. Spain declares war against Great 
Britain, but makes no alliance -with United States. 

July IS. Wa}-ne captures Stony Point. 
August 29: Stillivan defeats Tories and Indians at 
the Battle of the Chemimg, near Elniira, destroy- 
ing the power of the Iroquois. September 23: 
John Paul Jones in Bonhomme Richard capttires 
the Serapis. September-October: Savannah be- 
sieged by Americans and French. October 9: 
d'Estaing and Lincoln repidsed at Savannah. 

1780. March I. Peimsylvania adopts gradual 
emancipation. [Henr}' Clinton.] 

May 12. Charleston surrenders to Sir! 

June. Massachusetts constitution, first to be 
adopted by a convention and ratified by popular 
vote; is against slavery. 

July. Rochambeau arrives witii a French army 
at Newport. R. I. August 16: Battle of Camden, 
S.C. (British victor}-). September 2,5 : Trea,sonal>le 
purpose of Arnold to surrender West Point dis- 
covered. He escapes. The British agent, Andre, 
captured and hanged on Oct. 2. October 7: Bat- 
tle of King's Mountain (American victory). 

Oct. 10. Congress passes a resolution promising 
that western lands ceded by the States should be 
settled and admitted into the Union as equal 
States. 

1781. Jan. s. Arnold bums Richmond, Ya,. Jan- 
uar}- 5: Battle of the Cowpens (American 
victory). January-February: Greene's masterly 
retreat in the Carolinas. 

Feb. 3. Five-per-cent Scheme: proposed as 
amendment of the Confederation: Congress re- 
quests permission to levy an import, duty; it fails 
though all the .States but one accept it. 

March 1. The Articles of Confederation 
put in effect by ratification by Maryland, the last 
State, Her consent is given on the understanding 
that the States which have western claims shall 
relinquish them to the Confederation, which is 
gradually done (1781-1802). On this same date 
New York cedes all claims west of present west- 
ern boimdary. 

March IS. Battle of Guilford Court House, 
N. C; Greene retires, but Comwallis is obliged to 
leave North Carolina. He goes to Virginia to 
join Arnold. April 25: Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, 
S. C: Rawdon defeats Greene, but retires to pre- 
serve commimications. May: Siu-rcnder of Pen- 
sacola completes the Spanish conquest of West 
Florida. September 7; Battle of Eutaw Springs, 



S. C: a British victory, but Greene forces the vic- 
tors to retire to Charleston. October 19: Corn- 
wallls surrenders at Yorktown to Washington 
and Rochambeau. 

17Sl-17.S'i. Spaiji lends the United States S174,000. 

1783. July 11. Savaimah evacuated by British. 
Nov. M. Preliminaries of peace between Great 
Britain and United States are signed at Paris. 
Dec. 14. Charleston evacuated. 

1783-1789. Holland lends the United States 
$3,600,000. 

1783. .ipril IS. Revenue Plan: Congress makes 
second proposal of amendment of the Confedera- 
tion for a federal impost and other revenue im- 
provements; it fails for lack of imanimous State 
consent. 

Sept. 3. Peace of Paris, being the prelimina- 
ries of 17S2tmchanged. Independence recognized, 
western boundar}- the ^Mississippi River, restora- 
tion of the Floridas to Spain by Great Brifain. 

Nov. 35. British evacuate New York. 

Dec. 22. Wasliington resigns his commission 

1784. February. Connecticut and Rhode Island 
adopt gradual emancipation laws. 

March 1. Virginia cedes western claims except 
Kentucky. 

April 23. First (Jefferson's) Territorial Ordi- 
nance; not put into operation. 

.4pri7 30. Commerce Plan, third proposition 
for amendment of the Articles ; authorizing a 
federal navigation act; fails for lack of ratification. 
Witiiout financial or commercial or coercive pow- 
ers, Congress is impotent and the Confederation 
begins to go down. 

June 2. New Hampshire constitution against 
slaverj'. 

1785. April 19. Massachusetts cedes western 
claims. Reserves land titles in western New York. 

May 20. Jefferson's Land Ordinance begins 
the system of rectangular stirvey and federal 
management of the western lands ceded by tlie 
States. 

1786. Futile negotiations with Spain for tlie free 
navigation of the INIississippi River, which the 
West demands. 

Trial of John Fitch's steamboat on the Delaware. 
In the following year James Runisey ran a steam 
craft of another type on the Potomac. 

Sept. 14. Connecticut cedes western claims ex- 
cept Western Reserve. 

September. Annapolis Convention, called by 
Virginia to consider imiform trade regulations. 
Only five States send delegates, so it merely pro- 
poses another convention. 
1786-1787. Shays's Kebelllon in Massacliusetts: 
the most important of a number of violent disturb- 
ances wliich occur in several States and are due to 
social, economic, and financial dislocations follow- 
ing the war. Congress feebly tries to raise troops, 

1787. Feb. 21. Congress issues a formal call for 
a convention. 

May 25. Federal Convention meets at Phil- 
adelphia; all States but Rhode Island eventually 
represented. An entirely new constitution is 
drafted, which provides for a government of tliree 
separate departments, and of adequate powers 
operating directly upon the people; the constitu- 
tion within its field to be the supreme law of the 
land. 

July IS. Northwest Territory is authorized 
by Congress for the region north of the Ohio River; 
the beginning of actual territorial governments, 
wltich resemble former colonies. Slavery is pro- 
hibited within the territor}'. 

Sept. 17. Convention submits the Federal 
Constitution to State conventions for ratification 
and adjourns. 
1787-1788. Ratlflratlon of the Federal Consti- 
tution by eleven conventions: Delaware (De- 
cember 7, 1787); Pennsylvania (December 12); 
New Jersey (December 18) ; Georgia (Januar}' 2, 
1788); Connecticut (January 9); Massachusetts 
(February 6) ; Mar}'land (April 28) : South Caro- 
lina (May 23); New H^ipshire (Jtme'21); Vir- 
ginia (Jime 26); New York (July 26).- 

1788. Settlement of the- Northwest begins at 
Marietta, and the territorial government is estab- 
lished. Kentuck}' as part of Virginia, and Tennes- 
see as a part of North Carolina, receive many set- 
tlers. Cincinnati is settled. 

EARLY FEDERAL REPUBLIC. 

1789. Frencli Revolution; Jefferson, United States 
minister, a spectator. 

Feb. 4. First voting for president by the 
electors; Washington receives all the votes; 
Jolm Adams, receiving 34 out of 69. becomes vice 
president. 

.April .5. First Congress under the Consti- 
tution is finally organized at New York. 

.4 pril SO. George Washington is inaugurated 
at New York as first president. 

June 1. First act of Congress; regulates oaths. 

July 4. First tariff act. 

July 27. Congress creates the Department of 
Foreign Affairs (State). The same session pro- 



vides a War Department (August 7), a Treas- 
ury Department (Seiitember 2), a Postmaster- 
General (September 22), and an Attorney-General 
(September 24). The heads of these depart- 
ments, except that of the Postmaster- General, con- 
stitute an imofBcial cabinet. Thomas Jefferson 
is the first secretary of state, and Alexander 
Hamilton the first secretary of the treasm-y. 

Sept. 24. Judiciary Act begms the Federal sys- 
tem of district, circuit, and supreme courts. 

Sept. 25. Congress submits to the States 
twelve amendments to the Constitution, formuig 
a bill of rights. Those adopted by the States 
become the first ten amendments. (They ap- 
pear to have been m force from November 3, 
1791.) 

Nov. 21. North Carolina (12th State) rati- 
fies the Constitution. 

1790. Imports, 323.000,000; exports, 320,205, l.'ie. 
Jan. 14. Hamilton's first report on public 

credit is laid before Congress. One of four reports 
presenting a pohcy which is adopted and which re- 
stores public credit at home and abroad. 

May 26. Territory South of the Ohlo^dater 
Teimessee) is authorized. 

May 29. Rhode Island (13th State) ratifies 
the Constitution. 

July 16. Act passes for temporary seat of gov- 
ernment at Philadelphia; permanent capital to 
be erected on the Potomac. 

August. First U. S. census; population shown 
as 3,929,214 (59,557 free Negroes, 697,024 slaves). 

A u(i. 4. Act for HamUton's fmiding plan in- 
cludmg assumption of State debts. 

1791. Jan. 1. Amount of outstanding national 
debt, 875,463,477. 

Feb. 25. Act to incorporate the Bank of the 
United States; a Itu-ther portion of Hamilton's 
plan. 

March 4. Vermont is admitted (14th State) ; 
a free State. 

1792. April 2. Mint Act provides tor a decimal 
system of coinage on a bimetallic basis. 

May 11. Columbia River is discovered by 
Captain Robert Gray; first step in U. S. claim to 
Oregon country. Gray is followed by British 
explorer Vancouver, who sails up the river. 

June 1. Kentucky is admitted (15th State): 
a slave State. 

November. Second presidential election ; Wash- 
ington receives all of the 132 electoral votes, 
Adams reelected vice president with 77 votes. 
Political parties begin to emerge; Washington, 
Adams, and Hamilton become Federalists, the 
opponents caU themselves Republicans, with 
Jefferson as leader. The division is based on 
broad (nationalistic) or strict (localistic) inter- 
pretation of the Constitution, but is infiuenced 
also by foreign relations and social and economic 
conditions. 

1793. Cotton gin is invented by Eli Wliitney; 
makes cotton so profitable that antislavery is 
checked in the South. 

Feb. 12. Fu-st Fugitive .Slave Act. 

Feb. IS. In Chisholm r. Georgia the Supreme 
Court holds that a State may be sued in Federal 
courts. This leads to the Eleventh Amendment 
(in force Januar}' 8, 179.S). 

April S. Edmond Genest arrives as minister 
from revolutionary France, His conduct and the 
controversies with Great Britain over carrying out 
the treaty of 1783 and over neutral rights, accen- 
tuate party division. 

.April 22. Washington issues a proclamation 
of neutrality; new principle of keeping out of 
war. 

Sept. IS. Washington lays the comer stone of 
the national Capitol. 

Dec. 31. Jefferson retires from the cabinet. 

1794. Jan. 3. Madison's commercial resolutions 
presented; threats of legislation against Great 
Britain, followed by acts to provide defenses for 
ports (March 20) ; arsenals (April 2) ; increase of 
army (May 9); and temporary embargo (Jime 4). 

March 27. Appropriation for feeble beginning 
of a navy. 

July-October. Whisky Insurrection in west- 
em Pennsylvania; a frontier protest against 
the excise. Its suppression by military force, 
though without a fight, displays the coercive 
power of the new government. 

Aug. 20. WajTie defeats the Indians in Ohio. 

Nov. 19. Jay Treaty with Great Britain; the 
terms are humiliating but it prevents war, and is 
ratified by Senate (Jime 24, 1795) in spite of strong 
opposition. 

1795. Imports, $69,756,268; exports. 347,989,872. 
Jan. 1. National debt. SS0.747..5,S7. 

Jan. SI. Hamilton retires from the cabinet. 

-Aug. 3. Treaty of Greenville with the north- 
western Indians: most of Ohio is ceded. 

Oct. 27. Treaty with Spain: Spain acknowl- 
edges boimdary of parallel 31°, and grants free 
navigation and right of deposit on the Missis- 
sippi. This and the Indian and British treaties 
strengthen the Union in the West. 



170 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1796-1814. 



w 



1796. Cleveland Is founded in Connecticut West- 

''"'^fa^T'!: In Hylton r. United States first 
iuternal-revenue decision, the S"f «■»« <?°^^' 
declares that a tax on carriages is not a du-ect tax, 
such as must be apportioned among the States^ 
June 1. Temiesseeis admitted (Ifath btate). a 

^Tpf't Washington's Farewell Address 
naming especiaUy against cntanglmg foreign 
aUiances and lack ot mUitary preparation. 

November. Third presidentia election. Adams 
receives 71 of the 13S electoral votes; Jefferson 
receives 68 and becomes vice president. 
1797 March i. John Adams maugurat«d as 

17irn98''." x"z Mission to France, following 
French retaliation for the Jay Treaty. It fads, 
and a naval war with France results. 
1798. Jan. 8. Eleventh Amendment is pr<> 
claimed. Prevents suits against States and ^ a 
check to broad construction. iPei ™^"™: 

4nn( 7 Mississippi Territory created, slavery I 
'a pril SO. Navy Department created ; its secre- 
tary becomes a member of the cabmet^ 

June 2S July IJ,. Alien and Sedition Acts 
to crush tlie strong RepubUcan opposition to meas- 
ures imfriendly to France. r^„„^ 
August In Calder p. Bull the Supreme Court 
holds that the prohibition on State ex posl facto 
laws has reference to criminal laws only. 

Nov 16, Dee. H. Kentucky and Virginia 
Besolutions are adopted by legislattu-es of these 
States, asserting the right of a State to nullify the 
Alien and Sedition Acts or other Federal legislation 
considered unconstitutional. First official state- 
ment of the State-rights theory. „„.„„, 
1799. March 29. New York passes a gradual 

emancipation act. 
1S0«. Imports, $91,252,786; exports, 8/0.9/ 1,780. 
Jan. I. National net debt. 882,976,294. 
May 7 Northwest Territory is divided ana 
the western portion becomes Indiana Territory. 

May 10. Public Land Act authorizes sales on 

credit in any quantity. „i„,.i„„ 

iuguH. Second U. S. census; population, 

5 308 483 (108.435 free Negroes, 893.602 slaves). 

' Sevt SO Treaty of peace and commerce with 

France: imder Bonaparte's influence favorable to 

the Unitetl States. .,,... t„«„.. 

jVoDfmt.fr. Fourth presidential election: Jeffer- 
son and Burr, the Republican candidates, tied 
with 73 electoral votes each; Adams. 65 votes. 
House of Representatives elects Jefferson (Fel5- 
niary 17 1801), and Burr becomes vice presi- 
dent The Republicans, or strict construction- 
ists, also gain control of both houses of Congress. 

Nov. 17. Congress meets in Washington 
for the first time. . . 

1801. Jan. SI. Jolm Marshall commissioned cmet 
justice ot the Supreme Court. , „ j„,. 

Feb 13. Judiciary Act pas.ses; the fuial teder- 
alist effort to strengthen tlie national government. 
March 4 Thomas Jefferson takes the oath 
as third president; Madison made secretary of 
state and Albert GaUatin secretary of the trcasuo"^ 
May W Tripoli declares war on the tnitea 
States over the tribute paid by the mited States 
in common with other commercial nations. 
Naval exploits, especially the destruction, by 
Stephen Decatur, of the captured U.S.S. Philadel- 
phia on Febniary 15, 1804. 
180?. March 18. Republican Congress repeals the 
Judiciary Act ot 1801 ; part ot an attempt to make 
the judiciary amenable to changes of party^ , 

April 2i Georgia cedes claim to all land west 
of present bomidary. The region is added to the 
territory of Mississippi Territory _ 

180S. Feb. 1 9. Congress admits Ohio (1 / th State) , 

free State. , „ 

Feb 2i In Marburj- v. Madison the Supreme 
Court upholds the independence of the judi- 
ciary and asserts its right to declare Federal acts 
void Under Marshall the Court continues to main- 
tain the broad interpretation ot the Constitution. 
April SO. Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 
For $15,000,000 United States buys from Fraiice 
the recently acquired Spanish Lomsiana, with 
badly defined boundaries. 
1804. February. New Jersey passes a gradual 
emancipation act. completmg group of eight 
Northern free States. 

March 26. Act for Territory of Orieans, em- 
bracmg the Louisiana Piu-cha.sc below 33". 

July H Vice president Burr kills Hamilton 
in a duei. This leaves the Federalists without 
capable leadership. . 

Sept 25. Twelfth Amendment is pro- 
claimed. It requires separate votes for president 
and vice president, so as to prevent a tie. 

November. Fifth presidential election: Jeffer- 
son and George Clinton receive 162 electoral 
votes; C. C. Pinckney and Rufus Kmg, Federalist 
candidates, 14 votes. 
1804-180G. Lewis and Clark Expedition up the 
Missouri, down the Columbia to the Pacific, and 



retiuTi; is a further foundation of the claim to the 
Oregon country. «r,-rKKn'>i 

1805. Imports, $120,600,000; exports, S9o,o66,021. 

Jan. 1 Net national debt, $82,312,15L 

Jan. 11. Indiana Territory is divided and 
Micliigan Territory erected. 

March 1 . Justice Samuel Chase, impeached by 
the House of Representatives, !^ acqiutted by Ih. | 
Senate. This strengthens the judiciarj- and stops 
impeachments for poUtical reasons. 

June J,. Treaty of peace with Tripoh; no reter- 

1806?" Morels: PoUcy of internal improvements 
at Federal expense is maugiu-ated by an act au- 
thorizmg the National (Cumberland) Road be- 
tween the Potomac and the Oliio. , 

Nov 21 Berlin Decree is issued by Napoleon; 
part of the violation of the rights of neutra 
trade by both Great Britain and France Great 
Britain impresses .American seamen from neutral 
vessels JcA'crson's retahatorj- policy is limited 
L peaceful coercion by deprivmg the belhgerents 
of American products and trade. ,„„^u„« 

1806-1807. Z. M. Pike explores the upper reaches 
of the Mississippi River and penetrates the Bocky 
Mountains in Colorado. , , ^ w A«rnn 

Burr Conspiracy; a project led by Aaron 
Burr mtendhig, probably, an mvasion of Mcxco, 
orTsettlement'ifVcstem lands. M3"c opimon 
led by Jefferson, believes it to be a disunion 
scheme. Burr tried for treason but ; acquit ted, 
under a ruling by MarshaU (September 1, 180/). 
l^T March 2. Act to prohibit foreign slave 
trade; in effect, Januao' 1, 1808. 

June "'> H.M.S. Leopard fires on, boards, and 
searches U.S.S. Chesapeake, impressing saUors 
from it. No reparation tmtil 1811. „,„„.„ 
-l„c ir Fulton's voyage up tlie Hudson to 
Albany by steamboat Cle^-monl; first successful 
use of a steamboat. „„„-;„„ 

Nov 17 British order in council answenng 
BerUn Decree; heavier restrictions on neutra 
^ [biu-dens neutral trade. 

Dec 17 Milan Decree by Napoleon turtherl 
Dec 22 Embargo Act, the supreme measure 
of Jefferson's commercial retaliatory POhcy- 
American vessels forbidden »<> l<"ave /or foreign 
ports, and foreign vessels "»* P"'''™"*" to take 
cargo Affects New England and New ^ork 
chilfly ; itVesisted as much as possible; Federalists 
threaten nulhficat ion and secession. 
t^^i November. Sixth presidential election : Madi- 
son has 122 votes for president, George Clmton, 
113 for vice president; FederaUst opponents, 

IS^r^^F^r 7' Sis TTrrtto^^^t created out of 

'°S"'J"ln°United States .. Peters (Olmstead 
case) ' the Supreme Court upholds supremacy of 
F^eral courts over State laws, rebiU.es Pennsyl- 
vania, and declares that a suit """^aUy agamst 
a State agent does not necessanly violate the 
Eleventh Amendment. 

March I. Jefferson's Eml^argo Act repealed 
and Nonintercourse Act with Great Britam and 
France substituted; president may restore mter- 
course with either belligerent. 

Mar.A 4 James IWadison (4th president) 
takes the oath; virtuaUy his own secretao' of 
state; Gallatin remains secretary of the treasiirj'^ 
ivril 19 Through the imauthorized act of 
Er^kine, British mmister, intercoiu-se is restore<l 
with Great Britain; minister repudiated and in- 
tercourse again suspended, August 9. Increased 
American resentment. 

September. First experimental railroad m 
America, tiuUt by John Thomson m Delaware 
Coimty, Pennsylvania. 
1810. Imports, $85,400,000; f'^orts $66,757,970. 
Jan 1. Net national debt. $53,173,218. 
March 16. In Fletcher i. Peck ansmg out of 
Yazoo claims. Supreme Court holds that the at- 
tempt of Georgia to repeal a law creating contract 
rights impairs tlie obligation of contracts, contrary 
to the Federal Constitution, 

May 1. Macon BiU No. 2 restores mtercourse 
with Great Britam and France (see March 1, 
isOQ, above) but directs the return to nonmter- 
coun^e with eitlier nation if the other nation, be- 
forrthe 3rd day of March following, withdraws 
its restrictions on U. S. commerce. 

August Third U. S. census; popidation 7,239,- 
881 (186,466 frre Negroes, 1.191.362 slav-es) 

Aug 5 Nominal withdrawal of French de- 
crees (Berlin and Milan decrees); proves to be a 

'^''''^?% Occupation ot West. Florida is ordered 

by presidential proclamation; claimed "^der Lou- 

siana Purchase Treaty. Region west of Peari 

. RHe? occupied and added to Tertitory of Orleans^ 

Nov 2 Resumption of nonmtercourse with 

Great Britain to take effect February 1, because of 

supposed repeal of the French decrees. 

1811. House of Representatives for first time 

adopts the rule of the previous question as a means 

of checkmg debate and facUitatmg legislation. 



Astoria is founded by John Jacob Astor s Amencan 
tS Company, near the mouth of the Columbia 
River. Another party dispatched overiand ilbll- 
1812) to the post. Beginnings of fur trade m 
whole region west of the Missouri. 

February. Recharter is refused to the Bank of 
the United States though desired by Gallatin. 
Removal opens way for mirestramed State bamv- 
uig and paper currency, with '"^^as^ous results^ 

October First steamboat on the Mississippi 
River bcgms its mitial voyage; important m de- 
velopment of the West. . 

.Vol. /. Twelfth Congress meets. It is under 
control of the younger men, especiaUy from the 
South and West, who demand a strong foreign 
pohcy and a development of national resources^ 

Nov 7. Battle of Tippecanoe; Harrison de- 
feats Tecumseh. Dramatic incident in the steady 
advance of the frontier Ime. Indian war errone- 
ously ascribed in the West to British and Spamsi^ 
intriirae [State. 

1813. April 8. Louisiana (18th State); a slavel 
June IS. War of 1813 begins l^y a declaration 
of war agamst Great Britam. The ostensil^le rea- 
sons -violation of the rights of neutral trade and 
impressinent — apply equaUy to France; under- 
lying factors are the failiu-e of the Jeflerson.an 
Dolicv of peacefiU commercial coercion, and behef 
in the West that its future depends on rcpressmg 
tlio Indians liy acquiring Canada. 

iuo 16 HiUl surrenders Detroit to the Briv 
ish August 19: U.SS. Con8(.("(.o„ captures 
Guerrrire: the first of the brilliant ship duels 
which help to sustam American spint m spite ot 
unpreparedness, mismanagement, and ra'J"^ ol 
land campaigns. October 13 : Battle of Q"*<-n|': 
ton Heights; British victoo'. October 18. 
USS H'asp defeats the FroKc. November: Fail- 
m-e of Dearborn's campaign against Montreal and 
Smyth's agamst Niagara. October 28: U.s.h. 
- United States captures the Macedonian 

November Seventh presidential election . Madi- 
son and Elbridge Gerry receive 128 and 131 votes; 
De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoli, Federalists 
and bolting Republicans, 89 and 86 votes. 

Dec 29. U.S.S. Constitution destroys tlie Brit- 

Isit'TrS.™ Battle of Baisin BUer (Mich.); 
Indian massacre of American troops. 

Feb 12 Act for occupation of tlie rest of ■West 
Florida (to the Perdido), which region is added to 

^'F:r'r\Tt.rH„r.e, defeats the Peacock. 
iune 1- USS. Chesapeake surrenders to the 
Shannon: a mortif^•ing naval defeat. August 14: 
USS Argus is defeated by the Pehcan. August 
30- Massacre by Creeks at Fort Mims (Ala.). 
Andrew Jackson begme his campaign agamst 
the southwestern Indians. September 5. U.S.S. 
Enterprise captiu-es the Boxer. September 10. 
Perry's squadron captures a British squadron.on 
Lake Erie This gives .American control of me 
Great Lakes and enables Harrfeon (October 5) to 
defeat the British and Indians at the battle of 
Thames River (Ont.), which ends western flght- 
mg. November: FaUure of Wilkinsons cam- 
paign down the St. Lawrence and Hamptons 
adduce from Plattsburg. During «» year the 
British effectuaUy blockade the American coast 
laiA March 28 USS. Essex is captiu-cd by a 
'' q^adron at Valparaiso. March 29^ Jackson de- 
feats the Creeks at Horseshoe^Bend, Ala. AprU 
29- USS. Peacock defeats the Epervrer June 
2->' U S S. Rattlesnake is captured by the Lmr,/Jer. 
June 28: U.S.S. Wasp destroys the K""rf«'/ 
July: Ftaal Niagara campaign begins. Jacob 
Brown, with Winfleld Scott as eh.ef lieutenant, 
commands the American forc(«. JiUy \J^^l 
tie of Chippewa (Amencan victory) Jul> 25. 
Battle of Lundy's Lane (indecisive). August 
Is British assault on Fort E"e (oPPO^^e Buf- 
falo) is repiUsed. August 24: British, havmg 
defeated the American mUitia at Bladensburg 
the same day occupy Washington, burn the 
public buildings, mcludmg the Capitol and 
White House, and then retire. Septeml^er 1. 
U.S.S. Wasp sinks the Avon. September 3^ IJ.S^- 
Adams is destroyed to P^fvent capture. Septem- 
ber 11 • Prevost's British invasion by way of Lake 
Champlain repulsed through Macdonoughs naval 
victorv off Plattsbiu-g. September 13. British, 
befor?Ba Itiraore, bombard Fort McHenry imsuc- 
cihUly and retire. During the bombardment 
the " Star-Spangled Banner is wntten by 
Key November 5; Fort Erie is blown up and 
Americans again retire from Cajiada. 
■ Dec lA-Jan 6 isin. Hartford Convention 
cuiniination of New England opposition to the 
^and tTe dving party effort of the Federalists. 
?olicv of nuliiflcation is approved, various 
drtt c amendments to safeguard New Eng and s 
toterests are proposed, and resistance ">t'n>ated. 

nee "i Peace of Ghent is signed; ^^tal 
causes o'f the war are ignored, aU conqutjts re- 
ared Sid commissions to settle disptited tound- 
ari^lXeenthe United States and Canada an- 



1814-1830. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



171 



1814 {continued). 

thorized. American right to fish on the British- 
American coast, enjoye<l under the treaty of 17S3, 
is not restored. 

NINETEENTH-CENTURY PERIOD. 
1815. Imports, 8113,041.274: exports, $.52,557,753. 

Jan. 1. Net national delit, $99,833,600. 

Jan. 8. Battle of New Orleans; British attacli: 
on Jaclison's intrenchments repulsed. Jan. 15: 
tT.s.S. President captured l)y squadron. Feb. 20: 
U.S.S. Constitution captiu'e.s the Ltvant and Ci/a«f. 
March 23: U.S.S. Hornet sinks the Penguin. 

May. Squadron imder Decatur sails to pun- 
ish Algeria for seizure of vessels and crews. All 
the Barbary powers are forced to renoimce their 
claim to tribute. 

J\dy S. Commercial treaty with Great Brit- 
ain. It does not open British West Indies to 
American mercliant vessels, and the,revival of tills 
controversy causes irritation and reprisals until 
1S30 when the trade is finally opened. 
1815-1821. Eevolts in Spanish American colonies; 
new states set up, with which tiie United States 
holds commercial intercourse. 
181G. National Colonization Society is organized; 
' promoted especially by the Border States to solve 
the gro\ving slavery problem by colonizing the 
Negroes in Africa. It later foimds Liberia, but 
fails to effect appreciable results. 

Jan. 1. Net national debt, $127,334,933; larg- 
est amount imtil 1861. 

April. In Martin «. Hunter's Lessee the Su- 
preme Court reverses the highest Virginia court 
and liolds that its appellate power extends over 
State court decisions in aU cases involving the 
Federal Constitution, laws of the United States, 
and treaties. 

.4prillO. Second Bank of the United States 
is chartered. Need of such a bank shown by fi- 
nancial demoralization during the war and unsoimd 
banldng. 

.\prm7. Tariff Act of 1816. It lays moderate 
duties, but is a step in the development of the 
American system of protection of donies.tlc 
industries and the creation of a home marl<et for 
them by means of internal improvements paid for 
by tariff revenue. 

November. Eighth pre.sidential election; Mon- 
roe and D. D. Tomplvins have 163 electoral votes: 
King, tile Federalist candidate, 34. Thenceforward 
Federalist party declines and disappears by 1S22. 

Dec. 11. Indiana (19th State) admitted with- 
out slavery. 

1817. March 3. Alabama Territory is created out 
of Mississippi Territon,-. 

March 4. James Monroe, the fifth president. 
His cabinet contains J. Q. Adams as secretary of 
state, W. H. Crawford as secretary of the treasury, 
and J. C. Callioim as secretary of war. 

Dee. 10. Mississippi (20th State) admitted as a 
slave State. Taken with Indiana, the first clear 
case of admission of free and slave States in pairs. 

1818. Cumberland (National) Road is opened to 
the Ohio River; becomes the great east and west 
highway. 

Oct. 20. Treaty with Great Britain restores 
to the United States tlie privilege of Ashing on 
the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador only, 
establishes the northern boimdan-' of the Louisi- 
ana Purchase west of Lake of the Woods, and pro- 
vides for joint occupation of tlie Oregon Country. 

Dec. 3. Illinois (2 1st State) admitted as a free 
State. 

1819. First national financial crisis, caused by 
speculation and unrestrained State bank currency 
and efforts by the Bank of the United States to 
regulate excess. The Western people are antag- 
onized by this attempt and by various decisions 
by the Supreme Court, especially in protection 
of the United States Bank, intended as remedies 
of the 'existing evils and to strengthen Federal 
government by restricting the Stat^^s. 

Feb. 2. In tile Dartmouth College Case the 
Supreme Court declares that a charter of incor- 
poration of a t)enevolent institution is a contract, 
tlie obligation of which tlie Federal Constitution 
forbids a State to impair. 

Feb. 17. In Sturges r. Crown insiiield the Su- 
preme Court decides that a State insolvency law 
may impair the obligation of antecedent contracts. 

Feb. 23. Florida Treaty with Spain is signed. 
West Florida (already occupied) and East Flor- 
ida are ceded. United States assumes claims on 
Spain to amoimt of S5.000.000, as payment for 
Florida. All Spanish claims jielded to territorj- 
north of 42° (southern lx>midar>- of Oregon Coun- 
try). Western line of Louisiana Purchase is es- 
tabUshed. [Congress. | 

March 2. Arkansas Territorj' is authorized by I 

March 6. In M'Culloch n. Maryland the Su- 
preme Court upholds the rights of Congress to 
charter the Bank of the LTnlted States and holds 
tmconstitutionai State attempts to tax the bank. 

May 26. The Savannah, under sail and steam, 
leaves Savannah for Liverpool. She crosses in 



25 days, the first transatlantic passage of a 

steamship. (slavery. I 

Dec. 14. Alabama (22d State) admitted, with| 
1819-18S0. Major S. H. Long explores the Great 
Plains between Canadian River and Platte. 

1820. Imports, $74,450,000; exports, $69,091,669; 
immigrants (first official report) , 8,385. Esthnated 
arrivals 1789 to 1820, 250,000. 

Jan. 1. National net debt, $91,015,566. 

March 3. Missouri Compromise Act: Sharp 
conflict involving the 11 slave States and 11 free 
States: adjusts first national slavery crisis. At- 
tempt to prohibit slavery in Missouri as condition 
of admission is defeated, but balance between free 
and slave States is preserved liy providing for the 
admission of Maine as free and Missouri as slave; 
slavery is prohibited in all the rest of the Louisi- 
ana Purchase north of 36° 30'. This gives the 
larger part of cession to tlie North: but tliere are 
no settlers west of the Missouri for many years. 

March 15. Maine (23d State) admitted: free. 

April 24. Public Land Act permits tlie pur- 
chase of tracts of 80 acres or more at a minimum 
price of $1.25 per acre; abolishes credit system. 

August. Fourth U. S. census: population, 
9,638.453 (233,634 free Negroes, 1,538,122 slaves). 

November. Ninth presidential election; Mon- 
roe and Tompldns are virtually imopposed. 

1821. Russian ukase claiming North American 
coast south to 51° and exclusive rights in North 
Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea. 

March S. In Cohens r.Virginia tlie Supreme 
Court reasserts its appellate jiu-isdiction and de- 
clares that, notwithstandmg the Eleventh Amend- 
ment, it has jurisdiction on appeal over a case in- 
volving a Federal law begtm by a State in its own 
courts against its owTi citizen. 

.^ng. 10. Missouri (24th state) finally admit- 
ted with slavery. 

1822. March 8. Monroe sends a message to Con- 
gress advising the recognition of the Spanisli 
American states. Congress (May 4) appropriates 
money for missions to them. 

1823. Dec. 2. Monroe Doctrine, in large part 
due to Jolm Quincy Adams, announced in presi- 
dent's message to Congress. It warns European 
nations not to assist Spain in subduing her re- 
volted American colonies: and declares that the 
American continents are not henceforth " to be 
considered as subjects for future colonization by 
any European powers." It also objects to their 
" poUtical system." Intended in part as rebuke 
to Russia. 

1824. March 2. In Gibbons c. Ogden the Su- 
preme Court lays down the fundamental princi- 
ples governing Congress's exclusive control over 
Interstate commerce, holding that it includes 
navigation and does not stop at the boimdary of a 
State. 

March 19. In Osbom ti. Bank of the United 
States — really a case against Ohio — the Su- 
preme Court declares that the United States has 
aright to protect the Bank as its agent against 
the acts of State ofBcials, notwithstanding the 
Eleventh Amendment. 

April 17. Treaty with Russia; no Russian set- 
tlements south of S4° 40', which becomes the rec- 
ognized northern boundary of the Oregon 
Country; Rocky Moimtains remains its eastern 
line. 

A pril 30. General .StuTey Act passed, intendeti 
to prepare the way for internal improvements of 
national importance. 

May S. Congi'ess authorizes a national sub- 
scription to canal stock. Act to continue the 
Cumberland Boad west of the Ohio is passed. 
The road is plaimed to rtm to St. Louis, liut, be- 
cause of the later development of railroads and the 
reaction against internal improvements, the road 
is not completed by the United States tieyond 
Springfield, Oliio, and is finally turned over to the 
States tlirough wiiicli it passes. 

May 24. First river and harbor acts of im- 
portance notwitlistandmg constitutional doubts 
of Monroe. 

Tariff Act of 1824: increases protection and, with 
the survey and river acts, is a part of Clay's Amer- 
ican system. It is opposed by commercial New 
England (W'ebster) and the cotton-raising South. 

Aug. 15. Lafayette arrives as a guest of the na- 
tion. He remains until September 6. 1825. 

November. Tenth presidential election: Adams, 
Calhoun, Clay, Crawford, and Jackson are candi- 
dates. Callioun is elected vice president. As no 
one has a majority of electoral votes for president, 
the House of Representatives chooses Adams, who 
favors the American system. 

1825. Imports, $90,189,310; exports, $90,738,333; 
immigrants, 10.199. 

Santa Fe Trail between the Missouri and New 
Mexico is opened and tiecomes an important fac- 
tor in Far Western progress. 
W. H. Ashlev explores the northern Great Plains. 

Jan. 1. National net debt, $.83,788,4.33. 

March 4. John Qulncy Adams sixth presi- 
dent. He makes Clay secretary of state; later 



unfounded charges made that tliis was done to re- 
ward Claj' for his sui)purt of Adams for presidency. 
Oct. 6. Erie Canal is completed. It aids 
greatly in the development of the West and in the 
growth of New York City. Its great success en- 
courages other plans for canals cumiecting the At- 
lantic waters with those of tlic ]Missis^ipi»i valley, 
across Pemisylvania, Alar.\iand, and \'irgUiia; 
also for connecting the valley with the Great) 
Lakes. Few of them are finished and fewer are 
financially successful. States accumulate great 
debts in promoting such works and tlie Federal 
government adopts a poUcy of laud grants in aid 
of construction, beginning on March 2, 1837. 

1826. June. Panama Congress (see P.\nama) . 

1826-1829. Jedediah Snath, a fiu- trader, first ex- 
plores the CTi-eat Basin, Cahfomia, and southern 
Oregon Coimtrj'- 

1827. Feb. 2. In Martm t>. Mott tlie Supreme 
Com-t holds that the president is the final judge 
whether the exigency under which he is authorized 
to caU out the militia has arisen. 

March 12. In Brown t. Maryland the Supreme 
Court declares that a State tax on importers is 
an interference with Federal control over imports, 
as well as a regulation of foreign commerce, over 
which Congress has exclusive control. 

March 13. In Ogden v. Samiders tlie Supreme 
Cotjrt, changing somewhat its view, declares that 
a State Insolvency law does not impair the obliga^ 
tion of a contract made after the law is enacted. 

Aug. 6. Treaty with Great Britain continues 
the joint occupation in Oregon. 

A'oii. 16. Fmai cession of Creek lands in 
CJeorgia postpones a crisis between the State and 
Federal authorities. 

1828. Noah Webster publishes his American Dic- 
tionary of the English Language; an event in Eng- 
lish hterature. 

March 15. In American Insurance Company 
r. Canter the Supreme Court holds that the Fed- 
eral power to make war and treaties mcludes the 
right of annexation, and the power of Congress to 
govern territories cannot be questioned. 

May 19. Tariff Act of 1828, caUed the Tariff 
of Abominations. It is strongly protective, and 
the South, especially South Carolina, declaring 
that the burden of it fails on the slave States, 
threatens resistance. Calhoun writes his Ex- 
position (publislicd anonjTiiously ) , wiiich holds 
tiiat tlie Constitution is a compact lietween sover- 
eign States, each of wliich is the final judge 
whether its reserved rights have been infringed 
upon. Tills is in direct opposition to the nation- 
alistic theorj' built up by IWarshall through liis de- 
cisions in the Supreme Court, and revives the 
nulliflration theory of the Kentucky and Vir- 
ginia Resolutions. 

July 4. Construction begins on the Baltimore 
and Oliio Railroad. 

November. In the eleventh presidential elec- 
tion Jackson receives 178 electoral votes. Callioun 
171 votes for vice president, and Adams and his 
miming mate, Rush, 83 votes. 

1829. First locomotive used In America is im- 
ported from England for the Carbondale and 
Honesdale (Pa.) Railroad. 

March 4. Andrew Jackson is inaugurated 
seventh president. He gradually develops his 
pohcy, including strict construction of tlie Federal 
Constitution, and superiority of the rights of the 
people over those of vested interests. " Jackson 
men " later become known as Democrats; their 
opiKinents accept the name of Whigs. Under 
Jackson the postmaster-general lx:conies the sixth 
member of the caliinet. The " spoils system " 
is introduced into national politics. 

March 12.. In Craig v. Missouri tlie Supreme 
Court declares State loan certificates intended for 
circtdation are " bills of credit " and therefore im- 
constitutional 

March 17. In Willson v. Blackbird Creek 
Marsh Co. the Supreme Court accepts a zone of 
dual comm.ercial control by holding that till Con- 
gress acts a State may dam a creek which is navi- 
gable from the sea. 

March 22, In Providence Bank n. Billings the 
Supreme Com-t holds that a State tax on a bank 
chartered by it is not an impairment of the obliga- 
tion of contract. 

1830. Imports of merchandise, $62,720,995; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $71,670,735: immigrants, 
23,322. [since 1S04.| 
Chicago laid out. A Federal post has been there! 

Jan. 1. National net debt, $48,565,407. 

January. Webster-Hayne debate in the Sen- 
ate Webster ex-pounds Marshall's nationalistic 
theory of the Federal government : Ha>-ne defends 
the State-rights doctrine, based on a compact 
with the United States. 

April 13. Jackson m his toast, " Our Federal 
Union: it must be preserved," warns the nuiliflers. 

Mail 27. Jack.son vetoes the Maysville Road 
Bill, checking Federal aid to roads and canals. 
He eventually makes opposition to national in- 
ternal improvements a Democratic principle. 



172 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1830—1845. 



u 



w 



1830 (conlinued). 

May 2S. Jackson signs the Indian Removal 

Act, which emljodies bis poUcy for tlie general re- 
moval of the Indians to reservations west of the 
Mississippi. An intermittent war is carried on 
lor years with the Seminoles m Florida over their 
removal. Georgia's controversy with the Creeks 
and Cherokecs involves her loyalty to the Inion. 

Jane. Fifth U.S. Census; population 12.866,- 
020 1319,599 free Negroes, 2,009,043 slaves). 

iuuiist. Peter Cooper's locomotive rims on 
the Baltimore and Ohio Raaroad: first successful 
use in the U. S. of steam in raihoad transportation. 



SLAVERY CONTROVERSY. 
1831 Jan 1 W. L. Garrison establishes the 
Liberator at Boston. It is the organ of those who 
demand the immediate abolition of slavery, 
and is mfluentiai in arousing the people on the 
evils of the slavery system. 

Jan 10 The king of the Netherlands makes 
award as arbiter of the Northeastern Boundary 
dispute; the award is not accepted by the Umted 
States nor insisted on by Great Britain. 

March IS. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia the 
Supreme Court denies the right of an Indian tribe 
to sue in the Federal courts, because it is not a for- 
eign nation. . „ .., 

A ugust. Nat Turner's Insurrection m South- 
ampton, Va.; the most important of several Ne- 
gro risings wliich influence public opmion on the 
dangers of slavery. 
183'J. Oregon Trail from the Missouri River at 
Independence, via the Platte and Snake valleys to 
the mouth of the ColunilMa, comes into use as the 
main route of American settlement of the Oregon 
Coimtry. , ^,. 

Black Hawk War in Illmois and Wisconsin re- 
sults from pressure of the whites on the Indians 
and resistance to the policy of trans-Mississippi 
removal. Abraham Lincohi serves as a captam. 

March S. Marshall for the Supreme Court m 
■Worcester i. Georgia declares that the Federal 
government has exclusive authority over tribal 
Indians and their lands within a State. Georgia 
defies the court's mandate and Jackson declines to 
enforce it The Cherokees are flnaUy forced to 
cede their lands (December 29, 1835) and remove 
to Indian Territory where the other foiu- CivUized 
Tribes (Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Semi- 
noles) are already located. 

Jutij in. Jackson vetoes a bill to recharter the 
Bank of tlic United States for 20 years from 
l.siitj, thus making the Bank the mam issue of the 
election. This is an episode in the " Bank 'War." 
Jackson opposes the power of the Bank in public 
affairs. The Bank defends itself by literatiu-e and 
some doubtful methods. In part the Bank be- 
comes an East t. West question. 

July 14. Tariff Act of 1S32 continues the pro- 
tective duties so obnoxious to the South. 

November. Twelfth presidential election: Jack- 
son receives 219 electoral votes and Van Buren 189 
votes for vice president; Clay and John Sergeant 
(National Republicans or Whigs), 49 votes. 

Xov. 2!,. South Carolina Nulliflcation 
Ordinance against the tariff act; prepares to re- 
sist collection of duties. 

Dec. 10. Jackson's proclamation against nulli- 
fication, which he calls disimion. 
1833. February. Debate on nuUification between 
Webster and Calhoim, who denies that the na- 
tional government can be a party to a compact 
with States. 

Feb. 18. In Barron v. Baltimore the Supreme 
Coiut decides that the Federal courts have no 
jurisdiction over State impairment of civil rights 
by virtue of the first eight constitutional amend- 
ments, which apply to the Federal government 
only This construction stands imtil the Four- 
teenth Amendment (1868) gives the Federal 
courts such jurisdiction. 

March 2. Clay's Compromise Tariff Act, 
calling for a gradual reduction to a revenue basis 
in 1842. A Force Act is also passed to furnish 
means for controlling the recalcitrant State. The 
South Carolinians accept tliis masmuch as other 
Southern States fail to support South Carolina. 
Jackson pockets a biU to distribute the proceeds of 
puljlic land sales which is part of the compromise. 
March 1,3. South Carolina repeals the Nullifi- 
cation Ordinance, though adhermg to the doctrine. 
Ort. 1. Jackson orders the removal of the Fed- 
eral deposits from the Bank of the United States; 
Secrctarj- Duane resigns rather than carry out the 
policy; liis successor, Taney, gives desired order. 

23fc-. 4. American Antislavery Society is organ- 
ized at Boston by Garrison. Becomes a center 
of antislavery activity. 

1834. C. H. McCormick patents the horse reaper. 

1835. Imports of merchandise, 5136,764,295; ex- 
ports of merchandise. $115,215,802; immigrants, 
45,374. 
Samuel Co'.t patents the revolver. 

Jan. t. National net debt is virtually extin- 
guished: problem of siutjIus revenue at once arises. 



1836. March 2. Tesas declares her independ- 
ence from Mexico. The settlers are maiiay 
Americans. She desires " reannexation " to the 
United States, but receives recognition (March 3, 
1837) instead. ,, . „ 

March 15. Roger B. Taney succeeds MarshaU 
as chief justice of the Supreme Court. Thereafter 
the decisions of the court tend toward a stricter 
construction of Federal powers and an amplifies^ 
tion of police powers of the States; the funda- 
mental principles of real Federal authority, estab- 
lished by Marshall's decisions, are not disturbed. 
April 20. Wisconsin Territory is set up out of 
Michigan Territory'; it mcludes a portion of the 
trans-Mississippi region. 

May 28. First C;ag Resolution, to prevent the 
reception of antislavery petitions, is adopted by 
the House of Representatives, and frequently re- 
newed until 1844. 

June 15. Arkansas (25th State), admitted with 
slavery. 

June 23. Surplus Revenue Act for the dis- 
tribution among the States during 1837 of the ac- 
cumulated surplus of $36,000,000. 

July. Local postal authorities in several South- 
em places stop and destroy abolition maU; action 
is coimtenanced but not offlciaUy sanctioned by 
the department. 

July 11. Jackson issues a Specie Circular, re- 
quiring that public land payments be made in com . 
Noi-ember. Thirteenth presidential election: 
Van Biu-en. Jackson's chosen successor, receives 
170 electoral votes out of 294. R. M . Jolmson has 
147 votes for vice president; Senate elects him. 
1837. Jan. 9. Jackson's special message shows 
interest of the United States in an Isthmian 
Canal. 

Jan. 26. Michigan is admitted (26th State); 
free State. 

February. Three decisions of the Supreme I 
Court, mark a retirement from extreme national- 
ism. In New York v. Miln the court validates a 
State law requiring sliip captain to present an ac- 
count of his passengers from abroad. In Briscoe 
V. Bank of Kentuck-y (February 11), circulating 
notes of a bank whoUy owned by the State are 
held noi, to be issued by the State itself and hence 
are not bills of credit. In Charles River Bridge r. 
Warren Bridge (February 14) the court declares 
that a State charter of a toll bridge is not a con- 
tract preventing a rival charter. 

March J,. Martin Van Buren becomes the 
eighth president. 

May 10. Panic of 1837 begins. It is caused 
by a period of wild speculation: reckless loans by 
the "pet banks" wliich have received the Federal 
funds on deposit, and other State banks; and the 
mortgaging of the future for internal improve- 
ments. 

Sept. 4. Twenty-fifth Congress meets in special 
session to consider the financial situation. As 
nearly as can be calculated. 34 Democrats and IS 
■Whigs attend in the Senate, and 120 Democrats 
and 116 Wliigs in the House. 

Oct. 2. Fourth installment of distribution of 
the surplus revenue is suspended because of exten- 
sive bank failures. 

Oct. 12. $10,000,000 in treasury notes author- 
ized to tide the government over the crisis. This 
starts a new debt, which becomes permanent, 

1838. Great Western and Sirius cross the Atlantic 
imder steam power alone. 

June 1 2. Iowa Territory created out of that part 
of Wisconsin Territory west of the Mississippi.^ 

1839. E. B. Bigelow develops the carpet loom. ' 
December . In preparation for the national cam- 
paign, Whigs and, later (May 31, 1840), Demo- 
crats hold national nominating conventions. 

Dec. 2. Twenty-sixth Congress meets; in the 
Senate, 27 Democrats and 20 'Whigs; m the House, 
120 Democrats and 113 'Whigs. 

1840. Imports of merchandise, $98,258,706; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $123,668,932; immigrants, 
84,066. 

Jan. 1. National net debt, $3,573„344. 
June. Sixth V. S. census; population, 17,069,- 
453 (386,293 free Negroes. 2,487.355 slaves). 

July 4. Independent Treasury, or Subtreas- 
ury, Act; Democratic substitute for a central bank. 
It provides for the keeping of Federal funds imdcr 
direct control of government oflicials. 

Novcviher. Fourteenth presidential election: 
Harrison and Tyler, -ttliigs, receive 234 electoral 
votes: Van Buren and Jolmson, 60 and 48 votes; 
a national antislaver>' party, the Liberty party, 
casts 7,000 popular votes for Bimey. 
1841. March 4. William Henry Harrison, ninth 
president; first Whig aflniinistration. Webster is 
secretary of state. 

April 4. Harrison dies; John Tyler succeeds 
as tenth president. 

May St. Twenty-seventh Congress meets in 
special session to enact a 'Wliig program. In the 
Senate are 23 Democrats and 29 'Wliigs ; m the 
House 98 Democrats and 144 ■Wliigs. 

July 21. A small government loan; others and 



more issues of treasury notes follow. Except in 
1839 expenditures exceed receipts during the po 
riod 1S37-1S43. 

.4119. IS. Independent Treasury Act is re- 
pealed by the Whigs. 

Aug. le. Tyler vetoes the Whig Fiscal 
Bank " Bill on constitutional grounds. Indica- 
tions of a split in Whig ranks follow. 

Aug. li). Federal Bankruptcy Act, but the 
same Congress later repeals it. 

Sept. 4. Act for preiemption of public lands 
and distribution of the proceeds of pubhc land 
sales among the States. Settlers once only may 
prei^mpt 160 acres at $1.25 an acre. The dis- 
tribution of proceeds is to discontinue 11 tariff 
rates go above twenty per cent. 

Sept. a. President's veto of a " Fiscal Corpora- 
tion ■ Bill causes a split among Whig leaders; 
aU the cabinet but Webster resign in a body. 

Sept. 11. Temporary tariff act to increase the 
revenue. 
1843. Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island; a protest 
against theimdemocratic constitution of the State. 
Dorr is convicted o| treason, but a new constitu- 
tion is put through. 

March 1. In Prigg v. Pemisylvania the Su- 
preme Court declares that State laws contrary to 
the' Fugitive-Slave Law of 1793 are void; but that 
State authorities are imder no obligation to assist 
in the enforcement of the law. 

March 4. In Dobbms i. Commissioners the 
Supreme Court holds that a State cannot tax the 
salary or emoluments of a Federal officer. 

Jmie 29, Aug. 9. Tyler vetoes new tariff biUs 
that are tangled -with the distribution of land 
revenue. , . , ^ 

Aug. 9. Ashburton Treaty signed with Great 
Britain. It settles the northeastern boundary dis- 
pute which threatens war, by a compromise Ime. 

Axig. 20. Tariff Act of 1842; a protective 
measure without any distribution of proceeds of 
public lands. Tvler has prevented the reestab- 
lishnient of a Federal bank and disrupted the ■^^ lug 
program; but national internal improvcn tnts 
continue and the Whigs adhere to their policy of 
national banking control and protection. 
1842-1846. John C. Fremont conducts several 
expeditions which explore the Great Plains, 
Rocky Moimtams, Great Basin, California, and 
southern Oregon coimtr>'. 

1843. Dec. 4. Twenty-eighth Congress meets; 23 
Democrats and 29 Whigs in the Senate, and 141 
Democrats and 82 Whigs m the House. 

1844. Jan. 6. Texan Annexation Treaty signed; 
would make Texas a State, but piibUc lands to go 
to the national government. 

May 24. Magnetic telegraph, invented by 
S. F. B. Morse, is first brought into practical 
use between Baltimore and Washington, the Fed- 
eral government having provided the funds for 
constructing the line. 

June 9. Senate rejects the Texan treaty, partly 
because Texas is slaveholding, though the move- 
ment for annexation is not primarUy intended to 
extend slavery. 

June 15. Charics G oodyear patents the process 
of vulcanizing India rubber. 

June 27. In a riot against the Mormons at 
Nauvoo, 111., their prophet, Joseph Smith, is 
killed. Brigham Young succeeds as lender. 
The Mormons are driven from the State, and 
shortly afterwards migrate to Great Salt Lake, 
then ilexican territory. 

A'oveniber. Fifteenth presidential election: 
Texas and sole control over aU of Oregon Coimtry 
are issues in the campaign; Polk (favoring annexa^ 
tion) and G. M. Dallas receive 170 electoral votes. 
Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen, the Whigs, 105; 
Birncy the Libertv party candidate, polls 62,000 
poiJul'ar votes, and his adherents throw their bal- 
ance of power in New York against Clay, which 
causes his defeat. „ ,0, ,00 

1845. Imports of merchandise, $113,184,322; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $106,040,111; immigrants, 
114,371. „ , ,. 

March 1. Joint resolution of Congress for the 
annexation of Texas, less favorable to the 
United States than the abandoned treaty. 

March S. Florida (27th State) is admitted, 

with slavery. .... . j 

March 4. James Knox Polk is maugurated as 
eleventh president. 

July 1 National net debt, $15,925,303, 
Dec 1 Twentv-ninth Congress meets : 30 Dem- 
ocrats and 24 Whigs m the Senate, 141 Democrats, 
77 Whigs and 6 Native Americans in the House. 
Dec 09 Texas (28th State) admitted with 
slavery, making 15 slave States to 13 free. United 
States' troops under Zachary Taylor have already 
been sent to protect the region. Polk adopts the 
Texas claim to the Rio Grande as her boundary. 
Mexico declines to ackTiowledgc the independence 
of the new State and hangs back on the payment 
of adjusted claims. On the annexation of Texas, 
Mexico threatens war and denies that Texas ex- 
tends to the Rio Grande. 



1845 — 1857. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



173 



1845 (cotltinited) . 

December-March, 1846. SUdell Mission to 
Mexico, a futile effort to adjust tlie Texan Ijound- 
ary as an offset to claims, and to purchase Cali- 
fornia. 

1846. March i'S. Taylor's force occupies the strip 
between the Nueces and Kio Grande. April 24: 
Mexican War is begun by an attack by Mexicans 
on the north side of the river. :May S, B; Battles 
of Paio Alto and Kcsaca de la Palina; Mexicans 
driven across the Rio Grande. 

May 9. Polk has decided to send in a war mes- 
sage when news comes of the fight on April 24. and 
so he declares in his message of ilay 11 that Mex- 
icans have " shed American blood upon American 
soil." 

May IS. Congress declares that war exists 
by tlie act of Mexico and authorizes the raising 
of volunteers. 

May IS. Taylor crosses the Kio Grande and 
occupies Matamoros. 

Jane IB. Treaty is signed with Great Britain 
adjusting Oregon; the United States confinned in 
the portion south of 49°. 

July 7. Commodore Sloat occupies Monterey, 
California. Later, a military government is es- 
tablished over California. 

July SO. TarilT Act of 1846; a reyenue meas- 
ure with a high duty on luxiu-ies only. 

Aug. 6. Act reestablishing the Independent 
Treasury. 

Aug. S. Wliniot Proviso passes the House; 
prohibits slavery in any territory to be acquired 
from Mexico, and though in its origin directly the 
result of sectional difference in the Democratic 
party, it is evidence of strong sentiment against 
slavery; defeated in the Senate, but for the next 
foiu" years it is a political issue. 

Aug. 18. Kearny, after an overland march, 
occupies Santa Fe. He organizes a temporary 
government for New Mexico. [ciiine.! 

Sept. 10. Elias Howe patents the sewing ma- 1 

Sepl. £4. Taylor occupies Monterey, Mexico, 
after a three days' battle. 

Sept. SO. W. T. G. Morton uses ether success- 
fully as an anaesthetic. 

Dec. 12. Treaty with New Granada (Colom- 
bia); freedom of transit on Isthmus of Panama 
given to United States; in return, neutrality of 
Isthmus and Colombia's sovereignty over it are 
guaranteed by United States. 

Dec. 28. Iowa admitted (29th State) ; free State. 

1847. Richard M. Hoe invents the rotary print- 
ing press. 

Feb. 22~2S. Taylor's victory at Buena Vista. 

March 6. In License Cases the Supreme Court 
hands down the opinion that a State license to sell 
liquor is legal even though the liquor comes from 
outside the State. 

March 9. Army under Winfield Scott lands 
before Vera Cruz. March 29: Vera Cruz surren- 
ders. Scott marches against the Mexican capital, 
defeating Santa Anna in various battles: Cerro 
Gordo (April 18); Contreras (August 19-20); 
Churubusco (August 20); Molino del Rey (Sep- 
tember 8) ; captiu'e of Chapultepec and assault on 
gates of Mexico City (September 13). Occupa- 
tion of Mexico City follows. 

Dec. 6. Thirtieth Congress meets: 32 Demo- 
crats and 22 Whigs in the Senate and 110 Demo- 
crats, 117 Whigs, and 1 Native American in the 
House. Abraham Lincoln a member from Illi- 
nois. 

1848. In West River Bridge Co. t. Dix the Su- 
preme Court decides that the exercise of the State 
right of eminent domain which takes over a fran- 
chise does not impair the obligation of contracts. . 

Jan. 24. Gold is discovered near Sutter's . 
Mill in California. Agreat immigration by land , 
and sea follows (" forty-niners "), with pressure j 
for quick organization of civil government. | 

Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is 
signed with Mexico. Rio Grande recognized as 
the boundiiry and New Mexico and California 
ceded. United States pays Mexico .SIS.OOO.OOO 
and assimies claims. 

May 20. Wisconsin (30th State) free; balance 
of free and slave States restored. [ment laid. I 

July 4. Corner stone of AVashington Monu-I 

Aug. 14. Oregon is organized as a territory, 
slavery being forbidden. 

Nov. 7. Sixteenth presidential election : Taylor, 
nominated by the "Whigs as a war hero and on no 
platform, and Fillmore receive 163 votes; Lewis 
Cass and W. O. Butler, the Democratic candidates, 
127 votes; Free-soil party, composed of former 
Liberty party, Wilmot Proviso men, and factional 
New York Democrats ("Barnburners"), nomi- 
nates Martin Van Bin-en, who polls 29 1 ,000 popu- 
lar votes, but Carrie^ no State. 

1849. Jan. S. In Luther v. Borden, a case arising 
out of the Dorr Rebellion, the Supreme Court, holds 
that the question what is a State government im- 
der the Federal Constitution is political and not 
judicial; hence the decision of the executive is 
followed. 



January-March. Struggle in Congress over or- 
ganization of the new territory ; South claims the 
extension of 36" 30' line to the Pacific, dividing 
Cahfomia. 

Feb. 7. In the Passenger Cases the Supreme 
Coiut disallows a State law requiring payment for 
each alien landed, as a regulation of foreign com- 
merce. 

March S. Act for Department of the Interior; 
its head becomes the seventh member of the cab- 
inet. Mirmesota Territory is established. 

March 0. Zaciiary Taylor is inaugurated as 
twelfth president. 

September. Volunteer constitutional conven- 
tion in California asks admission as a free State 
covering the Pacific coast from Oregon to Mexico. 

Dec. 3. Tliirty-first Congress assembles: 34 
Democrats, 24 Wliigs, and 2 Free-soilers in the 
Senate, and 112 Democrats, 105 Whigs, and 13 
Free-soilers in the House. Main question is 
whether slavery shall go into the new territorj'; 
Taylor opposes the extension. 
1849-1851. Filibustering expeditions against Cuba; 
the leader, Lopez, is executed by the Spaniards 
on September 1, 1851. 

1850. Imports of merchandise, $173,509,526; ex- 
ports of merchandise, 3144,375,726; immigrants, 
369.980 (15 months). 

.\pril 19. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Great 
Britain. Acquisition of California has made the 
transit across the Isthmus important to the United 
States: and the Britisii show intention of fixing 
themselves there. Treaty is a recognition of equal 
interest in any canal or line of transit on the princi- 
ple of guarantee of neutrality. 

May S. In Fleming v. Page the Supreme Coiut 
declares that conquest gives a valid title ; conquered 
annexed territory is, as regards other cotmtries, a 
part of the United States, but is not a part of the 
Union imtil the Constitution and laws have been 
extended to it. 

June. Seventh U.S. census; population, 23, 191- 
876 (434,495 free Negroes, 3,204,313 slaves). 

July 1. National net debt. 363,452,774. 

July 9. President Taylor dies. 

July 10. Millard Fillmore succeeds as thir- 
teenth president. 

Sepieviber. Compromise of 1850 is effected 
by the passage of several separate acts: (1) Sep- 
tember 9; Texas cedes her claim to the eastern 
portion of New Mexico and receives a Federal m- 
demnity; New Mexico is organized as a territory, 
without provision respecting slavery, the people 
of the territory to decide the question when ready 
for statehood — practically an invitation to slave- 
holders to carry slaves into the territory. (2) 
September 9: California (31st State), admitted 
free and with the botmdaries claimed. (3) Sep- 
tember 9: Utah Territory erected with the same 
conditions respecting slavery as those for New 
Mexico; expected that it will be free. (4) Septem- 
ber IS: A new and drastic Fugitive-Slave Law; 
intended to check organized assistance to fugitives 
(Undergroimd Railroad). (5) September 20: 
Slave trade forbidden in the District of Columbia. 

Sept. 20. First act of Congress making land 
grants in aid of the construction of railroads 
(Illinois Central) . 

1851. Feb. IS. Rescue in Boston of Shadrach, a 
fugitive slave. 

March S. Congress reduces letter postage to 
three cents per half ounce for carriage up to 
3,000 miles. 

June 2. Maine Law prohibits the manufacture 
and sale of intoxicating liquors in that State; re- 
pealed, 1856; reenacted, 1858. 

July 4. Fillmore lays the comer stone of the 
extension of the Capitol. 

Dec. 1. Thirty-second Congress: 35 Democrats, 
24 AMiigs, and 3 Free-soilers in the Senate, and 
140 Democrats, 88 WTiigs, and 5 Free-soilers in 
the House. 
1853. Harriet Beecher Stowe pubHshes Vnclr 
Tom's Cabin, a novel which influences North- 
em public opinion against slavery. 
Vermont adopts prohibition: in force, with 
modifications, imtil 1903, when local option is 
substituted. 

March 2. In Cooley ti. Port. Wardens the Su- 
preme Court, declares that State regulation of 
pilots and pilotage is not beyond the jmwer of the 
State so long as Congress has not acted. 

May 27. In Pennsylvania v. "mieeling Bridge 
Co., however, the court discoimtenances a bridge 
across the Ohio River, imder State law, as being 
an obstruction to xmdistiu'bed interstate or foreign 
commerce, which is subject to interruption by act 
of Congress only. 

Nov. 2. Seventeenth presidential election: 
"Whigs and Democrats accept the Compromise of 
1850 as a " finality " and tr>' to suppress the slavery 
issue. The Whig candidates. General Scott and 
W. A. Graham, receive only 42 electoral votes, to 
254 given Pierce and W. R. King, their Demo- 
cratic rivals. Free Democrats (Free-soilers) poll 
' 156,000 popular votes. 



1853. Chicago is connected by links of railroad 
with New York and Boston. 

March 2. Washington Territory set ofl from 
Oregon Territory. 

March 4. Franlilln Pierce becomes the four- 
teenth president. In his inatjgtu'al he declares for 
the amiexation of Cuba. 

Dec. a. Thirty-third Congress meets; 37 Demo- 
crats, 21 Whigs, and 2 Free-soilers in the Senate, 
and 159 Democrats, 71 Whigs, and 4 Free-soilers 
in the House. 

Dec. SO. Gadsden Purchase Treaty with 
Mexico; for SIO.OUO.OOO a strip transferred o^er 
which the southern route of the proposed Pa- 
cific Railroad would pass. 

1854. Feb. 2S. Steamer Black Warrior seized by 
Cuban authorities. Southerners trj' to use the in- 
cident to obtam the island from Spain, but are 
checked by conditions at home. 

March SI. Commodore Perry's treaty with 
Japan is signed ; ends the isolation of that nation. 

May 2S. In Cross v. Harrison the Supreme 
Coiut. holds that the civil government estaiilished 
in conquered territory as a belligerent right legally 
contmues after peace in acquired territory imtil 
Congress legislates otherwise. 

May 26. Burns fugitive slave incident in Bos- 
ton; attempt of an antislaverj- mob to storm the 
comthouse. Several new personal-liberty laws 
are passed by Northern States to hinder the opera- 
tion of the Federal law of 1850. 

May SO. Kansas-Nebraslia Act. Framed 
by Stephen A. Douglas for the organization of 
Kansas and Nebraska territories on the princiyle 
of " popular sovereignty ": thus the prohibition of 
slavery in the Louisiana Purcliase, embodied in 
the Missouri Compromise, is " suspended " by the 
" principle " of the Compromise of 1850. This 
uprooting of the adjustment of 1820 starts another 
contest over slavery, which ends only vith the 
Civil War and emancipation. 

June B. Treaty of reciprocity with Canada 
is signed ; in return for free entry of Cattadian raw 
materials the rights of inshore fisheries are con- 
firmed and increased. 

July 6. One of the numerous conventions to 
protest against the Kansas-Nebraska Act, held at 
Jackson, Mich., gives its attendants the name of 
Republicans, which speedily becomes the name 
of a new national party. 

Oct. IS. Ostend Manifesto is issued by the 
American ministers to London, Paris, and ^ladrid; 
declares that self-protection may retiuij-e the seiz- 
ing of Cuba, in order to mamtain slavery m 
United States. 

Noreniber. Fierce struggle in congressional 
elections. Know-Nothing party organized 
Many anti-Nebraska and fusion candidates 
elected. 
1854-1856. Struggle in Kansas between free- 
State and slave-State settlers becomes a miniature 
civil war. Proslavery clement gets possession of 
the territorial government and has the support of 
the administration. Free-State men set up a sep- 
arate government at LawTcnce, wliich town is 
twice attacked. Free-State men, esi)ecially John 
Brown, make reprisals. 

1855. Imports of merchandise, .3257,808.708; ex- 
ports of merchandise. S21S.909,503; immigrants, 
200,877. In 1854 there were 427,833 immigrants. 
Panama Railroad is opened. 

New Hampshire adopts prohibition ; in force imtil 
1903, when local option is substituted. 

July 1. National net debt, $35,586,957. 

Dec. S. Thirty-foiu"th Congress assembles. 
Nearly even balance of forces; contest over the 
speakership lasts imtU February 2. when Banks of 
Massachusetts is chosen. In the Senate. 34 ad- 
ministration Democrats and 25 in opposition. In 
the House there are at first 116 administration 
men; the opposition nimibers 117, made up of a 
few Whigs and anti-Nebraska or Republican 
party men. Native .-Americans or Know-Nothing 
men. and antislavery Democrats. The Repub- 
Ucans stand in opposition to territorial slavery; to 
annexation of slaveholding regions; and to the ad- 
mission of slave States; not for the abolition of 
slaveri- within the existing .slave States. " Bleed- 
ing Kansas " is the chief topic before Congress. 
1855-1S59. Paraguayan controversy (see Para- 
guay). 

1856. Nov. 4. Eighteenth presidential election: 
174 electoral votes for Buchanan and J. C. Breck- 
inridge, the Democratic candidates; ll'Pfor the 
Republicans. J. C. Fremont and W. L. Dayton: 
and 8 for Fillmore, who ran as a Know-Nothing 
and "Whig. 

1857. Impending Crisis of the South is published by 
H. R. Helper, a Southern poor white, appealing 
against slaverT.- as had for the white man. The 
rulmg Southern classes now assert that slavery is 
" a positive good." and entitled to Federal protec- 
tion in the territories and foreign poUcy. Sugges- 
tions of reopening the slave trade. 

March S. Tariff Act of 1S57: follows the plan 
of 1846, but further reduces duties; is accepted by 



174 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1857 — 1862. 



N 



Q 



U 



1857 (continued). 
members voting from Massachusetts and South 
Carolina. During the years 1S50-1S56 the or- 
dinai'y revenues have exceeded the ordinary ex- 
penditures by 880,000,000. 

March 4. James Buchanan fllteenth presi- 
dent. 

March .5. Cliief Justice Taney delivers the de- 
cision of the majority of the .Supreme Court in the 
Dred Scott Case, declaring the Missouri Com- 
promise to have been always unconstitutional, as 
contrary^ to the inherent right of any man to take 
slave " property " into a territory. The decision 
also asserts that no person of African descent can 
be a citizen of the United States and as such en- 
titled to bring suit. The decision is also contrary 
to the popular sovereignty theory of the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act and opens all teiTitories to slavery. 

Aug. 24. Panic of 1857 begins; increase of 
gold and the rapid extension of railroads are under- 
lying causes. The government surplus becomes a 
deficit (S63,0OO,00O for 1857-1861), and treasury 
notes and bonds are issued. 

Nov. 7. A proslavery convention in Kansas 
frames the Lecompton Constitution, so worded 
as to permit slavery either directly or indirectly, 
no matter how the settlers vote on the document. 

Dec. 7. Thirty-fifth Congress organizes: Senate 
has 39 Democrats, 20 Republicans, and 5 Ivnow- 
Notliings; House, 131 Democrats, 92 KepuIiUcans, 
and 14 Know-Nothings. A long struggle ensues 
over the settlement of the Kansas question. 

1858. Mormon War: Federal troops suppress the 
attempt of Brigham Young and his followers in 
Utaii to defy the general government. 

May 4. English Act of Congress adjusts the 
Kansas difficulty; offers admission to Kansas at 
once with the L,ecompton Constittition ; otherwise 
it must wait tmtil it has population necessary 
for one representative. Free-State men having 
gained control, the constitution is rejected. This 
act is the high-water mark of proslavery in Con- 
gress. Later etTorts for annexation of Ciitja and 
negotiations with Mexico favorable to slavery fail. 

May 11. Minnesota C32d State) free State (17 
free to 15 slave). 

Aua. 10. Communication establislied over the 
new Atlantic cable, but it .soon ceases to work. 

.■iugust-Octobcr. The Lincoln-Douglas joint 
debates in Illinois over tiie slavery issue attract 
great attention. Lincoln's argimients make him a 
national figure and furnish proof that the Republi- 
can principles are not revolutiinary. Douglas's 
presentation of the Freeport Doctrine, by wliich 
the Dred Scott decision may be avoided by adroit 
use of popular sovereignty costs liim the confidence 
of the .South. 

1859. First oil well is simk on Oii Creek, Pa.; the 
beginning of the petroletun industry. 

Silver discovered in the Comstock lode, Nevada. 

Feb. 14. Oregon (33d State) admitted free; no 
new slave States in sight, territorial slavery no 
longer helpful. 

March 7. In Ableman n. Booth the Supreme 
Com't declares that Fugitive-Slave Law of 1S50 is 
constitutional and that tlie jurisdiction over it is 
entirely in the Federal courts; efforts of State 
coiu-ts to obstruct it are illegal. 

Oci. 10-ls. John Brown's raid at Harpers 
Ferry, Va. A party of 19 Abolitionists seize the 
government arsenal as an armed position to which 
slaves may rally ; put down by State and Federal 
troops. Brown is hanged on Decemlier 2. The 
South convinced that the constitvuional riglits of 
State slavery will not be respected by the Republi- 
can party, which is confoimded with the Aboli- 
tionists. 

Dec. S. Thirty-sixth Congress meets. In the 
Senate are 37 Democrats, 24 Republicans, and 2 
Americans; in the House, 101 Democrats. 109 
Republicans, 26 Americans, and 1 Wliig; 13 of the 
Democrats are antiadministration and 22 of the 
Americans are from slave States. House is not 
able to elect a Speaker imtil February 1, when 
Pennington, a Repubhcan, is cliosen. 

1860. Imports of merchandise, 8353,616,119; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $333,576,057; immigrants, 
150,237. 

May 14. First Japanese embassy is re- 
ceived at Washington. 

June. Eighth U. S. census; population 31,443,- 
321 (448,070 free Negroes, 3,953,760 slaves). 

July 1. National net diebt, $59,964,402. 

Nov. 6. Nineteenth presidential election: 
Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin, the Republican 
candidates, receive 180 electoral votes. The 
Democratic party splits on the question of terri- 
torial slavery; Douglas and H. V. Jolmson receive 
12 electoral votes; J. C. Breckinridge and Joseph 
Lane, the Southern candidates, receive 72 votes. 
John Bell and Edward Everett, nominated as 
Constitutional Unionists (former Wliigs and 
Know-Nothings), receive 39 votes. Republicans 
do not have a majority in the next Congress. 

Dec. 4. Buclianan in liis annual message de- 
nies the right of secession, but throws the responsi- 



bility for disunion on the North, and sees no con- 
stitutional method of resisting secession. 

Dec. IS. Crittenden Compromise is intro- 
duced in the Senate. This and other efforts diu*- 
ing the session, supported by the Unionists and 
especially by the Border States, fail because the 
cotton States are bent upon secession, and on the 
other side Lincoln, president elect, advises against 
any concession on territorial slavery or new slave 
States, and the RepubUcans will not yield. 

Dec. 20. South Carolina Convention passes 
an Ordinance of Secession from the Union on 
the ground that the Federal compact has been 
violated by Northern antislavery action. 

CIVIL WAR. 
1861. Telegraphic communication is opened across 
the continent. 

Jan. 9. A South Carolina battery fires on the 
Star of the West, whicli is trying to reenforce the 
Federal garrison at Fort Sumter in Charleston 
Harbor. 

January-February. Six Other Cotton States 
secede: Mississippi (January 9); Florida (January 
10); Alabama (January 11); Georgia (January 
19); Louisiana (January 26); Texas (February 1). 
Border States hold off. 

Jan. £0. Kansas (34th State) admitted free; 
the witlidrawal of Southern Congressmen makes 
the vote possible. 

Feb. 4-27. Peace Convention holds its sessions 
in Washington, a final effort by tiie Unionists. 
Congress submits to the States (March 2) the 
" Corwin Amendment " to the Constitution for tlie 
safety of slavery within States. It is not ratified. 

Feb. 4-March 10. Montgomery Convention 
holds its sessions of delegates of the seceding 
States, becoming the first meeting of the Pro- 
visional Congress Confederate States of 
America established with a temporary govern- 
ment, and Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. 
Stephens are inaugurated as provisional president 
and vice president (February 18). A permanent 
constitution, witli definite recognition of slavery 
and State-rights, is submitted on March 17 to the 
States. 

Feb. 28. Colorado Territory is created. 

March 2. Morrill Tariff Act marks tile re- 
vival of protection, under a planlv m the Republi- 
can platform, and also provides a needed increase 
in revenue. 
Nevada and Dalcota territories are established. 

March 4. Abraham Lincoln sixteenth presi- 
dent. In his inaugural address he denies the right 
of secession and promises to protect the Federal 
property and collect Federal revenue everywhere. 
WilUam H. Seward as secretary of state, Salmon P. 
Chase as secretary of the treasury, Gideon WeUes 
as secretary of the navy, and later, E. M. Stanton 
as secretary of war, are the important members of 
the great war cabinet. 

April 12. Confederates open fire on Fort 
Sumter. It siu-renders on April 14. On April 15 
Lincoln calls out 75,000 militia, 

.4 pril 1 7. Virgmia begins the secession of the 
Border States. Slie is followed by Arkansas 
(May 6), Teimes.see (May 6), North Carolina 
(May 20) . Similar efforts in ]SIissoiu-i. Kentucky, 
and Maryland fail. In Delaware, the other slave 
State, no attempt is made. Federal property in 
the seceding States is seized, notably the arsenal 
at Harpers Ferry (April 18) and the NorfoUt Na\'y 
Yard (April 19). The Union retains control of 
foiu' coast forts in the South including Fort Mon- 
roe (Va.) and Fort Pickens (Fla). 

April IS. First blood of the Civil War is 
shed at Baltimore in a mob attack on Union militia 
en route to Wasllijlgton. 

.April 19. Lincoln proclaims a blockade of the 
Confederate coast, which is a recognition of the 
Confederates as belligerents and forestalls opposi- 
tion to sucli recognition by neutral nations. 

A pril £7. Lincohi authorizes General Scott to 
suspend writ of habeas corpus between Philadel- 
phia and Washington; an illegal or extralegal act 
wliich Taney sharply condemns in Ex parte Merry- 
man on May 27. 

April 2.9- May 21. Second session of the Con- 
federate Provisional Congress is held at Mont- 
gomery; a volimteer force of tmlimited size is au- 
thorized, $50,000,000 worth of bonds and treasury 
notes voted, a tariff framed, the capital moved to 
Riclimond, the existence of war recognized, and 
letters of marque authorized. 

May 3. Lincoln issues a call for 42,000 voltm- 
teers for three years, and increases the regiUar 
army and navy; extralegal acts which later Con- 
gress sanctions. 

May 13. Great Britain recognizes the belliger- 
ency of the Confederate States. France takes a 
similar step about a month later. 

June 3. Action at Philippi, W. Va.: initial suc- 
cess of Union forces in that region imder McClel- 
lan. Jime 10: Engagement at Big Bethel. Va. : 
Butler's Union troops are defeated. A few days 
later he declares slaves who have come within his 



lines to be " contraband of war." Jime 17: 
Action at Boonville. Mo.; Lyon disperses the 
forces of the Confederate governor. 

July 1. National net debt. $87,718,661. 

July 4. Extra session of Thirty-seventh Con- 
gress convenes; 11 Democrats, 31 Republicans, 
and 7 Unionists in the Senate, and 44 Democrats, 
106 Republicans, and 28 Unionists in the House. 

July 6. Action at Carthage, Mo.; the Union- 
ists under Sigel defeated. Jidy 11 ; Action at Rich 
Motmtain, Va. ; Union success. 

July 17. Federal war financing begins: $250,- 
000,000 in bonds and treasurj- notes. 

July 20- Aug. 31. Third session of Confederate 
Congress is held at Richmond; issue of treasury 
notes and bonds is increased to 8100,000,000; di- 
rect tax of one lialf per cent is laid, and alien enemy 
and sequestration acts are passed. 

July 21. First battle of Bull Bun or Manassas. 
Federal troops under McDowell routed by the 
Confederates imder J. E. Johnstos and Beaure- 
gard. No fiu-ther Union advances are attempted 
for six months. McClellanput in command of the 
Army of the Potomac. 

July 22. 500,000 Federal volunteers are au- 
thorized by Congress. 

Aug. 5. Direct tax of $20,000,000 on the 
States; income tax of 3 per cent. 

Aug. 10. Battle of Wilson's Creek, Mo.; Con- 
federates imder Price defeat Lyon, who is killed. 
August 29: Hatteras and Ocracoke inlets, N. C, 
occupied by Union military and naval forces. 
September 20: Surrender of Lexington, Mo., to 
Price. October 21: Battle of Ball's Bluff on the 
Potomac; Confederate victory. 

Nor. 6. First and only presidential election in 
the Confederacy; Davis and Stephens elected. 

Nor. 7. Port Royal, S. C, is captured by the 
Union forces imder Du Pont and Gen. T. W. 
Sherman. Battle of Belmont, Mo.; Union troops 
under Grant capture the enemy's camp, but are 
forced to retire. 

Not. S. Slidell and Mason, Confederate com- 
missioners, are taken from the British steamer 
Trent by Capt. Wilkes, U. S. N. Great Britain 
threatens war; Luicoln disavows the action and re- 
leases the prisoners (December 26). (See Tkent 
ATFAIB, in the Dictionary.) 

Dec. 31. General suspension of specie pay- 
ments by the banks; not resumed until 1S79. 
1862. Gold, lowest price for year. 100; highest, 137. 

Jan. 19-SO. Battle of Mill Sprmgs, Ky.; Fed- 
erals under Thomas defeat Zolhcofler. Febiiiary 
6: Fort Henry, Tenn., captiux;d by LTnion navy 
and land force imder Grant. Febniary 8: Cap- 
ture of Roanoke Island, N. C, by Federal troops 
imder Bumside. February 14-16: Capture of 
Fort Donelson, Tenn.. by Grant; fall of the two 
forts opens the way for invasion of southwestern 
portion of Confederacy. 

Feb. IS- April 21. First session of regular Con- 
federate Congress; Draft Act (April 16). 

Feb. 22. Jefferson Davis inaugurated regular 
president of the Confederate States of America. 

Feb. 2S. Federal Loan and Legal Tender 
Act; 8150,000,000 circulating notes (greenbacks), 
to t>e legal tender and reissuable; $500,000,000 
bonds ("5-20s") also autliorized. Later acts in- 
crease volume of greenbacks to $433,000,000 at 
the end of the war. 

March 3. Federal occupation of Columbus, 
Ky.; beginning of the opening of the Mississippi. 
March 7-8; Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark.: Union 
army imder Curtis defeats Van Dom and secures 
Missouri. March 9: Mcrrimac-Monitor light in 
Hampton Roads, Va.; first battle of ironclads; a 
drawn contest, but the turreted Monitor prevents 
the exTJected raid of the Mcrrimac on Union ports. 
March 14: Bumside occupies Ne^vbem, N. C. 
March 17: Union troops embark for Fort Monroe 
to begin McCleUan's Peninsular Campaign, 
March 23: Battle of Kemstown, Va.; Federals 
under Shields force Jackson up the Shenandoah 
Valley. April 5-May 3: Siege and capture of 
Yorktown, Va.. by McClellan. April 6-7: Battle 
of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. First 
day. Confefierates mider A. S. Johnston and 
Beauregard defeat G rant's Army of the Tennessee 
(Jolmston killed) ; second day. Confederates driven 
back by Grant and Buell (Army of the Ohio). 
April 7: Surrender of Island No. 10 in Mississippi 
River to Federals imder Foote and Pope. April 
10-11: Fort Pulaski, near Savannah, captured by 
Union troops. 

April 10. Congress, on Lincoln's advice, sug- 
gests to the loyal slave States gradual emancipa- 
tion with Federal aid. 

April 16. Act for compensated abolition In 
the District of Columbia. 

.\pril 24. Farragut's Federal fleet passes the 
forts below New Orleans. April 29: Possession 
of the city. May 5: Battle of 'U'illiamsburg, Va. , 
victory for McClellan. May 8 : Battle of McDow- 
ell, Va. (now W. Va); T, J (Stonewall) Jackson 
liegins his Valley campaign, to prevent reen- 
forcement of McClellan. 



1862-1865. 



NATIONAL HISTOKIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



175 



1863 (continued). 

May Id. Congress authorizes the Department 
of iVgriculture : not a cabmet office imtU 1889. 
May ^0. Homestead Law is enacted. 
May 23-3.5. Jackson defeats the Federals at 
Front Royal, Newtown, and Wincliester, and re- 
tires up tlie VaUey. May 30: Occupation of Cor- 
inth, Miss., tjy Hallecli. May 31-Jime 1: Bat> 
tie of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines; Johnston's at- 
taeli on McClellan iiefore Riclimond is repulsed, 
JoLmston is woimded, and R. E. Lee succeeds in 
command of the Army of Northern Virginia (June 
1). June 4: Fort Pillow, Teim., on the Mississippi, 
occupied by Federals. Jime 6: Naval battle and 
surrender of Memphis to Federals imder Ellet. 
June 8-9 : Jackson defeats pursuing forces at Cross 
Keys and Port Republic: later he marches liis 
troops to join Lee at Richmond. [territories.! 

June IB. Congress iibolishes slavery in the] 

Jnne S.j-July I. Seven Days' Battles before 
Richmond (Mcohanicsville, Games's Mill, Sav- 
age's Station, Frazier's Farm, Malvern Hill); Lee 
forces Mct'lellan to retreat to Malvern Hill (Jtily 
1). Federals establish a new base on lower James 
River. 

July I. National net debt, 8305,312,752. 
Internal Revenue .*ct {first since 1802) ; gradu- 
ated income ta.K, and many excises and duties. 
Pacific Railway Act ; Federal land grant and loan 
of bonds to promote the construction of a line be- 
tween Missouri River points and California. Ad- 
ditional aid by a later act. 

July 2. Morrill Agricultural College Act 
grants public lands to States for the support of col- 
leges of agriculture and mechanical arts ; origin of 
most of the existing State agricultural schools. 
Ironclad oath is passed by Congress for every 
Federal official; the taker must never volimtariiy 
have given aid to the Confederacy. 

July 17. First Confiscation Act (authorizes 
the employment in the war of slaves of reliels), 

Jtily 29. C.S.S. Alabama sails from Liver- 
pool where she has Ijeen built as a sea raider. 
Makes in all 68 captures and her activity nearly 
causes war betweim Great Britain and the L'nited 
States. Tiiree other English-built cruisers take 
part. 

.ino 9. Battle of Cedar Moimtain, Va. : Jack- 
son defeats Pope, who is advancing toward Rich- 
mond. 

.iug. IS-Oct. 13. Second session of, Confederate 
Congress. Treasury notes sufficient to pay ap- 
propriations authorized and Draft Act extended. 

.iug. SS-SO. Second battle of Bull Run 
(Groveton, Gainesville) ; Lee, who lias joined 
Jackson, routs Pope, reenforced by part of McClel- 
lan's army, now withdra\\Ti from the Peninstila. 
August 28; Confederates imder Bragg and Smith 
start from Chattanooga to invade Kentuclcj'. 
Federals imder Buell race to reach tlie Ohio River 
first, and are successful. 

.iug. 30. Battle of Richmond, Ky.; Smith de- 
feats the Federals, and occupies Lexington (Sep- 
tember 2). September 1; ISattle of Chantilly, 
Va. ; victory for Lee's troops. September 14: 
Battle of South Mountain, Md. ; McClellan Ijiocks 
Lee, who is invading Maryland. Septemtier 15: 
Capture of Harpers Ferry by Jackson. Septem- 
l>er 16-17; Battle of Antietani; indecisive, but 
Lee's invasion is checked, and he retires into Vir- 
ginia. Septemljer 19-20; Battle of luka. Miss.; 
Rosecrans defeats tlie Confederates imder Price. 

.Sept. 22. Lincohi's preliminary Emancipa- 
tion Proclamation; as a war measure lie will on 
January 1 declare free all the slaves in the States 
then in rel>ellion, excepting certain loyal or occu- 
pied sections. 

Oct. 3-^. Battle of Corinth, Miss.; Rosecrans 
repulsas an attack liy Van Dom and Price. Octo- 
t)cr 8; Battle of Perryville, Ky,; Bragg attacks 
Buell; indecisive, but Bragg and Smith retire to 
Tennessee. December 7; Battle of Prairie 
Grove, Ark.; LInion victory. December 13; Bat- 
tle of Fredericksburg; assault by Bumside (wiio 
has succeeded McClellan) on Lee's intrenclied po- 
sition is repulsed. Decemlier 20; Van Dom's raid 
on the Federal depot of supplies at Holly Springs, 
Miss., checks Grant's advance against Vicksburg. 
Decemlier 29; Sherman's assault on Chickasaw 
Bluffs, near Vicksburg, repulsed. December 31- 
January 2, 1863: Battle of Murfreesboro or 
Stone River; Rosecrans ( who has succeeded Buell) 
and Bragg both attack; the Confederates retire. 
186S. Gold, lowest price for year, 122i; highest, 
172i. [tlon.l 

Jan. 1. Final Emancfpatlon Proclama-| 

Jan. 11. Capture of Arkansas Post, Ark., by 
Federals imder McClemand. 

Jan. 12-May 1. Third session of Confederate 
Congress ; laws for funding loans and issuing treas- 
ury notes up to$50,(X)0,000 a month : impressment 
of supplies for the army (March 26) ; income tax, 
excise, and tax in kind (April 24). 

Jan. sn. Grant assumes command of the opera- 
tions against Vicksburg ; for several months tries 
unsuccessfully to gain rear of the position. 



Feb. 24. Arizona Territory is created. 
Feb. 25. National Banks Act; a safe currency 
of general circulation is authorized on tlie security 
of Federal bonds owned by the issuing banks. 

March S. Draft Act; intended to supplement 
vohmteering: substitutes and purchase of exemp- 
tion are permitted. Eventual net addition of 
drafted troops, about 46,000, besides many sub- 
stitutes. 

Loan Act for $900,000,000: bonds, treasury notes, 
and greenbacks, also issues of fractional currency, 
to replace silver wliich lias disappeared from cir- 
culation. Congress authorizes the president im- 
der certain regulations to suspend the privileges 
of the writ of habeas corpus; tiiis is done to pre- 
vent the abuse of arbitrary arrests, and also to 
legalize the war-time need of a rational use of di- 
rect action. Idaho Territory is erected. 

April 7. Fort Sumter imsuccessluliy attacked 
by a fleet of BYderal ironclads. April 10: Federal 
ironclads and transports nm the batteries at Vicks- 
iiurg; Grant then crosses the river below tlie Con- 
federate defenses (April 30). May 1; Battle of 
Port Gibson, Miss. ; victory for Grant. May 1-4 ; 
Battle of Chancellorsvllle, Va.; Lee stops 
Hooker (who has succeeded Biiniside) and compels 
liini to recross the Rappahamiock ; Stonewall Jack- 
son is mortally wounded.^ May 12: Battle of Ray- 
mond, Miss.; Grant's victory. May 14: Capture 
of Jackson, Miss., by Grant. May 16-17: Battles 
of Champion Hills and Big Black River, Miss.; 
Grant drives tlie Confederates within the defenses 
of Vicksburg and Ix'gins the siege. 

May 16. Clement L. VaUandigliani, of Ohio, 
convicted by a military commi-ssion of seditious 
utterances addressed to the " Copperheads," or 
Peace Democrats, and sentenced to imprisonment 
in Fort Warren. Lincoln ciianges the sentence to 
banislinient to the Confederacy. 

May 27. Unsuccessful assault on Port Hudson, 
La., by Banlts's Federal troops; a siege follows. 

June IB. West Virginia (35th State) admitted 
with gradual emancipation; comprises the loyal 
western portion of Virginia. 

July 1. National net deirt, $1,111,350,737. 
July 1-S. Battle of Gettysburg, Pa.; Lee, 
again mvading the North, is defeated by Meade 
(who has succeeded Hooker) ; Confederates retreat 
across the Potomac. July 4; Surrender of 
Vicksburg. July 9: Confederate attack on 
Helena, Ark., is repulsed. Surrender of Port Hud- 
son completes the opening of the Mississippi 
and cuts the Confederacy in two. July 11, 18; 
LTnioii assaults on Battery Wag;ner i^efore Charles- 
ton; the battery eventually evacuated (September 
7), but aU efforts to capture the city fail. 

July IS-ie. Draft Riots in New York City: 
atxiut 1,000 persons killed; subdued by troops sent 
back from the front. (See Draft Riots, in Diet.) 
July 26. Capture of the Confederate general, 
J. H. Morgan, at Salineville, Ohio, after a three 
weeks' raid tlirough Kentucky, Indiana, and Oliio. 
Septemlier 1: Occupation of Fort Smith, Ark., by 
Federals imder Bhmt. September 8; LTnsuccess- 
ful naval assault on Fort Simiter. Seiitenilier 10: 
Occupation of Little Rock, Ark., by Federals un- 
der Steele. September 19 and 20: Battle of Chlck- 
amauga, Ga. ; Rosecrans is attacked by Bragg; 
Thomas, the " Rock of Cliickamauga," in com- 
mand of the left wing, holds, Ijut finally the army 
retreats to Chattanooga, wliich Bragg liesieges. 
Grant is made commander of the Military Divi- 
sion of the Mississippi (Octolier 16) ; Sherman suc- 
ceeds Grant in command of the Army of the Ten- 
nessee, and Thomas supersedes Rosecrans in com- 
mand of the Army of the Cumiierland. Sherman 
takes liis army to Chattanooga; also two corps 
transferred to him from the Army of the Potomac. 
Oct. S. Laird rams, being built for the Con- 
federacy in England, are seized l)y the British 
government; serious complication thus averted. 

Nov. 17-Dec. 4. Siege of Federals imder Bum- 
side in luioxvilie, Tenn., by Longstrcet; relieved 
by a force imder Slierman. Novemlier 23-25: 
Battle of Chattanooga (Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge); Confederates driven from 
their besieging position. 

Dec. 7. Tliirty-eighth Congress meets; 9 Demo- 
crats, 36 Republicans, and 5 Unionists in tlie Sen- 
ate; and 75 Democrats, 102 Repulilicans, and 9 
LTnionists in the House. 

Dec. 7-Fcb. IS, lS6i. Session of the Congress 
of the Confederacy; importation of luxuries and 
private exportation of the main products of the 
South are forbidden; act for fimding and partial 
repudiation of paper money, with an issue of new 
notes (Fel:)ruarT,- 17) : additional taxes on property 
and profits; draft made to include men lietween 17 
and 50; and free Negroes and slaves made hable to 
noncombatant duty in the army. 

Dec. 8. Lincoln's Proclamation of Amnesty 
and Reconstruction embodies his policy of 
*storation. 
1864. Gold, lowest price for the year, 1514; high- 
est (July U), 2.S5. [victory.] 
Feb. SO. Battle of Olustee, Fla.; Confederate! 



March 9. Grant receives commission as lieu- 
tenant general, and is assigned to the com- 
mand of all the Federal forces (March 12). 
Establislies his headquarters with the Army of the 
Potomac. Sherman in command in the West. 

March 14. Unionists in Arkansas atiopt a con- 
stitution under Lincoln's proclamation, abollsliing 
slavery, and ask readmission. 

April 8, 9. Battles of Saliine Crossroads and 
Pleasant Hills, La. ; Banks (Red River Expedition) 
is defeated by the Confederates imder Smith and 
Taylor, and retreats. April 30 : Battle of Jenkins's 
Ferrj-, Ai'k.; Steele repulses Smith and Price. 

May 2-June 14. Session of the second Congress 
of the Confederate States. 

May 4. General advance of Federal armies 
imder Grant, invoii-ing (1) attack on Lee by 
Grant; (2) advance toward Richmond liy Butler 
(Army of the James), from Fort. Monroe; (3) 
Sherman's advance from Chattanooga toward 
Atlanta against the Confederate J. E. Johnston. 
May 5-7: Battle of tlie Wilderness, Va., inde- 
cisive; Lee checks Grant's direct advance, but 
Grant presses on by tlie left flank. May S-18: 
Battle of Spottsylvania Court House, Va.; Lee 
checks Grant and turning movement is resumed. 
IMay 15; Engagement at Resaca, Ga. ; Jolmston 
retires. May 16: Battle of Drury's Blufl". Va.; 
Confederates under Beauregard stop Butler's 
advance. May 24; Battle of the North Anna, 
Va.; Lee repeats liis check, and Grant again 
moves southeastward. May 25-28; Battle of 
New Hope Cliurch (Dallas), Ga.; indecisive; 
Joiinston continues his Fabian policy. 
May 26. Montana Territory is created. 
June 3. Battle of Cold Harbor, Va.; Grant 
attempts to break Lee's line by direct assault, but 
is repulsed. . Jime 14; Grant crosses the James 
River. June 15-18; Battle of Petersburg, Va.; 
Beauregard, joined by Lee, repulses Grant's army, 
and a regular siege liegtns. June 19: C.S.S. Ala- 
bama is sunk by the Kearsarge. June 27; Battle 
of Kenesaw Mountain: Sherman repulsed but out- 
flanks enemy, who retire to defenses of Atlanta. 

June SO. New and more searching internal- 
revenue law; tariff duties are increased. 
Fugitive- Slave Law is repealed. 

July 1. National net debt, Sl,709,452,277. 
July 2. Northern Pacific Railway is incorpo- 
rated by Congress to run from Lake Superior to 
Puget Soimd ; it receives a land grant. Line not 
completed imtil 1883. 

July 4. Lincoln defeats (pockets) the Wade- 
Davis Reconstruction Bill, wliich embodies the 
congressional policy of restoration, contrary to the 
presidential plan. 

July 9. Battle of Monocacy, Md.; Early, who 
has marched down the Shenandoah Valley, defeats 
the last opposing force and appears in sight of the 
Capitol at Washmgton (July 11); but fails to oc- 
cupy the city and retires next day. July 20, 22, 
28; Battles before Atlanta (Peach Tree Creek, 
Atlanta, and Ezra Church) ; Hood, now in Con- 
federate command, makes imsuccessful attacks on 
Sherman's encircling army. July 30: Battle of the 
Crater at Petersburg; I'nion a,ssault repulsed. 
August 5; Battle of Mobile Bay; Farragut's 
Federal fleet passes the forts and defeats the 
Confederate fleet, closing the port to blockade 
runners. Sept. 2: Atlanta captured by Sherman. 
Sept. s. Unionists in Louisiana adopt a new 
constitution witliout slavery. 

Sept. e-Nov. 7. Price's expedition from the 
Arkansas into Missouri and return; he is liefore St. 
Louis (October 1), liefore Jefferson City (Octo- 
lier 7), at Independence (Octolier 21), defeated at 
Westport on the Kansas line (Octolier 23). Sep- 
temlier 19, 22; Battle of Opequan (Winchester) 
and Fisher's HiU, Va.; Sheridan defeats Early: 
proceeds to devastate the Shenandoah VaUey. 
Oct. 13. Maryland aliolishes slavery. 
Oct. IB. Battle of Cedar Creek; Early's suc- 
cessful surprise later becomes a victory for the 
Federals. 
Oct. 31. Nevada admitted (36th State). 
Nov, 7-March IS, 1865. Final session of the 
Confederate Congress; on March 13 enlistment of 
slaves is authorized. 

Nov. S. Twentieth presidential election: Lin- 
coln and Johnson, candidates of the Union party 
(Republicans and War Democrats), recei\'e 212 
electoral votes; General McClellan and G. H. 
Pendleton. Peace Democrats, 21 votes; J. C. 
Fremont, nominated by radical Republicans, 
withdraws. 

Nov. 16. ShermanleavesAtlantaonhis March 
to the Sea. He is practically unopposed: Hood 
moves northward and invades Tennessee. 

Dec. 6. Salmon P. Chase succeeds Taney as 
cliief justice of the Supreme Court.. 

Dec. 15-16. Battle of Nashville, Tenn.; 
Thomas routs the invading Confederates. De- 
cember 21; Sherman enters Savannah. 
1865. Imports of merchandise, $238,745,580; ex- 
ports, $100,029,303; immigrants 247.453. 
Gold, lowest price for the year, 128S ; highest 234i. 



176 



NATIONAL HISTOEIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1865—1871. 



s 



u 



V 



w 



1865 (continued). 

Jan. 11. Missouri constitutional convention 
abolislies slavery. 

Jan. 15. Fort Fisher, N. C, captured; this 
closes the port of Wilmington and leaves Charles- 
ton and Galveston the only considerable ports in 
the hands of the Confederates. 

Jan. 19. Lee is made commander in cbief 
of the Confederate armies. 

Feb. 1. Thirteenth Amendment, abolisliing 
slavery, adopted by Congress and submitted to 
the States. [through the Carolinas.l 

Sherman starts from Savannah on his March 1 

Feb. 17. He enters Columbia, S. C, wliich is 
burned. February IS, his march forces the evacu- 
ation of Charleston. 

Feb. 22. Tennessee abolishes slavery. 

March S. Loan of 8600,000,000 is authorized. 
Freedmen's Bureau Act is passed for the control 
of freedmen, Negro refugees, and abandoned or 
confiscated lands in the South. 
A prohibitive ten per cent tax is levied on State 
bank circulation, leaving the field open for ihe 
new national bank notes. 

Mfirrh l:i. Battle of Bentonville, N. C: John- 
ston defeated by Sherman. March 21 : Sherman 
joins forces with Schofield, who has advanced from 
Wilmington. April 1 : Battle of Five Forks before 
Petersburg; Union success which is followed by an 
assault along the whole line. April 2; Evacua- 
tion of Richmond and Petersburg by Lee, 
who tries to join forces with Jolmston; Grant pur- 
sues closely and finally heads him off. April 9: 
Surrender of Lee at Appomattox, Va. April 1 1 : 
Capture of Mobile by Union forces under Canby. 
April 1:5; Sherman enters Raleigh, N. C. 

April 14. Lincoln shot by Booth; dies the 
next morning. 

April 15. Andrew Johnson becomes the 
seventeenth president : he is a former State-rights 
Democrat, but a strong .Southern Unionist. 

April 26. Johnston surrenders Ills army tc 
Sherman. May 4: Taylor siu-renders the south- 
western Confederate forces to Canby. 

April 39, June 24- Restrictions on domestic 
commerce with the South are removed. 

May 10. Jefferson Davis is captured, 
charged with treason ; he is never tried and finally 
is released on bail (Alay. 1S67). 

May 2B. Smith surrenders the trans-Mississippi 
Confederate forces, the last of the disunion armies. 

May -29. Johnson's proclamation of amnesty, 
extending pardon to the South, but with maiiy 
exceptions. 

Presidential plan of Reconstruction is inaugurated 
on the same day, carried out tlirough proclama- 
tions for provisional goveniments, with directions 
to hold constitutional conventions and reconstruct 
the State governments. Proclamations issued as 
to North Carolina (May 29); Mississippi (Jime 
13) ; Georgia (Jime 17) ; Texas (June 17) : Alabama 
(June 21); South Carolina (June 30); Florida 
(July 13). The existing loyal governments of 
Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana are 
considered as sufficient for the reconstruction of 
these States. During the autumn and winter the 
conventions rescind the ordinances of secession, 
abolish slaven,-, and repudiate war deljts. Under 
their amended constitutions State officers, legisla- 
tors, representatives, and senators are elected. 
Nine of the eleven States recently in the Confed- 
eracy ratify the Tliirteenth Amendment. Several 
legislatures place restrictions on the freedmen 
(blacli codes or vagrant laws) which irritate 
Northern public opinion. 

July 1. National net debt, S2,674,S1,5,S57. 
The national net debt reaches its highest point 
(imtil 1917) on September 1, 1S6.5, when it stands 
at .S2,7,58,000,000. Ports of the South are opened 
to foreign commerce. 

Dec. 4. Thirty-ninth Congress meets: 11 
Democratic and 39 Republican .senators, and 40 
Democratic and 144 Republican representatives. 
The houses refuse to admit the Southern Con- 
gressmen; instead appoint a Joint committee 
(December 12) to consider Beconstruction. 

Dec. IS. Thirteenth Amendment goes into 
operation. 

RECONSTRUCTION. 

1866. Feb. 22. The Washington's Birthday speech 
of President Jolm.son makes evident a breach be- 
tween Congress and him.self . 

March 17. Reciprocity with Canada is ended. 

April 9. Civil Rights Act is passed over a veto: 
it is the congressional answer to the black-code 
enactments of the Southern States; confers upon 
all persons bom in the United States the same 
civil rights and obligations that white citizens 
have. [authorized. I 

April 12. Gradual retirement of greenbacks! 

June IS. Fourteenth Amendment is passed 
and sent to the States; practically includes the 
Civil Rights Bill and presents tlie congressional 
policy of Reconstruction. Negroes and all others 
bom or naturalized m the United States to possess 



equal civil rights. Attempts to force Negro suf- 
frage upon the South, by reducing the representa- 
tion of a State which hmits the suffrage. Cuts 
under the president's anmesty power by exclud- 
mg Confederates from office. The clause guaran- 
teeing life, hberty, and property against State 
action " without due process of law," has trans- 
ferred to the Federal government and its courts 
final determhiation of many questions of labor 
and other matters of economic and social welfare. 
Southern States refused readmittance imless they 
ratify the amendment. All but Teimessee refuse, 
and so Congress imposes further and harsher re- 
quirements. 

July. Atlantic cable is permanently opened. 

July IS. Act reducmg internal revenue; pro- 
posal to reduce the tariff prevented by high-tariff 
men in the Republican party. 

July 2S. Act tor gradual reduction of justices 
of the Supreme Court; mt ended to reduce presi- 
dent's power of appomtment to vacancies. 

July 24. Tennessee is readmitte<l. 

July 27. Atlantic and Pacific Railway is incor- 
porated and given a land grant in connection with 
the Southern Pacific of California ; now main west- 
em part of line of the Santa Fe, and part of the 
Southern Pacific in California. 

Dec. 17. In Ex parte MUiigan the Supreme 
Court refuses to support the policy of arbitrarj- 
arrests, by declaring iUegal a milit'arj- trial of a 
civilian where the Federal courts are open and 
imobstructed. 

1867. Jan. 14. In Ex parte Garland the Supreme 
Court holds that the exclusion of an attorney from 
practice, if he camiot take the ironclad oath, is 
contrary to the constitutional proA-ision against 
bills of attainder and ex post facto laws. 

Jan. 2S. Irrthe License Tax Cases the Supreme 
Court declares that the requirement of a Federal 
hcense tax (on liquors, etc.) is not a regulation of 
commerce witliin a .State; but does not authorize 
the taxed business against a State's use of police 
powers. 

March 1. Nebraska admitted (37th State). 

March 2. Reconstruction Act is passed over 
a veto. A militar;,- government in the imreadmit- 
tcd States; constitutional conventions including 
Negro votes; Negro suffrage m the new constitu- 
tions; ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment 
by the new legislatures. Act discontmues all the 
State governments based on presidential Recon- 
stniction. 

Tenure-of-Office Act becomes law over a veto. 
Limits power of president to remove cabinet and 
other officers. 

Peonage Act proliibits the holding of individ- 
uals in peonage system of ser\ice. 
Further mtemal revenue reduction; and higher 
protection given to wool and woolens. 

March 4. Fortieth Congress meets at this date 
instead of December under an act intended to 
prevent Jolmson from taking mdependent action ; 
1 1 Democrats and 42 Republicans in the Senate : 
49 Democrats and 143 Republicans in the House. 

March 12. French troops finally leave Mexico 
(see Mexico). 

March 23. Supplementarj' Reconstmction Act. 

March SO. Treaty signed with Russia covering 
purchase of Alaska for $7,200,000. 

jlprit i.i. In Mississippi v. Johnson the Su- 
preme Coiut refuses to take jiu-isdiction to re- 
strain the president from putting the Reconstmc- 
tion Acts into operation, [tion Act I 

July 1.9. Further supplementary Reconstruc-I 

Oct. 24. Treaty signed with Denmark for the 
purchase of the Danish West Indies (Virgin 
Islands): Senate rejects it CMarch 24, 1S70). 

1868. Feb. 4. Congress stops the retirement of the 
greenbacks, responding to a popular movement for 
" cheap " money. Movement for the payment of 
bonds in greenbacks. These policies tecome part 
of the platform of the Greenback party, the first 
of a succession of minor parties trjing to effect 
social and economic changes by political action. 

Feb. 10. In Georgia ». Stanton the Supreme 
Coiu't again declares the Reconstmction Acts to 
be a political question with which it should not 
interfere. 

Feb. 24. Johnson Is impeached by the 
House; main charge is removing Secretary Stan- 
ton contrary to the Tenure-of-Offlce Act; real of- 
fense is antagonism to the congressional policy of 
Reconstmction. 

March 27. Congress, apprehensive of a deci- 
sion by the Supreme Court tliat Reconstruction 
Acts are imconstitutional, passes an act over the 
veto which deprives the court of jurisdiction on 
the subject iEi parte McCardle). 

May 16. Senate acquits Johnson by vote of 
3,5 to 19 (not two thirds) . This fmstrates the only 
political impeachment attempted since 180.5. 

June 22. Arkansas readmitted to the Union. 

June 35. Omnibus Act authorizing the re- 
admission of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, 
North Carolina, and South Carolina, they having 
complied with the requirements of the Recon- 



stmction Acts (proclamations July 11-20). 
Georgia temporarily restored. The governments 
of these reconstructed States for a short time in the 
hands of Northern settlers ("carpetbaggers") 
and Southern radicals (" scalawags ") who control 
and manipulate the Negro voters and legislators. 
In national pohtics they are Repubhcans. 

June 25. Act to establish eight-hour day for 
laborers for the Federal government. 

July 20. Another reduction is made m internal- 
revenue taxation. 

July 25. Wyoming Territory is estabUshed. 

July 27. Act on expatriation, affirming the in- 
herent right to change nationahty. 

July 28. Fourteenth Amendment is de- 
clared in force; three-fom-ths ratification obtained 
tlu"ough Reconstmction scheme. 
Treaty with China (Burhngame) allows freedom 
of immigration and movement in both countries. 

A'oii. 3. Twenty-first presidential election: 
Grant and Schuyler Coif ax receive 214 RepubUcan 
votes ; Horatio Seymoiu' and F. P. Blair, 80 Demo- 
cratic. 

1869. Feb. 27. Fifteenth Amendment is sub- 
mitted to the States; it declares that suffrage shall 
not be denied or abridged because of race, color, or 
previous condition of ser\-itude (Negro suffrage). 

March 4. Ulysses Simpson Grant becomes 
eighteenth president; Fish is his secretary of state. 
Forty-first Congress meets : Senate has 10 Demo- 
crats and .56 Republicans ; House, 60 Democrats 
and 149 Repubhcans. 

March IS. PubUc Credit Act is passed declar- 
ing that all the obUgations of the Federal govern- 
ment will be paid in specie or its equivalent. 

April 10. Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and 
■Virginia are required to ratify the Fifteenth 
Amendment before being readmitted. Congress 
authorizes the appointment of circuit judges. 

April 12. In Texas v. White tlie Supreme 
Court declares that the " Constitution . . . looks 
to an indestructible Union ... of indestructible 
States " and supports the right of Congress, 
rather than of the president, to carry out peace- 
time Reconstmction. 

May 10. Union-Central Pacific Railroad is 
opened throughout its length, giving railroad 
transportation across the continent. 

June 16. Massachusetts act for a State railroad 
commission, first of its kind. 

Sept. 24. Black Friday in 'Wall Street, due to 
an attempt to comer gold, broken by action of the 
Federal treasurj'. 

Oct. 4- Conservatives (Democrats) regain con- 
trol of Tennessee. 

Nov. 29. Treaty is signed for the annexation 
of Santo Domingo: Senate rejects it (June 30, 1870). 

Dec. 10. Wyoming Territory first commimity 
to adopt woman suffrage. 

Dec. 13. In Veazie Bank r. Fenno the prohibi- 
tive Federal tax on State bank notes is upheld by 
the Supreme Court. 

1870. Imports of merchandise, $435,958,408; ex- 
ports of mercliandise, .?392, 771,768: immigrants. 
387,203. Gold, lowest price during the year, 110: 
highest, 123 J. (Ohio. I 

Jan. 2. Standard Oil Company is chartered by! 

Jan. 26. Virginia is readmitted. It is already 
in control of conservatives (Democrats). 

Feb. 7. Supreme Court in Hepbimi v. Griswold 
declares against the constitutionality of green- 
backs as legal fender; Cotu-t stands 4 to 3. 

Feb. 23. Mississippi is readmitted with the 
radicals in control. 

March SO. Fifteenth Amendment declared 
in force. 

Texas is readmitted; control soon passes to the 
conservatives. 

May 31. Enforcement Act, intended to pre- 
vent obstruction in the South of the new consti- 
tutional amendments. Opposition to carpetbag 
and Negro rule there has in places assumed the 
form of mtimidation and violence, as, especially,, 
in the activities of the Kxi-KIilx Ivlan, a secret 
organization for terrorizmg the Negroes. [371. J 

June. Ninth U. S. census; population, 38,558,-1 

July 1. National net debt, $2,331,169,956. 

July 14. Act including sweeping reductions in 
internal revenue: the tariff duties arc decreased on 
revenue articles only, leaving protection practi- 
cally imdisturbed. During the fiscal years 1866- 
1873 the ordinarj- receipts are $470,000,000 in ex- 
cess of the ordinan,' expenditures and interest pay- 
ments, and government buys bonds in tlie open 
market. The national debt has been reduced 
$427,000,000. 

July 14. A refimding act is passed. 

July 15. Georgia is readmitted and Recon- 
struction is completed, though representation 
in Congress is not full imtil May 23, 1872. Radi- 
cals control Georgia. 

Nov. S. Democrats regain control of North 
Carolina legislature: the radical governor holds 
over tmtil March 22, 1871. 

1871. Tweed Ring is overthrown in New York 
City. The period is one of much private prosper- 



1871 — 1879. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



177 



1871 (coiuinued). 

ity and public corruption ; the ring has controlled 
and systematically bled New York for years, and 
has embezzled about SIOO.OUO.OOO. 

Jan. 23. In the Case of the Daniel Ball the Su- 
preme Court declares that a river entirely witlihi 
a State may be a navigaliie water subject to con- 
gressional control over iiuerstate commerce. 
Feb. id. Ironclad oath is rriiculed. 
Feb. 2S. Law is passeii for ilie Federal control 
of Federal elections, hitlierto left entirely to 
State regulations ; intended to prevent interference 
witli Negro vote in the South. 

March 3. Act puttuig a stop to Indian treaties 
and inaugurating policy of governing the tribes 
through legislation and executi\e orders, milking 
the Indians national wards. Beguining with 
an uprising in Mimiesota in 1S62, trouble with the 
Indians in the West has been almost continuous, 
an outcome of the pressure of the advancing fron- 
tier, railroad building, and mineral discoveries. 

March S. Texas Pacific Railway is incorpo- 
rated by Congress and given aland grant, the last 
of the land grants ; most of the land grant is event- 
ually forfeited. 

March 4. Forty-second Congress meets: Sen- 
ate, 15 Democrats, 57 Republicans; House, 103 
Democrats, 13.S Republicans. 

April 3. In Collector r. Day the Supreme 
Court decides that the United States may not tax 
the salary of a State official. 

April 20. Ku-Klux Act is passed; purpose is 
to give additional protection to the civil and politi- 
cal rights of the Negroes. Under it Grant sus- 
pends habeas corpus in a few places, and many 
arrests are made. 

May 1. In Knox v. Lee the Supreme Court re- 
verses its earlier opinion (February 7, 1870) and 
declares that legal-tender greenbacks are consti- 
tutional. Com-t stands 5 to 4, two new judges 
having been appointed. 

May 8. Treaty of Washington signed with 
Great Britain. Provides for the settlement of the 
claims growing out of the depredations by the Ala- 
bama and other English-built Confederate cniisers [ 
(Geneva Tribunal), and other claims: the Ameri- 
can rights on the Canadian fisliing grounds (Hali- 
fax Commission) : and arbitration of the San Juan 
(Puget Soimd) hoimdarj- dispute. British gov- 
enmient agrees to tlu-ee rules which are practically 
a confession of error and a presage of damages. 

Oct. S-W. Great Are in Chicago; loss, $200,- 
000,000. 

Nov. I. Georgia legislature, with a conserva- 
tive majority, meets ; the radicals lose the executive 
department on January 12, 1872. ) 

1873. Credit Mobilier expo.sure, in connection with 
the building of the Union Pacific, involves tacit 
bribery of congressmen. [created. I 

March 1. Yellowstone National Park is| 
May 1. Import duties on tea and coffee (most 
important revenue articles) removed: "free 
breakfast table." 

May 22. General Amnesty Act imder the 
Fourteenth Amendment: .some 500 
later reduced by individual acts. 

June 6. Tariff and Internal-Revenue Act 
makes a horizontal reduction of ten per cent in 
customs duties, and further decrease m internal 
revenue. 

Sept. 14. Geneva Tribunal, sitting imder the 
, Treaty of Washington, awards tlie United States 
$15,500,000 damages in the Alabama claims 
against Great Britam. Claim of " indirect dam- 
ages " withdrawn. 

Oct. 21. German emperor awards San Juan 
Islands (between Vancouver Island and State of 
Washington) to the United States. 

Nov. 5. Twenty-second presidential election: 
Grant and Henry Wilson receive 286 electoral 
votes: Democrats and " Liberal Republicans," 
who are tariff-reform men and object to the char- 
acter of Grant's administration, seciu-e 68 votes 
for Horace Greeley and B. G. Brown; Proliibition. 
Greenback, and Labor-Reform parties make 
nominations. (870,000,000.1 

Nov. 9-10. Great lire In Boston: loss ofl 
187.3. Feb. 12. Couiage .4ct is passed without op- 
position, involving the formal demonetization of 
the silver dollar: act later styled by silver men the 
"crime of '73" (see imder cniMu, hi the ruct.). 

March s. Timber Cultm-e and Coal Land acts 
are preliminary movements in the direction of con- 
servation ; they limit the sale of coal-hearing public 
lands and provide for the patenting of treeless land. 
Supreme Court, in State Freight Tax Case, de- 
nies the right of a State to tax freight in interstate 
commerce. But on the same day, in State Tax 
on Railway Gross Receipts, it upholds a State ta.x, 
bearing in part on interstate commerce. 

April H. In the Slaughterhouse Cases the 
Supreme Court begins its interpretation of the 
Fourteenth Amendment as a protection of civil 
right from attacks by the States. It holds that 
the granting by the State of a monopoly to con- 
duct a public slaughterhouse is a proper police 



exceptions. 



regtUation and not an infringement of the privi- 
leges and immimities of citizens of the United 
States. The Foiuteenth Amendment protects 
only the privileges and immimities of citizens 
wliich arise out of the nature and essential charac- 
ter of the national government. 

April 1.5. In Bradwell v. Illinois the court de- 
clares that the right to practice law is not such a 
privilege as is guaranteed by the Fourteenth 
Amendment and a State is not required to admit 
a woman practitioner. 

Sept. IS. Failure of Jay Cooke & Co. starts a 
great panic, wliich is followed by several years 
of industrial depre.ssion; caused chiefly by over- 
building of railroads in tlie West. 

Oct. 31. Seizure on the high seas by Spain of 
the Virginius, which is illegally flymg the Ameri- 
can flag and carrying supplies for Cuban insur- 
gents, and execution of its crew nearly cause a 
war with Spain. 

Dec. 1. Forty-thu-d Congress assembles: 19 
Democrats, 49 RepubUcans, and 5 Liberal Repub- 
licans hi the .Senate, and SS Democrats, 195 R^ 
publicans, and 4 Liberal Republicans hi the House. 
1874. Remington t>-pewriter, pioneer macliine, is 
placed on the market. 

Jan. 21. MorrLson R. Waite becomes chief jus- 
tice of the Supreme Coiui,. 

March i. Supreme Court declares hi Barte- 
meyer v. Iowa that the right to sell liquor is not one 
of the privileges and immimities of the citizens of 
the United States wliich the Fourtcrnth .Amend- 
ment or other portions of the Federal (»'oiistitution 
protect from State infringement. 

April 22. Grant vetoes the Inflation Bill to 
raise the volume of greenbacks to 8400.000,000. 

Sept. 14. Successful rismg of the White League 
m New Orleans agamst the State government; it 
is suppressed by Federal troops. | 

November. Congressional elections result m a 
" tidal wave " of Democratic success. About the 
same time conservative control is restored in Ala- 
bama and Arkansas. 
1875. Imports of merchandise, $533,005,436; ex- 
ports, 3513,442,711: immigrants, 227,498. 
Gold, lowest price, for the year, 11 1|: highest, 117|. 
Jan. 14. Resumption Act; provides for the 
gradual reduction in amount of outstanding 
greenbacks to $300,000,000 with a correspondmg 
mcrease of national bank notes, and resumption of 
specie payments on Januarj- 1, 1879. [signed. | 
Jan. SO. Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty isl 
March 1. Civil Rights Act, to give Negroes 
equal privileges m travel and pubhc recreation. 
March 3. The ten per cent reduction in the 
tariff made m 1872 is repealed. 

March 30. In INIinor t. Happersett the Su- 
preme Court decides that the Fomtecnth Amend- 
ment does not requu-e a State to grant woman 
suffrage. 
July 1 . National net debt, $2,090,041,170. 
Dec. 6. Forty-fourth Congress begins: 29 
Democrats and 44 RepubUcans in the Senate; 168 
Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 14 Independ- 
ents in the House; Democratic majority in the 
House for the first time shice 1859. ' [107.1 
1876. Gold, lowest price for the year, 102 ; highest, I 
Overthrow of the MoUy Maguires, a secret society 
of Irishmen wliich has held the antliracite region 
of Pennsylvania in terror for years. 

Jan. 4. Democrats resume control of the Mis- 
sissippi legislature; the radical governor resigns 
on March 29. 

Jan. 17. In Welton v. Missouri a State license 
tax on the sale of goods from other States not levied 
on the sale of Missouri products, is declared by the 
Supreme Coiui to be an infringement on Federal 
control over interstate commerce. 

March 2. Scandals during Grant's admmis- 
tration cause the resignation of Secretarj- of War 
BeUaiap. to avoid conviction on impeachment. 
During the year a Whisky Ring to defraud the 
internal revenue is exposed. 

,\/nrr/i 7. Telephone is patented by Alex- 
ander Graham BeU. 

March 27. Supreme Comi; in United States ». 
Resse holds that the Fifteenth Amendment con- 
fers no right of suffrage, but only forbids certain 
restrictions in it. On the same day the comt, in 
the United States v. Cmikshanks. holds that the 
Fourteenth Amendment protects from State ac- 
tion onlj-, not from the acts of individuals: much 
of the Enforcement and Ku-Hux Acts is, there- 
fore, unconstitutional. 

April 24. In Walker v. Sauvinet the Supreme 
Court, decides that trial by jun,- is not necessarily 
the " due process of law " required by tlie Four- 
teenth Amendment nor is it a privilege and immu- 
nity of citizens of the United States. 

May- November. Centennial Exposition at 
Philadelphia; it has a great effect on many lines 
of business. 

June 2.5. Massacre of Custer's force in Mon- 
tana by the Sioux under Sitting Bull. 

Ava. 1. Colorado admitted (38th .State). 
Nov. 7. Twenty-third presidential elec- 



tion: on the face of the returns S. J. Tilden and 
T. A. Hendricks, Democrats, have 196 electoral 
votes and Hayes and W. A. Wheeler, Republicans, 
173 votes. Candidates of the Prohibition, Green- 
back, and American parties carry no States. 
State returning boards in Louisiana and Florida, 
controlled by carpetbaggers, count in the Re- 
pubUcan electors of these States, which would give 
Hayes 185 votes and Tilden 184. Intense excite- 
ment prevails in the whole nation. 

A'oii. 2S. Conservatives organize the legisla- 
ture of South Carolhia, but do not secure imdis- 
puted control for some months. 
1877. Edison hivents the phonograph, which, 
however, is not made practical imtil 1SS8. 
Gold, lowest price for the year, 102 5 ; highest, 107i. 
Jan. 1. Democrats organize the legislatine of 
Louisiana, but opposition to it contmues for some 
months. [in Florida. I 

Jan. 2. Carpetbag government is overtlirownl 
Jan. 29. Electoral Count Law, for settling 
the disputed presidential election, is enacted. An 
extraconstitutional commission of five senators, 
five representatives, and five Supreme Court jus- 
tices considers disiiuted votes m South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana, and one m Oregon: and 
awards them aU to Hayes by vote of 8 to 7. On 
March 2 Hayes is declared by Congress elected by 
185 votes to Tilden's 184. 

March 1. In Miinn u. Illinois, and other 
Granger Cases, the Supreme Court holds that 
State laws passed to regulate warehouse charges 
and raihoad intrastate rates, especially when Con- 
gress has not acted respectmg them, are legal, even 
though they may mdirectly operate upon com- 
merce beyond the jurisdiction of the State. 

March 3. Desert Land Act provides special 
conditions for patenting such land, subject to 
proper development and irrigation. 

March 4. Rutherford Birchard Hayes takes 
the oath as nineteenth president. His cabinet is 
notable: WiUiam M. Evarts, secretary of state; 
John Sherman, secretary of the treasury: Carl 
Schurz, secretary of the interior. 

April 10, 20. Hayes withdraws the Federal 
troops which have been supportmg the radical 
governments in South Carohna and Loiusiana. 
This marks the overthrow of the policy of Re- 
con.struction so far as it is a means of "securing 
the Kcpulilican party hi the Soiitli, and begins tlie 
Democratic " Solid South," wliicli is based on 
the repression of Negro votes in all States where 
their number is sufBcient to tlireaten white control. 
After 1890 the earlier methods of repression give 
way to constitutional, educational, and ancestral 
quaUfications aimhig at the sane result. 



ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 

1877. July. Railroad riots tliruugliout the East, 
especially in Pennsylvania, are caused by reduc- 
tion of wages. Mob controls Pittsburgh July 19- 
23 and destroys much property. Both militia 
and regulars are employed in suppressing the riots 
there, at Baltimore, Cliicago, and elsewiiere. 

Oct. 15. 45th Congress meets in extra session: 
Senate, 36 Democrats. 39 Republicans, 1 Inde- 
pendent; House, 153 Democrats, 140 Republicans. 
Nov. 23. Halifax Commission orders the 
United States to pay Canada .S5, 500,000 for the 
privileges of inshore fishing (Halifax Award). 

1878. The Brush electric arc light is developed. 
Gold, lowest price for the year 100 (December 
17); highest, 102 J. 

A French company secures from Colombia a con- 
cession to build the Panama (anal. Hayes 
considers the grant as opposed to American rights 
and policy; a canal part- of our " coast line." 

Jan. 14. In Hall v. De Cuir, a State law requir- 
ing raUroads to give equal accommodations to all 
passengers without respect to race or color is held 
by the Supreme Court to be unconstitutional be- 
cause it affects interstate travel. 

Feb. 2S. Bland-Allison Silver Law is enact- 
ed over Hayes's veto; a compromise on the de- 
mand for unlimited coinage of silver doUars; a new 
form of the movement for cheap money. Law re- 
quires coinage each month of a certain numlicr of 
legal-tender dollars at a ratio with gold of 16 to 1 . 

March 25. In Pensacola Telegraph Co. v. 
Western Union Telegraph Co. the Supreme Court 
declares that power to regulate interstate com- 
merce embraces all the instrumentahties, includ- 
ing the telegraph. 

May SI. Further retirement of greenbacks is 
stopped by Congress; the amoimt outstanding 
then (and thereafter) is $346,681,010. Efforts to 
repeal the Resumption Act are defeated. 

June 3. Timber and Stone Lands Act provides 
a further especial means of securing pubhc land. 

A'oii. U. In Fertilizing Company v. Hyde 
Park the Supreme Court holds that the police 
power of a State to restrain a nuisance does not 
impair the obUgation of a contract even though it 
prevents the carrjing on of a chartered business. 

1879. Edison develops the Incandescent electric 
light. 



178 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1879-1889. 



1879 {continued) . 

Jan.l. Uesumptlonorspecir paynientssuc- 

cessfuily inaugurated, and thereafter maiuiamed. 

Jan. 25. Arrears-of -Pensions Act is passed: 
first great grab engineered by pension attorneys. 

March 1. Hayes vetoes a Chinese Exclusion 
Biil. The demand of the Pacific Coast for the 
bill is on an economic rather than a social basis 
(" Chinese cheap labor "), but the problem is, on 
a smaller scale, somewhat similar to that of the 
South in regard to the Negro. 

March S. Forty-sLxth Congress is convened 
by Hayes in special session to consider the appro- 
priation bills. A Democratic control of both 
houses, for first time since 1S59. having 42 in the 
Senate and 156 in the House; Repubhcans. 33 in 
the Senate and 135 in the House; Independents, 1 
in the Senate; Nationals, 2 in the House. 

April 9. The first of a scries of vetoes by Hayes 
of appropriation bills bearing riders intended to 
nullify the Federal Election Law. 

1880. Imports of merchandise. $667,954,746; ex- 
ports of merchandise, 8835,638.658 (beginning 
with 1S76 the total exports regularly exceed the 
import-3 except diu-ing the years 18S8. 1889, and 
1893) ; immigrants, 457,257. 

March 1. In Strauder v. West Virginia the 

Supreme Court pronounces imconstitutional an 

act excluding Negroes from juries. — a violation 

of the Fourtit"nth Amcntlment. [155,783. 1 

June 1, Tenth U. rf. census; poulation, 50,-1 

July 1. National net debt, $1,919,326,748. 

A'oii. a. Twenty-fourth presidential election: 
Garfield and Arthur, Republicans, receive 214 
electoral votes; W. S. Hancock and W. H. Eng- 
lish, Democrats, 155 votes; Greenback, Proiiibi- 
tion, and American parties have candidates, but 
no electoral votes. 

Nov. 4- Constitutional amendment in Kansas 
establishes prohibition. 

Nov. 17. Chinese Exclusion Treaty is signed 
with China, removing Hayes's objections to an 
exclusion act. 

1881. Jan. 2!,. In Springer ». United States the 
Supreme Court holds the Federal income tax of 
1862 Jo be constitutional, not being a direct tax. 

March 4. Inauguration of James Abram 
Garfield as twentieth president. 

July 2. Garneld is sliot by a disappointed 
office seeker. He dies Septemlier 19. 

Sept. 20. Vice President t'hoster .\lan Arthur 
becomes the twenty-first president. 

Dec. a. First meeting of the Forty-seventh 
Congress: Senate. 37 Democrats. 37 Republicans. 
1 Indeiiendent. 1 Readjuster; House. 135 Demo- 
crats. 147 Republicans, 9 Greenbackers, 2 Read- 
justers. 

1882. March. Disastrotis overflow of the Missis- 
sippi River ; some 85,000 people made destitute. 

March 22. Antipolygamy Act directed against 
the Mormons- 

April S. In Telegraph Company v. Texas the 
Supreme Court holds that a State tax on telegrams 
is void so far as it is laid on interstate messages or 
on those sent by Federal officials. 

May u. First Chinese Exclusion Act sus- 
pends immigration of laborers for ten years. The 
act repeatedly renewed and strengthened, and 
the policy still in force in 1920. 

Aug. 3. First act to restrict general immigra- 
tion excludes defectives and convicts and imposes 
a head tax. 

1883. Northern Pacific, Southern Pacific, and 
Santa Fe transcontinental lines are opened. 

Jan. 16. Civil Service Reform Act author- 
izes a commission to prepare and superintend 
tests for entrance into the "classified service." 
Arthur classifies about 16.000 positions; the scope 
of the law later broadened by succeeding presidents 
tmtil most of the possible positions are brought 
within it. Law also prohibits political assessments 
on employees and political activity by them. 

March 3. Tariff and Internal-BeTenue Act 
to reduce the surplus. Excise taxes removed from 
everything but liquor and tobacco; but on the 
tarifi" the recommendations of a special tariff com- 
mission which had carefully considered the mat- 
ter are ignored. An imsymmetrical law framed 
which increases protection. Little effect made on 
the surplus. 

Congress authorizes three crtiisers and a dispatch 
boat; the beginning of the new steel navy. 

May 2.',. New York-Brooklyn suspension 
bridge is opened [a half ounce, i 

Oct. 1. Letterpostageisreduced to two cents! 

Oct. IS. In Civil Rights Cases the Supreme 
Court declares the Civil Rights Act of 1875 im- 
constitutional, save as it relates to jury duty and 
interstate travel ; the Fourteenth Amendment does 
not apply to individual infringements; and the 
denial of equal accommodations at inns, etc., is 
not a badge of slavery. 

Nov. 23. New York City celebrates the cen- 
tennial of British evacuation in 1783. 

Dec. .S. Forty-eighth Congress begins: Senate. 
36 Democrats, 38 Republicans, 2 Readjusters 



(Repubhcans); House. 196 Democrats, 118 Re- 
publicans. 1 Greenbacker. 5 Readjusters, 3 Inde- 
pendents. [City. I 

1884. Electrictroliey street cars operate in Kansas I 
June 27. Congress authorizes the Federal 

Bureau of Labor; enlarged to a department on 
June 13. 1888. to a cabinet office on Feb. 14, 1903. 

Nov. 4. Twenty-fifth presidential election; 
Cleveland and Hendricks, Democrats, supported 
by many Republicans (" Mugwtmips "), receive 
219 electoral votes; J. G. Blaine and J. A. Logan, 
Republicans, 182 votes; candidates of Prohibi- 
tion and Greenback parties get no electoral voles. 

Dec. IV. Cotton Centennial Exhibition is 
opened at New Orleans. 

1885. Imports of merchandise, $577,527,329; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $742,189,755: immigrants, 
395.346. 

Feb. 21. Washington Monument is dedi- 
cated at Wasliington. (See Washmulon Monument, 
imder Washington, in the Dictionary.) 

Feb, 26. Congress forbids the immigration of 
contract laborers. [twenty-second president. I 

March 4. Grover Cleveland takestheoathasi 

April 16. State park at Niagara Falls is cre- 
ated by New York legislature. 

June SO. Fisheries reciprocity with Canada 
under Treaty of Wasliington is terminated by the 
United States; because of Canadian obstruction 
of what the United States claims as rights under 
the Treaty of 1818, controversy becomes acute. 

July 1. National net debt, $1,375,352,444. 
Letter postage reduced to two cents an ounce; 
second-class postage to one cent a pound, causing 
a continuetl deficit in the department. 

Dec. 7. Forty-ninth Congress assembles: Sen- 
ate, 34 Democrats. 42 Repubhcans: House. 183 
Democrats. 140 Republicans, 2 Greenbackers. 

1886. Jan. 19. Presidential Succession Act, 
making the members of the cabinet ehgible in case 
of vacancy of president and vice president. 

March-May. Great strike on the Gould ej'S- 
tem of railroads in Missouri and neighboring 
States,' promoted by the Knights of Labor. It 
fails. The year is one of many labor disturbances ; 
Ivnights of Labor endeavor to force a general eight- 
liour day. [ing a strike there. 1 

May 4- Anarchist riot in Chicago, foUow-l 

May W. In Yick Wo v. Hopkins the Supreme 
Court decides that a municipal ordinance designed 
to make arbitrary and unjust discriminations 
against Chinese lamidries is contrary to the prin- 
ciples of the Fourteenth Amendment. 

April 22. Cleveland sends a special message 
to Congress devoted to the labor question, the 
first of its kind and indicative of the growing im- 
portance of a matter considered originally as en- 
tirely outside the Federal purview. 

Aug. 2. Congress places a tax on oleomarga- 
rine : an early pure- food law. 

Aug, 31. Severe earthquake on the Atlantic 
seaboard, especially at Charleston. 

Sept. 4. Siurender of Geronimo and his 
Apaches to' General Miles in Arizona ends the last 
important Indian disturbance. 

Oct. 12. Gales and floods in Texas and Louisi- 
ana destroy property and 247 lives. 

Oct. 2.5. In Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific 
Railway Co. v. Illinois, the Supreme Court con- 
strues a State long-and-short^haul act as being 
a regulation of interstate commerce. The court 
reconsiders the Granger Cases of 1877. arguing 
that tlie ciuestion of interstate commerce was there 
only incidental. Tliis decision shows the need of 
Federal regulation of the railroads. 

Oct. 2S. Bartholdi's "Statue of Liberty" 
(Liberty Enlightening the World, see in the Dic- 
tionary) is unveiled in New York Harbor. 

1887. Jan. 29. Mexican War Pention Act be- 
comes law; age. dependency, or disabilities are 
pensionable. 

Feb. 3. Electoral Count Act is passed to pre- 
vent a recurrence of the 1876 situation; decision 
of State machinery to be accepted. 

Feb. 4. Interstate Connmerce Act passes 
after an agitation of years. State regulation of 
railroa^ls by legislation and commissions (Granger 
movement), though upheld by the Supreme 
Court, was not powerful enough or uniform and 
gave place to a demand for Federal regulation. 
Railroads very powerful and frequently affect or 
control State governments. Act creates an ad- 
ministrative commission with power to prevent 
abuses in interstate commerce (pooling, rebates, 
etc.); it soon proves that further legislation is 
needed to make the power an efficient one. 

Feb. 8. Indian Allotment Law is enacted; 
tmder stipulated conditions Indians may be given 
land in severalty and become citizens. During 
this period the reseri'ations are being rapidly re- 
duced ui size and number and the land opened to 
white settlement. 

Feb, 11. Cleveland vetoes the Disability and 
Dependent Pension Bill for Civil War veterans. 
Herelentlessly uses the veto power against private 
pension bills. 



March 2. Hatch Act authorizes the establish- 
ment of agricultural experiment stations in con- 
nection with Morrill Act coUeges (see 1862, July 2) , 
United States to contribute funds. 
Tenure-of-Office Act, previously modified, is re- 
pealed. 

A more drastic antipolygamy act is passed, which 
the Supreme Court in Mormon Church b. I'nited 
States (May 19. 1S90) upholds as not contrary to 
the right of rehgious freedom. 
The president is authorized to retaliate on Cana- 
dian trade for the obstniction of the fishing rights; 
no action taken. 

May 27. In Philadelpliia and Southern 
Steamsliip Co. i>. Pennsylvania, the Supreme 
Court holds a State tax upon the gross receipts 
of a steamship company derived from interstate 
and foreign commerce contrary to the exclusive 
power of Congress. 

Sept. 5. Labor Day is first obser\'ed in New 
York as a legal holiday. 

Sept. 15-17. Centenary of the framing of the 
Federal Constitution celebrated at Pluladelpliia. 

Dec. B. Fiftieth Congress begins: Senate, 37 
Democrats, 45 Kejiublicans; House, 109 Demo- 
crats, 152 Republicans, 2 Laborites, 2 Independ- 
ents. 

In Mugler b. Kansas the Supreme Court decides 
that a State proliibition act is not contrarj' to the 
Fourteenth Amendment, but a proper police regu- 
lation to protect the pubUc health and morals. 

Dec. 6. Cleveland's annual message is en- 
tirely dc\-oted to the surplus and tariiT question, 
making this the one issue of the next campaign. 
" A condition, not a theory." 

1888. Feb. 20. Treaty signed with Great Britain 
to settle the fisheries dispute; the Senate rejects 
it (August 21). A modus Vivendi, frequently re- 
newed, prevents further trouble. 

March 19. In Bowman v. Cliicago and North- 
western Railway Co. a State law forbidding the 
importation of liquor is held void by the Supreme 
Court as a regulation of interstate commerce. 

April 9. In PowcU I'. Petmsylvania the Su- 
preme Court decides that a State law prohibiting 
the manufactiu'e and sale of articles designed to 
take the place of butter or cheese is constitutional. 

April 23. The Supreme Court begins in the 
Missouri Pacific Railway Company i". Mackey its 
series of important interpretations of the Four- 
teenth Amendment as applied to la'bor questions, 
holding that a State statute abohslitng the fellow- 
servant doctrine in workmen's compensation for 
injuries is not contrary to the amendment. 

July 20. Melville W. Fuller becomes chief jus- 
tice of the Supreme Court. 

Oct. 1. Congress authorizes the appointment of 
commissions of volimtary arbitration between in- 
terstate railroads and their laborers; begiiming of 
policy of settlement of labor disputes by national 
authority. 

Second Chinese Exclusion Act prohibits the re- 
turn of laborers who have left the country. 

Nov. 6. Twenty-sixth presidential election: 
Hartison and Levi P. Morton, Republicans, re- 
ceive 233 electoral votes: Cleveland and Allen G. 
Thurman, 168 votes; Labor, Proliibition, and 
United Labor parties present platforms and candi- 
dates. 

1889. Bankruptcy of the French Panama Canal 
Company; of importance to the United States, 
where the concession is deemed contrary to the 
nation's policy and welfare, if not to the Monroe 
Doctrine. Interest in an American canal is stimu- 
lated; an Amex'ican company organizes for work 
through Nicaraguan isthmus. 

Feb. 9. Department of Agriculture becomes an 
executive department and its secretary a cabinet 
oflScer. 

March 4. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated 
as twenty-third president: James G. Blaine is sec- 
retary of state. 

April 22. Part of Indian Territory (Okla- 
homa) is opened, and a wild rtish to settle ensues. 

April 20-May 1. Celebration in New York of 
the centennial of Washington's inauguration. 

May 31. Breaking of the Conemaugh Dam 
floods Johnstown, Pa., and destroys 2.295 lives. 

June 14. Tripartite agreement with Great 
Britain and Germany for the independence and 
joint control of Samoa. 

Oct. 1, Constitution of North Dakota estab- 
lishes prohibition. 

Oct. 2. First Pan-American Congress meets 
at Washington. Delegates tour the coimtry- and 
hold sessions lasting imtil April 19, 1890. A bu- 
reau, later caUed the Pan-American Union, is 
organized with headquarters in Wasliington. 

A'oii. 2. North Dakota (39th State) and South 
Dakota (40th State) admitted. 

Nor. S. Montana (41st State) admitted. 
Nov. 11, Wasliington (42d State) admitted. 

Dec, 2. Fifty-first Congress: Senate, 37 Demo- 
crats, 45 Republicans: House, 161 Democrats, 169 
Repubhcans. Repiibhcan majority later increased 
by contested-election decisions. 



1890-1895. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



179 



1890, Imports of merchandise, S7S9, 310,409; ex- 
ports of merchandise, SS57,S2S,GS4; immigrants, 
455,302. 

Feb. 4. Centennial of the United States Su- 
preme Court is celebrated at New York. 

Feb. 14- *' Keed rules " are established in the 
House of Representatives; provision for counting 
the quorum; powers of Speaker to refuse certain 
filibustering motions. The most important 
change in Congressional practice since the adop- 
tion of the previous question (see previous question, 
under previous, in the Dictionary). 

April 28. In Leisy v. Hardin the Supreme 
Court supplements an earlier decision by liolduig 
that State proliibition of the sale hi the " original 
package " by the importer of Uquor from another 
State is unconstitutional. 

May 2. Oklahoma Territory (the last in the 
continental area) is established out of part of In- 
dian Territory and later increased. [V»47, 714.1 

June. Eleventh U. S. C€nsus: population (52.-1 

June 37. Disability and Dependent Pen- 
sion Act for Civil War veterans and widows is 
signed. About doubles pension outgo and aids in 
reducing the siu-plus. Veterans incapable of man- 
ual labor and dependent widows and children are 
pensionable. 

July 1. National net debt, $890,784,371. 

July 2. House passes a Force Bill to protect 
Negro voters in tlie South, but the Senate shelves 
it, by combination of senators from silver-produc- 
ing States. 

July 2. Sherman Antitrust Act makes com- 
binations in restraint of interstate or foreign com- 
merce illegal. Applies general principle of inter- 
' state commerce to transportation and other cor- 
pwations. 

July 3. Idaho (43d State) admitted. 

July 10. Wyoming (44th State) admitted. 

July 14- Congress enacts the Silver Purchase 
Act, which supersedes the Bland-. Allison Act of 
1878. It is a fiu-ther compromise with the de- 
mand for free silver and requires the piu'chase each 
month of 4,500,0(X) ounces of silver and the issue 
of legal-tender silver treasury notes equal to the 
purchase value. 

A ug. S. Original Package Act (see under origi- 
nal, in the Dictionary) passed to do away with 
the situation caused by the Leisy v. Hardin de- 
cision and give the States the right to prevent the 
importation and sale of hquor. 

A tcff. SO. Congress passes an act for the inspec- 
tion of pork products intended for exportation ; the 
outcome of controversies with foreign nations, es- 
pecially Germany. President is given power to re- 
taliate on unjust discriminations against American 
products. 

Federal encouragement of agricultural education 
is increased by an act for an annual grant to the 
Morrill agricultural colleges (see 1862, July 2, 
above) . 

Sept. 29. Act for the general forfeiture of im- 
eamed Federal land grants to railroads. This has 
been a popular demand for years, due to the con- 
viction that the lands were unreasonably tied up. 
Previous acts have forfeited special grants. 

Oct. 1. Act for Weather Bureau. Hitherto 
this work done by the Signal Corps of the army. 
McKlnley Tariff Act. Increases and systema- 
tizes protection; revenue is reduced by prohibitive 
duties and the placing of raw sugar on the free ILst, 
a sugar bomity being given the domestic producers 
as an offset. Limit-ed reciprocity authorized, es- 
pecially with Latin America. Vnder this section 
arrangements are proclaimed by Harrison with 
eleven coim tries, but the tariff act of 1894 annuls 
them. Prices of imported goods suddenly rise. 

Nov. 1. Mississippi adopts a new constitution, 
the first to restrict Ne^o suffrage through the 
" understanding clause." 

Nov. 6. Congressional election; effects of the 
McKinley Act cause defeat of Republican party. 

1891. March 2. Congress returns to the States 
the amount paid as direct tax during the Civil 
War; a sort of surplus- revenue distribution. 

March 3. A further Immigration and Contract 
Act is passed, and the office of Superintendent of 
Immigration created. Great growth of Immi- 
gration and changes in character of immigrants. 
Decrease in immigration of Teutonic stocks and 
increase in Latin and Sla\ic ones. Organized 
labor favors restrictions. The problem receives 
serious study and various reports on it are pre- 
sented to Congress. 

International Copyright Law is enacted, to go 
into effect on July 1. 

The preemption and timber-culture acts are re- 
pealed, both having been prolific of fraud; and the 
president is authorized to make forest reserves, 
such reser\'es being withdrawn from settlement 
and used to conserve the lumber supply as well as 
to prevent floods. By 1920 the reserves cover 
about 273.000 square miles. 
Circuit Courts of Appeal are created, relieving Su- 
preme Court of some of the appellate jurisdiction. 
Ocean Mail Subsidy Act is passed in order to foster 



the growth of the American merchant marine in 
foreign trade, which has fallen greatly since the 
Civil War and with the development of iron steam- 
ers. Act fails to accomplish much. 

March 14. LjTiching of eleven Italians in New 
Orleans causes a protest and demand for repara- 
tion by Italy, her minister at Washington being 
recalled. Eventually settled out of emergency 
fimd of the State Department (April 12, 1892). 

May 26. In re Ralirer tiie Supreme Court holds 
the Original Package Law to \-)q constitutional ; the 
protection given by the Fourteenth Amendment 
does not interfere with, the i>ower of the States to 
make the ordinarj- police regulations. 

Oct. 16. Attack on American sailors by a mob 
at Valparaiso, Chile. War becomes imminent 
tlu"ough Chile's delay to make amends. 

Dec. 1. Fifty-second Congress meetsi Senate, 
39 Democrats, 47 Republicans, 2 Independents; 
House, 235 Democrats, 88 Repubhcans, 9 Farm- 
ers* Alliance men. 
1893. Jati. 21. Ultimatum is presented to Chile, 
and on January 25 Harrison sends a war message 
to Congress; but Chile soon apologizes and pays 
an indemnity. 

Feb. 2U. Convention signed with Great Britain 
submitting to arbitration the right of the LTnited 
States to prohibit pelagic himting of the fur seals 
In the Bering Sea. The award of the arbitra- 
tors, signed and published Aug. 15, 1893, favored 
Great Britain and ended a long controversy during 
which various Canadian vessels had been seized for 
killing seals on the sea. (See Bering Se.\ Contro- 
versy, in the Dictionary.) 

June-August. Coimtry is affected by many 
strikes accompanied by much violence, especially 
in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Wyoming, and Idaho. 
At the Homestead Steel Works protection of non- 
imion laborers by private detecti^■es (" Pinker- 
tons ") leads to a pitched battle. In Tennessee 
the trouble is an outcome of the emplo>"ment of 
convict miners. Harrison issues proclamations 
(July 15, 30) against the striking miners in the 
West, and Federal troops are used in restoring 
order and to support injunctions of the Federal 
courts. These disturbances characterize a season 
of economic and social unrest. 

Nov. S. Twenty-seventh presidential election: 
Cleveland and Adiai E. Stevenson, Democrats, 
receive 277 electoral votes; Harrison and White- 
law Reid, Republicans, 145 votes; People's or 
Populist party, which embodies the Farmers' 
Alliance, first minor party to cast electoral votes, 
gets 22 for J. B. Weaver and J. G. Field, its candi- 
dates. This party aims to remedy the conditions 
and complaints of the farmmg and laboring 
classes. Prohibition and Socialist Labor parties 
also have candidates. 
1893. Edison develops the kinetoscope or moTing* 
picture apparatus. 

Feb. 14. Treaty of annexation with Hawaii is 
signed. This follows a revolt led by Americans, 
assisted by the American minister, and protected 
by American marines, by wliich the queen is de- 
posed. Not ratified. 

March 1 . Congress authorizes the title of 
American " ambassador " to foreign courts. By 
1920, 15 legations have been raised to that rank. 

March 2. Safety Appliance Act of Congress 
regulates brakes and couplers on trains in inter- 
stat*^ commerce. 

March 3. Dawes Commission is authorized by 
Congress, to dissolve tribal government among the 
Five Civilized Tribes, preliminary to the incor- 
poration of their lands into Oklahoma. Com- 
mission allots the land in severalty, and the Indians 
eventually Ijecome citizens of Oklahoma. 

March 4- Grover Cleveland begins his second 
administration as president. 

March 9. Cleveland withdraws the Hawaiian 
Annexation Treaty from the Senate. He ap- 
points a special commissioner to consider the re- 
volt. Offers to restore the queen on conditions 
which she declines. Hawaii remains independent. 

May 1-Oct. 30. World Columbian Exposi- 
tion at Cliicago to commemorate the 400th an- 
niversary of the discovery of America. 

Ju7ie IS. Great Northern Railroad is opened; 
the first transcontinental line to be constructed 
without a land grant. 

June 27. Commercial panic is started, the re- 
sult of complex caiises of which the most apparent 
to the public is the fear of a silver standard. The 
redemption of notes in gold, which notes are reis- 
sued, makes an " endless chain " for draining the 
gold reserve. A continuous increase of silver 
notes and a rapid decline in the value of silver. 
Hard times continue for several years; and there 
is a treasiu-y deficit of S156,000,000 dining the 
fiscal years 1894-97. 

Aug. 7. Fifty-third Congress meets in special 
session: Senate. 44 Democrats, 37 Republicans, 
4 Independents; House, 218 Democrats, 127 Re- 
publicans, 11 Populists and Independents. 
There are silver men in both the chief parties, but 
mainly they are Democrats. Democratic party 



for the first time since 1859 controls both houses 
of Congress and the executive. 

Aug. 16. Award in the Bering Sea Arbitration 
denies the right of the United States to prevent 
killing of the seals beyond the tliree-mile limife. 

Aug. 24. Cyclone on the Atlantic coast does 
much damage and destroys many lives, especially 
about Charleston and Savannah. 

Nov. I. Congress repeals the purchase clause 
of the Sliver Act (of 1890), but does not stop the 
drain of the gold reserve. 

Nov. 7. Colorado adopts woman suffrage. 

1894. Jan. 1. Midwinter Fair opens in San Fran- 
cisco. 

Jan. 1 7. Issue of $50,000,000 in bonds is offered 
to replenish the gold reser\'e, which by February 1 
falls to $65,000,000, as $100,000,000 is considered 
the minimum safety pomt. 

Feb. S. Democrats being in control (" South in 
the saddle ") the Federal Election Law of 1871 is 
repealed. 

March 29. Cleveland vetoes a bill to coin the 
purchased silver buUion to the amoimt of the 
seigniorage. (See seigniorage. «., 3., in the Die/.). 

April 29. Remnant of " Cosey*s Army of the 
Commonwealth of Christ," a demonstration of 
tlie imemployed, reaches Washington with a de- 
mand for the issue of $500,000,000 paper money. 
Strikes and other labor movements emphasize the 
hard times, for which " cheap money and plenty 
of it," especially the free coinage of silver, is prer 
sented as a panacea. 

June 26-July 14. Strike of the American 
Railway Union starts in Chicago with the refusal 
to handle Pullman cars because of a strike of labor- 
ers in the Pullman factory. Extends all over the 
West, accompanied by mtich rioting and com- 
pletely stops transportation on 50,000 miles of 
railroads. Debs and other strike leaders are ar- 
rested on Federal injunctions for interft rence with 
interstate commerce and carriage of the mails. 
Local troops are called out in many places, and Pres- 
ident Cleveland, without waiting for requests from 
State executives, employs Federal troops, especially 
at Chicago, to protect the railroads. Strike fails. 

Aug. 8. Hawaiian BepubUc is officially 
recognized by the United States. 

Aug. IS. Carey Act authorizes the granting of 
arid pubhc lands to States, subject to irrigation 
and actual occupation by settlers. Act does not 
prove effective. 

Aug. 28. Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act l:ie- 
comes law without the president's signattire. as he 
does not deem it such a reform measure as that to 
which his party stands pledged. The act, aside 
from putting wool and lumber on the free list, 
makes but slight reduction in protection. Raw 
sugar restored to the dutiable hst and the sugar 
bomity repealed. Act levies a second income tax. 

September. Forest fires destroy 19 towns in 
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and 500 peo- 
ple are killed. 

Nfjv. 5. A second bond issue of $50,000,000 is 
made to replenish the gold reserve. 

1895. Imports of merchandise, $731,969,965; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $807,538,165; immigrants, 
279,948. 

The automobile comes into practical tise. 

Jan. 21. In United States r. Knight (Sugar 
Tnist Case) the Supreme Coiui: limits the Sher- 
man Antitrust Act by holding that it does not ap- 
ply to monopolies in manufacturing. 

Feb. 11 . Gold reserve is reduced to about $41,- 
000.000. Cleveland (Februarj^ 8) contracts with 
a sj-ndicate to buy bonds which they immediately 
resell at a large premium. Much public criticism. 

March 2. Bureau of Immigration created and 
superintendent is made a commissioner-general. 

May 20. In Pollock v. Farmers' Law and 
Trust Co. the Supreme Comt by 5 to 4 declares 
the income tax imconstitutional, being direct and 
not apportioned. 

May 27. In re Debs the Supreme Court, de- 
clares that an injunction to prevent strikers from 
interfering with interstate commerce or the move- 
ment of the mails is a legitimate means of exercis- 
ing the power vested in the United States. Or- 
ganized labor holds that this " government by in- 
jimction " is an unjust handicap in favor of capital. 

July 1. National net debt, $901,672,976. 

Sept. iS-Dcc. SI. Cotton States and Interna- 
tional Exposition is held at Atlanta. [suffrage.] 

Nov. 5. Utah constitution calls for woman! 

Dec. 2. Fifty-foiuth Congress begins its ses- 
sions: Senate, 39 Democrats, 42 Republicans, 6 
Independents and Silverites; House. 104 Demo- 
crats, 248 Republicans, and 11 Populists and In- 
dependents. 

Dec. 17. Cleveland's message on Venezuela 
and British Guiana boundary controversy 
holds that the right of the Ignited States under 
the RIonroe Doctrine is involved in Great Britain's 
refusal to arbitrate with Venezuela ("OIney Doc- 
trine "). He recommends a commission to decide 
the rights of the controversy. Congress author- 
izes the commission (December 21). 



180 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1895-1901. 



1895 (confinued). 
M Dec. SI. South Carolina adopts a new constitu- 

tion wliicli contains tlie " understanding clause " 
for the purpose of disfranchising the Negroes. 

1896. Rural free delivery is begim in a small way, 
and develops quickly into a great system. 

Jan. 4. Utah admitted (45th State); the con- 
stitution prohibits polygamy, wliich the Mormon 
Chiu'ch has earher formally renounced. 

OFeb. 5. A popular issue of 8100,000,000 in 
bonds is quickly subscribed at a premium, and the 
gold reserve rises to a point of safety. 

April 112. International Arbitration Congress 
meets at Washington. 

May IS. In Plessy ». Ferguson the Supreme 
Court holds that a State law requiring railroads to 
give separate but equal accommodation to white 
and colored travelers is not a violation of the Thu'- 
P teenth or Fourteenth amendments (" Jim Crow " 

cars). 

July SO. President's proclamation warning 
citizens against violating the neutrality laws l)y 
aiding tlie insurrection in Cuba, which has 
existed for over a year and has excited much inter- 
est and sympathy in the United States. 

A'oii. S. Twenty-eighth presidential elec- 

Qtlon: Republicans seciu'e 271 electoral votes for 
JVIcKinley and G. A. Hobart; Democrats, 176 votes 
tor W. J. Bryan and 149 for Arthur Sewall for 
vice president. Silver Republicans and Popu- 
. lists support Bryan and cast 27 electoral votes for 
Thomas E. Watson for vice president. Though 
there is an attempt to force the tariff question to 
the front, the real issue is that of free silver. Re- 
^ publicans stand by gold standard ; the Democrats 

R insist on free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 

1 (market value of silver about 30 to 1). Gold 
or National Democrats pre.sent separate candi- 
dates, as do the Proliibition, Sociahst Labor, and 
National parties. 
Idaho adopts woman suffrage. 

UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER. 
g 1890. Nat. 12. Great Britain and United States 

reach an agreement for tlie settlement of the Brit- 
ish Guiana Ijoundary by formal arbitration treaty 
between Great Britain and Venezuela (made 
February 2, 1897). 

1897. Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty is signed 
with Great Britain; Senate rejects it (ISIay 5). 

March 2. Cleveland vetoes a bill for a literacy 

Ttest of immigrants, (twenty-fourth president.! 
March !,. William McKinley inaugurated as| 

March 16. Fifty-flfth Congress meets m extra 
session to revise the tariff: Senate, 34 Democrats, 
47 Republicans, 3 Independents and Silverites, 
5 Populists; House, 134 Democrats, 207 Republi- 
cans, 14 Populists, 2 Silverites. Entire govern- 
ment returns to Republican control. 

March 22. In United States ». Trans-Missouri 
U Freight Association the Supreme Court applies 

Sherman Antitrust Act to common carriers by rail- 
road; a comliination in restraint of interstate 
commerce is illegal without respect to whether the 
restraint is " reasonable." 

May 6. Greater New York charter is signed 
by the governor; goes into effect January 1, 1898, 
and incorporates into one mimicipahty an area of 

V326 square miles with a population of 3,400,000. 
May 30. Senate passes a resolution recognizing 
Cuban belligerency. 

July 2i. Dingley TarilT Act augments the 
protection and furnishes additional revenue ; it re- 
stores the duty on wool and lumber, and author- 
izes negotiation of reciprocity treaties. Seven 
such treaties are eventually ratified, but the policy 

... is abandoned by the act of 1909. 

VV 1898. Feb. 1.5. U.S.S. Maine blown up in Ha- 

vana harbor; more than 260 lives lost. No ade- 
quate explanation ever discovered, except that it 
is due to external cause. 

Feb. IS. In Holden v. Hardy the Supreme 
Court holds that a State regulation for an eight- 
hour day tor certain classes of mining employees, 
with emergency exceptions, is a proper police 

yt regulation for the protection and health of citizens 

and not contrary to the Foiu-teenth Amendment. 
March 7. In Smjth v. Ames the Supreme 
Court decides that a corporation is a " person " 
within meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment, 
and inadequate intrastate railroad rates fixed by a 
State deprive the railroad ot its property without 
due process of law. Coiu'ts have the right to de- 

Ycide whether the rates are reasonable. 
March 10. Congress empowers the president to 
spend $50,000,000 for national defense. U.S.S. 
Oregon leaves San Francisco, March 19, on a 
voyage arotmd Cape Horn to join the Atlantic 
fleet; reaches Florida on May 24. Pi-esident sends 
to Congress on March 28 report of Cotu-t of In- 
quiry into Maine disaster, attributing it to ex- 
ternal cause. On April 11 he suggests that he be 
2 empowered to use the army and navy to end dis- 

orders in Cuba, and places with Congress the re- 
sponsibility for dealing decisively with " the in- 
tolerable condition of affairs which is at our doors." 



Resolutions are passed by Congress, April 20, 
that the United States intervene in Cuba to 

enforce her independence, but disclaiming the in- 
tention to annex the island (" Teller resolution "). 
Spanish minister leaves Washington on the same 
day. American fleet sails on April 21 from Key 
West to blockade Cuban ports. President on 
AprU 23 calls for 125,(X(0 volunteers. April 25, 
Congress declares that war with Spain has 
existed since April 21. May 1, Dewey with Pa- 
cific fleet attacks and destroys Spanish fleet of 
ten ships in Manila Bay. 

May 12. New constitution goes into effect in 
Louisiana disfrancliising Negroes through the 
" grandfather clause." Limitations on suffrage 
not to apply to descendants of those who could 
vote m 1861. 

May 25. President calls for 75,000 additional 
vohmteers. 2,600 soldiers are sent from San 
Francisco to support Dewey in his operations 
against Manila. 

May 2S. In United States v. Wong Kim Ark 
the Supreme Coiui, declares that native citizen- 
ship under the Fourteenth Amendment is without 
respect to race or color; a child bom in the United 
States ot resident Chmese parents is therefore a 
citizen and cannot be prevented by the Chinese 
ExcliLSion Act from reentering the United States. 
June 1. Exposition of the arts and industries 
of trans-Mississippi States is opened at Omaha. 
Erdman Act authorizes governmental mediation 
and voltmtary arbitration of disputes between 
carriers engaged in interstate commerce and their 
employees, and torbids such carriers to discrimi- 
nate against imion laborers or to blacklist them. 

June 2. The fleet, tmder Sampson, blockades 
Santiago, Cuba, preventing the exit ot the Spanish 
fleet tmder Cervera. On June 3 Lt. Richmond P. 
Hobson sillies the Merrimac in the channel as an 
obstacle to the escape ot the Spanish fleet. 

J mice. Final .\nmesty .\ct removes remainder 
of Civil War disabilities tmder Foiuteenth Amend- 
ment. 

June 10. Invasion ot Cuba by the Americans 
begins with the landing ot 600 marines at Guant4- 
namo Bay, near Santiago. Fifth Army Corps, 
16,000 men, mider Shatter, sails from Tampa 
Bay tor Santiago, Jtme 12. They arrive Jtme 20. 
June IS. War Revenue Act provides for the 
raismg of revenues by excise duties, tax on tea, and 
tor a lx)nd loan ot $400,000,000, but only half the 
bonds are isstied. 

June 20. Guam seized by U.S.S. Charleston. 
June 30. First V. S. troops reach Manila. 
The outer defenses ot Santiago de Cuba are carried 
by Shatter, in battles ot El Caney and San Juan 
Hill. Roosevelt's " Bough Riders " in the fight 
July 3. Cen'era's fleet of six war vessels, escap- 
ing from Santiago harbor, completely destroyed by 
American fleet imder Sampson. Question as to 
responsibility of Admiral Schley. Uution.l 

July 7. Annexation of Hawaii by joint reso-| 
July 17. Santiago with all its forces (20.000) 
is surrendered to Shatter. General Miles lands 
with an army at Guanica, July 25, and begins the 
conquest of Porto Rico. On Jidy 28 Ponce 
smrenders. Spain inqtures, on July 23, on what 
terms the United States would cease hostilities. 
On August 12 a protocol is signed at Washington 
suspending hostiUties. Manila surrenders. Au- 
gust 13, to General Merritt and Admiral Dewey. 
.4 ug. S3. The joint High Commission to adjust 
differences between the United States and Canada 
meets at Quebec. It accomplishes little, 

Sevl. SO. John Hay becomes secretary of 
state. [Rico. I 

Oct. IS. United States flag is raised over Porto I 
Dec. 10. Treaty of Peace is signed at Paris; 
Spain abandons Cuba, cedes Porto Rico, Guam, 
and Philippines to United States, and is paid 
$20,000,000. 
1899. Feb. .',. Filipinos attempt to capture Ma- 
nila, but are repulsed with heavy loss. This he- 
gins the Philippine Insurrection. During the 
year the warfare is largely desultory and m favor 
ot the government. 

Feb. f>. Peace treaty with Spain ratified by Sen- 
ate; signed by the President, February 10. 
.1 prit 11. Treaty of Peace is proclaimed. 
May IS-Jnhj 29. First Hague Conference. 
Conventions for pacific settlement of international 
disputes and to ameliorate war. Delegates from 
the United States sign with a reservation of the 
Monroe Doctrine. 

July 19. Sec. of War Alger resigns because of 
severe criticism ot conduct cf Spanish War. 

Aug. 8. Hurricane in Porto Rico; 2,000 killed, 

$75,000,000 lost. (of Dewey. I 

Naval and land parade at New York in honor I 

Sept. 6. Secretarj' Hay's open-door policy 

for China receives recognition by other powers 

(see China) . [preliminary report. | 

Nov. 7. Philippine Commission submits a I 

Dec. 1. Joint treaty with Great Britain and 

Germany for the division ot Samoa. United 

States receives Tutuila. 



Dec. 4. In Addyston Pipe and Steel Co. ti. 
United States the Supreme Court, diverging from 
the Imes previously laid down, declares that an 
agreement for no competition, which operates di- 
rectly not oidy on the manufacture but on the sale, 
transportation, or delivery ot an article of inter- 
state commerce, violates Sherman Antitrust Act. 
Fifty-sbith Congress assembles: Senate, 26 
Democrats, 51 RepubUcans. 4 Silverites, 5 Popu- 
lists, 1 Independent; House, 160 Democrats, 186 
Repubhcans, 25 Silverites, 7 Populists. 

Dec. 16. Leonard Wood appointed military 
governor ot Cuba. 
1900. Imports of merchandise, $849,941,184; ex- 
ports, $1,394,483,082; immigrants, 448,672. 
Boxer trouble in Chma (see China). 

Jan. 12. Chicago dramage canal is opened. 
Feb. 0. First Hay-Pauncefote treaty on Ca- 
nal. Amended by Senate (Dec. 13) and fails. 

March 6. Council of New York University ac- 
cepts gift for a building, " The Hall of Fame for 
Great Americans," to be erected on University 
Heights, New York City. Dedicated May 30, 1901 . 
March 14. Gold Standard Act makes gold 
dollar standard imit of value. 

March 16. Philippine Civil Commission is 
appointed by the president, pending action of 
Congress, to establish civil government in the 
islands. Members reach Manila in Jtme. 

April 9. In Petit v. Mumcsota the Supreme 
Court holds that State regulations on Simday clos- 
ing are not contrary to Fourteenth Amendment. 

April 12. Act provides civil government tor 

Porto Rico and fixes tariff rates between island 

and United States. [established.! 

April SO. Hawaiian territorial govemmenti 

May 14. In ICnowlton v. Moore the Supreme 

Court decides that the Federal inlieritance tax in 

act of Jtme 13, 1898, is a constitutional indirect 

tax. [994,675.1 

June. Twelfth U. S. census; population 75,-1 

June 6. Alaska is given a civil government and 

code. Qjroclamation to FUipinos. I 

June 21. General Mac Arthur issues amnesty 1 

J^dy 1. National net debt, 81,107,711,258. 

Aug. 2. North CaroUna constitutional suffrage 

amendment with " grandfather clause." 

Sept. S. Galveston and many Gulf towns are 
damaged by a terrible hurricane and flood: 6,000 
lives lost, $30,000,000 of property destroyed. 

Sept. 17-Ocl. 25. strike ot 100,000 anthracite 
coal miners in Pennsylvania ; settlement is favora- 
ble to strikers. 

Oct. 29. First Ust of names chosen tor " Hall 
of Fame " (see March 5, above): 
Wasliington, Lincohi, Webster. Franklin, Grant, 
MarshaU, Jefferson, Emerson, Longfellow, Fulton, 
Irving, Jonathan Edwards, S. F. B. Morse, Farra- 
gut, Clay, Hawthorne, George Peabody, -B. E. 
Lee, Peter Cooper, Whitney, Audubon, Mann, 
Beecher, Kent, Story, Jolm Adams, Channing. 
Gilbert Stuart, Asa Gray. Others to be added at 
intervals up to a total of 160 m year 2000. 

Nov. 6 Twenty-nmth presidential election: 
McKinley and Roosevelt, Republicans, 292 elec- 
toral votes; Bryan and Stevenson, Democrats, 
155. Free silver and imperialism are the issues: 
Socialist, Prohibition, Socialist Labor, PopiUist. 
United Christian, and United Reform parties also 
appear in the campaign. 

Nov. 12. Military department of Porto Rico is 
discontmued and the forces there reduced. 
1901. Feb. g. Army Reorganization Act. Pro- 
vides for a mminumi army of 58,000 men, w'ith a 
maxunum of 100,000. 

Feb. 25. United States Steel Cori'oration 
(■■ biUion-dollar tnist ") organized. 

March 2. By the Spooncr Amendment Con- 
gress authorizes the president to establisli tempo- 
rary civil government in the Philippines, there- 
by sanctioning his action tmder the war powers. 
By the Platf Amendment a virtual protector- 
ate is established over Cuba, the conditions im- 
posed being incorporated in the Cuban constitu- 
tion on Jtme 12 lat Buffalo. I 
May 1-Nov. 2. Pan-American Exposition! 
May S. Fire in Jacksonville, Fla., destroys 
$10,000,000 of property; 10,000 persons made 
homeless. 

May 9. Panic in Wall Street over control 
of Northern Pacific Railroad, whose stock tor a 
moment touches 1 ,000. 

May 27. In the Insular Cases the Supreme 
Coiut holds that Porto Rico by the treaty ceased to 
be a foreign cotmtry Vitliin the meaning of the 
tariff laws, and a tariff put in force by the presi- 
dent after the treaty is ratified is tmconstitu- 
tional; but the island is not yet a part of the 
United States in which all import, duties must be 
" imlform," so that the act of April 12, 1900, is 
constitutional so long as Congress has jiot fully 
" incorporated " the ten'itory. 

July 16-Sept. 14. 150,000 .steel workers strike 
for further recognition of their organizr.tions. 
Strike fails. 

July 25. Porto Rico tulfllls conditions and 'f 



1901 - 1906. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



181 



1901 (.continued). 
proclaimed to be within the customs area of the 
United States, enjoying free trade with the States. 

.4119. 16. Wireless telegram received at Sias- 
conset, Nantucliet. from Steamship Lucania. 

Sept. 6. McKlnley shot by an anarchist at 
Buffalo. He dies September 14. 

Sept. 14. Theodore Roosevelt takes oath as 
twenty-fifth president. Amioimces intention to 
carry out McKinley's pohcies. 

Oct. 22. Second Pan-American Congress opens 
in Mexico City. 

Nov. IS. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty is signed; 
Clayton-Biilwer Treaty abrogated and British 
consent given to American sole control of the 
Isthmian Canal. 

Nov. 2S. Alabama's new constitution disfran- 
chises the Negroes in a " grandfather clause." 

Dec. 1. South Carolina Interstate and West 
Indian Exposition opens at Charleston. 

Dec. 2. Fifty-seventh Congress Ijegins: Senate, 
36 Democrats, 52 Republicans, 1 Silverite ; House, 
150 Democrats, 197 Republicans, 9 Fusionists. 

Dec. IS. Findings of Court of InquiiT as to 
Admiral Scliley's conduct m Cuba indecisive; 
Roosevelt adds a memorandum iFcbruary IS, 
1902) declaring that neither Sampson nor Scliley 
was responsible for the victory at Santiago: it 
was a " captains' fight." 

Condition of dependencies in 1901: Hawaiian 
Territorial Legislature meets February 20. The 
labor question is prominent. In November ex- 
Queen Liliuokalani asks indemnification for con- 
fiscation of crowii lands. In the Philippines civil 
government is established in many provinces, and 
the military forces reduced. Emilio .-iguinaklo, 
PhiUppine leader, is captiu^ed on March 23. By 
treaty with Spain (March 23), the islands of 
Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu, omitted from the 
treaty, are purcliased. Civil government is es- 
tablished in JIanila, May 3. July 4, W. H. Taft 
becomes civil governor of the Philippines. De- 
cember S. in Batangas, more severe enforcement 
of military law, with concentration of inhabitants. 
1903. Jan. 4. Carnegie Institution of "Washing- 
ton, for research along many lines, is inconiorated. 
Starts with an endowment of $10,000,000 from 
Andrew Carnegie. 

Jan. 24. Second treaty is signed with Denmark 
for the purchase of the Virgin Islands: the Rigsdag 
rejects the treaty (October 22). 

Feb. 23-March 11. Visit to United States of 
Prince Henry of Prussia, the kaiser's brother. 

March 7. Permanent Census Bureau is author- 
ized by Congress. 

March S. Act establishing tariff rates between 
the United States and the Philippines. Unre- 
stricted trade not granted. 

April 12. War taxes are repealed. 

Aprit 29. Chinese E.\clusion Act continues 
the policy and extends it to the insular territories. 

Man 12-Ocl. 21. Strike of anthracite coal 
miners; 145,000 miners stop work. Coal famine 
results. July 30, Pennsylvania militia ordered to 
the mines. Roosevelt calls a conference at Wash- 
ington on October 3. October 13, operators ac- 
cept the demand of the president for an extralegal 
commission appointed by liim to make an award, 
by wliich both sides agree to abide, the miners 
meanwliile returning to work. 

May 22. Mihtary occupation of Cuba ends. 
Brief statement of the " Reformed Faith " is 
adopted by the Presbyterian General .\ssembly. 

May St. Army ordered reduced from 77,287 
to 66,497. [Academy.! 

June 9-11. Centennial of West Point Militarj- 1 

June 17. Newlands Reclamation Act pro- 
vides a fmid out of public-land rectripts to con- 
struct and maintain irrigation works in arid West. 

June 2S. Isthmian Canal Act authorizes the 
purchase of the rights of the French Canal Com- 
pany for $40,000,000. 

July 1. Philippine Government Act con- 
firms the acts of the presidential commission and 
provides for an eventual insular legislatiu-e; com- 
mission meanwhile serves as the government. 
Sealing dispute with Russia, dating from 1891, is 
decided in favor of United States by arbitration. 

July 4- General amnesty in Phihppines, and 
insurrection is declared at an end. 

July 10. Virginia's new constitution goes into 
operation without submission to the voters. Ne- 
gro vote much reduced. 

Sept. 17. Secretary Hay protests against the 
outrages committed on Jews in Roumania. 

Oct. 1. International Mercantile Marine Com- 
pany (" the shipping combine ") is formed: capi- 
tal, $120,000,000. It controls 114 steamers with 
a tonnage of ,540,000. 

Oct. 14. Hague Arbitration Court gives deci- 
sion in the " Pious Fimd " case of United States 
against Mexico. The " Pious Fimd " was estab- 
hshed by pious people of Mexico and Spain 200 
years ago for support of missions in California and 
elsewhere ; pajTuent of income from fimd refused 
by Mexico on cession of California to the U. S. 



King Oscar of Sweden decides the Samoan con- 
troversy in favor of Germany. 

Nov. 29. Hague Tribimal awards damage 
against Russia for seizure of American sealers. 

December. Venezuela episode (see Venezuela). 

Dec. 11. Reciprocity treaty with Cuba -is 
signed, but Senati.' pn-\-.'iits ojn-ration for a year. 

1903. Jan. 1. Hawaiiiin cable is completed. 

Ja7i. 21. Dick Militia Law provides for the op- 
tional federalization of State troops. 

Jan. 22. Hay-Herr^n Panama Canal Treaty 
signed; but Colombian government rejects it on 
November 3, expectmg to force better terms with 
the expiration of the French concession. 

Jan. 24. Treatj' signed with Great Britain for 
a commission to decide the Alaskan boundary 
question. Cemada desires a port for the Klondike 
gold fields. 

Feb. 11. Act to give precedence to antitrust and 
interstate-commerce cases in the coints. 

Feb. 14. Department of Conmicrce and Labor 
is authorized ; an executive department, its secre- 
tary a member of the cabinet. 
General Stafl' of the army is authorized. 

Feb. 19. Elkins Act; increases the control over 
interstate railroads, and forbids rebates. 

March 3. Immigration Act increases the 
head tax to $2, and imposes further restrictions. 

March 14. Anthracite Coal Commission re- 
ports mne-hour day. Increase in wages with sliding 
scale for further increase, no discrimination against 
union men, board of conciliation. 

Aprit 27. Supreme Court in Giles i>. Harris 
avoids, as it has done before, passing upon the 
constitutionahty of Negro disfranchisement in 
Alabama. (its branches. I 

May-June. Great floods in the IMississippi and! 

May 4. In James v. Bowman the Supreme 
Comt holds that the Fifteenth Amendment 
servos to prevent Federal and State, but not indi- 
vidual, action restricting Negro suHrage. 

.Uay 22. Treaty with Cuba is signed em- 
bodying the requirements of the protectorate. 

July 4- American Transpacific cable is 
opened between United Slates and Philippines. 

.4ut7. 13. Joseph Pulitzer foimds a school of 
journalism at Columbia University, with endow- 
ment of $2,000,000. [its foundmg.l 

Sept. 28. Chicago celebrates the centennial of I 

Oct. 8. Commercial treaty with China is 
signed, giving further facilities tor trade 

Oct. 10. Pliilippine Commission adopts the gold 
standard for the islands. 

Oct. 20. Alaskan Joint Commission by vote of 
English representative decides that the boimdary 
line does not reach the coast, which prevents any 
Canadian ports. 

A'oii. 3. Panama revolts from Colombia- 
Independence is recognized by the United States 
on November 6. United States troops land to 
protect the canal and fend off Colombian forces. 

Nov. 9. Fiftj'-eighth Congress meets in special 
session; Senate, 33 Democrats, 57 Repubhcans; 
House, 178 Democrats, 207 Repubhcans, 

Nov. IS. Hay-Bimau-Varilla Panama Canal 
Treaty signed with Panama. Independence of Pan- 
ama guaranteed; United States to have monopoly 
of transit across the Isthmus, a Canal Zone 10 miles 
wide, police rights over cities of Panama and Co- 
lon, and power to protect the canal; Panama re- 
ceives $10,000,000 and $250,000 a year after 1912. 

December. Agreement between the papacy and 
the Philippine Commission for the purchase of 
the Friars' lands in the islands. [ation.l 

Dec. 1 7. Reciprocity with Cuba goes into oper- 1 

1904. Jan. 4. In Gonzales r. Williams the Su- 
preme Court decides that Porto Ricans are not 
aliens subject to the restrictions of the immigra- 
tion laws. [ama policy. | 
Roosevelt's message defending his Canal and Pan- 1 

Feb. 7-8. Great fire In Baltimore with loss 
of $80,000,000. 

Feb. 8. United States incites the powers to sug- 
gest to Russia and Japan that their war in China 
be restricted to a small area and China neutralized. 

Feb. 26. Panama Canal Treaty is proclaimed. 
February 29, Roosevelt appoints a commission of 
seven to construct the canal; J, F. Wallace ap- 
pointed engineer in chief, on May 10. 

March 14. In the Northern Securities Case 
the Supreme Court declares that a combmation of 
competing railroads tlirough a holding company is 
contrary to tlie Sherman Antitnist Act. 

April 15. Andrew Carnegie establishes a 
Hero Fund of $5,000,000. 

.\pril 22. French Panama concession is trans- 
fcrted to United States. 

.\pril 28. Canal Zone Act authorizes pos.ses- 
sion and occupancy, and vests powers of tempo- 
rary government in the president. 

.■ipril SO--Dec. 1. Louisiana Purchase Ex- 
position is held at St. Louis to conunemorate the 
ceuteimiai of the annexation. 

July 12-Sept. 8. Strike of meat-packing em- 
ployees in Middle West. Also labor troubles in 
i Colorado mines during the year. 



July 25-Jan. 8, 1905. Strike of textile workers 
at Fall River, Mass. [subway is opened. I 

Oct. 27. Portion of Now York's rapid transit] 

Oct. SO. Roosevelt issues a prehminary invita- 
tion to the powers to hold a second Hague Peace 
Congress. 

Nor. 8. Thirtieth presidential election; Roose- 
velt and C. W. Fairbanks, Republican, receive 336 
votes: A, B. Parker and H. G. Davis, Democrats, 
140 votes. Silver is no longer an issue: tnists and 
Roosevelt's administratiou are the main ques- 
tions. Four muior parties. Populists, Prohibi- 
tionists, SociaUsts, and Socialist Laborites, present 
candidates. 
1S05. Imports of merchandise, $1,117,513,071; 
exports. Sl.518.561,666: immigrants, 1,026,499. 

Jan. SO. In Swift Co. !i. United States the Su- 
preme Court declares contrary to the Antitrust 
Act a combination of a dominant proijuriion of 
dealers in fresh meat (" Beef trust ") llin.uf-'liout 
the United States to regulate prices, restrii-t sliip- 
ments, and get special rates in interstate trans- 
portation. 

Feb. 7. Protocol is signed with Santo Do- 
mingo, by which the United States takes charge 
of the country's customs, adjusts foreign claims, 
and pays them out of the customs revenue; a vir- 
tual protectorate and intended to prevent Eiffo- 
pean hiterierence. similar to that in Venezuela. 
It goes into operation through a modus vivcndi as 
Senate postpones ratification. 

Feb. 20. In Jacobson v. Massachu.setts the Su- 
preme Court holds that compulsory vaccination 
does not violate the Fourteenth Amendment. 

March 29. Panama Canal Commission resigns 
and new one is appointed on April 3. Wallace re- 
signs : J. F. Stevens becomes chief engineer. Con- 
sultmg engineers on Nov, 18 favor a sea-level canal. 

April 17. In Lochner ti. New York the Su- 
preme Coiut annuls the New York law providing 
that no employee in a bakery shall be required or 
permitted to work beyond 10 hours a day or 60 
hours a week.' It is held to be contrary to the 
Fourteenth Amendment and the hberty of con- 
tract, baking not being an unhealtliful business. 

April 27. Andrew Carnegie gives $10,000,000 
as a pension fund for professors in endowed 
colleges. Later increased to include professors of 
State universities. 

May. Contest in Philadelphia between Mayor 
Weaver and the ring over the lease of the city gas 
works, in which the mayor is successful. 

June 1-Ocl. 14. Lewis and Clark Kxposition 
is held at Portland. Oregon, to commemorate the 
centennial of their expedition. 

June S. Roosevelt offers his good offices to end 
the Russo-Japanese War. They are accepted 
and the treaty of peace is signed at Portsmouth, 
N. H.. on September 5. (See Jap.in.) 

JuneSO. Jolm D. Rockefeller gives $10,000,000 
to promote liigher education in United States. 

July 1. National net debt, S9SH,S66,772 

July 19. Eliliu Root becomes secretary of 
state after death of Hay. 

July 22. Yellow fever breaks out in New Or- 
leans. On August 4 Federal authorities take 
charge of situation. Epidemic lasts into October 
with over 3,000 cases and about 400 deaths 

Sept. 6-Dec. SO. Investigation of life insur- 
ance companies by a legislative commission in 
New York (Armstrong Commission), ccnduclcd 
by Charles E. Hughes, shows many abuses and 
leads to widespread reform measiu-es. 

Oct. 9. J. Q. Adams, Lowell, 'Wniittier, Sher- 
man, Madison, Mary Lyon, Emma Willard, and 
Maria Mitchell are given places in Hall of Fame. 

Nov. 7. Fall elections indicate revolt against 
bossism, especiaUy in Ohio and Pennsylvania and 
cities of Cincinnati and Pliiladelphia, 

Dec. 4. Fifty-ninth Congress assembles; Sen- 
ate. 33 Democrats. 56 Repubhcans; House. 137 
Democrats, 249 Republicans. 
1906. Jan. 17. Bicentennial of buth of Frankhn 
is widely celebrated. 

Feb. 19. In Missouri v. Illinois the Supreme 
Court decides that the former State has not proved 
that the discharge of Chicago's sewage through the 
drainage canal deleteriously affects the water sup- 
ply of St. Louis, taken from the Mississippi River. 

March 5. Act granting Alaska a delegate in 
Congress. 

April 2-May G. Renewal of strike in Pennsyl- 
vania anthracite coal region ; ends by agreement to 
renew award of commission of 1902. The bitu- 
minous coal miners also strike, but resume work 
July 13, without increa.se in wages. 

April 18-20. Earthquake followed by a great 
fire destroys large portion of San Francisco, in- 
cluding the business section. Loss about $350,- 
000,000. Congress appropriates $2,500,000 for 
relief and coimtry-wide contributions are made. 

June 11. Employers' Liability Act passes Con- 
gress, appUcable to common carriers in interstate 
traffic. 

June 16. Enabling .4ct for Oklahoma, includ- 
ing the balance of Indian Territory, and also for a 



182 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1906 — 1910. 



1906 icunlinucd). 
KJ joint state for Arizona and New Mexico. Arizona 

' '■ reruscs (November 6) to join witli New Mexico. 

June 2S. Cable between Japan and United 
States is opened. ' 

■ June 29. Act Creating Bui'eau of Immigration 
and Naturalization with uniform rules for naturali- 
zation and a central record. [ama. I 
Congress votes to authorize a lock canal at Pan- 1 
—^ Hepburn Act supplements the Interstate Com- 
O merce Act of 1887 : it gives the commission control 
over pipe lines, express companies, sleeping-car 
companies, and private freight lines ; the power to 
prescribe maximum rates; prohibits passes, and 
transportation of products (commodities clause, 
coal is chiefly meant) mined and produced by the 
transporting line. 
jM.ne SO. Meat Inspection and Pure Food 
P laws. Unsanitary conditions in the great meat- 
packing plants call for Federal inspection of meat 
iatended for interstate and foreign transportation. 
The Pure Food Act (Federal Food and Drug Act) 
forbids the manufacture of misbranded or adul- 
terated foods or drugs in the territories, or the in- 
terstate or foreign transportation of such articles. 
Does not forbid the manufacture and sale of such 

Q articles witliin a particular State, wliicli must be 

regulated by State laws. In effect, Jan. 1, 1907. 

July 21- Aug. 26. American delegates attend 
the third Pan-American Congress, at Bio de 
Janeiro. 

Sept. 19. President issues an order extending 
eight.-hour labor law to all government work. 

Sept. 22-24. Kace riot in Atlanta; eighteen 
Negroes and tlirce whites killed. 
1^ Sepl. 29. Military control over Cuba is re- 

sumed becatise of disturlDed conditions there. 

Oct. 7-12. American Board of Commissioners for 
Foreign Missions celebrates at Williamstown the 
centemiial of the " Haystack meeting." from which 
grew the foreign-mission movement in America. 

Oct. 25. Japanese Ambassador Aoki protests 
against exclusion of Japanese from the public 

Sscliuols in San Francisco. 
iVcr. 2. Robert E. Peary reports that, on 
April 21, he reached " farthest north " at 87° 
6', or 203 miles from the pole. 

Nov. 6. Roosevelt directs the dismissal of 
three companies of Negro regulars for disturbances 
at Brownsville, Texas, on August 13. 

A'ot. 8. The President sails on battleship 
Louisiarta for Panama and Porto Rico, thus break- 
"^ ing the tradition that a president will not leave the 

territory of the United States. 

Dec. 10. Eoosevelt is awarded the Nobel 
peace prize for liis services in brmging about the 
end of the Russo-Japanese AVar. 

Dec. 12. Algeclras Treaty as to Morocco is 
ratified. United States has been the deciding 
factor in the Conference. Senate declares that it 
tuniishes no precedent for interference of United 
States in European differences. 
1907. Jan. 2i. Act raising salaries of senators 
and representalives to .S7,.'j()0 and of vice presi- 
dent. Speaker of Hoiise, and members of cabi- 
net to S12,000. 

United States enters suits in San Francisco to test 
the action of California school authorities in al- 
leged contravention of treaty rights. 

V Jolm D. Bockefeller gives $3'j,000,000 to the 
General Education Board. (by corporations. | 

J an. 26. Act prohibiting political Contributions! 

Feb. 6. Graduated age pensions are granted to 
veterans of Mexican and Civil wars of 62 years of 
age or more; following an executive order making 
62 years a pensionable disability. 

Feb. 18. New convention is signed with Santo 
\A# Domingo for control of customs. Ratified by the 

' Senate, IVbruary 25. Under it political control 

is exercised by the United States. 

Feb. 20. New Immigration Act increases the 
he<id tax to S4, and enlarges tlie restrictions. Also 
exchides aliens coming " to the detriment of labor 
conditions (Japanese) " who have not proper pass- 
ports from their homeland. Controversy in Cali- 
^ fornia sul^sides; Japan by a " gentlemen's agree- 

yv ment " will refuse the issue of passports to " lax- 

borers " wishing to go to America. 

Feb. 26. Engineer Corps of the army is put in 
charge of the construction of the Panama Canal. 
Major Goethals becomes chief engineer. 

March 4- Act limiting the hours of consecutive 
lalior by trainmen, dispatchers, and other employ- 
ees on interstate railroads. 

Y March 12. Mrs. Russell Sage endows with 
810,000,000 tlie " Sage Foundation " for the 
investigation and improvement of social and living 
conditions. 

March 16. President appoints a commission to 
examine plans for extending and improving in- 
ternal commercial water^vays. 

April IS. At Chicago the Standard Oil Com- 

Zpany of Indiana is f oimd guilty on 1 .462 coimts of 
accepting rebates. On August 3 Judge K. M. 
Landis, in the District Court, fines the company 
829,240,000. Set aside on appeal. 



u 



April 14. First national Arbitration and Peace 
Congress opens in New York. 

April 26- Nov. 30. Jamestown Tercenten- 
nial Exposition is held. 

May 13. In Kansas v. Colorado the Supreme 
Court decides that the right of a State to take 
water for irrigation to the detriment of another 
State lower on the river is one of equity l^etween 
the two States and the United States is not con- 
cerned, tmless the withdrawal of water affects the 
navigability of the stream. 

May 22. New York legislature establishes a 
Pubhc Utilities Commission to exercise control 
over public-service corporations; a pohcy also 
adopted by other States. 

June 16-Oct. IS. Second Hague Conference. 
Further conventions on arbitration, amelioration 
of war, and employment of force to collect con- 
tract debts. Senate, March l-April 17, ratifies the 
conventions, but reserves rights tmder the Mon- 
roe Doctrine and requirement of separate treaties. 

Aug. 8. Georgia adopts prohibition. 

Sept. 1 7. Olilahoma's constitution calls tor pro- 
hibition. 

October. Lakes-to-the-Gulf Deep Waterways 
Convention meets in Mempliis. It asks for a na- 
tional appropriation for a fourteen-foot charmel 
from Cliicago to the Gulf. 

Oct. 16. First Philippine bicameral legislature 
meets, the lower house being composed of elected 
delegates. Tliree Filipmos have also been adtied 
to the Commission, wliich forms the upper house. 

Oct. 18. Stock panic in New York begins; 
does not extend to a general national panic, thotigh 
there is stringency and clearing-house certificates 
are issued in many places. Effect soon passes. 

Nov. 16. Oklahoma (46th State) admitted. 

Dec. 2. Sixtieth Congress convenes; Senate, 
31 Democrats, 61 Republicans; House, 168 Demo- 
crats, 222 Republicans. 

Dee. 16. Around-the-world voyage of the 
American fleet of 16 battleships with destroyers 
begins at Hampton Roads, tmder Admiral R. D. 
Evans, intended as a peaceftil display of force, 
especially to influence Oriental conditions. San 
Francisco is reached on May 6, 1908, AustraUa on 
Augtist 19, Japan on Octolaer 17; fleet returns by 
Suez to Hampton Roads on February 20, 1909. 
1908. Wright brothers demonstrate the success 
of their heavier-tlian-air flying machines. 
Alaijama adopts proliibition ; in 1911 local option 
is substituted. 

Jan. 4. Subway tunnel under East River in 
New York City is opened to traffic. 

Jan. 6. In Employers' Liabihty Cases the Su- 
preme Court declares tmconstitutional the act of 
June 11, 1906, because the law is not restricted to 
injuries incurred in interstate transportation. 

Jan. 27. In Adair v. United States the section 
of the act of Jime 1, 1898 (Erdman Act), which 
prohibits employers engaged in interstate com- 
merce from discriminating against union laborers, 
is held by the Supreme Court to be contrary to the 
Fourteenth Amendment. [effect Jan. 1, 1909.1 

February. Alississippi adopts prohibition; inl 

Feb. 3. In Danbury Hatters' Case (Loewe v. 
Lawlor) the Supreme Comn holds that a com- 
bination of labor organizations to boycott the 
goods of a manufactm-er and prevent their sale in 
other States is contrary to tlie Antitrust Act. 

Feb. 10. General arbitration treaty is signed 
with France, the first of some 20 to be negotiated 
within two years, and approved by the Senate. 
They include all the important European nations 
except Russia and Germany. 

Feb. 2S. First tunnel tmder the Hudson, 
between Hoboken and New York, is opened. 

March 31. Strike of some 250,000 coal miners; 
lasts abotit two weeks. 

April 11. Two treaties are signed with Great 
Britain, providing for the marking of the Cana- 
dian boundary and for the regulation of Ashing 
in the botmdary waters. 

April 22. Congress passes a new Employers' 
Liability Act limited as presented l)y the Su- 
preme Court and taking away the employer's de- 
fense of " contril>utory negligence." 

April 24. Tornadoes on the Gulf Coast de- 
stroy much property and some 1 ,500 lives. 

May 11. Comer stone of the building of the 
Pan-American Union at Washington is laid. 

May IS. Forty-four States are represented at 
the Conference of Governors called at the 
Wliite House l)y the president for the conserva- 
tion of national resources. 

May 25. Congress passes a joint resolution to 
remit to China some $10,000,000 of the Ameri- 
can share in tlie Boxer indemnity; China decides 
to devote the money (Boxer Ftmd) to the educa- 
tion of yoimg Cliinese in United States. 

May 26. North Carolina adopts prohibition. 

May 30. Act is passed for a flexible ctirrency, 
an outcome of the stringency in 1907. 

June S. President appoints a national commis- 
sion of 57 on the conservation of forests and other 
national resources. 



July 22. Circuit Court of Appeals at Chicago 
reverses fine laid in 1907 on the Standard Oil 
Company. 

Oct. 1. Two-cent letter postage with 
Great Britain goes into effect. 

Nov. 3. Tliirty-fu'st presidential election; 
Taft and J. S. Sherman, Republicans, rccci\e 321 
electoral votes; Bryan and J. W. Kern. Democrats, 
162 votes. Both parties promise tariff and trust 
reform; the real issue is the continuation of the 
Roosevelt regime in the person of Ills chosen suc- 
cessor. Poptilists, Prohibitionists. Socialist La- 
borites. Independents, and Socialists put forth 
platforms and candidates. 

Nov. 19. American Federation of Labor re- 
jects a proposition to disregard writs of injunction. 

A'oii. SO. Notes are exchanged between Secre- 
tarj- Root and Japanese Ambassador Takahira on 
the cfimmon policy of their cotmtrics for " free and 
Ijeaceful development of their commerce on the 
Pacific Ocean." respect for each others territorial 
possessions, and the Integrity of China. Not sub- 
mitted for action by Senate. 

Dec. S3. Supreme Court of the District of Co- 
liunbia sentences Gompers, Mitchell, and Morri- 
son, officers of tlie American Federation of Labor, 
to Imprisonment in contempt for violatmg an in- 
jtmction against the Ijoycott of the Bucks Stove 
Company. They appeal. [wide proliibition. I 

1S09. Jan. 20. Tennessee adopts virtually State-1 

Jan. 27. North Atlantic Coast Fisheries 
Treaty is signed with Great Britain to end the 
long-.standing dispute. Tliis subniitstoHagueTri- 
bimal the American rights tmder Treaty of 1818. 

Jan. 28. Second mfiitary occupation of Cuba 
by United States troops terminates. 

Feb. 4. California Assembly passes a biU to 
segregate Asiatic children in schools, litit remon- 
strances by Roosevelt and general protest causes 
abandonment of measure. 

Feb. 12. Centennial of birth of Lincoln is widely 
observed. Roosevelt lays the comer stone of a 
memorial building at Lincoln's birthplace, near 
Hodgen\'ille, Ky. 

Feb. 19. An enlarged Homestead Act permits 
entry on double the numter of acres of grazing 
land not susceptible of irrigation. 

Feb. 22. Roosevelt reviews the returned fleet. 

March. Los Angeles invokes the recall against 
its mayor; he resigns before the election. First 
prominent instance of the use of the measure 
in the United States. [S75,000 a year.l 

March S. Act raising president's salary to| 

March 4- William Howard Taft inaugurated 
as twenty-sixth president. 

March 15. Sixty-first Congress meets in special 
session to revise the tariff; Senate, 33 Democrats, 
59 RepubUcans; House, 172 Democrats, 219 Re- 
publicans. 

March 21 . In Georgia the system of leasing con- 
victs, which has residted in many abtises. is ended. 

March 23. Roosevelt sails for Africa on a htmt- 
ing trip. 

April 6. Peary reaches the North Pole. 
News of the event is received on September 6. 

May 3. In United States v. Delaware and Hud- 
son Co., the Supreme Court upholds the constitu- 
tionality of the commodities clause of the Hepbtim 
Act if limited to transportation of commodities in 
wliich the raih-oad has a real interest at time of 
transportation. [position at Seattle. I 

June 1-Ocl. 16. Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Ex-1 

July 33. Sixteenth Amendment, permitting 
an tmapportioned income tax is submitted by 
Congress to the States. 

Aug. a. Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act. Makes 
httle change in protection except mcrcases in cot- 
ton and silk schedules. ISIaximum and minimtun 
rates in place of reciprocity. Lays an income tax 
on corporatiotis. A Tariff Board is authorized 
to study the problem of the tariff. 

Aug. 27. National Conservation Congress 
meets at Seattle. 

Sept. 25-Ocl. 9. Discovery of the Htidson 
River and the invention of the steamboat are 
commemorated in New York City and along the 
river (Hudson-Fulton celebration) on 300th an- 
niversary of discovery of the Hudson (1609) and 
100th, approximately, of invention of steamboat. 
During the year great frauds in customs, espe- 
ciaUy on sugar imported by the sugar trust, are 
discovered and pimished, and fines and impaid du- 
ties amounting to miUions of doUars collected. 
1910. Imports of merchandise. SI. 556.947,430; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $1,744,984,720; immigrants, 
1,041,570; aUen emigrants, 202,463. 

Ja7i. 7. T»f t removes Clifford Pinchot, chief 
forester, and two of his assistants for insubordina^ 
tion. This is an incident in the controversy aris- 
ing from accusations by Pinchot and others that 
Ballinger, secretarj' of the interior, has favored 
a sjTidicate which is seeking through illegal land 
patents to control the coal lands of Alaska. Presi- 
dent upholds Balhnger. 

Jan. 9. International Waterways Treaty is 
signed with Great Britain, providing for use of 



1910-1912. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



183 



1910 (continued). 

boundary waters between United States and Can- 
ada, and a joint commission to decide qtiestions 
arising along ttie frontier. 

Jan. 19. Joint resolution for a congressional 
investigation of the Ballinger-Piachot controversy. 

Feb. 4. A jiu"y renders a verdict in the Dan- 
bury Hatters' Case of .'S74.0OU damages against 
the Ijoycottiug union. The law allows collection 
of three times the damages. / 

Feb. 9. More than 4.000,000 acres of lailds held 
in the forest reserves tlirown open to settlement , 

February. Cleveland, Ohio, by referendum 
grants a new street railway franchise with four 
cents as the maximum fare. 

March £. Bill is introduVed in the Senate pro- 
viding for the incorporation of a " Rockefeller 
Fotmdation." Does not pass. 

March 17. Roosevelt leaves Khartmn, Africa, 
on his return to America. During Marcii and 
April he visits in Europe, and is everywhere re- 
ceived with notable enthusiasm. 

March 19. Republican " insurgents " against 
Speaker Caimon in the House of Representatives, 
aided by the Democrats, order a reorganization of 
the committee on rules, leaving out the Speaker, 
thereby greatly reducing his power. After the 
beginning of the next Congress, the Speaker also 
is deprived of his power to appoint the standing 
committees. 

April 10. The Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion announces a ruling fixing a less rate for upper 
berths than for lower in Pullman sleeping cars, and 
a reduced rate for all berths on some routes. 

May 21. Treaty fixing the boundary in Passa^ 
maquoddy Bay is signed with Great Britain. 

June. Thirteenth U. S. census; population 
91,972,266. 

June SO. Act of Congress enabling New Mex- 
ico and Arizona to form separate State constitu- 
tions. 

June IS. Mann-Elkins Act, bringing tele- 
phone, telegrapli, express, and sleeping-car com- 
panies under the control of the Interstate Com- 
merce Commission. It provides for a new Com- 
merce Court ; prohibits greater charges for a short 
than for a long haul; and permits commission to 
suspend increases in rates pending investigation. 
Roosevelt receives an enthusiastic welcome on his 
arrival in New York from his travels. 

June 22. Act permitting siuiace location on 
coal lands, the mining rights being reserved for 
special location. 

June 25. Postal Savings Bank Act provides 
that certain post offices iiKiy ncrive deposits of 
$1 to $500 and pay 2'', iniinsi or give govern- 
ment i3onds bearmg 2J'[, ind rr.sl in exchange. 
Act authorizing the president to withdraw from 
entry any public lands and reserve them for power 
sites, irrigation works, or other purposes. 
Act requiring publicity of political contribu- 
tions in election campaigns of rei)resentatives. 
Mann " White-slave " Act prohibits transporta- 
tion in interstate or foreign commerce of women 
or girls for immoral purposes. (See White-slave- 
TR.u^Fic Act in the Diet., Addenda.) 

June 29. Interstate Commerce Commission 
orders substantial reductions in freight rates on 
many western railroads. 

Jnhj 1. National net debt, 81,046,449,185. 

July 31~Aug. 30. American delegates attend 
fourth Pan-American Congress, at Buenos Aires. 

Aug. 1. Pennsylvania Railroad's new station in 
New York City formally opened. Electric trains 
under Hudson River run regularly after Nov. 27. 

Aug. 2. Oklahoma adopts a constitutional 
amendment disfranchising Negroes tlirough the 
" grandfather clause." 

Aug. SI. Koosevelt at Osawatomie, Kan., 
outlines " New Nationalism " as meaning gov- 
ernment supervision of the capitalizing of inter- 
state corporations and of combinations controlling 
the necessaries of life, graduated hicome and in- 
heritance taxes, labor regulations, etc. 

August. Forest fires cause great loss of life and 
property in the Northwest, especially in Montana 
and Idaho. 

Sept. 7. Hague Tribimal annoimccs its deci- 
sion in the North Atlantic Fisheries Arbitra- 
tion; on the whole favorable to the British con- 
tentions, though affirming privileges of Americans 
under Treaty of ISIS. 

Oct. 1 7. The Rockefeller Institute for Medical 
Research is formally opened at New York City. 

October. The follo\sing names are added to the 
New York University Hall of Fame (see 1900, 
March 5): Harriet Beecher Stowe, Holmes, Poe. 
Roger Wilhams, Cooper, Pliillips Brooks, Brj'ant, 
Francex E. Willard, Andrew Jackson, George 
Bancroft, Motley. 

Nor. 2. A fleet of sixteen American battleships 
sails, in two detachments, to pay visits at ports of 
England and France. 

Nov. S. State and congressional elections re- 
sult in great gains for the Democrats, due largely 
to the Progressive instirgency, dissatisfaction with 



1910 (continued). 
the imreforming tarhT, and the effect of the Bal- 
linger-Pinchot controversy. In Oliio, New York, 
Comiecticut, Massacinisetts, and New Jersey, 
Democratic candidates for governor are successful, 
Washington adopts a constitutional amendment 
conferrmg the suffrage upon women. , - 

Nov. 10. Taft sails for Panama on a tour of 
insijection. 

Nov. 21. Post-Offlce Department raids many 
" get-rich-ciuick " investment eompanii-s and pro- 
moters, and estimates the,\ 1i:l\c swindled ilie pub- 
lic out of more than .S100,OUO,UUO witliin a few years. 

Dec. 3. Mary Baker Glover Eddy, the foimder 
and head of the Cliristian Science Chiu'ch, tUes. 

Dec. 7. Majority of congressional committee 
appointed to investigate the BaUmger controversy 
exonerates him from all charges. 

Dec. 10. Edward D. White becomes cliief jus- 
tice of the Supreme Court. First promotion of a 
justice to the chief-justiceship. 
General conditions and activities In 1910: 
Prosecution of many railroads, manufacturing 
corjjorations, and dealers in food or supiilies alieg- 
mg offenses agauist interstate-commerce laws or 
conspiracy in restraint of trade. Uncertainty as 
to the scope and interpretation of the Sherman 
Antitrust Law. A general demand from railroad 
employees for Increased pay and easier hom-s is 
made early in the year and is met t)y arliilralion. 
Great progress In aviation in the United States 
as well as in Eiu-ope. 
1911. Imports of merchandise, S1,52J,226,105; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $2,049,320,199; immigrants, 
878,587; alien emigrants, 295,666. 

Jan. 3. Supreme Court, in Noble State Bank 
t. Haskell and other cases, sustains the constitu- 
tionality of State laws guaranteeing i)ank deposits. 
In Bailey v. Alabama the coiut holds unconstitu- 
tional the Alabama contract labor law, wliich vio- 
lates the Thirteenth Amendment by establishing 
peonage, which is involuntary' servitude. 

Jan. 10. Pennsylvania recovers $1,300,000 and 
warrants aggregating $200,000, from the con- 
tractors for the new State capitol. Further 
criminal prosecutions are dropped, after several 
convictions. 

Jan. 20. Andrew Carnegie gives $10,000,000 
more to the Carnegie institution. 

Jan. 23. National Progressive Republican 
League is organized. It aims at greater control by 
the people, adequate con-upt-practices acts, and 
pubUc regulation of aU great financial interests. 

Feb. 20. In Chicago, Biu'lington, and Quincy 
R. R. Co. V. McGuire, the Supreme Court affirms a 
State workmen's compensation act, which denies 
the validity of a contract of insurance rehef as a 
bar to action imder the law. 

Feb. 23. Interstate Commerce Commission 
refuses to sanction an increase in freight rates on 
railroads of the East and Middle West. 

March 1. Act authorizing piu-chase of forest 
re.ser\'es in the Eastern States in order to protect 
the watersheds of navigable rivers. 

March 7. In consequence of revolution in Mex- 
ico, the president orders 20,000 troops to San An- 
tonio and along the Mexican frontier, for division 
maneuvers and to check filibustering and border 
fighting on the American side. The troops are 
recalled June 24. 

March 29. New York State capitol is partially 
destroyed by fire; many valuable historical docu- 
ments lost. 

.April 4. Sixty-second Congress meets in spe- 
cial session to consider Canadian reciprocity: 
Senate, 42 Democrats, 49 Repul^licans; House, 
228 Democrats, 163 Republicans, 1 Socialist. 

May S. Direct telephone communication be- 
tween New York and Denver is opened. 

May IS. Supreme Court sustains the decree 
dissolving the Standard Oil Company of New 
Jersey for violation of the Sherman Antitrust Law, 
The court holds that the law must be interiiretcd 
" in the hght of reason " and that only " imdue " 
restraint on trade is prohibited. 

May 29. The Supreme Court also orders the 
disintegration of the American Tobacco Company 
for violating the Sherman Law. 

June S. Convention with Nicaragua is signed, 
which amoimts to a commercial protectorate. It 
goes into practical operation, though not con- 
firmed by the Senate. 

June 26. Cimningham coal-land claims in 
Alaska, the subject of the Ballinger-Pinchot con- 
troversy, arc declared invalid. 

July'l. National net debt, $1,015,784,338. 
Interstate Commerce Commission logins an elabo- 
rate investigation of the express companies.. . 

July 7. Treaty is signed at Washington be- 
tween the L'nited States, Japan, Great Britain, 
and Russia, prohibiting pelagic sealing and pro- 
portioning the legitimate catch. 

Ju ly se. Act for reciprocity with Canada passes 
Congress, but fails in the end liecause Canadians 
elect a parliament (September 21) which will not 
pass the necessary complementary statute. 



1911 (continued). 

Aug. 17. Taft vetoes a bill reducing the tarilT 
on wool, demanding the report of the Tariff Board 
be awaited. 

■Aug. 19. Amendatory act is passed on pub- 
licity of contributions in congressional elec- 
tions. Applies to House and Senate, to primary 
and regular elections, to contributions, expenses, 
or promises of appomtments. Limits amoimti 
candidates may personally spend. 

Oct. 11. California adopts a constitutional 
amendment giving the full vote to women. It 
also adopts amendments providing for the initia- 
tive and referendum and the recall of all elective 
officials, including judges. 

Nov. 9. The Lincoln Memorial is dedicated at 
Hodgenville, Ky., his birthplace. It preserves 
the log cabin in which, it is supposed, he was born. 

Nov. 10. Andrew Carnegie amiomices the gift of 
825,000,000 toestabhsh and maintain the Carnegie 
Corporation for the Promotion of Education. 

Dec. 0. J. J. McNamara, secret ar>--treasurer 
of the International Association of Bridge and 
Structural Iron Workers, is convicted of being a 
party to dj-namitmg the Los Angeles Titnss build- 
ing on October 1. 1910, when 21 were killed. 

Dec. S. Board of army and navy officers ap- 
pointed to inspect the wreck of the Maine reports 
that ship was blown tip by an exterior explosion. 

Dec. IS. The president informs the Senate tliat 
he has notified Russia of the abrogation of the 
treaty tetween the two coimtries, because of 
Russia's refusal to recognize American passports 
in the hands of Jews, clergymen of certain evan- 
gelical denominations, and others. 
General conditions and activities In 1911: The 
most notable general features of the year are the 
slow and cautious revival of business and the un- 
usual political and social unrest. The system of 
direct nomination for all elective State offices 
obtains in more than two thirds of the States. 
Some States adopt the " Oregon Plan " of pledg- 
ing candidates to vote for the people's choice for 
Federal senators as indicated at the general elec- 
tion. Direct legislation in some form exists in 
twelve States. 
1913. Imports of merchandise, $1,653,264,934; ex- 
ports of merchandise, $2,204,322,409; immigrants, 
838,172; aUen emigrants, 333,262. 

Jan. 6. New Mexico admitted (47th State). 

Jan. 12. At LawTence, Mass., the textile mill 
workers go out on strike liecause of reduction in 
wages following the introduction of the new 54- 
hour law. The strike lasts for over two months, 
and is marked by many scenes of violence and 
by the influence of the Industrial Workers of the 
World (" I. W. W."). 

Jan. 15. In second Employers' Liability Cases 
the Supreme Court upholds the amended act of 
April 22, 1908, as a proper regulation of interstate 
commerce and not contrary to the protection of 
the Fifth Amendment. 

Jan. 22. First passenger train is nm from Key 
West to the mainland over the extension of the 
Florida East Coast Railroad. 
Supreme Court, in Louisville and Nashville R. R. 
I'. Cook Brewing Co., holds that a State may not 
prevent an interstate shipment of liquor to a local 
option region; Original Package Law does not re- 
strict until package is m hands of consignee. 

Feb. 14. Arizona (48th State) admitted, alter 
the judicial-recall provision has been ehminated 
from the constitution as required by Taft. It is 
restored on November 5. 

Feb. 19. In Pacific States Telephone and Tele- 
graph Co. t. Oregon, the Supreme Com't holds that 
the question whether the initiative and referendum 
destroys the republican form of government is a 
matter for Congress and not the com-ts to decide. 

Feb. 24. House of Representatives orders an 
investigation (Pujo Committee) of the " money 
trust," with a view to legislation for the control of 
combinations. 

Feb. 25. Roosevelt expresses his willingness to 
accept the nomination for president if offered 
(" Hat in the ring "). 

March 2. President Taft directs a strict com- 
pliance with the neutrality laws in all matters 
affecting Mexico, and warns citizens to keep out of 
Mexico till peace is restored. 

March 7. Senate advises ratification of general 
arbitration treaties with Great Britain and 
France, signed on August 3, 1911, after adoption 
of amendment barring from arbitration questions 
affecting the Monroe Doctrine, admission of aliens, 
and State debts. Thus changed, Taft refuses to 
accept them. 

March 11. Supreme Coiui; in Henry v. Dick 
Co. CMimeograph Case) holds that the owner of a 
patent operation has a right to impose a license 
restriction on the use of the patented machine, 
may flx its price, and prescribe its use. 

March 14. Taft prohibits the export of arms or 
war supplies to Me-xico. 

March 19. The first State-wide presidential 
preference primary is held in North Dakota. 



184 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1912—1913. 



1913 iconlinued). 

April. Floods in the Mississippi vailey 

devastate 200 square miles and reader ao.OOO peo- 
ple homeless; loss $50,000,000. 

April 1. Supreme Court, in Standard Oil Co. 
V. INIissouri, upholds the antitrust laws of Missouri 
under which the Standard Oil Company ot Indiana 
and the Republic OU Company of New York are 
ousted, except as to interstate commerce. 

Aprils. Esch Match Act imposes a tax of two 
cents a hundred on interstate trade in matches made 
of poisonous white phosphorus; causes reform. 

April IB. Steamsliip Titanic, largest boat ever 

built, sunlf by ice on maiden voyage; 1,300 perish. 

May 1. Federal steamship inspection service 

requires all ocean steamsliips to carry sufficient 

lifeboats to accommodate all persons on board. 

May 3. Tercentenary of Champlain is cele- 
brated at Crown Point. 

May 11. Graduated Service Pension Act gives 
to all veterans of the Mexican War of 60 days' 
service $30 a month (" dollar a day "), and gives 
all Civil War veterans over 62 years of age pensions 
graduated to age and service, with $30 maximum. 
May IS. Seventeenth Amendment for 
popidar election of senators is submitted to the 
States by Congress. 

June S. Minimum Wage Act in Massachusetts 
provides for wage boards which shall recommend a 
scale in any industry in wliich women are inade- 
quately paid. 

June 19. Congress passes act forS-hour day on 
all work done for Federal government by contract. 
June 18-34. Republican National Convention 
in session; renominates Taft and Sherman. Sup- 
porters of Roosevelt bolt, claiming that the will of 
the people has been fraudulently defeated . Roose- 
velt leads in forming the Progressive party wliicli 
nominates him on August 7, with liiram W. Jolm- 
son as vice-presidential candidate. 

June 2B. Democratic National Convention 
convenes: on tlie 2,Sth, after an all-night session, 
first ballot at 7 a.m. gives Clark 4405 votes, Wilson 
324; July 2, Wilson nominated for president on 
46th ballot (afterward made unanimous) ; July 3, 
convention adjourns after nominating Marshall 
for vice president by acclamation. 

July 1. National debt, less money in the treas- 
ury, $1,027,574,697. 

July IS. The seat of Senator WilUam Lorimer 
of Illinois is declared vacant because of corrupt 
methods of election. 

July 16. Herman Rosenthal, a gambler, who 
had given evidence regarding the Ulegal relations 
of the police in New York City, is assassinated. 
Pohce lieutenant Becker is convicted of instigating 
the crime and executed July 30, 1915. The four 
miu-derers of Rosenthal executed April 13, 1914 

Aug. 16. Radio-commimication Act forbids 
private wireless installations near certain govern- 
ment stations. 

Aug. 22. Under Tariff Act ot 1909 counter- 
vailing duty is imposed on iijiportations of wheat 
and rye flour and split peas from Germany, because 
of a boimty provided by German government. 

Aug. 23. Act prohibiting false assertions on 
labels of drugs. 

Aug. 2 J,. Army Appropriation Act provide^ 
for a reserve, consolidates the tliree supply de- 
partments, and restricts detached duty. 
Act for operating the Panama Canal. It 
exempts American coastwise shipping from toll. 
Great Britain protests against exemption as con- 
trary to Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. 
Law is passed authorizing surface location on oil 
and gas lands, reserving mineral rights for sepa- 
rate location. 

An act for a legislative assembly and woman 
sulfrage in Alaska, 

Act authorizing experimental parcel post; also 
the Federal regulation of newspapers and periodi- 
cals, including a sworn statement giving names 
of editors, publishers, managers, and owners. 

September. American marines are landed in 
Nicaragua, at request of local government for 
time being, and aid in suppressing a revolution. 
Cliief of revolutionists siu'renders to American 
admiral on Sept. 26, and marines are withdrawn 
after Nicaraguan presidential election on Nov. 2. 
Oct. 1. A fifty-four hour a week law liecomes 
effective in the industries of New York State. 

Oct. 10. Roosi'velt is shot by a fanatic at Mil- 
waukee, but proceeds to a mass meeting and 
speaks, and recovers in a short time. 
Oct. 30. Vice President Sherman dies. 
Not}. 5. Thirty-second presidential election: 
Wilson and Marshall, Democrats, receive 6.293,- 
000 popular and 435 electoral votes: Roosevelt and 
Johnson, Progressives, 4,169,000 popular and 88 
electoral votes: Taft and Sherman, Republicans, 
3,442,000 popular and 8 electoral votes. Proliibi- 
tionists. Socialists, and Socialist Laborites present 
candidates: Socialists poll more than 900 ,000 votes. 
A'or. 14. Supreme Coiu-t of M'issouri fines the 
International Han-ester Company $50,000, for- 
bidding it to do btisiness in the State. 



1912 (.conlinued). 

Nov. IS. In Standard Sanitary Manufacturing 
Co. v. United States, the Supreme Court, m order- 
ing the dissolution of the " bathtub trust," hokls 
that there can bo no monopoly in the unpatented 
product of a patented macliine. 

Nov. SO. Andrew Carnegie, through Carnegie 
Corporation, gives futiu-e ex-presidonts and their 
widows (if they do not remarry) $25,000 a year. 

Dec. 2. In United States v. Union Pacific R. R. 
Co. the dissolution of the Harriman merger of the 
Union Pacific and Southern Pacific railroads is 
ordered by the Supreme Court. 

Dec. 7. 20,00f) skilled laborers in United States 
navy yards are placed in the civil service. 

Dec. 16. Governor Donaghey of Arkansas par- 
dons 360 convicts as a protest against the State's 
system of leasing prisoners. December 24, Gov- 
ernor Blease of South Carolina frees 79 convicts on 
similar groimds. 

Dec. 28. President of the International Associ- 
ation of Bridge and Structural Iron Workers and 37 
of his colleagues are convicted at Indianapolis of 
complicity in a series of dynamite outrages during 
the past six jears. 

General conditions and activities in 1913: 
Democrats are returned to power after 12 years of 
Republican rule. Of 35 State governors elected, 
21 are Democrats. A prominent part is taken by 
women in the election, particularly on the side of 
the Progressives. The total number of States 
with systems of direct nominations is now 36; in 
12 States the system of presidential preference 
Ijrimaries is estabhshed: the initiative and refer- 
indimi are extended; and the recall amendment is 
further adopted in 5 States. 
■Varioas strikes pushed by the Industrial W'orkers 
of the World (" I. W. W."), an organization in- 
clucUng unskilled workers wliich aims at the gen- 
eral strike rather than political nieasiu-es, and is 
antagonistic to capital, ordinary trade-miions, and 
the existing government. 

Various actions are brought and decisions given 
under the Sherman Antitrust Law. Total num- 
ber of cases brought tmder that law (1890-1912), 
128, viz., imder Harrison, 7: Cleveland, 8; McKin- 
ley, 3; Roosevelt, 44; Taft, 66. The "money 
trust " investigation gathers a mass of informa- 
tion regarding banking and monetary conditions. 
1913. Imports of merchandise, $1,813,008,234: ex- 
ports of merchandise, $2,455,884,149; immigrants, 
1,197,892; alien emigrants, 308,190. 

January. In the garment workers' strike in 
New York City more than 150,000 workers are 
affected. In February the strike spreads to Bos- 
ton. The strike ends in New Y'ork City on March 
12, and in Boston on April 21, the employers mak- 
ing concessions of increased wages, reduced hoiu-s, 
and recognition ot the union. 

Jan. 1. Parcel post begins to operate. 
Jan. 6. Suijreme Court, in United States i'. 
Patten, holds that an attempt to comer cotton or 
other commodity constitutes a criminal offense 
imder the Sherman Antitrust Law. 

Jan. 7. Investigation is begtm of the " ship- 
ping trust," alleged to control 90% ot the over-sea 
traffic of the United States. 

Jan. IS. Judge Archbald of the Commerce 
Court is convicted in the impeachment trial tefore 
the Senate and disqualified to hold any office under 
the United States. 

February. Silk weavers' strike at Paterson, 
N. J., directed by the Industrial Workers ot the 
World, is marked by violence. After five months 
the strike is abandoned (July 23) . 

Feb. 2. New Grand Central Terminal building 
in New York City is officially opened. 

Feb. 4. Congress incorporates the National In- 
stitute of Arts and Letters, a preexisting as.socia- 
tion whose interior organization, the American 
Academy of Arts and Letters, consists of a se- 
lected fifty of the members of the Institute. 

Feb. lo' Four United States warships sent to 
Mexican waters to safeguard American interests. 

Feb. IS. Twenty-nine officials of the National 
Cash Register Company are convicted byjFederal 
Court, at Cincinnati of criminal conspiracy imder 
the Sherman Antitnist Law. (second such veto. I 
Taft vetoes a literacy test for immigrants;! 
Feb. 24. United States Supreme Com-t in Hoke 
c. United States sustains the constitutionality of 
the Maim Act prohibiting the transportation in 
Interstate or foreign commerce ot women lor im- 
moral purposes. 

Feb. 2B. Sixteenth Amendment, permitting 
an unapportioned income tax, goes into force, 
having been ratified by necessary three fourths of 
the States. 

Feb. 2S. Democratic majority of Pujo Com- 
mittee of House of Representatives, to investigate 
alleged money trust, reports the existence of " a 
great and rapidly growing concentration of the 
control of money and credit in the hands of a few 
men," and recommends drastic measures. 

March 1. Webb Liquor Shipment Act. for- 
bidding the interstate sliipment ot liquors intended 



1913 Iconlmued). 

for unlawful use in prohibition States, is passed 
over a veto. It reverses the principle of the Su- 
preme Court's decision of January 22, 1912. 
Act for the physical valuation by the Interstate 
Commerce Commission of the property of com- 
mon carriers. 

March 4. Woodrow Wilson is inaugurated as 
twenty-seventh president. 

Department of Labor is created by Act ot 
Congress (approved March 4) ; its secretary, a 
member of the cabinet, shall have power to act 
as mediator and to appoint commissioners to con- 
ciliation in labor disputes. First secretary of la- 
bor, William Bauchop Wilson, takes oath ot of- 
fice March 5. 

March IS. Wilson disapproves of Tatt's policy 
of participation in the Joint Powers Loan to 
China, and American banliers withdraw 

March 22. A complete wireless message is 
sent from Arlington, Md., to Eiffel Tower, Paris. 
March 2B-26. Rivers of Ohio and Indiana in- 
imdate large tracts of country, causing gi-eat loss 
of life and enormous damage. Dayton and other 
cities suffer severely. 

A pril 7. Sixty-third Congress meets in special 
session: Senate, 50 Democrats and 44 Republicans: 
House, 292 Democratic, 141 Republican, 1 Inde- 
pendent. Several members are elected as being 
Progi'cssives as well as Democrats or Repubhcans. 
• A pril S. President Wilson, reverting to Wash- 
ington's and Adams's practice, delivers his mes- 
sage orally to both houses of Congress. 

April IS. Connecticut Supreme Court of Er- 
rors decides that " the closed shop is contrary 
to public policy where the agreement embraces 
an entire industi-y of any considerable proportions 
in the community." 

April 24. Wilham Jennings Bryan, secretary 
of state, presents to the diplomats at Washington 
a plan for world peace which provides that all 
controversies shall be submitted to an interna- 
tional commission before war is declared or hostili- 
ties begun. 

May. Charges that slavery exists in the 
Philippine Islands and that the Assembly has 
neglected to pass the necessary laws for its sup- 
pression, are made by Commissioner Worcester 
and subsequently sustained by the auditor of the 
islands. 

May 16. Arizona statute prohibits the owner- 
sliip of land by aliens who have not declared their 
intention ot becoming citizens. 

May 10. California antlalien landowner- 
ship act; passed in spite ot Japanese protest and 
Federal disapproval. 

May 26. Wilson publicly denounces lob- 
bying at Wasliington, and charges particularly 
that attempts are thereby made against the tariff 
bUl. On Jime 2 a special committee of the Senate 
begins an investigation. 

Supreme Court, in Bauer v. O'Donnell (" Sana- 
togen Case "), holds that a patentee, in selling his 
patented article, cannot fix the price at which it 
shall be resold. 

May SO. National monument to the battleship 
Maine is dedicated in New York City. 

May SI. Seventeenth Amendment, lor 
popular election of senators, is proclaimed, 
having received the necessary ratification of tliree 
fom-ths of the States. 

Roosevelt wins a libel suit against Newett, an 
editor of Michigan, and. on defendant's retraction 
of charges, asks tor only nominal damages. 

June. In the Philippine Islands rebellious 
Moros, led by the Sultan of Jolo, refuse to surren- 
der their arms: subdued after several days' fighting. 
June 9, 16. Supreme Coiu-t, in Minnesota and 
Missouri Rate Cases upholds the right of a State, 
pending action by Congress, to regulate intrastate 
railroad rates, pro-vidingthey are not confiscatory, 
even though thev affect interstate business. 

June 10. The Supreme Coiu-t in Ijswis Publish- 
ing Co. r. Morgan affirms the constitutionality ot 
the newspaper pubhcity law of August 24. 1912. 

June 26. Wonian-sufTrage law In Illinois 
pro\1des that women of legal age may vote tor 
presidential electors and for local and some State 
officers. „^^ 

July 1. National net debt, $1,028,564,055. 
July 1-S. Fiftieth aimiversary of the battle of 
Getty.sburg is commemorated by 50.000 Union 
and Conlederate veterans on the battlefield. 

July 12. Pennsylvania Primary Act abolishes 
State conventions. Many similar acts in other 
States. ,,. , . 

July 21 . Copper miners at Calumet, Michigan, 
strike to enlorce an eight-hour day and recogni- 
tion ot their imion; serious rioting necessitates the 
caUing out ol the entire National Guard ot the 
State- Federal arbitration is proffered but refused. 
July 26 Act creating a public service commis- 
sion in Pennsvlvania, and reducing tiie working 
hours ot women trom 60 to 54 hours a week. 

2 Law to enlorce the " health mar- 



Aug. 
riage " 



system, with a view mainly to prevent 



1913-1914. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



185 



1913 (continued). 

transmission of disease, goes into effect in Penn- 
sylvania. In tliis year, also, similar laws are en- 
acted in Wisconsin and North Dakota. 

Aug. 4. Express companies are ordered by the 
Interstate Commerce Commission to adopt for 
two years from October 15, 1913, a now schedule 
of rates providing for an average reduction of 16 
per cent. 

Aug. 7. " Advancement of Peace " Treaty is 
signed with Salvador, the first under Secretary 
BryanN plau. In all, some 8U such Inatirs aiv 
signed by October 13, 1914, but none with Austria- 
Htmgary, Bulgaria, Germany, Japan, Mexico, or 
Turkey. 

Aug. IS. Governor William Stilzer is im- 
peached by the legislature of New York .State for 
alleged perjury, bribery, and false statement of 
campaign contributions. 

Aug. ie. Japan submits another note in pro- 
test against California antialien landownership law. 
The world's largest power dam, cros-sing tlie 
IVIississippi River from Keokuk, Iowa, to Hamil- 
ton, Illinois, is dedicated. 

.•liii;. 27. Wilson proclaims the strictest 
neutrality betw'een tiie United States and the 
contending factions in Mexico, and iu"ges Ameri- 
cans to quit tliat country. 

Sept. 10. Centennial of Pcrrj-'s victory on Lake 
Erie is celebrated at Put-in-Bay, Oliio. 

Oct. . 2. Unprecedented floods in southern 
Texas cause loss of life and more than .1t50,000,000 
damage. 

Oct. 3. Underwood Tariff Act makes reduc- 
tions and extends free list of raw materials, food- 
stuffs, and some manufactures. Income tax 
e.xeiuption is fixed at $4,000 for married persons 
and S3. 000 for others. Net incomes over this 
amount will be taxed 1% per annum on such ex- 
cess, with an additional sliding scale of rates from 
1% on 820,000 to 6% on S500,000. Free sugar is 
postponed and later repealed. 

Oct. 4. Roosevelt sails for South America, to 
lectiu-e in tlie larger cities and explore the interior. 

Oct. 10. Gamboa dil^e, separating Gatun Lake 
from CiUebra Cut, and the last barrier to inter- 
oceanic navigation through the Panama Canal, 
is blown up by Wilson's pressing an electric button 
at the White House. 

Oct. 1 7. New York Senate acting as Cotirt of 
Impeachment removes Wilham Sulzer as governor; 
he is not disqualified from again holdmg office. 

Oct. IS. Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst. leader of 
the English mUltant suffragettes, is ordered de- 
ported by a special board of inciuiry^ at Ellis Is- 
land; but on October 20, follow uig an aijpcal to 
Washington, she is granted permission to enter the 
United States to fill her lecture engagements. 

Oct. 22. Act is passed abolishing the Com- 
merce Court, but retaining the justices as addi- 
tional Circuit Court judges. 

Nov. 3. Supreme Coiu't, in Baltic Mining Co. 
V. Massachusetts, sustains the Massachusetts law 
taxing foreign corporations as an excise on the 
right to do local business within the State. 

Nov. 4. Tammany is defeated in New Y'ork 
City elections by the Fusion ticket, lieaded by ! 
Mitchel for mayor. 

A'or. y-10. Severe storm sweeps over the Mid- 
dle West and tlie Great Lakes, causing great loss 
of life and property. 

Nov. 10. United States corn crop for 1912 is 
the largest on record. [lature. I 

Nov. 22. Antislavery act by Philippine legis- 1 

Dec. 1. In Straus v. American Publishers' .As- 
sociation OSlacy Case) the Supreme Court de- 
clares that a combination of publishers of copy- 
righted books for the purpose of refusing to sell to 
cut-rate retailers is contrary to the Antitrust Law. 

Dec. 10. Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to Elihu 
Root in consideration of his work for world peace 
as secretary of war and, later, as .secretary of state. 

Dec. 19. Hetcli Hetchy Act grants to San 
Francisco an extensive tract in Yosemite National 
Park for the creation of a new water supply. 

Dec. 23. Owen-Glass Federal Reserve Act 
creates a system of (12) districts, each with a re- 
serve bank, whicli national banks must join and 
otlier banks may ; and a new elastic system of cur- 
rency, with the gradual displacement of national 
l^ank notes. 

General conditions and activities of 1913: 
The movement for providing allowances for wid- 
owed mothers, in order that their children may be 
suitably cared for at home, receives wide indorse- 
ment, " widowed mothers' pension " laws being 
now enacted in thirteen States. 
Labor disputes are frequent and numerous 
strikes are recorded; other threatened strikes are 
averted by arbitration, notably in the case of rail- 
road employees. The I. WW. are associated with 
the more violent strikes of the year. 
1914. Imports of merchandise, $1,893,92.5,657; ex- 
ports of merchandise, S2. 364, ,579. 148; immigrants, 
1,218,480; alien emigrants, 303,338. [increased. I 

Jan. 1. Theweiglit limit of the parcel post is | 



1914 (continued). 

Jan. 2. The firm of J. P. Morgan & Co. severs 
its directorial comiection with twenty-seven cor- 
porations, on accoimt of changed pubhc attitude 
toward " interlockitig directorates." 

Jan. 3. Direct wireless comnumication is es- 
tablished between United States and Germany. 

Jan. B. Ford Motor Company of Detroit an- 
nounces a profit-sharing plan, S10,000,000 to be 
distributed among the employees. 

Jan. 2'. Wilson, by e.Kccutive order, estab- 
lislies a permanent government in the Canal Zone ; 
Chief Engineer Goetbals is made civil governor. 

Feb. 3. Wilson lifts the embargo placed on 
the e-vportation of arms and nnmitions of war 
from the United States into Mexico. 

Feb. 24. Supreme Court, in United States v. 
Lexington Mill Co., holds that the Pure Food and 
Drug Act does not proliil^it tlie use of injurious 
substances, tmless in sucli quantities as may affect 
tlie health of the consumer. 

March 12. Act lor construction of a railroad in 
Alaska by the government. 

March IS. United States Express Company de- 
cides to retire from business after sixty years of ex- 
istence, mainly because of parcel-post competition. 

March SO. Wilson authorizes a statement de- 
nying that his support of the repeal of the Panama 
Canal Act discriminatory clau.se is the result of an 
agreement with England. , 

April 7. Treaty with Colombia is signed by 
wliich Colombia recognizes Panama; Colombia is 
to receive .*2.5,000,000 as indenmity, and is to en- 
joy free use of the Canal in perpetuity ; the United 
States " expresses regret " for its relation to the 
Panama Revolution. Up to 1920 it has not been 
ratified by the Senate. 

April 9. United States sailors are arrested at 
Tampico. President Huerta subsequently re- 
fuses a demand for a salute to the American 
flag. (See Mexico.) 

.•1 pril 20. In German Alliance Insurance Co. v. 
Lewis the Supreme Court upliolds the right of a 
State to regulate insurance rates, if reasonable. 
Industrial war in tlie mining districts of south- 
central Colorado wiiicli began on September 23, 
1913, culmmates in a pitched battle betwsen 
armed strikers and State niiUtia. On April 28 
there is further conflict in the southern Colorado 
coal fields. Wilson orders Federal troops to the 
strike district to replace the State militia and to 
disarm the strikers and mine guards. The con- 
troversy remains tmsettled till November 29, when 
the operators accept Wilson's plan of settlement. 
On December 8 the strike is formally called off by 
the United Mme Workers. 

April 21. Water is let into the Cape Cod 
Canal, wliich shortens the Boston-New Y'ork 
water route by 70 miles. 

American naval forces occupy Vera Cruz, Mexico, 
because of the Tampico incident. 

A pril 22. Congress authorizes the use of force 
against Me.xico. 

A pril 23. Wilson restores the embargo on war 
supplies into Mexico. 

April 25. Mediation proposal of the " ABC 
powers " — Argentina, Brazil, and Chile — to- 
ward the settlement of the Mexican chspute is ac- 
cepted. A virtual armistice goes into effect. 
Voimiteer Army Act authorizes enlistment of vol- 
tmteers for four years, or during need, in time of 
actual or threatened war. 

April 2S. Roo.sevelt emerges from Brazilian 
wilderness, having traversed and traced tlie course 
of a liitherto unknown river, subsequently named 
Rio Teodoro. 

April 30. United States army under Pimston 
assimies control at Vera Cruz, and the naval 
forces are withdrawn to their sliips. 

Mdij 9. Wilson issues proclamation asking that 
the second Simday in May, 1914, be observed as 
Mother's Day. See Mother's Day, in the Diet. 

May 11. In Gompers v. ITnitcd States, after 
various appeals and rehearings confirming the 
sentence, tlie Supreme Court avoids passing on the 
constitutionality of the pimishment of the labor 
leaders for contempt l^y deciding that the statute 
of limitation has become a bar to further proceed- 
ings, [barge traffic. | 

May IS. Panama Canal is opened for regular I 

June S. In International Harvester Co. v. 
Missouri and Same v. Kentucky tlie Supreme 
Court holds that State antitrust laws are not con- 
trary to the Foiu^eenth Amendment nor made so 
because they include venders of commodities and 
exclude venders of labor and service (imions) ; but 
the standard of what is to be considered an ujidue 
restraint of trade must be a knowable one. 
In Houston, East and West Texas Ry. Co. v. 
Ignited States the Supreme Court decides that a 
legal order by the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion on interstate rates releases the company from 
inconsistent State requirements on intrastate 
rates. 

June 14. Lassen Peak in California becomes 
ertiptive, only Uve volcano in continental U. S. 



1914 (.cojitmued) . 

June IS. Tolls-exemption clause of Panama 
Canal Act is repealed, but the right to renew the 
exemption is reserved. 

June 22. In Pipe Line Cases the Supreme 
Court upholds the constitutionahty of the Hep- 
bum Act making pipe Imes common carriers which 
must carry products of competitors at rates sab- 
iect to regiilation by the Interstate Commerce 
Commission. 

Juue 25. Fire destroys a large part of the city 
of Salem, Mass., including several thousand 
homes and large industrial plants. 

July 1. National net debt, 81,027,257,010. 
Order prohibiting alcohohc hquors in the navy 
goes into effect. 

July 3. Secretary of Treasury armoimces 
yield from mcome tax to lie $28,306,336, of which 
$12,523,000 is from New York. 

July 11. Interstate Commerce Commission 
pronounces the financial transactions of the New 
Y'ork, New Haven, &. Hartford R.R. a glaring in- 
stance of maladministration. Criminal and civil 
prosecutions are begim by the government, July 23. 

July IS. Congress creates the aviation section 
of tile Signal Corps of the army. 

July 31. Stock exchanges close because of 
tiireatening war conditions abroad. 

WORLD-WAR PERIOD. 
1914. Aug. 4. President issues neutrality proc- 
lamation on outbreak of war in Europe (see 
World-War Period). 

Aug. 5. He offers ills good offices to the war- 
ring nations in an effort, to promote peace. 
Treaty with Nicaragua is signed. $3,000,000 is 
paid for the control of her canal route, two strate- 
gic islands (Little Com and Great Cora), and a 
naval station site. 

Congress appropriates $2,500,000 for reUef of 
Americans in Europe. 

Aug. S. U.S.S. Tennessee leaves .New York 
■with SSSOO.OOO m gold tor the use of Americans 
stranded in Europe. 

Aug. 12. International Harvester Company is 
pronoimced by the Circuit Court of Appeals a 
monopoly in restraint of trade; its dissolution is 
ordered. 

Aug. 15. Panama Canal Is formally opened 
to commerce by the passage of the steamsliip .471- 
c6n from Atlantic to Pacific m ten lioiu-s. 

Aug. 18. Emergency Ship Act admits foreign- 
built sliips to American registry. 
Cotton Futures Act lays a tax on all dealings for 
futtu-e dehvery not according to the regulations 
laid down in the act. (Park in Montana. | 

Aug. 22. Congress erects the Glacier National I 
Sept. 2. Treaty is signed with Panama modi- 
fjing the Zone boimdary and treating of the con- 
trol of the harbors, certain Islands, and a battery 
site. 

Bureau of War Bisk Instirance is authorized as 
part of the Treasury Department. 

Sept. 14. United States Red Cross steamship 
Red Cross sails for Europe. 

Sept. 26. Federal Trade Commission Act 
provides for a commission which takes over the 
work ol the Bm-eau of Corporations, and super- 
vises competition in interstate and foreign com- 
merce not connected with carriers or banks. 

Oct. 14. Clayton Antitrust Act prohibits dis- 
criminating prices and trade agreements, interlock- 
ing directorates of banks and large competing 
corporations, and the holding by one corpora- 
tion of the stock of another where the effect is 
" to substantially lessen competition." It limits 
injunctions and contempt proceedings in labor 
disputes, and exempts labor and agricultural 
organizations from antitrust Jaws. 

Oct. IB. Panama Canal is temporarily closed 
because of earth slide in Culebra Cut. It is closed 
for a second time on October 31. 

Oct. 17. United States District Court signs de- 
cree dissolving the New York, New Haven, and 
Hartford R.R. system, compelling the giving up 
of its holdings in the Boston and Maine, Boston 
and Albany, and in variotis trolley and steamship 
lines. [Alaska. I 

Oct. 20. Act is sign»d for leasing coal lands in I 
Oct. 22. War Tax Act to meet tlie deficits 
caused by the decrease Under Underwood Act of 
tariff proceeds by an increase in internal revenue. 
November. Rockefeller Foxmdation donates 
$1,000,000 for Belgian relief, and undertakes to 
defray the cost of handling and transporting all 
relief "supplies. November 3, the flr.st relief ship 
sails for Rotterdam. By January, 1 915, no fewer 
than 35 ships are engaged in carrying supplies 
from America to the Belgians. (See Belgium.) 

Nov. 2. Federal quarantine is proclaimed to 
prevent the spread of foot-and-mouth disease 
among cattle in many States. 

A'oi'. s. Amendmentsfor State woman suffrage 
are adopted in Nevada and Montana, and rejected 
in Missouri, Nebraska. Ohio, North Dakota, and 
South Dakota. Constitutional amendments pro- 



186 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1914—1915. 



1914 {continued). 
^ liibiting trafBc in liquor are rejected in California 

and Ohio, but adopted in Washington, Oregon, 
Arizona, and Colorado. Republican goveraors are 
elected in 14 States and Democrats in 15, a gain 61 
3 for the Republicans. 

Nov. 6. Chicago stockj'ards are closed, for the 
first time, to permit thorough disinfection on ac- 
count of the spread of foot-and-mouth disease. 

ONov. 14. V. S. collier Jason (" Ciiristilias 
Ship ") sails from New York for Europe with 
S;i.aO0,000 worth of presents for the children of the 
belligerents. 

Nov. 16. Federal Reserve Bank system goes 
into effect. The coimtrj- is divided into twelve 
districts, witii their respective Federal reserve 
cities as follows : Boston ; Is ew York ; Philadelphia ; 
Cleveland; Kichmond: Atlanta; Cliicago; St. 
P Louis; Minneapolis; Kansas City; Dallas; San 

Francisco. 

Laimch from U.S.S. Tennessee is fired on from 
Turkish ports at Smyrna. Turkey explains, No- 
vember 21. 

Cotton Exchanges at New York and New Orleans 
resume trading after fifteen weeks' suspension. 
Nov. 23. Troops are withdrawn from Vera Cruz. 

QDec. 12. New York Stock Exchange reopens 
for trading after having been ciose-d since July 31. 
Dec. 17. Harrison Act regulates the sale of 
opium and coca leaves and their derivatives. 

Dec. 18. A flat increase of five per cent in east^ 
em freight rates, with certain exceptions, is 
granted by Interstate Commerce Conunission to 
all railroads operating between the Mississippi and 
— ^ Atlantic seaboard, north of the Potomac and Oliio 

R rivers. Additional revenue approximating S30.- 

000.000 is exi>ected. 

Dec. 26. United States government sends note 
to Great Britain protesting against imwarranta- 
ble interference with American commerce due to 
seizures and detention of American cargoes 
destined to neutral European ports. 
Generai conditions and activities of 1914: 
O The World War brings out the interdependence of 

international trade. Immediate effects are seen 
in the closing of the New York Stock Exchange, 
the vast sliJpments to Eiu-ope, the shutting 
down of the New England cotton mills, the ces- 
sation or curtailment of exports and imports, the 
hampering of various industries through lack 
of raw material. The confusion gives place to 
■_ more promising conditions toward the end of 

I Deceml>er. The direct benefits to United States 

trade are seen in the increased foreign demand 
resulting from the war. The completion of the 
Panama Canal opens the gateway to the Pacific. 
1915. Imports of merchandise. SI, 674, 169, 740; ex- 
ports of merchandise, S2. 70S, 589. 340; immigrants, 
326,700; alien emigrants, 204.074. 

Jan. 1. Panama-California Exposition opens 
M at San Diego. 

Jan. 5. In the Danbury Hatters' Case the 
Supreme Court affirms the $252,000 judgment 
awarded against the miion. 

Jan. 8. Wilson makes an address at Indian- 
apolis in defense of his administration and his 
Mexican policy of ** watchful waiting.*' 

Jan. 10. Great Britain's preliminary reply to 

Vthe United States note concedes the principle 
of the American government's contentions, and 
promises not to interfere in bona fide trade be- 
tween neutral countries, but only " with trade m 
contraband destined for the enemy's country." 

Jan. 13. House rejects by 204 to 174, pro- 
posed constitutional amendment establishing 
woman suffrage. 

Jaji. 16. Wheat at Chicago reaches $1.45 a 
^^ bushel, the highest price since 1898. 

Jan. 21. Repl>ing to a German note. United 
States recognizes the nonpolitical status of con- 
suls in Belgian tenitorj' occupied by Germany. 

Jan. 22. State-wide prohibition is adopted in 
Alabama, to take effect July 1. 1916. It is to go 
into effect in Arkansas February 5; Idaho, March 
1; Iowa, March 6; South Carolina,- September 14, 

Xlt is already in force in Arizona, Colorado, Georgia, 
Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, North Carolina, 
North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Tennessee, 
Virginia. Washington, and West Virginia. 

Jan. 25. Wilson inaugurates the first trans- 
continental telephone system. 
Supreme Court in Coppage i . Kansas declares im- 
constltutional a State statute which prohibits an 
employer from requiring that an employee should 
Y '^^^ ^^ ^ member of a labor imion as repugnant to 

the Fourteenth Amendment. 

Jan. 26. Congress establishes the Bocky 
Mountain National Park in Colorado. 

Jan. 2S. American ship William P. Frye, boimd 
for QueenstowTi, is sunk by a German cruiser in 
the South Atlantic on the groimd that her cargo 
of wheat is contraband. Germany admits liability, 
y but no agreement is reached. 

^ Jan. 30. Death penalty is repealed in South 

Dakota. It is abolished in Oregon February 3; in 
North Dakota, March 5; in Alaska, April 21. 



1915 (continued), 

Feb. 2. Unsuccessful attempt to blow up with 
dynamite the railroad bridge over the St. Croix 
River between Vanceboro, Me., and New Bnms- 
wick is made by a German named Horn, claiming 
to act imder German authority. 
Great Britain announces that foodstuffs sent to 
Germany will be considered conditional contra- 
band. 

Feb. 6. Extensive passport frauds are brought 
to light, a conspiracy for obtaining fraudulently 
passports for German reservists and volimteers. 
Eight are found guilty in March and later. 

Feb. 7. Wireless communication between mov- 
ing trains is successfully established. 

Feb. S. A compromise Ship Pm-chase BQl pro- 
viding for govenunent ownership and operation 
of merchant ships. The administration bill is 
killed in the Senate by Republican filibuster. 

Feb. 10. Note is sent to Germany warning her 
that " strict accoimtability " will be demanded of 
her by this government in regard to the " war 
zone " decree to go into effect Februarj- 18. 
Great Britain makes a second and more complet-e 
reply to jjrotest of Dec. 26; desire to be as lenient 
as possible with neutral shipping is asserted. 
Alabama legislature passes a biU prohibiting the 
advertising of liquor and forbidding the publica- 
tion or circulation within the State of newspapers 
carrjing hquor advertisements. 

Feb. 11. Great Britain seizes as contraband 
cargo of American sliip Wilhelmina, boimd for a 
German port with wheat, intending to make a test 
case, but later orders in council anticipate decision. 
April 8, British government agrees to piirchase 
cargo and compensate owners for detention of 
ship and otlier loss. 

Feb. 13. Interstate Commerce Commission, 
interpreting the Panama Canal Act, denies to the 
Southern Pacific Railroad Co. permission to re- 
tain possession of the Pacific Mail Steamship Co., 
so long as the latter has sen ice through the Pan- 
ama Canal. May 15, commission fiu*ther decides 
that railways cannot own steamship lines on the 
Great Lakes. 

Feb. 16. Note is received from Germany, deny- 
ing responsibility in regard to " war zone," but 
offering to recede from decree If United States will 
induce Great Britain to permit foodstuffs to enter 
Germany. 

Feb. 20-Dec. 4. Panama Pacific Interna- 
tional Exposition is held at San Francisco; par- 
ticipated in by over 40 foreign nations; the official 
national and international celebration of the open- 
ing of the Panama Canal. 

Government suggests to Germany and Great 
Britain modified form of putting into practice 
" war zone " decree. 

Feb. 21-22. Conflicts between outlaw Piutes 
and United States marshals near Bluff, Utah, re- 
sult in the death of five Indians and two white 
men. Indians escape into the desert. The diffi- 
culty ends March 20. 

Feb. 28. American steamship Dacia is seized 
at sea and condemned in a French prize coiut- on 
the groimd that transfer of owncrsliip from Ger- 
man to American citizens during hostilities is con- 
trary to international law. Cargo is subsequently 
brought to France. 

March. During the first six montlis of opera- 
tion the Panama Canal has handled 496 vessels 
aggregating 2,-367,244 tons and pajing tolls of 
S2, 138,442. Cost of maintenance slightly ex- 
ceeds the income. 

March 1. Officials of the Hamburg- Amt^ri can 
Line are indicted for conspiring to obtain false 
clearance papers for supply ships engaged in coal- 
ing and provisioning German warsliips. On De- 
cember 2 Buenz and three other oflQcials are sen- 
tenced to imprisonment. 

March 2. In reply to note of February 20, 
Germany asks modification of Great Britain's sea 
policy as contained in orders in coimcil. 

March 3. Naval Appropriation Act provides 
for 2 battlesliips, 6 destroyers. IS submarines, an 
oil-fuel ship, and for the development of airplane 
service. 

March 4- Congress passes a resolution de- 
signed to strengthen the powers of the president in 
the enforcement of neutrality laws and especially 
to prevent American territor>' from being used as 
a base for supplying belligerent ships of war. 
La Follette Seamen's Act, a measiu'e designed to 
improve the condition of American seamen in the 
merchant marine of the United States; arrest and 
imprisonment for desertion is abolished, and provi- 
sion is made against Asiatic crews. 
Sixty-third Congress ends after two years of al- 
most continuotis session. 

March 5. Identic note is sent to Great Brit- 
ain and France protesting against their de- 
clared intention, on March 1, to detain all ships 
carrying goods of " presumed enemy destination, 
ownership, or origin," paying for ships or goods 
not otherwise liable to condemnation. French 
decree of March 13 and British order in council of 



1915 (continued). 

March 15 l^eing issued according to intention, 
fiuther protest is made on March 30, because 
there is no blockade, though trade between neu- 
tral ports is included: 

March 7. Rockefeller Foundation annoimces 
that it will undertake to improve medical and 
hospital conditions in China. 

March 8. Supreme Court, in Northern Pacific 
Ry. Co. V. North Dakota and Norfolk and West- 
em Ry. Co. r. West Virginia, holds that State reg- 
ulation of intrastate rates must be reasonable, 
else they violate Fourteenth Amendment. 

March 10. German converted cruiser Prim 
Eitel FriedHch enters Hampton Roads after a com- 
merce-destro>ing voyage. She is interned. 

March 28. An Axnerican citizen loses his life 
when the Falaba is torpedoed by a German sub- 
marine. 

April 3. American Red Cross sanitarj' com- 
mission to fight tjTJhus in Serbia sails from New 
York. Proves successful. 

April 10. Wilson annoimces that the Federal 
railroad to be built in Alaska will extend from 
Seward on Resiurection Bay tlu"ough Susitna 
valley and Broad Pass to Tanana River. 

April 11. Von Bemstorff, German Ambassa- 
dor, makes public a memorandum, charging the 
United States with violating the true spirit of 
neutrality by permitting war munitions to be 
shipi)ed to the Allies. 

German converted cruiser Kronprim Wilhelm 
seeks refuge in Newport News. She is interned. 

April 21. The government regrets that von 
Bemstorff seems to impugn the good faith of the 
United States; the exportation of arms to belliger- 
ents cannot be prohibited. 

April 28. German airmen drop two bombs on 
the American steamer Cushing, whose flag and 
name are plainly \isible. No damage is done, and 
on July 15 Germany offers indemnity. 

April 30. Unrelaycd wireless conunimication 
is established between Arlington, Va., and the 
Canal Zone, a distance of 2000 miles. 

May 1 . Gulflight, a United States freight 
steamer, is sunk by a German submarine. Three 
Americans lose their fives. 

May 7, IVIany Americans (114 men, women, 
and children) lose their lives when the Cimarder 
LusilauiaboimdforLivcrpoolis torpedoed with- 
out warningby a German submarine off the south 
coast of Ireland. The total loss of life is 1198. 

May 10. In a speech at Pliiladelphia Wilson 
says: " There is such a thing as a man being too 
proud to ligbt. Tliere is such a tiling as a na- 
tion being so right that it does not need to con- 
vince others by force that it is right." 

May IS. First note sent to Germany in re- 
gard to sinking of Lusiiania and other sul> 
marine outrages. Use of submarine against n'.er- 
chant marine impossible without violation of sa- 
cred principles of justice and humanity, freedom 
of the seas and rights of Americans to travel 
thereon (tliis point of view afterward abandoned). 

May IS. Govermnent warns Cliina and Japan 
that the United States will not recognize any 
agreement which impairs the American rights in 
China or endangers the "open-door" policy. 
National Polish Relief Association is being organ- 
ized in the United States. 

May IS. United States fleet, on exhibition in 
the Hudson River, passes out to sea in review. 

May 20. England invites American surgeons 
to man her newest and largest field hospital. 
Medical schools of Harvard, Colimibia, and Jolms 
Hopkins respond. 

May 23. A jury at Syracuse, N. Y.. returns a 
verdict for Roosevelt in the libel suit brought by 
William Barnes. Jr., the Repubhcan leader. 

May 23. Important delegates from Central and 
South American repubhcs meet in a Pan-American 
financial conference at Washington to discuss 
means for promoting closer biismcss relations. 

May 24. W'iLson is.sues a proclamation of neu- 
trality covering the entrj' of Italy into the war. 
American freight steamer Nebraska is seriously 
damaged by a t-orpedo fired by a German sub- 
marine. July 15, Germany sends note of apology 
and offers to pay damages. 

May 28. Germany replies to Lusitania note, 
holding actions of British government sufficient 
cause. 

June 3. United States Steel Corporation is 
held to be a lawful combination by the Circuit 
Coiut of Appeals. fpedoing of the CuJflighiA 

June 4- Germany expresses regret for the tor-| 

Jvne 8. Bryan resigns the office of secretary 
of state, being out of agreement with Wilson's 
demand on Germany to alter her submarine war- 
fare. Lansing his successor. 

June 9. Second Lusitania note to Germany, 
denying the German statement of facts and con- 
tending for " nothing less high and sacred than 
the rights of humanity." 

June 14. Supreme Court decides that West 
Virginia must assume a share of the public debt 



1915-1916. 



NATI0>;AL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



187 



1915 {conti7iued) . 
ol Virginia, from which it separated in 1863. 
Amount involved is $12,393,929.50, two thirds 
being accrued interest. 

June St. In Guinn and Beal v. United States 
the Supreme Court declares unconstitutional the 
"grandfather clause" In the Oklahoma consti- 
tution, which disfranchises a large percentage of 
Negroes. [staff of the navy. I 

June 2J,. Secretary Daniels creates a general! 

June SS. About twenty Americans lose their 
lives when a German submarine destroys the 
ATmenian, a British steamer. 

June S9. Austria-Hungary makes formal pro- 
test against the sale of munitions to the Allies. 
Lansing repUes on August 12, affirming the right. 

June SO. Income tax collections for the fiscal 
year ending Jime 30, 1915, 580,190.693, of which 
$39,144,531 is m corporation and $41,046,162 in 
individual tax. 

Emergency revenue ta.x of Octoljer 22. 1914, real- 
. izes $52,069,126 to date. Taxes on wine and 
spirits amoimt to $144,619,699, a decrease of 
$14,478,478. 

Automobile exports for the fiscal year amount to 
$74,476,422, an increase of more than 100% over 
the previous year. Production of petroleum 
greatest on record, aggregate being 290,312,535 
barrels. California first, with Oklahoma second. 
Explosives exported during the fiscal year amount 
to $41,476,188, as compared with $6,272,197. 
Under the new law admitting foreign-built vessels 
to American register, 149 ships of 527,071 tons are 
transferred to the American rtag. 
Cost of living is higher than ever before in the 
history of the coimtry; in September, 1914. seven 
per cent higher than the average price for 1913. 

July 1. National net debt, $1,090,148,006. 

July 2. Senate reception room in the Capitol 
at Washington is WTecked by a bomb placed there 
by Erich Muenter. On the following day J. 
Pierpont Morgan is shot, but not fatally, by the 
same man. iMuenter kills himself in jail, July 6. 

July 5-25. E.xposition in commemoration of 
the achievements of the Negro race durmg the last 
50 years is held at Richmond. 

July 8. United States government assumes 
control of the German-owned ^Tireless plant at 
Sayville, L. I., in order to preserve its neutrality. 

July 10. Germany replies regarding the Lusi- 
tania, upholding the submarine warfare without 
notice as proper retaliation for illegal warfare of 
enemies. 

July 14. Formal notice is given to Great 
Britain that the United States holds that the rights 
of Americans who have cases before British courts 
rest upon international law and not upon British 
orders in council. 

July 16. Panama Canal is used for the first 
time by United States battleships. 

July SI. Third Lusitania note, declaring that 
a repetition of such acts will be considered as 
'* distinctly unfriendly." 

July £4. Great Britain replies to the United 
States with a legal argument to show that Great 
Britain is adhering to international law, as modi- 
fied by modem conditions. 

July 25. American steamship Leelanaw is simk 
by a German submarine after warning; the crew is 
towed to safety. 

Ju'y 27. First direct wireless commimication 
between United States and Japan. 

July 29. American Red Cross during the 
first year of its war activities in Etn-ope has 
spent SI. 460,306. 

July 31. Two Americans are killed when the 
British steamship Iberian is stmk by a German 
submarine. 

Aug. o-e. Representatives from Argentina, 
Brazil, Chile, Boliyia. Uruguay, and Guatemala 
meet the American secretary of state to discuss 
means of ending chaotic condition of Mciico. 

Au(}. 11. Interstate Commerce Commission 
permits increases in carload freight rates on 4 1 
railroads in the Middle West; next day it orders 
reductions in the freight rates on antliracite coal, 

Aug. IS. Pacific Mail Steamship Company 
sells five of its transpacific steamships, claiming 
that the provision against Asiatic crews in the La 
Follette Act makes it imable to compete with 
Japanese lines. 

Aug. 15. New York World begins series of ar- 
ticles, backed by documents, charging German 
officials with a \igorous propaganda In United 
States, directed not only against the Allies, but 
against the government. 

Aug. 18. Armed Meiirans cross the Rio 
Grande into Texas and attack a United States 
outpost, killing a corporal. 

Aug. 19. Two Americans lose their live^ when 
the British liner Arabic is torpedoed by a German 
submarine. 

Aug. 24. Eastman Kodak Company is de- 
clared to be an illegal combination in restraint of 
trade and is ordered dissolved by the District 
Coiu't at Buffalo. 



1915 (continued) . 

Sept. 1. German declaration by the informal 
note of von Bemstorff that hereafter liners will not 
besimk by Gei-man submarines without a warning, 
but resistance or attempt to escape wiU provoke 
inunediate destruction. 

Sept. 2. IMarauding bands of Mexicans con- 
tinue to harass communities in Texas and Arizona 
near the border. 

Sept. 4. One American is lost as a result of the 
torpedoing without wammg of the British liner 
Hesperian. [,4ra6ic case. I 

Sept. 7. Germany suggests arljitration inl 

Sept. 9. RecaU of Austro-Hungarian Ambas- 
sador Dumba demanded, because of his effort to 
cripple American industries and his employment 
of an American citizen to carry official dispatches. 
Dumba leaves on October 5. 

Sept. 16. Treaty signed with Haiti, virtually 
establishing a protectorate. Senate ratifies, Feb- 
ruary 2S, 1916. 

Seizm-e of American meat products on various 
American steamers justified by a British prize 
court, because, though consigned to a Danish 
port, they are intended for ultimate consumption 
by German forces. 

Austro-Hungarians hving in Pennsylvania are 
warned by their consid not to engage in the manu- 
facture of munitions of war for the AlUes under 
penalty of imprisonment or death in the event of 
their return to Austria-Hungary. 

Sept. IS. Panama Canal is closed indefinitely 
on account of slides in Gaillard (Culebru) Cut. 
Germany sends a new note in regard to Frye ca.=e. 
declaring that hereafter American sliips carrying 
only conditional contraband will not be destroyed. 

Sept. SO. Lord Bryce, formerBritish Ambassa- 
dor to the United States, urges America to try to 
stop the fiu-ther slaughter of Armenians. The 
Committee on Armenian atrocities discloses a 
propaganda of extermination of non-Moslems. 

Sept. 29. Wireless telephone raesssages from 
ArUngton, Va., are received at Honolulu and later 
(October 12) at the Eiffel Tower, Paris. 
Veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic, 
20,000 strong, march through Peimsyhania 
Avenue. Washington, in commemoration of th^ 
grand review after the Civil War. 

Oct. 1 . Largest self-supporting steel arch in the 
world (span 1,016 ft. 10 in.), in railroad bridge 
spanning Hell Gate, New York City, is completed. 

Oct. 5. German government disavows Arabic 
sinking. 

Oct. 6. The following are selected for the Hall 
of Fame: Francis Parkman, Mark Hopkins, 
Elias Howe, Joseph Henry, Charlotte Cushman, 
Rufus Choate, Daniel Boone, Alexander Hamil- 
ton. Louis Agassiz. 

Oct. 9. Lansmg reports the tmanimous decision 
of the Pan-American coimtries to recognize Car- 
ranza as de facto president in Meilco. Car- 
ranza is formally acknowledged, October 19. 

Oct. IS. Directors of the New York, New 
Haven, and Hartford R R. Co. are on trial in the 
District Court at New York charged with violat- 
ing the Sherman Antitrust Law. 

Oct. 15. Anglo-French $500,000,000 external 
loan for five years at 5 per cent is conchided. 

Oct. 19. Woman suffrage is defeated in New 
Jersey, and. November 2. in Pennsylvania, New 
York, and Massachusetts. 

Oct. 20. Embargo on arms to Mexico is de- 
clared by the president except to the part of the 
cotmtry tmder Carranza's control. 

Oct. 21. Note to Great Britain protests the 
conduct of the blockade and the seizure of Ameri- 
can ships, and affirms that the United States can- 
not submit to any curtailment of its neutral rights. 

A'ou. 1. Supreme Court declares in Truax t. 
Raich that the Arizona antialien law. which pro- 
vides that 80% of the employees of any concern 
must be of American nationality, is unconstitu- 
tional. 

Nov. 2. Elections areheld in 8 States. Demo- 
cratic governors are chosen in Kentucky, Mary- 
land, Mississippi; Republican, in Massachusetts. 
Revised constitution for New York State is re- 
jected by a majority of 470.000 (about 2 to 1). 

Nov. 9. Nine Americans are killed when the 
Italian liner Anc'.>na is sunk in the Mediterranean 
by an Austrian sulimartne. 

Nov. 11. Teutonic activities in United States 
are exposed by Joseph Goricar, former Austrian 
consul-general, who states that the consulates are 
centers of propaganda against munition factories. 

Nov. 1 7. First strike in V. S. postal service 
ties up the mail of Fairmont, W. Va. 

Nov. 21. Bureau of Mines annoimces a new 
process of extracting radium which will reduce the 
cost by more than two thirds. 

Nov. 24. U.S.S. San Diego is sent to the west 
coast of ISIexico to protect American interests, in 
consequence of repeated Indian outrages. 

Nov. 29. Supreme Court in Heim r. McCall 
sustains the validity of the New York law against 
the employment of aliens on pubUc works. 



1915 (continued), 

Dec. 1. Total tonnage of American vessels is 
8.444,256; niunber of ships, 26.888. Largest 
gross tonnage in the country's history. Alto- 
gether, 171 foreign vessels take American registry 
imder Shippmg Act of August, 1914, while 98 Amer- 
ican vessels are transferred to foreign registry. 
Recall of German attaches Boy-Ed and von 
Papen is requested by Wilson on accoimt of " im- 
proper activities in militarj- and naval matters." 
They are recalled on December 10. 

Dec. 4. Henry Ford's peace expedition sails 
for Europe, hoping that a peace conference may be 
held among neutrals abroad which shall be in- 
strumental in stopping the war. The expedition 
proves abortive. [Himgary on the A neonacase. 1 

Dec. 6. GovemmentsendsfirmnotetoAustria-t 
Sixty-fourth Congress convenes: Senate, 56 
Democrats and 40 Republicans; House, 228 
Democrats, 199 Republicans, 4 Progressives, 1 
Independent, 1 Socialist, 1 Prohibitionist. 

Dec. 7. The main points of Wilson's message 
to Congress are; Pan- Americanism ; a reaffirma- 
tion of the Monroe Doctrme; national defense; 
a govemment-owTied merchant marine; and the 
pimishment of disloyal naturalized citizens. 

Dec. 1 7. Tlu-ee German agents are arrested for 
attempting to blow up the Welland Canal, through 
which pass grain ships laden for Europe. 

Dec. IS. President Wilson marries Mrs. 
Edith BoUmg Gait in Washington. 
Corn crop for 1915 is ofllcially estimated at 
3,054,535,000 bushels, 70,000.000 bushels below 
the record of 1912; its value ($1,755,859,000) con- 
stitutes a record. The wheat crop, 1,011,505.000 
bushels, is the largest in the history of the coimtry. 
Oats crop, 1,540,362,000 bushels, is a record both 
in quantity and value. 

Dec. 27. Second Pan-American Scientific Con- 
gress (fh-st was held in Santiago in 1908) opens at 
Washington. A concrete de\elopment is the for- 
mation of the American Institute of International 
Law, composed of 105 leading pubUcists from 21 
coimtries. 

Dec. 2S. Eight alleged German agents, includ- 
ing a congressman, a former congressman, and a 
former attorney-general of Ohio, are indicted at 
New York by a federal grand jury for conspiring 
to foment strikes in American munition factories. 

Dec. 29. E. M. House of Texas, not in official 
United States service, sails for Europe as Presi- 
dent Wilson's personal investigator and messenger. 

Dec. SO. British steamship Persia is torpe- 
doed in the Mediterranean by an Austrian sub- 
marine. Some 336 lives are lo.st, including that 
of Robert, N. McNeely, Ameiican consul at Aden. 
General conditions and activities of 1915: All 
records in foreign trade are broken. L'nited 
States becomes an arsenal and the chief storehouse 
of the Allies. Mimitions ot war, foodstuffs, mili- 
tary equipment and apparel, copjier and brass, 
horses and mules, automobiles, and flying machines 
are exported in large quantities. AU previous ton- 
nage of steel and iron is eclipsed. Cotton manu- 
factiirers recover from the depression of a jear 
before. Imports from Europe show a marked de- 
crease. Exports to South American and Asiatic 
markets are greater. A huge harvest yields good 
prices. Explosions and fires in munition plants 
are numerous, and aUeged to be the work of alien 
propagandists. Bank clearings establish a phe- 
nomenal record. 

Widowed Mothers' Pension bills, enabling mothers 
to provide for dependent cliildren in their own 
homes, are passed in 15 States, making in all 28 
States ha\ing such laws. Workmen's compensa- 
tion laws are introduced in many States. 
1916. Imports of merchandise, $2,197,883,510; 
exports of merchandise, $4,333,483,885; immi- 
grants, 298,826; alien emigrants, 129,765. 

Jan. 1. Minimum-wage law in Massachusetts 
for girls employed in retail stores goes into effect. 
Those who have been employed one year and are 
over 18 shall receive at least $8.50 a week. 

Jan. 4. United States protests to Great Brit- 
ain against mail seizures; also denies " the right 
of British authorities to seize neutral vessels plying 
directly between American and neutral European 
ports without touching at British ports." 

Jan. 11. Five explosions in two days occur in 
one of the Du Pont powder plants near Wilming- 
ton, Delaware. 

Jan. IS. Retrial of five former officials of the 
New York, New Haven, and Hartford R.R, Co. un- 
der indictment for conspiracy to violate Sherman 
Antitrust Law, is ordered by attorney-general. 
Cases against six other defendants are dismissed. 

Jan. 17. In the Federal court at New York 
four German-Americans plead guilty to conspir- 
acy to smuggle crude rubber to Germany. 

Jan. IS. Secretary' of State Lansing, in a note 
addressed to the Entente powers, informally 
suggests that, if submarines adhere to recognized 
rules of search and seizure, merchant vessels be 
not armed, adding that the U. S. may class armed 
merchantmen as auxiliary cruisers. 



188 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1916. 



1916 (.coiilimied). 

Jan. J4. Income tax is declared constitutional 
by tile .Supreme Court in a unanimous decision in 
Brusliaber v. Union PaciHc R. R. Co., giving the 
broadest interpretation to Sixteenth Amendment. 

Feb. 1. British steamer Appam is brouglit into 
Hampton Koads. Va., by a German prize crew. 
Government wins fight against National Cash 
Register Co., under civil section of the Sherman 
Antitrust Law. The criminal case is dismissed. 

Feb. 10. Garrison resigns as secretary of war, 
because the president will not stand by the na- 
tional army plan instead of mihtia. 

Feb. 17. Reviewing the Mexican situation, 
Lansing enumerates the violent deatlis of 112 
Americans in the years of the Wilson administra- 
tion ; 76 of these occurred in Mexican territoi-y and 
36 on the American .side of the border. 

Feb. IS. U. S. formally protests to Turkey 
against the contiiuiation of Armenian atrocities. 
Treaty with Nicaragua concerning Corn Islands 
ratified by Senate. (See Aug. 5, 1914.) 

March S. Agreement is reached between the 
bituminous operators and 200,000 workers. In 
the Pittsburgh district 50,000 men repudiate the 
agreement and go on strike toward the end of May. 

March u. ISlexlcan brigands under Villa attack 
the town of Columbus, N. M., and the camp of the 
Thirteenth United States Cavalry, killing mne 
civilians and eight troopers; the raiders are pur- 
sued into Mexico and more than 100 are killed. 

March 13. United States agrees to aUow Car- 
ranza's forces to enter American territory' when 
necessary, in pursuit of bandits, ni retimi for the 
imopposed entrance of American troops into 
IVIexico in pui"suit of ViUa. 

March 13. Military expedition topunish ViUa 
enters Mexico, imder Pereliing. (See Mexico.) 

March 17. Joint resolution authorizing the 
president to recitiit the army to the maximum 
strength in case of emergency. 

March 22. U.S.S. Kenluchy is ordered to Tam- 
pico to protect American oil interests. 

March 23. British Ambassador's reply to Lan- 
sing's note of Jan. 18 declines proposal. 

March 34. German submarine torpedoes the 
tmarmed French Channel steamer Sussex, Amer- 
icans being among those killed. 

March SO. Representatives of the 400,000 em- 
ployees of 452 railroads of the United States pre- 
sent demands for an eight-hour day and time and 
a half for overtime. 

April S. Keply of France and England to 
United States protests against mail seizures 
Is presented, upholding the general right, but of- 
fering some improvement. 

A pril 1 1 . Contract for a loan of S20,000,000 to 
China for industrial development is signed by 
Boston liankcrs. 

April 13. Carranza protests against the " im- 
permitted " invasion of Mexico by American 
troops, and asks that the further pursuit of Vilia 
be left wlioUy to Carranzixl'is. 

April 15. AVUson notifies Carranza that the 
United States i^ wUhng to limit tlie punitive opera- 
tions, and to withdraw, " withm a reasonable 
time," if ViUa is not captm^d. 
Panama Canal is reopened after being closed for 
seven months l>y landslides. 

April IS. United States sends another note 
to Germany regarding submarine warfare, 
with special reference to the Sussex, declaring that 
imless present methods are abandoned diplomatic 
relations will l:)e severed. 

Carranza repeats his wish that the pimitive force 
now in Mexico be withdrawn. 

April 24. British reply to the United States 
protest of October 21 upholds the legality of the 
system of trade restrictions. 

May 1 . General strikes in New York City bring 
to 1,000.000 the total of workers voltmtarily out 
of work or locked out. 

A wage increase and an eight-hour day are 
granted to 176,000 miners in the anthracite coal 
field, and the price of coal is raised. 

Mail .',. Germany replies to the American 
note of April IS saying that naval commanders 
have been ordered not to sinit merchant ships 
without warning and without saving life, unless 
the sliip attempts to escape or olYers resistance; in 
return Germany expects the United States to op- 
pose British blockade methods. May 8, United 
States replies, accepting the ass\irance, but deny- 
mg the right to impose conditions. 

Maij a. Bandit followers of Villa make a second 
raid across tlie border, killing three American 
soldiers and two civilians. 

May 9. Wilson calls out 4,000 militia of 
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona and orders that 
4,500 additional regulars be sent to the border. 

May 13. Elephant Butte Dam, across the Rio 
Grande 120 miles north of El Paso, is completed, 
forming the greatest storage resen-oir in the world. 
More than 1:^0.000 persons take part in a citizen's 
preparedness parade in New York City. Similar 
Xxtrades are held elsewhere dimng the summer. 



miG [eon'.inued). 

May 24. .Second protest of United States in 
regard to mail seizures by the Allies. 

May 26. RockefeUer Foundation appropriates 
51,000,000 for the rehef of war sufferers in Poland, 
Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania. 

May 30. Wilson issues a proclamation caUing 
upon the people to celebrate Flag Day, Jime 14, 
with patriotic exercises. 

June 1 . Nomination of Louis D. Brandeis as an 
associate justice of United States Supreme Coiu^ 
confirmed by the Senate, endmg a bitter contest. 

June 3. Army Reorganization Act provides 
for a regular army on a peace footing of about 
1 1 ,0(X) officers and 175,000 men, the term of enUst- 
ment being seven years, three with the colors and 
four in reserve. A reserve officers' training cori>s 
is provided. National Guard is federalized 
and its strength increased to about 17,000 officers 
and 440,000 men; annual training period is in- 
creased and term of enlistment is made six years, 
half in the reserve. Military training camps for 
students are first held in tlie summer of 1913, but 
the movement becomes prominent with the cstal> 
lishment by the War Department of camps for 
students and business men at Plattsburg in 1915. 

June 10. Republican National Convention at 
Cliicago nominates C. E. Hughes and C. W. Fair- 
banks. Under a new plan of apportionment the 
Southern delegation is materially reduced. 
Progressive National Convention, also at Chicago, 
failing to reach an agreement with the Republi- 
cans, noniinates Roosevelt and John Parker. 

June IS. Democratic National Convention at 
St. Louis renominates Wilson and Marshall- 
Mexican raiders cross the border at San Ygnacio, 
Texas, and attack American cavalry troops. 

June IS. United States warships are ordered 
to Mexican waters. Wilson orders the National 
Guard to mobilize for service on the Mexican 
border. Order is carried out with much difficulty 
and inefficiency. 

June 20. Reply to Carranza flatly rejects de- 
mand to withdraw the American troops. 

June 21. United States protests to Austria- 
Hungary against the submarhie attack on the 
American steamer Petroliic. 

June 22. Lansing sends an identic note to the 
South and Central American republics, stating 
that the United States has had for its object the 
defense of American territorj' and not interven- 
tion in Mexican alTairs. 

June 25. United States demands the release of 
prisoners taken by Mexican troops at Carrizal. 
War Department orders militia organizations to be 
dispatched at once to tlie border withoiU further 
concentration or training in mobilization camps. 

June 26. Roosevelt declines the Progressive 
nommation, and the National Progressive Com- 
mittee adopts his recommendation to indorse 
Charles E. Hughes. 

June SO. Income tax collections for the fiscal 
year reach the record figure of $124,916,314, of 
which S56,972,720 is in corporation and $67,943,- 
594 in individual tax. Automobile exports for 
the year reach the record figure of 8125,636,787. 

July 1. National net debt, $1,006,281,672. 
Joint resolution authorizing the president to draft 
the National Guard into the Federal service; in- 
tended for Mexico. 

July 9. German commercial submarine Dra(sr/i- 
Innd arrives at Baltimore from Bremen with a 
cargo of chemicals and dyestiUTs. 

July 11. Mexican government proposes a joint 
commission to discuss matters of difference be- 
tween the two governments. Wilson accepts, 
Jidy 28. 

Good Roads Act anthorizes the expenditure of 
$85,000,000 in five years by the Federal govern- 
ment, on condition that the States expend 
amoimts equal to those apportioned to them. 

July 17. Rural Credits Act provides for the 
establishment of a system of Federal loan banks to 
facihtate the capitahzing of farms by long-time 
mortgage loans. 

July IS. British government places ?2 Ameri- 
can firms and individuals on a blacklist with 
which residents of the United Kingdom are for- 
bidden to trade. United States protests, July 26, 
to Great Britain against the blacklisting. 

August. Epidemic of infantile paralysis, which 
broke out in Jime, reaches alarming proportions In 
New York City and elsewhere. 

Aug. 1. German merchant submarine Deutsch- 
land departs from Baltimore on her return voyage 
to Bremen with a cargo of crude nickel and rubber. 
Arrives safely, August 23. 

Aug. S. Some Progressive leaders meet at 
Inchanapolis and decide not to nominate a candi- 
date in place of Roosevelt, but to place State tick- 
ets in the field wherever i)ossible. 

Aug. 4. Treaty with Denmark is signed, pro- 
\1ding for the purchase of the Danish West 
Indies for $25,000,000: ratified by the Senate, 
September 7, and in Denmark, by a plebiscite on 
December 14 and by the government on Decem- 



1916 {continued). 

Ijer 22. The islands pm-chased, now officially 
known as the Virgin Islands of the United 
Stales, will be used as a naval base and coaling 
stations for the United States fleet. 

Aug. 11. Agricidtural Appropriations Act in- 
cludes a new Cotton Futiu-es Act; a Waifhouse 
Act to establish a form of receipt which shall lie ne- 
gotiable; and a Grain Standards Act to facihtate 
imiform grades in handling grain. 

Aug. 27. Order sent out for a great nation- 
wide railroad strike by the four great raihoad 
brotherhoods to force an eighl^hour day. They 
refuse to arbitrate. WUson urges favorable legis- 
lation on Congress, August 29. 

Aug. 29. Philippines Government Act 
grants larger measure of self-government to Fili- 
pinos; independence is promised when the Fili- 
pinos shaU prove their ability to maintain a stable 
government; the Clarke Amendment, promising 
indeijendence in 2 or 4 years, is dropped. 
Naval Appropriation Act establishes a three- 
year building program of 10 battleships, 6 battle 
cruisers, 10 scout cruiscre, 50 destrojers, 18 sub- 
marines, 3 fuel ships, 1 hospital sliip, 2 amnumition 
ships, and 7 other vessels, an armor-plate plant, a 
projectile factorj-, and provision for the Naval 
Flying Corps. 

Army Appropriation Act provides for a Coimcil of 
National Defense, and revises the Articles of War. 

Sept.l. Child Labor Act excludes from inter- 
state commerce the products of factories in which 
childr<'n under speciflcd^ages are emplojed, or in 
which older children are employed beyond a speci- 
fied number of hours. 

New York bankers offer to the public a $250,000,- 
000 two-year five per cent loan to Great Britain, 
secured by bonds and stocks. 

Sept. 3. Adamson Act establishes a basic 
eight-hour day for railroad operators, with pro rata 
pajTuent for overtime. Strike is called off on Sep- 
tember 4. President Wilson takes responsibility- 
for the statute. [holds its first m.eeting. I 

Sept. 4. Mexican- American joint commission I 

Sept. 7. Shipping Act creates a government- 
controlled $50,000,000 corporation to build, buy, 
or lease merchant sliips. 

Workmen's Compensation Act provides for a gen- 
eral system of pajTnent to Federal employees. 

Sept. 8. Emergency Revenue Act increases 
the income and inheritance tax, puts taxes on the 
manuf actiu-e of nnmitions, protective tarilT on dye- 
stuffs, protection of American firms against ' 'dimip- 
ing," and atithorizesdrastic retaliatoo" steps against 
foreign interference with United States trade. 

Oct. 5. Militia organizations still in State 
mobilization camps (about 8,000 men) are or- 
dered to the Mexican border. 104,000 National 
Ciuardsmen are on the liorder. 

Oct. 7. German war submarine U-5S enters 
Newport harbor and leaves after a three hours' 
stay. The foUowing day sbi foreign merchant 
•sliips are sunk by a German submarine off the is- 
land of Nantucket. Considered a notice of abil- 
ity of Germans to destroy American commerce 
in case of war. 

Oct. 10. Great Britain upholds the blacklist (see 
July IS, above), but promises relief to American 
firms unjustly injured. 

Oct. 12. Replying to the second protest -egard- 
ing mail seizures, the British and French govern- 
ments state that " they are sincerely striving to 
avoid an encroachment," but that they have a 
right to " impede any transportation intended to 
aid their enemy." 

Oct. 20. Wheat for December delivery reaches 
$1,713 on the Cliicago Board of Trade, the highest 
price in gold since the Civil War. 

Oct. 2S. Six Americans lose theu- lives when the 
British steamer Marino is torpedoed by Germans. 

NoiK 1. German merchant submarine Deutsch- 
land arrives at New London, Conn., on her second 
voyage. (See July 9, above.) 
Stock of gold in the United States is $2,700,136,- 
976, largest any coimtry has ever possessed; 
worid's stock is $8,239,500,000. 

A'oi'. ~. Thirty-third presidential election: 
Main campaign issue Wilson's record; " He kept 
us out of war": Wilson and Marshall, Demo- 
crats, receive 9,129,606 popular votes and 276 
electoral votes: Hughes and Fairbanks, 8,538,221 
popular votes and 255 electoral votes. Socialist 
candidates poU nearly 600,000 popiUar votes; Pro- 
hibition and Socialist I^abor candidates also rtm. 
Governors are elected in 35 States, IS Eepubhcans 
being returned and 17 Democrats, a gain of 1 for 
the Republicans. 

American steamer Columbian is sunk by a German 
submarine off coast of Spain ; the crew is rescued. 

Nov. 24. Protocol is signed by the Mexican 
and American joint commissioners, providing for 
the withdrawal of the Pershing expedition from 
Mexico and for border protection by the armies of 
the two countries, acting independently until co- 
operation is necessary. On December 18 Car- 
ranza declines to accept the protocol. 



1916 — 1917. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OP^ AMERICA. 



189 



1916 (continued). 

Nov. 21 . Federal Reserve Board warns Fed- 
eral Reserve banks and American investors to pro- 
ceed with caution in participating in foreign war 
loans and foreign treasury bills. 

Nov. 2S. American steamship Chcmuna is simk 
by a submarine off the coast. of Spain; no lives are 
reported lost. 

Nov. 29. United States enters a vigorous 
protest to the German government against the 
wholesale deportation of Belgians for forced labor 
in Germany, as in contravention of precedents and 
intomational law and fatal to Belgian relief work. 
D<:c. I. Nation-wide intiuiry into the high cost 
of living is begun by the United f^tates Department 
of Justice. 

Dec. 12-16. Sharp fall of prices on the New 
York Stock Exchange is caused by Germany's 
peace proposals. 

Dec. l-j. Value of crops estimated by Depart- 
ment of Agriculture at the record figure of S7.641,- 
609,000, although smallest yield in twelve years. 

Dec. IS. Wilson appeals to the belligerent 
powers to discuss terms of peace. He suggests 
that " an early occasion be sought to call out from 
all the nations now at war ... an avowal of their 
respective views as to the terms upon which the 
war might be concluded." 

Dec. 26. Reply of the Central Powers to the note 
gives no suggestion of the terms on which peace 
may be based, but states that " an immediate ex- 
change of views seems to be the most appropriate 
road in order to reach the desired result " and 
begs to propose " an immediate meeting of dele- 
gates of the belligerent states at aneutral ])laee " 
General conditions and activities In 1916: 
Economic progress of the United States is imprec- 
edented despite labor troubles, small harvest, and 
rise of prices. Consumption more than keeps pace 
with production. Iron and steel reach the highest 
price since the Civil War. Copper sells for 32 ' 
cents a poimd. as compared with less than 12 cents 
in 1914. Cotton passes the 20-cent mark, more 
than three times its price in 1914. Paper soars. 
Floiu- reaches S12 a barrel, nearly double its normal 
figure. Potatoes cost .?2.40 per bushel. Coal in 
New York reaches S15 a ton, more than double 
the average price of the past five years. The seri- 
o^^s shortage of freight cars is in part responsi- 
ble for the abnormal rise in prices. The indebt- 
edness of foreign coimtries to people of U. S. 
amounts to nearly $2,000,000,000 since the war 
began. In the Philippines and Porto Rico the 
export trade shows a remarkable development, 
1917. For the World War, see that title. 

Imports of merchandise, .K, 6,59, 355, 185: exports 
of merchandise, $6,290,108,394; immigrants, 
295,403; alien emigrants, 66,277, 

Jan. 10. In the U. S. court at San Francisco, 
Franz Bopp, German consul-general, von 
Brincken, and other members of his staff, are foimd 
guilty of plotting to blow up .Mlied munition ship- 
ments, and other tmneiUral acts. 
Allies reply to Wil.son's note of Dec. 18. 1916, 
outlining their war objects. (See World War.) 

Jan. 15. In Cusack Co. v. Chicago the Su- 
preme Court upholds a municipal ordinance pro- 
hibiting the erection of billboards in residential 
districts. 

Jan. 22. Wilson states the following condi- 
tions under which he would urge the United 
States to enter a world federation after the war 
to guarantee and enforce future peace: 

1. The peace must provide not only for a balance 
of power, but a commimity of power; " not organ- 
ized rivalries, but an organized common peace." 

2. It must be a " peace without victory," leaving 
no sting or resentment; " only a peace between 
eciuals can last." 

3. It mtist make no distinction between the rights 
of big nations and of small ones. " Right must be 
based upon the common strength, not upon the 
individual strength, of the nations upon whose 
concert peace will depend." 

4. It must accept " the principle that govern- 
ments derive all their just powers from the con- 
sent of the governed." 

5. There should be a " imited, independent, and 
autonomous Poland," 

6. " Inviolable security of life, of worship, and of 
industrial and social development should be 
guaranteed to all peoples who have lived hitherto 
under the power of governments devoted to a 
faith and purpose hostile to their own," 

7. Every great people " should be assured a direct 
outlet to the great highways of the sea," if not by 
cession of territory, then by neutralization of di- 
rect rights of way. 

8. '* The paths of the sea must alike in law and in 
fact be free," giving free, constant, imthreatened 
intercourse in practically all circumstances. 

9. There must be a limitation of both land and 
naval armaments, to make them a power for order 
only, 

10. " The nations should with one accord adopt 
the doctrine of President Monroe as the doctrine 



191J {continued). 

of the world : that no nation should seek to extend 
its polity over any other nation or people, but that 
every people should be left free to determine its 
own polity, its own way of development, im- 
hindered, imthreatened, imafraid, the little along 
with the great and powerful." 
Supreme Coiu-t in the Blue Slcy Cases upholds the 
right of the States to guard against questionable 
stock and bond dealers and fraudulent sociu-ities. 
Jan. B3. Equal suffrage in North Dakota, 
Ja7i. SI. Germany returns to submarine 
policy and gives notice that she will wage unre- 
stricted submarine warfare upon all commerce 
within certain defined zones off the coasts of 
Great Britain, France, and Italy. Germany will 
permit one east^boimd and one west-bound AJiieri- 
can passenger steamer each week, 

AMERICA IN WORLD WAR. 
1917. Feb. S. Diplomatic relations with Ger- 
many are broken off by United States. Ambas- 
sador von Bernstorff is handed his passports, and 
Ambassador Gerard with his staff and all consuls 
are recalled from Germany. In an address before 
Congress, Wilson warns Germany that war will 
foUow an overt act. (marine after warning, i 

American steamer Housatonic is simk by a sub-l 

Feb. 4- Department of State annoimces that it 
has instructed its representatives in neutral coun- 
tries that the president invites all neutrals to break 
with Germany. 

Feb. b. Immigration Act is passed over a 
veto. It includes a literacy test; increases head 
tax to $8; and excludes Asiatic laborers, natives 
of regions within certain degrees of latitude and 
longitude (Malays and Hindus chiefly ). imless pro- 
tected by treaties. Attempt to exclude Japanese 
is dropped on protest. Cliinese exclusion is not 
affected. 
Troops are withdrawn from Mexico. 

Feb. 7. Senate, by a vote of 7S to 5, indorses the 
president's course in severing diplomatic relations 
with Germany. 

Feb. 9. Indiana passes a Prohibition Act. 

Feb. 12. American schooner Lyman M. Law is 
simk by a submarine. 

Feb. H. Franchise is extended to women in 
Ohio for the choice of presidential electors. 
Congress establishes prohibition in Alaska. 

Feb. 17. French steamer Athos is torpedoed; 
one American killed. 

Feb. 26. Wilson recommends to Congress the 
establishment of an armed neutrality in dealing 
with Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare, i 

Feb. 27. British liner Laconia is torpedoed with- , 
out warning ; two Americans are lost. I 

Feb. 2S. Government makes public a note j 
signed by Zimmermann, the German foreign ( 
secretary, proposing that Mexico should make \ 
an alliance with Germany, receiving in return 
financial aid and recovering the adjacent States 
of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Japan is to 
be invited to join the alliance. 
Suffrage of women in Indiana is extended to presi- 
dential elections. 

March 1 . House by a vote of 403 to 13 empow- 
ers the president to arm merchant ships, but re- 
fuses to sanction the more general authority for 
which he asked. Bill is killed by filibuster in the 
Senate, and Wilson, on March 4, declares that a 
" little group of willful men, representing no opin- 
ion but their own, have rendered the great govern- 
ment of the United States helpless and contempt- 
ible." 

March 2. Congress admits residents of Porto 
Rico collectively to American citizenship, 
establishes imiversal male suffrage, and reorgan- 
izes the framework of government, including an 
elected Senate. Act imposes prohibition, which 
is confirmed by referendum on July 16, 1917. 

March 3. Congress appropriates $25,000,000 
for the purchase of the Danish West Indian 
Islands, now known as the Virgin Islands of the 
United States. Provision is also made for the 
temporary government of the islands and com- 
mercial relations with the United States. 
Manufacture and sale of liquor in the District of 
Columbia is prohibited. Liquor may be imported 
for personal use only. Takes effect November 1. 
The carriage of liquor advertisements by mail 
into prohibition States is prohibited, and also the 
shipment of liquor into such States. 
Special Preparedness Fund Act provides for 
an increase of fifty per cent in inheritance taxes 
and for an eight per cent excess-profits tax laid 
on corporations and joint-stock companies. 

March 4. Woodrow Wilson takes oath for his 
second term as president. 

March 6. In the Appam Case the Supreme 
Court- returns the German prize to its British 
owners, it being a violation of neutrality for 
Germany to attempt to keep the ship indefinitely 
in the United States. 

March S. Senate in special session changes its 
rules of procedure so as to permit the majority to 



1917 (continued). 

check debate. Closure may be applied afler two 
days' notice, by a two-thirds vote. Each senator 
may be allowed to speak for one hour afterwards. 

March 12. American stean.er Aloonqnin is 
sunk without wanimg b.y a submarine. 

March 1.5. Ravh'oad brotherhoods call a na- 
tion-wide strike to oegin on March 17, because of 
delay in decision of Supreme Coiu't on the Adam- 
son Law; but on March 16 agree to postpone it. 

March 16-18. American steamers Viiiilancia, 
City of Memphis, and Illinois are sunk by sub- 
marines: American lives lost, 

March IS. Trammcn gaui eight-hour day at 
thv., existmg scale of wages. 

March 19. Supreme Court (with four of the 
nine judges dissenting) in Wilson r. New declares 
the Adamson Law to be constitutional, con- 
sidering it in effect compulsory arbitration in an 
emergency by Congress. 

March 22. American steamer Healdton is sunlc 
by a submarine: 22 lives are lost. 

March 31. Wilson iilaces more than 10,000 
presidential postmasters in the classified civil 
service, but such first-class postmasters appointed 
through competitive method must still be con- 
firmed by the Senate, 

April 2. SIsty-flfth Congress meets in spe- 
cial session, called by Wilson on March 9 and 21 
" to receive a commimication concerning grave 
matters of national pohtics": Senate, 52 Demo- 
crats, 44 RepubUcans; House, 216 Democrats, 210 
Republicans, 2 Progr&ssives, 1 Prohibitionist, 1 
Socialist, 2 Independents, .Champ Clark, Demo- 
crat, is elected speaker. Miss Joamiette Rankin, 
RepubUcan, of Montana, is flrst woman member 
of the House. 

April 6. Joint resolution declaring war 
against Germany passes the House (373 to 50) 
and the Senate (S2 to 6). President formally 
proclaims declaration of war as of that date. 
Government takes over 90 interned German 
vessels. [relations with the United Stati i 

April S. Austria-Hungary severs diplomat el 

April 9. Government takes over 14 vessels of 
Austrian registry. 

Supreme Court in Bunting c. Oregon declares con- 
stitutional a State law establishing a 10-hour day 
in factories, with time and a half for overtime, 
as a regulation of hours and not of wages, tho 
overtime rate being a penalty to deter employers 
from exceeding the 10-hour limit, 

April 14. Wilson creates a Committee on 
Public Information. 

April SO. Turkey Severs diplomatic rela- 
tions with the United States. 

April 21. British mission, headed by Foreign 
Secretary A, J. Balfour, arrives in United States. 

April 24. French mission, headed by Marshal 
Joffre and Rene Vi\iani, minister of justice, ar- 
rives in the United States. 

First Bond Issue Act provides for the borrowing 
of five billions and the lending of tliree billions of 
this to governments at war with Germany, 

May 4. American destroyer fiotilla, to be com- 
manded by Admiral Sims, reaches the war zone. 

May 10. ItaUan mission, headed by Prince 
Udine, reaches New York. 

May IS. War Army Act passes the House by 
397 to 24 and the Senate by ,S1 to 8; provides that 
the Regular Army and the National (;uard shall 
be brought to full war strength : the guard shall be 
called into Federal senice; and 500,000 men (with 
500,000 more at the discretion of the president) 
shall be raised by selective draft from age 21 to 
age 30, inclusive. Measure passes in the face of 
strong opposition on the part of Democratic lead- 
ers, including Speaker Clark, [States. 1 

June .5. Belgian mission reaches the United' 
Registration of males for the selective draft shows 
nearly 10,000,000 available. 

June 11. In Adams v. Taimer the Supreme 
Com't declares imconstitutional the Emplo>'ment 
Agency Law of Washington (State), which forbids 
agencies to receive fees from workers for furnish- 
ing employment or information leading to it. 

JuitelS. Gen . Pershing and staff arrive in France. 

June IS. First Liberty Loan ($2,000,000,000 
at three and a half per cent) has been oversub- 
scribed by more than a billion : four million indi- 
viduals participate. 

First War Appropriation Act carries over three 
and a quarter billions for the army and navJ^ 
Espionage Act provides elaborately for the pun- 
ishment of espionage and interference with the 
foreign relations, neutrality, or foreign commerce 
of the United States, permits the president to lay 
an embargo, and gives the postmaster-general au- 
thority to exclude seditious and treasonable mat- 
ter from the mails. 

June SO. Interstate Commerce Commission re- 
jects the plea of the railroads for an increase of 
15 per cent in freight rates. [France. I 

June 26. First American troops arrive In I 

July 1. National net debt $1,908,635,224. 

July 2. Race riots in East St. Louis, 111., result 



190 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1917—1918. 



u 



w 



1917 (continued). 

in the death of more than thirty Negroes; order is 
restored by the militia. 

Jul!/ 12. Citizens of Bisbee, Arizona, contrary 
to law deport 1,200 striking miners and others 
who sympathize with them, suspected of being 
connected with the I. W. W. 

July 2J,. Congress appropriates $640,000,000 
for the development of aviation. 
Denman resigns as chairman of .the Shipping 
Board and General Goethals as manager of con- 
struction worli, this being the outcome of a con- 
troversy as to the respective merits of wooden and 
steel ships. Their places are filled respectively by 
Hurley and Admiral Capps. 

J uly 27. Second contingent of American troops 
lands in France. 

Aug.l. Frank Little, a member of the executive 
board of the I. W. W., is l>-nched by a band of 
masked men at Butte, Montana. 

Aug. 5. National Guard, about 300,000 strong, 
goes into Federal service. 

Aug. 10. Food Control Act gives the presi- 
dent very wide powers in fixing tlio prices and reg- 
ulating the distribution of foodstuffs and fuels: 
no foodstuffs shall be used in the production of dis- 
tilled spirits for beverage purposes. Hoover is ap- 
pointed food administrator on same day. 

Aug. IS. Armed forces of the United States now 
total 943,141, of which 233,117 are m the naval 
service. 

Aug. 19. Local officials of the I. W. W. are ar- 
rested by military order at Spokane, Wash., on the 
charge of fomenting strikes and preaching sedition 
among employees in the fruit and lumber industries. 
A ug. 20. Japanese mission, headed by Viscount 
Ishii, reaches the United States. 

Aug. 21. President fixes the price for bitumi- 
nous coal at the mines. 

Aug. 23. Race riot at Hotiston, Tex., in which 
colored soldiers take part, results in the death of 
seventeen persons. 

Garfield becomes fuel administrator: president 
fixes tentative prices for anthracite coal. 

Aug. 26. Plans for an adjustment of labor dis- 
putes in shipyards are formifiated at a conference 
between government officials and labor leaders. 

Aug. 27. Wilson places under the control of an 
Export Coimcil all articles of commerce destmed 
for neutral countries, which must guarantee that 
such exports will not reach Germany. 
Wilson's reply to the pope's peace message. (See 
World Wah.) 

A ug. SO. Food administration fi.xes a basic price 
for wheat at S?.30 a bushel which will be paid by 
the United States and the Allied governments. 

Sept. 4. Drafted recruits for the new National 
Army assemble at training camps. 

Sept. 5. Agents of the Department of Justice 
raid offices of the Industrial Workers of the World 
who have been active in opposuig the war. 

Sept. 8. Disclosiu-e that Coimt von Liixburg, 
the German diplomatic agent at Buenos Aires, has 
been commimicatmg with his government secretly 
tlirough the Swedish legation and has recom- 
mended that certain Argentine vessels be " sunk 
without a trace " (spurlos versenkt). 

Sept. 10. Maine rejects woman suffrage by a 
large majority. 

Sept. 21. Disclosure of a secret message of Am- 
bassador von Bemstorfl which asked for authority 
to use $50,000, " as on former occasions to mflu- 
ence congressmen." 

Sept. 22. Governor Ferguson of Texas is con- 
victed on impeachment for misuse of State fimds 
and abuse of authority. 

Sept. 24. Second Bond Issue Act authorizes 
the borrowing of $7,500,000,000 and the lending of 
$4,000,000,000 to Allied governments. 
War Industries Board effects an agreement with 
steel producers whereby the prices of pig iron and 
steel are reduced. 

Oct. 3. War Revenue Act is expected to 
yield $2,535,000,000 annually. It provides for 
increases in the income tax, excess-profits tax, 
inheritance taxes, taxes upon intoxicants and to- 
bacco, and postal rates. It also imposes many new 
taxes, and prohibits importation of distiUed spirits. 
Oct. 6. Military and Naval Insurance Act 
provides for governmental allowances to the f ami- 
Ues of soldiers, compensation for death or disabil- 
ity resulting from service, and additional insurance 
at low cost. [.500,000,000.1 

Second War Appropriation Act carries over $7,-1 
Senator La Follette, who has been accused of dis- 
loyal utterances, defends his conduct. Senate 
committee eventuaUy fails to find proofs of action 
and stops the prosecution. 

Oct. 10. By executive proclamation all large 
dealers in specified foodstuffs (such as meats, ce- 
reals, and fruits) are placed imder a license act. 

Oct. 1.5. Shipping Board requisitions for gov- 
ernment ser\-ice all American ocean-going vessels 
of more than 2,500 tons. 

Constitutional amendment prohibiting the manu- 
facture and sale of liquor is rejected by Iowa. 



1917 (continued). 

Oct. 16. Fuel Administrator Garfield warns 
miners and operators in the Southwest that con- 
templated strikes in coal fields must not take place. 
Oct. 19. Government plans an embargo on trade 
with Holland and Scandinavian countries imtil 
assurance is given that imports will not reach 
Germany. 

Oct. 20. Drastic changes in the machinery of 
the selective draft are announced, the remaining 
enrolled men to be divided into five classes. 

Oct. 26. Supreme Court of Indiana declares 
the State woman suffrage law imconstitutional. 

Oct. 27. Scco nd Liberty Loan ($3,000,000,000 
authorized) at 4% aggregates $4,617,532,300, with 
9,400,000 persons participatuig. 

Nov. 2. Lansing-Isliii notes exchanged by 
which the United States recognizes that Japan 
has " special interests in China," but the " terri- 
torial uitegrity remams unimpaired — a kind of 
Asiatic Monroe Doctrine." 

Nod. S. In the first encounters by American 
troops at the front, 3 are killed, 11 woimded, and 
7 taken prisonei-s. 

Nov. B. Supreme Court in Buchanan v. Warley 
holds that a city ordinance segregating Negroes is 
contrary to Fourteenth Amendment. 

A'oo. 6. Constitutional amendments pro\1ding 
for woman suffrage are adopted in New York by 
90,000 majority, and defeated m Oliio by 136,000. 
State-wide proMbition is adopted in New Mexico 
by a majority of 15,000 and defeated in Ohio by 
1,700. Hylan (Dem.) is elected Mayor of New 
York by a very large plurality, defeating Mayor 
Mitchel who made liis campaign on tlie war issue. 
SociaUst vote is five times that of 1913. 

Nov. 7. American War Commission, headed 
by E. M. House, reaches England on its way to 
attend the AUied War Conference at Paris. 

Nov. IB. Admiral Capps resigns as manager of 
the construction work of the Shipping Board: suc- 
ceeded by Charles Piez. 

Nov. 24. To relieve congestion of traffic, gov- 
ernment orders railroads east of Cliicago to pool 
all available facilities for movement of freight. 

Nov. 2B. Government annoimces that, aside 
from 426 vessels requisitioned wliile xmder construc- 
tion, contracts have been let for S84 new vessels 
of 4,724,300 tons. 

Dec. 1. In view of recent increases in wages, 
the president permits an advance of 35 cents a ton 
in the price of anthracite coal at the mines. 

Dec. 3. Wilson in an address before Congress 
advises war on Austria-Himgary. 

Dec. S. Reporting to Congress, the Interstate 
Commerce Conmaission recommends that the 
operation of railroads be unified for the period of 
the war, or, failing such an arrangement, brought 
under the control of tlie president . 

Dec. 7. Congress, with only one dissenting vote, 
declares war on Austria-Hungary. 
Government directs railroads to give preference to 
Biiipments of fuel, foodstuffs, and military suppUes. 
Dec. 10. Supreme Com-t m Hitcliman Coal and 
Coke Co. V. MitcheU decides that an attempt to 
imionize a mine and cause a strike, knowmg that 
emplovees are under a contract with the owners, 
by which they lose their jobs if they join a imion, 
is illegal, and owner is entitled to an injimction. 

Dec. 11. Tliirteen Negro soldiers are convicted 
by coiut martial and hanged for complicity in the 
Houston, Tex., race riot. 

Dec. 12. Senate Committee on Militarj' Aflau's 
begins to investigate alleged shortcommgs of the 
War Department. 

Dec. IS. Eighteenth Amendment providmg 
for national prohibition is submitted to the 
States for ratification. It passes, with the proviso 
that to become effective it must be ratified within 
seven years, by 47 to S in the Senate and 282 to 
128 in the House. Senate had previously voted, 
Aug. 2, 65 to 20, to adopt prohibition amendment. 
Dec. 28. By proclamation of the president, the 
railroad systems of the covmtry pass under 
Federal control; Secretary of the Treasury 
McAdootiecomes director-general of railroads. 
General conditions and activities in 1917: 
Tlie ascendancy of the executive in legislation is 
very marked. Congress passes no bill of impor- 
tance (excepting the Immigration Act), which the 
president has not recommended, and rejects no bill 
which he supports: it, however, refuses to intrust 
him with a censorsliip over the press. The coim- 
try stands squarely lx>hind tlie president and the 
war. The two installments of the Liberty Loan 
are oversubscribed by two and a half billions. 
The fears entertained at first that German- Ameri- 
cans Tuay hamper war preparations prove, on the 
whole, imfoimded. 

Effects of participation in the war are already felt: 
The first war taxes give intimation of a growing 
burden: sugar becomes scarce: "war bread" makes 
its appearance : the transportation system is brought 
imder government control, but nearly breaks do'wn. 
The country especially realizes the war m the en- 
listment and drafting of yoimg men into the new 



National Army, and by rejiorts of the first casual- 
ties on the western front. 
1918. Imports of merchandise, $2,945,655,403; 
exports of merchandise, $5,919,711,371; immi- 
grants, 110,618: alien emigrants, 94,585. 

Jan. 7. Supreme Court m Selective Draft Law 
Cases upholds the constitutionality of the Army 
Act providing for compulsorj' military service. 

Jan. 8. In the course of an address made be- 
fore Congress, WUson names fourteen points 
essential in considering peace, as follows: 
" 1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived 
at: after which there shall be no private Interna- 
tional understandings of any kmd, but diplo- 
macy shall proceed always frankly and m the 
pubhcview. 

" 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the 
seas, outside territorial waters, alike m peace and 
in war, except as the seas may be closed m whole 
or m part by international action for the enforce- 
ment of international covenants. 
■' 3. The removal, so far as possible, of all eco-. 
nomic barriers and the establishment of an equal if y 
of trade conditions among all the nations consent- 
ing to the peace and associatmg themselves for -ts 
maintenance. 

'■ 4. Adeciuate guarantees given and taken that 
national armaments will be reduced to the low- 
est pomt consistent with domestic safety. 
" 5. A free, open-mmded, and alKoUitely Impar- 
tial adjustment of all colonial claims, based on 
a strict observance of the prmciple that in deter- 
mining all such questions of sovereignty the mter- 
ests of the poptdations concerned must have equal 
weight with the equitable claims of the govern- 
ment whose title is to be determined. 
"6. Evacuation of all Russian territory, and such 
a settlement of all questions affecting Russia 
as wiU secure the best and freest cooperation of the 
other nations of the world in obtaining for her an 
tmhampered and miembarrassed opportunity for 
the independent det*.Tmination of her own political 
development and national policy, and assure her 
of a sincere welcome Into the society of free nations 
under institutions of her own choosmg: and, more 
than a welcome, assistance also of every kmd she 
may need and may herself desire. The treat- 
ment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the 
months to come will be the acid test of their good 
will, of their comprehension of lier needs as dis- 
thiguished from their own mterests, and of their 
intelligent and unseffish sympathy. 
" 7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must 
be evacuated and restored without any attempt to 
limit the sovereignty wliich she enjoys in common 
with all other free nations. No other single act 
will serve as this will serve to restore confidence 
among the nations in the laws which they have 
themselves set and determined for the government 
of their relations with one another. Without this 
healing act, the whole structure and validity of 
international law is forever impaired. 
" 8. All French territory shoidd be freed and 
invaded portions restored; and the wrong done to 
France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace- 
Lorraine, which has imsettled the peace of the 
world for nearly fifty years, shoiUd be righted, m 
order that peace may once more be made secm-e In 
the interest of all. 

" 9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy 
should be effected along clearly recognizable lines 
of nationality. 

" 10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose 
place among the nations we wish to see safe- 
guarded and assured, should be accorded the freest 
opportimitv of autonomous development. 
"11. Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should 
be evacuated: occupied territories restored ; Serbia 
accorded free and secure access to the sea: and the 
relations of the several Balkan states to one an- 
other determined by friendly counsel along historic- 
ally established lines of allegiance and nationality; 
and mtemational guarantees of the political and 
economic independence and territorial mtegrity of 
the several Balkan states shoidd be entered into. 
" 12. The Tiu-kish portions of the present Otto- 
ma n Empire shotUd be assured a secure sovereign- 
ty, but the other nationalities which are now under 
Turkish rule should be assured an imdoubted se- 
curity of life and an absolutely unmolested oppor- 
timity of autonomous development, and the Dar- 
danelles should be permanently opened as a free 
passage to the ships and commerce of all nations 
under international guarantees. 
" 13. An independent Polish state should be 
erected which shoidd include the territories In- 
habited by indisputably Polish populations, which 
should be assured a free and secure access to the 
sea, and whose political and economic independ- 
ence and territorial integrity should be guaran- 
teed by international covenant. 
"14. A general association of nations must be 
fomied, imder specific covenants, tor the purpose 
of affording mutual guarantees of political inde- 
pendence and territorial integrity to great and 
smaU states alike." 



1918. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



191 



1918 (.CO ttinued). 

Jan. 10. House of Representatives initiates by 
vote of 274 to 136 (just over tiie retiuired two 
thirds) a constitutional amendment providing 
for woman suffrage. 

Chairman Hurley of the Shipping Board states 
that new construction for the year will approxi- 
mate 5,000,000 tons. 

Jan. 17. In view of the serious sliortage of coal. 
Fuel Administrator Garfield issues a drastic order 
affecting States east of the Mississippi; no manu- 
facturing industrj- is allowed to operate from Jan- 
uary IS to 22, and all use of fuel except by consu- 
mers classed as absolutely necessary is forbidden 
for ten Mondays. 

Jan. 19. Senator Chamberlain of Oregon, mem- 
ber of Senate Militarj- Committee, lisserts that the 
military estabhshment of America has fallen down, 
and that there is inefiBciency in every bureau and 
department. 

Jan. 21. Wilson issues a statement attacking 
Senator Chamberlain and defending Secretary of 
War Baker. 

Jan. 26. Food Administrator Hoover fixes two 
" wheatless," two " porkless," and one " meat^ 
less " day a week, and in addition one "wheatless" 
and one " meatless " meal each day. 
Secretary of War Baker defends the work of his 
department, asserting that the mistakes are of 
small consequence in comparison with the great re- 
sults achieved. 

Jan. SO. Interstate Commerce Commission 
grants an increase of approximately 15% in rail- 
road-commodity rates to the Pacific coast. 

Feb. 1. In the first year of unrestricted subma- 
rine warfare, the Germans have simk 69 American 
ships with a gross tonnago of 171,000. [staff, I 

Feb. 5. General March is appointed chief of| 
The transport Tusoania, carrying more than 
2,000 American troops, is torpedoed off the coast 
of Ireland : 209 lives are lost : only transport sunk 
with American troops during the war. 

Feb. 11. President appears before Congress and 
in replying to the speeches of German statesmen 
formulates again his peace principles. These rec- 
ognize especially the rights of small nations and 
the aspirations of subject populations. 

Feb. 13. The Fuel Administrator suspends the 
general operation of his order for " heatless " 
Mondays. 

Feb. IB. By presidential proclamations all for- 
eign.trade becomes subject to government control 
imder a licensing system. This step releases ships 
for transportation of troops and supplies toEurope. 

Feb. 1 8. Shipyard carpenters return to work after 
Wilson rebukes them for giving aid and comfort to 
the enemy. Their grievances, he says, should be 
submitted to the official wage-adjustment board. 

Feb. 21 . Economic agreement is signed at Ma- 
drid, Spain, under which General Pershing will re- 
ceive army supphes from Spain. 

Feb. 22. Wilson, tmder act of Congress,, fixes a 
guaranteed minimum price for 1918 wheat at 
%1.1S), with a scale of differentials for different mar- 
kets, (where he arrives March 10. 1 

Feb. 27. Secretary Baker sails for France,! 

March 1. Motion for a new trial is denied 
Mooney, a radical lalx>r leader, who was convicted 
of murder in comiection with a lx)mb explosion in 
San Francisco diu-ing a preparedness parade. 

March 10. American troops are reported to 
be operating on four sectors of the Western front : 
in Lorraine, Champagne, and Alsace, and near 
the Chemin des Dames. 

March IJf. Texas adopts prohibition, but the 
act is declared tmconstitutional on October 24. 

March 19. Daylight-saving Act provides for 
advancing clocks one hour in period between last 
Sunday in March and last Sunday in October. 

March 21. Railroad Control Act permits gov- 
ernment control of the railroads in the coimtry 
for a maximum period of twenty-one months after 
the close of the war. 

March 29. Wilson asks the governor of Call- I 
fomia to extend clemency in the case of Mooney. 

April S. War Finance Corporation Act creates 
a Federal corporation of $500,000,000 capital and 
power to finance private enterprises needed for war. 

April 10. The Webb Act permits combinations 
otherwise contrary to the AJititrust Act, for the 
purposes of foreign trade. 

April 12. Charles M.Schwab becomes director- 
general of the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 

April 19. Bentall. candidate for governor of 
Minnesota, and Peterson, candidate for senator, 
are convicted of violating the Espionage Act. I 

April 20. Sabotage Act imposes heavy penal- ' 
ties uixjn those who willfully destroy war materials 
or war premises or utilities used in connection with 
the war. 

Navy Department takes control of the Philadel- 
phia police, suspending the chief, and appomting ' 
a head to protect soldiers and sailors from vice, j 

May 1. Michigan goes dry by constitutional 
amendment and New Hampshire by repeal of old 
local-option law. 



1918 {continued). 

May J,. Third Liberty Loan (4%), with 
17,000,000 subscribers, amounts to $4,170,000,000. 
May IS. Governor Wliitman of New York signs 
a " work-or-flght " bill, which requires all able- 
bodied men between the ages of IS and 50 not 
ser\'ing with military forces to be regularly engaged 
in a useful occupation during the war iieriod. 

May 16. Hughes is appointed by the president 
to conduct an investigation into charges made by 
GutEon Borglum, on April 25, that inefficiency, 
waste, and corruption have led to a breakdown in 
the aircraft production. 

May 16. Sedition Act imposes heavy penal- 
ties on those who liinder the prosecution of the war 
by ch'cuiating false statements, obstructing enlist- 
ment, inciting disloyalty among the armed forces, 
or assisting enemy comitries in other ways. 

May IS. An explosion of T. N. T. (triiwtrotol- 
uene) destroys the plant of the jB,tn& Co., near 
Pittsburgh; nearly 200 are killed; the property 
loss is $1,500,000. 

May 19. Director-General of Railroads Mc- 
Adoo authorizes expenditures of $938,000,000 on 
equipment and improvements for fiscal year 1919. 

May 20. Overman Act (an administration 
measure) permits a readjustment of the existing 
executive departments, and substitution of new 
arrangements to meet the e.Kigencies of war. 
Air service, now separated from Signal Corps, is 
reorganized, a director of aii'craft production bemg 
placed in charge of construction and a director of 
military aeronautics in charge of operation. 

May 23. Congress prohibits the manufacture, 
sale, and importation of liquors in Hawaii, subject 
to a referendimi. 

May 2^. Provost marshal general issues a 
" work-or-flght " order directed against all men 
within draft age not engaged in a useful occupa- 
tion. Slight attempt made to enforce it. 

May 27. Director-general of railroads orders 
a 25 % increase in freight rates and fixes passenger 
rates at tliree cents a mile. 

President, appearing before Congress, m-ges pas- 
sage of a new revenue bill during present session. 

May 28. American troops in front line at- 
tack Germans at Cantlgny (see World War). 

June I. Rose Pastor Stokes, a Socialist of New 
York, is sentenced to ten years' imi^risonment for 
violations of the Espionage Act. She appeals, 

June 3. Supreme Coiu't in Hammer v. Dagen- 
hart declares the Federal Child Labor Law of 
1916, forbidding the Interstate shipment of cliild 
labor products, tmconstitutional. 
Treaty with Great Britain for reciprocal military 
service; citizens of either cotmtry resident in the 
other liable to conscription, but allowed 00 days 
to enlist in army of own coimtry. Similar treaties 
with Italy (August 24), Greece (August 30), and 
France (Septemljer 3). 

June 6. Americans and French attack Ger- 
mans at Belleau Wood (see World W.^h). 

June 22. Director -general of railroads turns 
back to private management most of the shorts 
line roads. 

July 10. Army Appropriation Act, wliich carries 
over $12,000,000,000, bases the draft quota on the 
number of men in Class 1 instead of on State pop- 
ulations, and authorizes the president to increase 
size of the army indefinitely by successive calls 
imder the draft law. 

July 12. Wilson vetoes the Agricultural Ap- 
propriation Bill because it fixes a mininmm price 
of $2.40 for wheat. 

July 15. strikes occiu" in several large industrial 
plants in widely separated parts of the coimtry. 

July 16-18. Americans hold position on river 
near Chateau-Thierry against renewed German 
attack. July 21, Germans again driven out of 
Chateau-Thierry and retire. (See World W.ik.) 

July 16. Joint resolution of Congress empowers 
the president during the continuance of war to as- 
sume control of the telegraph, telephone, cable, and 
radio systems as deemed necessary. 
By proclamation Wilson puts all telegraph and 
telephone wires under government control, with 
the postmaster-general in charge. 
Twenty-one indictments are retiuued for army 
contract frauds. 

United States Food Administration reduces the su- 
gar allowance for August to two pounds per capita. 

Aug. 2. Edward A. Rumely is indicted for per- 
jury in disguising the true ownersliip of the AVir 
York Evening Mail, purchased by German agents. 

Aug. 4. Government suit against the Inter- 
national Harvester Company, which began in 
1912, ends in an agreement tmder which tlie com- 
pany will adopt certain dissolution measures with- 
in a year after tlie close of the war. 

Aug. 11. Man-power Act requires the regis- 
tration of all men between the ages of 18 and 45, 
inclusive. 

Aug. 17. General March, chief of staff, an- 
nounces that 1,450,000 American soldiers are in 
Europe, 1,550,000 in training camps at home. 

Aug. 2S. Seventeen dealers in New York are 



1918 {continued). 

found guilty of violating the food rules, stores are 
closed, fines Imposed, and sugar Ucenses revoked. 

Aug. 27. An engagement between Americans 
and Me.xicans at Nogales, Ariz., over the Interna- 
tional line, results in the death of two Americans. 

Aug. so. Federal court at Cliicago sentences to 
twenty years' imprisonment William D, Haywood 
and fourteen other leaders of the Industrial Work- 
ers of the World, convicted of disloyal conduct 
during the war, and Imposes less severe sentences 
on eighty othens. 

September. Epidemic of so-called "Spanish" 
Influenza spreads through the country. On 
October 4 it is reported that only five States re- 
main immune and that there are 127,000 cases in 
army camps. 

Sept. 2. By proclamation of the president the 
guaranteed price of wheat ($2.20 per bushel in 
the extreme West to $2,395 at New Y'ork City) 
will remain in force for 1919. 

Sept. 6. Food Administration, with the ap- 
proval of the president, orders the closing of all 
breweries after November 30. 

Sept. 12. Congress passes a joint resolution 
which authorizes the president to fix zones of 
any size around coal mines, munition plants, ship- 
yards, and other plants engaged in war work and to 
prohibit therein the sale of intoxicating liquors. 
T'nder the Man-power Act, 12,966,594 men register 
for the<lraft. 

Sept. 12-13. American troops under Pershing 
smash the German defenses on the Salnt-Mlhiel 
salient and drive Germans out of district. (See 
World War.) 

Sept. iif. Federal court at Cleveland sentences 
Eugene 'V. Debs, four times Sociahst candidate 
for the presidency, to ten years' imprisonment for 
disloyal conduct and obstruction to recruiting. 

Sept. 16. Wilson by proclamation under Food 
Control Act of August 10, 1917, prohibits the use 
of foodstuffs in the manufacture of malt Uquors. 

Sept. 17. Bridgeport, Conn., munition workers 
return to work when warned by the president that 
their failure to respect the decision of the War 
Labor Board will subject them to military service. 

Sept. 21. Announcement made that 1,750,000 
American soldiers are in Europe. 

Sept. 26-Non. 11. American troops fight the 
Meuse-Argonne campaign ending in the ap- 
proach to Sedan and the breaking of the enemy's 
line. (See World War.) 

Sept. 27. President declares that peace cannot 
be made with the Central Powers by way of a bar- 
gain or compromise, but that impartial justice 
must rule at the peace conference even in dealing ' 
with those whose honor cannot be trusted. 

Sept. SO. Wilson addresses the Senate and 
urges woman suffrage as " a vitally necessary war 
measure." Senate (October 1) fails to comply, 
lacking two votes of the necessary two thirds. 

October. It is estimated that the increase in the 
number of women workers since 1915 is 1,000,000. 
of whom 400,000 are engaged in manufacture and 
5(X),000 in clerical work. It is estimated that 
10,000.000 women are employed, of whom perhaps 
a fifth are factory workers. 

Oct. Jf-o. At South Amboy, N. J., the largest 
shell-loading plant In the world is destroyed by 
successive explosions of tons of T. N. T. Ninety 
lives lost; damage $25,000,000. 

Oct. 12-13. Nearly 1,000 persons lose their Uvea 
and some twenty towns are destroyed by a forest 
fire in northern Mimiesota. 

Oct. 25. Wilsonappeals tothe voterslomain- 
tain Democratic control in both Senate and 
House in the approaching election, as a Repub- 
Ucan victory would be interpreted as a rebuff to 
liiinself. 

Oct. 31. Hughes reports that the chief causes 
of trouble in the air service are defective organlza^ 
tion in the Signal Corps, the necessity of under- 
taking a vast program without previous experi- 
ence, and changes in design and specifications. 

Nov. 1. Fourth Liberty Loan, with 21,000,- 
000 subscribers, amounts to $6,866,416,300. 

Nov. 6. Equal suffrage is adopted in Michigan 
and South Dakota, rejected in Louisiana. Pro- 
hibition amendments are adopted in Ohio, Florida, 
Nevada, and Wyoming: rejected in California, 
Minnesota, and Missouri. 

Nov. 11. Armistice between Allied powers 
and Germany; result of complete defeat of Ger- 
mans, who give up territory occupied by them, 
agree to Allied occupation of German territory, 
and surrender the fleet, (See World War.) 

Nov. 16. Health commissioner of New York 
City reports 150,000 influenza and pneumonia 
cases in the city, with 20,(X10 deaths. 
Government assumes control of the cable lines, 
intrustmg tliem to the management of the post- 
master-general. 

Nov. 18. Demobilization of American army 
begins at home and abroad. 
Supreme Coiu-t declines to review the case of 
Thomas J. Mooney. 



192 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1918-1919. 



N 



U 



W 



1918 (.continued). 

Nov. 21. Food Stimulation Act provkirs 
that after May 1, 1919. no foodstuffs may be usfd 
in the manufacture of beer or wine and that after 
Jime 30 until the end of the war and demobiliza- 
tion no distilled spirits, beer, or wine shall be sold 
for beverage pmposes. 

Nov. 2S. Mooney's sentence is commuted to 
life imprisonment by governor of California. 

Dec. 1. British transport Mauretania reaches 
New York with the first returning troops. 

Dec. 2. Congress reassembles. 
President announces purpose to attend the Peace 
Conference in France, urges the passage of the 
woman-siifTrage amendment, and says that the 
railroads must be surrendered, " unless there 
should appear some clear prospect in the mean- 
time of a legislative solution." 
Florida passes a '" bone-dry " prohibition act. 

Dec. 3. Wilson starts from Wasliington for 
the Peace Conference. Lansing, House. 
White, and Gen. Bliss appointed (without con- 
firmation by the Senate) as co-commissioners. 
All decisions are made by the President. 

Dec. 5. Carter Glass succeeds McAdoo as sec- 
retary of the treasury. 

G eneral Pershing reports that at armistice Nov. 1 1 , 
the United States had 2,053,347 men in Europe. 

Dec. 9. Senate committee begins investigation 
of German propaganda, with officials of the De- 
partment of Jiistice as cliief witnesses. Many 
documents iiitherto impublished come to light. 

Dec. IS. Federal coiu-t at Philadelphia sentences 
pro-German editors Louis Wemer and Martin 
Darkow to five years' imprisonment for their dis- 
loyal connection with the Philadelphia Tageblntt. 

Dec. 19. State Department aimounces that the 
German propaganda is still active, and that it is 
now directed toward separating the United States 
from the associated nations. 

Dec. 20. A credit of S2o0,000,000 is extended to 
Great Britain, making a total advance of $4,195,- 
000,000 to that comUry and $8,464,547,702 to all 
the associated nations. 

Dec. 29. At the home camps, where 1.700,000 
men were in training when the armistice was 
signed, demobilization averages 15.000 daily. 

Dec. SI. Witli the granting of a new credit to 
Italy that coimtry's indebtedness to the American 
government totals $1,300,000,000. 
General conditions and activities in 1918: The 
most striking characteristic of the year is the re- 
organization of the life of ttie people undier 
war commissions; begimin 1917, but carried out 
mainly in 191S. The Coimcil for National De- 
fense continues in general oversight. Food supply 
is of primary imjiortance, and a careful agricul- 
tiu-al program is framed to seciu-e the greatest re- 
sults, but crop conditions are not so favorable as 
din*ing the year before. The people submit cheer- 
fully to restrictions on quantity and ciuality of 
food, in order to assist in supplying the needs of 
the armies and Allied populations. Farm labor 
is scarce; various measures are taken to supply 
the deficiency. Prices of food are regulated and 
profiteering punished. Activities of the Food 
Administration are far-reacliing and efficacious. 
Manufacturing is under government super\ision 
and nonwar industry is curtailed. A War Indus- 
tries Board has ch^-rge, determining priorities in 
demand for material, transportation, and fuel, su- 
pervising war purchases and purchases for Allies, 
and promoting efficiency. The "War Credits Board 
makes advances to contractors for war supplies. 
Property of alien enemies is taken over and oper- 
ated by the Alien Property Custodian. Fuel is an 
Important problem. During tlie summer a large 
saving of gasoline re.sults from a general cessation 
of Smiday automobile driving east of the Missis- 
sippi, in response to an appeal of the Fuel Admin- 
istrator. Transportation is mider the Director- 
General of Railroads, and the government oper- 
ates express, telegraph, telephone, and cables. 
Labor shows continued improvement in hours and 
conditions. Government supervision, through 
Secretary of Labor Wilson as War Labor Admin- 
istrator, with an advisory coimcil, the National 
Labor Policies Board, and the National War La- 
bor or Arbitration (Taft-Walsh) Board, reduces 
strikes and lockouts. Recruitment and distribu- 
tion of labor is featured. " Work-or-fight " policy 
is announced, but not seriously enforced. 
The Shipping Board and its Emergency Fleet Cor- 
poration through requisition and pm-chaseputs the 
merchant marine into war service: bnt the ship- 
building program does not get into full operation 
during the year. In tliis, as in other respects, the 
period is still one of war preparations rather than 
accomplishments. A War Trade Board has charge 
of forei^ trade. 

Finance is mobilized through the Capital Issues 
Committee of the Federal Reser\-e Board, which 
passes upon the issues of new industrial securi- 
ties, and through the War Finance Corporation. 
Science also is mobilized for war purposes, with a 
research council and a naval consiilting board. 



1918 ^continued). 

A National Board for Historical Service works in 

connection with the Committee on Public Informa- 
tion. This Committee keeps up the knowledge 
and interest through pamphlets, daily bulletins, 
" movie " pictures, and speakers (four-minute 
men) . The people are thoroughly alive and united 
in support of the war, and respond enthusiastically 
to the demands of the Liberty Loans and War Sav- 
ings, and also to the appeals of the Red Cross, 
Y.M.C.A., and other war- work organizations. The 
War Chest, a general fimd out of which to meet the 
demands on a commimity during the year, is fea- 
tured. With the beginning of the academic year 
most of the colleges become training schools for 
military and naval officers. 

Although politics is not adjourned, the interest, 
aside from tlie congressional elections, is mainly in 
the voting by the State legislatures on the prohi- 
bition amendment. 
1919, Imports of merchandise, $3,095,876,582; ex- 
ports $7,074,011,529; immigrants, 141,132. 

Jail. 3. Hoover has been appointed to direct 
food relief in newly liberated neutral and enemy 
territories in Europe. 

Jan. 6. Ex-President Roosevelt dies suddenly. 

Jan. 7. Interstate Commerce Commission op- 
poses Director-General McAdoo"s proposal that 
Federal control of the railroads be extended to a 
period of five years. 

Jan. S. Congressman elect Victor Berger of 
Milwaukee and four other Socialists are found 
guilty in the Federal Court of Cliicago of con- 
spiracy to violate the Espionage Act. 

Jail. 9. New Yorii Harbor traffic is paralyzed 
when 16,000 harbor workers go on strike to en- 
force their demands for an increase in pay and an 
eight-hour day. 

Jan .11. Wilson cables the War Labor Board to 
resume jm'isdiction in the strike. The men decide 
to return to work. 

Walker D. Hines. a practical railroad man, suc- 
ceeds McAdoo as Director-Cieneral of Railroads. 

Jan. 16. Nebraska legislature ratifies the Eight- 
eentli Amendment (prohibition), thus giving 
tliree fourths of the States necessary to ratification. 

Jan. 17. A general strike is set for July 4. next, 
by a labor conference in Chicago, if Mooney is not 
freed sooner. Neither strike nor release happens. 
Sentences ranging from one to ten years' imprison- 
ment are imposed on 43 members of the Indus- 
trial Workers of the World at Sacramento. 

Jan. IS. First meeting of the Conference of 
Paris. Wilson soon becomes member of small 
council of 4 (or 3) — Wilson, Lloyd George, 
Clemenceau, and (usually) Orlando {or later Gio- 
litti). (See World W.\r.) 

Jan. 29. Departttient of Agriculture estimates 
the aggregate value of United States farm crops 
for 1918 at $14,090,769,000. This is $500,000,000 
more than the total for 1917, best previous year. 
Frank L. Polk, acting secretary of state, formally 
proclaims ratification of the Eighteenth (prohibi- 
tion) Amendment which will become effective in 
a year, date of eff'ect not mentioned, but subse- 
quently made January 17, 1920. 

Feb. S. Fo'rty-eight-hour weekly schedule for 
textile workers goes into effect in New Bedford and 
Fall River. 

Feb. 6. A general strike ties up Seattle, 
Wash.; movement seems an attempt to begin an 
industrial revolution, but is promptly checked by 
vigorous action of the mayor, Ole Hanson. Strike 
is called off on Februarj- 10. 

Feb. 9. Roosevelt Memorial Day is observed 
tlu-oughout the United States and in some Euro- 
pean capitals and by American troops abroad. 

Feb. -10. The Woman Suffrage amendment is 
again defeated by the Senate, one vote being lack- 
ing to the necessarj' two thirds. 
A general movement is begim by the Federal gov- 
ernment to deport criminal aliens and others 
who are regarded as a menace to the nation. 

Feb. 1.5. AVilson sails for America. He sends a 
message requesting members of the Senate and 
House foreign relations committees to defer debate 
on the proposed League of Nations. 

Feb. IS. Opposition appears to the League 
of Nations as at present planned. 

Feb. 24. Wilson reaches Boston, where his 
speech is received with great applause. 
War Revenue Act is signed. Though the pros- 
pective revenue is reduced by the cessation of hos- 
tilities, it is expected to >-ieId $6,000,000,000. 
According to the estimates of the Treasur>' Depart- 
ment, it will cost the American people about 
$1,200,000,000 a year for the next 25 years to pay 
off the war del^t. 

Feb. 2-5. Act is passed appropriating $100,000,- 
000 for Eiu'opean relief outside of Germany and her 
allies, following Wilson's cabled appeal for it. 

Feb. 26. Grand Canon National Park created. 

Feb. 27. Wilson gives a dinner at the White 
House to members of the two foreign relations com- 
mittees, at which heexplains the details of the pro- 
posed constitution for the League of Nations. 



1919 (continued). 

March 2. Senate passes the Victorj Loan 
measure in an all-night session. 
Hoover appointed director-general of the Amer- 
ican Relief Administration created along with 
appropriation of Congress to feed hungry Europe. 
March 3. Conference of governors and mayors 
at White House on business and labor problems. 

March 4. Second general strike of 16,000 har- 
bor workers at New York City goes into effect. 
Congress appropriates $1,000,000,000 to enable 
the president to carry out gtiaranty of price of 
wheat for crops of 1918 and 1919. 
The last regular session of the Sixty-fifth Congress 
ends at noon, leaving a large amount of tmfinished 
business, among which is the appropriation for 
railroads, army. na\n,'. and smidrj- civil expenses. 
W^ilson charges that neglect to pass important bills 
is due to filibuster of Republican senators. 
Wilson and Taft in speeches at New York City 
plead for the League of Nations. 
Palmer succeeds Gregory as attorney-general. 
March 5. Wilson again sails for France. 
March S. United States credit to 11 Allies 
amoimts to $8,841,657,000. 

March 19. American and Canadian soldiers 
in London riot with the police. 
First of several proclamations canceling the need 
of Federal license of food products, part, of the 
process of terminating the Food Administration. 

March 2.5. Parade in New York City of the re- 
tiuTied Twenty-seventh Division (New York Na- 
tional Guards). April 25, Twenty-sixth Division 
(New England National Guards) parades in Bos- 
ton. May 6, Seventy-seventh Division (INIetro- 
politan National Army troops) parades in New 
York City. 

April 4. Delegationof Filipinos arrives at Wash- 
ington to present a memorial for independence. 

April 6. Increase in wages, third since the 
Adamson Act of 1916, granted railroad crews. 

April 14. Return to New York Harbor of the 
Atlantic fleet from the war zone. 

April 21. Nation-wide conspiracy for mailing 
bombs to prominent Americans discovered. 
Many bombs traced in the mail. 

April 2S. Decision by Federal district court 
(United Mine Workers v. Coronado Coal Co.) that 
United Mine Workers must pay $600,000 to a com- 
pany whose property its members had damaged. 
Adoption by Paris Conference of provisional 
Covenant of League of Nations* for which Wil- 
son is responsible. 

May. The NC-4, one of three hydroplanes 
which made the attempt, crosses the Atlantic 
from Newfoundland to Lisbon by way of the 
Azores, thence to England. 

May 1. Cost to the government of operating 
the railroads during 16 months is $486,000,000 
more than receipts. 

May 2. Marine cables retiuTied to owners. 
Ma;/ 10. War Department annoimces that 
$5,600,000,000 outstanding war contracts of No- 
vember 9 have l^een reduced by termmation and 
delivery- to $512,000,000. 

May 12. Fifth (Victory) Loan for $4 ,500.000- 
000 closed; 12.000.000 persons participate, sub- 
scriptions amoimt to ¥5.249,908,000, of which 
some $4,498,000,000 aUotted. 

May 19. Special session of Sixty-sixth Con- 
gress: Senate, 47 Democrats, 49 Republicans; 
House. 185 Democrats, 242 Republicans, 2 Inde- 
pendents, 1 Prohibitionist. S vacancies. Gillett, 
Republican of Massachusetts, elected speaker 
of House. Berger, convicted Socialist, not per- 
mitted to take liis seat. Wilson's message, 
cabled from Paris, read next day: measures for 
return to a peace basis, mcluding retimi of rail- 
roads, telegraphs, and telephones; repeal of war- 
time prohibition; woman suffrage: shipping; re- 
duction of taxation; rights of labor. Special ses- 
sion necessary because a filibuster at end of last 
Congress prevented passage of great appropria- 
tion bills with piu*pose to force Wilson to call 
such a session of the new Republican Congress. 

May 30. Memorial Day has additional mean- 
ing both at home and abroad ; observed m France 
and Great Britain wherever American soldiers and 
sailors are buried. 

June. Investigation by the Senate of the peace- 
treaty leak, the text having been brought priv.at€ly 
to this coimtr>'. 

June 2. Bomb outrages in eight cities: vic- 
tims are officials who have been active against Bol- 
she\ism; Attorney-General Palmer's house partly 
wrecked. 

June 4. Woman Suflfragc amendment, which 
passed the House on May 21 by 304 to 89. passes 
Senate by 56 to 25 and is submitted to the States. 
Juve 14. American troops cross the border 
at EI Paso and disperse a band of ViUistas. Pres- 
ident Carranza registers a pro forma protest. 

June 15. All the drafted and National Guard 
troops sent abroad have been returned: some 
65 per cent of war army has been demobilized; 
694,745 still in France and Germany on June 3. 



1919. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



193 



1919 {cojitinued). 

June 20. Pessoa, president elect of Brazil, 
visits United States. 

Jane 3J,. By proclamation under the Wheat 
Stabilization Act, Wilson prohibits importation or 
exportation of wheat or wheat flour. Canceled 
November 21. 

June 2S. Peace treaty of Allies with Germany 
signed at VersaSIIes. (See World War ) 
Anglo-Franco-AniericaD Treaty of Alliance 
signed; United States and Great Britain to go im- 
mediately to assistance of France in case of an 
improvoked attack on her by Germany. Not 
ratiHed by Senate. 

June 30. Pacific Fleet formed, equal in impor- 
tance to Atlantic Fleet; indicative of growing im- 
portance of Pacific in nation's external relations. 

July- August. For Mexican relations, see 
Mexico. 

July 1. National debt, $24,479,302,000. 
War-time prohibition goes into effect under act 
of November 21. 191S. 

July 0. Arrival at Long Island of the R-34, a 
British dirigible which left Scotland July 2; first 
Atlantic flight of a lighter-than-air machine. Re- 
tiu-n to England made July 9-13. 

July S. President Wilson returns from the 
Peace Conference. July 10. he presents the 
Treaty of Versailles (including the League of 
Nations) to the Senate, and debate begins on July 
14. Strong opposition develops; demands for 
rejection of League, also for amendments or reser- 
vations. 

Secretar>- of the Treasurj' Glass estimates cost of 
the war to United States, including loans to ' 
Allies, at 532,427,469.054. i 

July 19-22. Race riot.s in Washington. \ 

July 20. Ex-President Taft presents a list of j 
" mild " reservations to tlie League of Nations; ! 
they modify right of withdrawal; reserve ISlonroe \ 
Doctrine; deny Britisfi dominions separate vote in , 
League Coimcil; modify Article X. so as to leave ' 
each nation free to decide question of war in its | 
own way; withdraw domestic questions, such as [ 
immigration and tariff, from jurisdiction of the 
League. July 28, Hughes also suggests reserva- 
tions on right of withdrawa.L domestic questions, 
Monroe Doctrine, and Article X. 

July 23.. Naval cable censorship ceases. 

July 27-31. Race riots in Chicago. 

Aug. 1. Strike of shopmen on railways. 
August 2, the four brotherhoods of railway train- 
men demand increase in wages, tlir«^at<'ning a na- 
tion-wide strike in Septomher if not granted. At 
same time Plumb plan for nationalization of 
railroads presented to Congress. In Brookl>ii 
and New York violent strike of street-railroad men 
during the month. Actors in New York, Chi- 
cago, and elsewhere walk out for a month. Gen- 
eral industrial unrest due to high cost of hving 
and belief in profiteering. 

Telegraph and telephone systems rettuned to own- 
ers, following act passed July 11. 

Aug. 6. Federal Trade Commission reports 
that methods of meat control show a " clear viola- 
tion of the antitrust laws." 

Aiig. 7. Wilson orders Director-General Hines 
to take tip question of striking railway shopmen, 
but only on condition that the men return to work, 
which they do generally. An imauthorizcd strike 
of trainmen of the Far Western railroads ties up 
traffic until Wilson orders Director-General Hines 
to operate roads by military force, if necessary. 

.-1(((/. S. Wilson sends a special message to 
Congress on the high cost of living, declaring 
that improper practices are responsible for the ex- 
cessive prices. 

Second (regular) Di\ision parades at New York. 
on return from overseas. 

Aug. 12. Senator Lodge, Republican head of 
the committee on foreign relations, presents his 
five reservations on the League of Nations, simi- 
lar to those of Hughes. 

Aug. 16. Department of Labor reports that 
general cost of living rose 80% between Decem- 
ber. 1914. and June. 1919, while advance in cloth- 
ing and food is much greater. 

Aug. 19. Wilson holds a public conference with 
Senate committee on foreign relations. 

Aug. 20. Daylight-sa\ing Act repealed for 
future years over two vetoes; farmers' opposition. 
All the American Army of Occupation, except 
the permanent force, is out of Germany. France 
agrees to pay S400.000.000 in l>onds for the prop- 
erty of the American Expeditionary' Force in 
France, estimated to be worth S749.000,000 and 
costing SI. 300.000.000. $360,000,000 paid by 
other nations for material. 

Aug. 31. National debt stands at $26,596,- 
701,648. 

S'^pt. 3. Permanent rank of general conferred 
on Pershing. 

Wilson starts on a nation-wide speaking tour in 
behalf of imconditional acceptance of the League 
of Nations. Speaks first at Columbus, Ohio, Sep- 
tcmlier 4. 



1919 (continued). 

Sept. S. Pershing welcomed at New York on 
return from the war. September 10, First (regu- 
lar) Division, " first to go over, last to return." 
parades at New York, and at Washington, Sep- 
tember 17. 

Sept. 9. Strike of police in Boston, over at- 
tempt to affiliate with American Federation of La- 
bor, gives the city over to rioters during that night. 
State troops soon restore order and remain in 
charge imtil new police force is organized. Strik- 
ers all discharged from force. September 14, Gov- 
ernor Coolidge in a notable letter to Gompers 
strongly condenms the strike: " There is no right 
to strike against the public safety by anybody, 
anywhere, any time." Question of affiliation of 
policy and firemen with the Federation causes con- 
troversy in other cities. 

Cardmal IMercier arrives in United States on visit 
of thanks for American aid to Belgium diu'ing war, 

Sept. 10. Republican majority of Senate com- 
mittee on foreign relations reports the peace 
treaty with 48 amendments and 4 reservations 
on the League of Nations. Democratic commit- 
teemen favor its acceptance without change. 
Amendments call for vote in assembly in the 
League equal to that of British Empire (6 votes; 
United States has one); transfer of Shantimg to 
China rather than to Japan; and no American 
representation on commissions in which this nation 
has no interest- Reservations on right to with- 
draw from League; on right of Congress to decide 
on obligations under Article X. {\ital objection); 
on domestic questions such as immigration; and on 
preservation of Monroe Doctrine. Debate on the 
subject continues for months. 

Sept. 16. Act of Congress to incorporate the 
American Legion, a " society of the soldiers, 
sailors, and marines of the Great War 1917- 
1918." Inception of the Legion at Paris, March 
1.5; teptati^e organization at St, Louis, May 8-10; 
first annual meeting at INIinneapolis, Nov. 8-14. 

Sept. 19. Race riot in Omaha. ]Mob injures 
mayor and bums courthouse in successful effort to 
lynch a Negro. Federal troops take control. 

Sept. 21 . Strike of the Steel Corporation em- 
ployees begins; closed shop main controversy. 
Radicals control strike and company refuses to 
treat with them. Violence in various places. At 
Gary Gen. Wood with Federal troops takes con- 
trol. October G. and declares martial law. Strike 
wears out by end of November, but not officially 
called off until January 8. 1920. 

Sept. 26. President Wilson's tour is ended 
abruptly at Wichita. Kansas, by a stroke of pa- 
ralysis. He is incapacitated from the usual activi- 
ties of a president, but later becomes able to confer 
with a few people and to make some decisions. 

Sept. 29. Joint resolution tendering thanks of 
Congress to Pershing. [bassy rank.] 

Congress raises the mission to Belgium to em-J 

Oct. 1-31. Albert, king of Belgium, with the 
queen and crowTi prince, visits United States. 

Oct. 1. Some 250 printing firms in New York 
City lock out their pressmen, who have gone on a 
" vacation," have refused to live up to their con- 
tracts, and have been outlawed by their imions. 
Many periodicals suspend publication. Lockout 
ends November 25. 

Race war in Arkansas results from acti^^ties of an 
armed Negro society. Put down by Federal troops. 

Oct. 2. Senate rejects the amendments to the 
Treaty of Versailles against American participa- 
tion on commissions. 

Oct. 6-24. Industrial Conference, called 
by Wilson, meets at Washington. Groups repre- 
sent employers, employees, and public. Deadlock 
results; labor group withdraws when employer 
group rejects, as fatal to open shop, collective bar- 
gaining through outside representatives. 

Oct. 7. Longshoremen in New York City 
strike; against order of leaders. Shipping para- 
lyzed. Ends by -compromise, November 4, 

Oct. 14. War army virtually all demobilized. 

Oct. 16. Senate rejects proposed treaty amend- 
ment on Shantung. PMexico).] 

Oct. 19. Jenkins abduction in Mexico (see! 

Oct. 22. Act extending the food-control law to 
clothing and other necessities, penalizing hoarding 
and profiteering, and establishing a commission 
to prevent luifair rents in District of Columbia. 

Oct. 22-24- Senate committee on foreign rela- 
tions adopts a substitute series of (a preliminary 
and 15 other) reservations to treaty, 5 of which 
cover the original 4. Preliminary one requires the 
acceptance of the reser\ations by the principal 
powers before the American ratification l>econies 
effective. Other new ones reserve 1 ihert y of action 
on Shantimg, restrict Reparation Commission, an- 
nounce freedom to increase armament in case of 
need, require participation of Congress and Senate 
In provisions for the League or appointments 
under it, and reserve the national honor and vital ! 
interests of United States from consideration by 
the League. 1 

Oct. 28. Volstead Act, to enforce prohibition I 



1919 {continued). 

under war act and new constitutional ameaid- 
ment. declares all liquors with more than half of 
one per cent alcohol to be mtoxicating. Passed 
over veto. 

Oct. 29- Nov. 29. First meeting, at Washington 
of International Labor Conference under the 
Treaty of Versailles. United States only imoffi- 
cially represented. 

Oct. SI. Concurrent resolution of Congress 
pledgmg support to the administration in the use 
of constitutional means necessary to meet pres- 
ent industrial emergency (coal strike). 

Nov. 1. Strike of 600,000 soft-coal miners, 
demanding a 6-hour daj-. a 5-day week, and 60% 
increase in wages. Strike violates contracts. 
Wilson's attempt to prevent it fails, so also does 
his denunciation. Temporary Federal injunction, 
issued October 31, disregarded. November 8, in- 
junction upheld by Federal court; strike \iolates 
Fuel Control Act. Strike called off November 12, 
but order not olieyed m many cases. November 
14, Joint conference of miners and owners at 
Washington. November 19, Fuel Administrator 
Garfield orders resumption of work. Conference 
deadlocked, Wilson proposes a raise of 14% to 
be absorbed by employers with no raise in price of 
coal and a commission to consider and readjust 
wages and prices. Accepted, December 10. Gar- 
field resigns because of transfer to the commis- 
sion of duties belonging to the Fuel Administrator. 
Nov. 6. Senate rejects the last of the amend- 
ments proposed to the peace treaty. 

Nov. 7. Senate begins voting on reservations 
to peace treaty. Preliminarj' one requiring accept- 
ance of reser^-ations by the other powers carried 
by 48 to 40. November 13, reservation on Article 
X. adopted by 46 to 33. November 15, imder 
closure all the others adopted except those on 
German colonies and national honor, which are 
rejected Novemlicr 17. 

Nov. 10. House, by 311 to 1. unseats Berger, 
Sociahst representative convicted imder the Es- 
pionage Act. [ton and New York. I 
Nov. 10-22. Prince of Wales visits Washing-] 
Nov. 11. Armistice parade of American Legion 
at CentraUa, Wash., flretl upon by I. W. W. men; 
51 of the radicals arrested, one biiched. 

Nov. 19. Senate refuses to ratify peace 
treaty with reservations by vote of 39 to 55 (41 
to 51 on reconsideration) and by 38 to 53 without 
reservations. Wilson has informed the Demo- 
cratic senators that the resenations are tanta- 
mount to nullification. Knox concurrent resolu- 
tion that peace exists with Germany introduced in 
Senate. Special session of Congress adjourns. 

Nov. 24- Organization at Chicago of a new Na- 
tional Labor party, radical in platform and hoping 
for imion with the Socialists, Non-Partisan League, 
and Committee of 4S. 

Dec. 1 , Congress meets in regular session. Wil- 
son's message, next day. advocates a budget, pro- 
tection of war-developed dye and chemical indus- 
tries, simplification of taxation, power to combat 
radicalism, and Federal license of all interstate com- 
merce corporations. No remedy for industrial 
imrest that does not recognize right of collective 
bargaining. 

Second Industrial Conference meets: general body 
rather than one of groiips, December 28. in- 
ference denies the right of government employees 
or others to interfere with continuous operation of 
government functions or to affiliate with any or- 
ganization using strike as a weapon. 

Dec. 10-12. Conference of radicals held at St. 
Louis at call of Committee of 48 with view of 
formation of new party, based on public owner- 
ship of transportation, public utilities, and natural 
4'esom"ces; measures against idle land: equal rights 
irrespective of sex or color ; imrestricted civil rights; 
and rights of labor. 

Dec. 16. J. W. Anderson becomes secretary of 
commerce, Redficld having resigned. 

Dec. IS. Attomey-Genenii Palmer annoimce' 
thai the five great packing comranies t beef trust, 
have agreed to retire from all business except 
meat packing and dairj- products. 

Dec. 19. Berger reelected to Congress. 

Dec. 22. 249 alien anarchists from all over 
the country-, including Emma Goldman and Berk- 
man deported; shipped to Soviet Russia in army 
transport Bufortl {" Soviet Ark "). 

Dec. 23. Publication of a letter by Admiral 
Sims, refusing a Distinguished Senice Medal, 
begins a long controversy between him and Sec- 
retar>^ Daniels over administration of the navy 
during the war, including a congressional investi- 
gation. 

Dec. 24'. Act for financing foreign trade. Be- 
cause of great debt of foreign nations to United 
States and their active demand for American 
products purchased largely on credit, with great 
disturbance of exchange, act authorizes Federal 
mcorporation of companies to engage in foreign 
trade or financing of it, under supervision of Feti- 
eral Reser\'e Board. 



194 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



1919-1920. 



N 



1919 icoritinued). 

General conditions in 1919: The year is chiefly 
one of reconstruction, accomplLslied, or at- 
tempted. Alost notable accomplishment is the 
demobihzation of the war army and the return of 
the navy to a peace basis. Reorganization of the 
army, with the question of compulsory service, 
left for future solution. Proposed new three-year 
naval construction plan dropped. High cost of 
living and attraction of higlily-paid civil employ- 
ment seriously affects the personnel of both serv- 
ices. Agitation for increased pay carries over 
into 1920. 

Civil reconstruction proves to be an imexpect- 
cdly difficult task. Some of the war agencies 
quickly dissolved; others have to be retained be- 
cause of industrial luirest and continuous advance 
in prices. Food administration, censoi'sliip. War 
Industries Board, Price Fixing Committee, War 
Labor Board, and War Trade Board go out of 
existence, tliough iu some cases f mictions con- 
tinued by other agencies; cables, telegraphs, and 
telephones returned to their owTiers ; Federal em- 
ployment ser\ice greatly contracted. Railroad 
Administration, Alien Property Custodian, Fuel 
Administration. Shipping Board, Grain Corpora- 
tion, War Finance Corporation, and Sugar Equal- 
ization Board continue; wliile the Coimcil of 
National Defense remains as a reconstiiiction 
agency. Operations of the Grain Corporation 
greatly lessened in importance by the fact that 
crop conditions and foreign demand for wheat 
nullify the need of the government price guaran- 
tee. Because of the sugar shortage (rationing 
renewed) and advance in price, a special act con- 
tinues tlie operation of the Sugar Board through 
1920. War-time fair-price committees revived. 
Extralegal war powers of the president continue 
diu'ing the year. 

Labor the greatest of the reconstruction problems. 
Active demand for laborers, high cost of living, 
radical propaganda, evident sympathy of the 
president with advanced labor ideals, class disre- 
gard of the rights of the general public, belief in 
profiteering by manufacturers and dealers, unrest 
m Europe — these influence the demands of labor 
organizations on their employers, lead to strikes, 
and also to a radical labor legislative program, 
including continuation of war-time government 
operations of industry and transportation. An 
aftermath of the war is an alarming decrease in 
agricultiu-al laborers. 

Future of American shipping, built up and oper- 
ated by the Federal government during the war. 
studied, but not solved. Construction continues 
mider the Shipping Board; between June. 1914, 
and June, 1919, American seagoing tonnage in- 
creases from 2,000.000 to almost lO.OOO.OOO. 
In politics there is a growing estrangement be- 



tween the Democratic president and the RepubU- 
can Congress. Congress resents being ignored in 
the determination of problems of peace and of re- 
construction, while the i>resident shows intoler- 
ance of criticism and a determination to carr>^ out 
his own plans with all tlie same flxity of purpose as 
during the war. His long-continued illness, while 
not relieved of the responsibilities of his office, 
complicates the situation. The adoption by the 
States of the prohibition amendment and the sub- 
mission to them of the female suffrage amendment 
are important political events. Several new par- 
ties, all radically inclined, proposed. Influence of 
the approaciiing presidential election felt; antago- 
nism of the president and Senate on the League of 
Nations suggests it as a proniinent issue of the 
campaign. 

The coimtry, in spite of its problems, shows wide 
prosperityt the extravagance which attends this 
is a disquieting phase of the gejieral tmrest. 
1930. January. Fourteenth census taken at the 
begimiing of the year instead of in Jime. Popula- 
tion approximately 105,700,000 in the continental 
area (not including territories and dependencies). 
Several thousand more alien radicals rounded up 
and kept in detention pending deportation or other 
proceedings. No more deportation up to July. 
Series of bipartisan conferences by leading sen- 
ators on the treaty problem; Article X. and pro- 
tection of Monroe Doctrine provQ obstacle to any 
agreement. 

Ja7i. 5. Supreme Court by 5 to 4 upholds war- 
time prohibition act ; recognizes no reservation of 
State police powers wliich is superior to a con- 
stitutional amendment. 

Jan. 9. Last few men of the Expeditionary 
Forces "withdrawn from France: American troops 
remain in occupation on the Rliine. On March 
2S this force consists of 726officers and 16.756 men. 

Jan. 10. House by 330 to 6 a second time de- 
clares Berger hot entitled to a seat. Governor of 
Wisconsin declines to call another special election. 

Jaji. 17. Eighteenth (prohibition) Amend- 
ment goes into operation. 

Jan. 24- Kansas Act establisliing a Court of 
Industrial Relations toe.xercise State super\ision 
for the purpo.se of public peace and health and 
prevention of " inclustrial strife, disorder, and 
waste." over manufacture of food products and 
clothing, mining or production of fuel, transporta- 
tion, and public utilities. Strikes which affect 
public utilities are declared illegal. 

Ja7i. 24- Secretary of TreasuiT Glass opposes 
further loans to Europe. 

Jan. SI. Letter of Viscoimt Grey, formerly 
British minister for foreign affairs and later am- 
bassador to United States, made pubhc in wliich 
he upholds proposed reser\'ations to the treaty. 

February. Foreign exchange suffers an UU' 



1920 {continued). 

precedented decline; poimd sterling falls to 

S3. 19 (normal exchange value, about S4,86) , francs 
15.15 to the dollar (normally 5.18). lire 1S,S2 to 
the dollar (normally same as the franc), and the 
German mark (normally worth about 24 cents) 
is worth less than a cent in gold value. Cana- 
dian dollar also affected. [Siberia. I 

Feb. 1. Withdrawal of American troops from] 

Feb. 2. Secretary of Agriculture Houston be- 
comes secretary of the treasury in succession to 
Glass, resigned. E. T. Meredith becomes secre- 
tary- of agriculture. 

Feb. 3. Peace treaty reconsidered in Senate. 

Feb. 7. Ke\ised casualty list of the A.E.F. 
gives 77. US deaths. 221,050 wounded, and 4,432 
prisoners during the war, 

Feb. 13. Wilson forces the resignation of Sec- 
retary of State Lansing for usurping authority 
during the president's illness. Bainbridge Colby 
succeeds, 

Feb. 2S. Esch-Cummins Transportation 
Act for return of railroads to private owners au- 
thorizes loans to railroads (" revolving fund ") dur- 
ing next two years up to $300,000,000; guarantees 
5^% dividend for same period ; creates a Railroad 
Labor Board to which all labor disputes must be 
presented Ijefore a strike takes place (proposed pro- 
hibition of strikes eliminated from bill) ; rates and 
wages not to be reduced for six months: powers of 
Interstate Commerce Commission greatly ex- 
tended. Government operation has caused a loss 
of over SfiOO.OOO.OOO. Employees trj- to force a 
raise before Imes are returned, and shopmen strike 
for tiiat purpose, February 17, imavailingly. 

March 1. All railroads and systems of trans- 
portation returned to owners. 
Secretary' of the Interior Lane resigns: succeeded 
by J. B. PasTie. 

Supreme Court by 4 to 3 declares that the Steel 
Trust does not violate antitrust laws. 

March S. Supreme Court decides that stock 
dividends are not taxable as income. 

March 11. Majority of commission on coal 
miners' wages recommends 27% increase and no 
change in hours; minority recommends 35% and 
7-hour day. Consimiers must pay for mcrease 
over 14%. 

March 19. Senate again rejects peace treaty, 
vote of 57 to 37 not being the required two thirds. 
Previous to this a further reservation adopted of 
sympathy for the Irish people's aspirations for 
a " go\'ernment of their own choice " ; another re- 
fusing to be boimd by decisions of tl:o League when 
any country and its dominions has more than one 
vote. 

March SO. Senator Newberry of Michigan con- 
victed with others of violating Federal corrupt 
practices act limiting campaign expenses. 



THE STATES OF THE UNION 

IN THE ORDER OF ADMISSION.* 



DELAWARE (i). 
Historical Outline. 

Delaware, popularly called tlio " Diamond 
State" and the " Blue Hen State," was settled by 
the Swedes in 1638, but conquered by the Dutch in 
1655 and made part of New Netherland. In 1664 
the English obtained control, and in 16S2 Delaware 
became a part of the territory granted to William 
Penn. In 1703 the coimties comprising the present 
State were given a separate legislative assembly, and 
in 1710 a separate executive coimcil. but retained a 
common governor with Pennsylvania tmtil 1776. 
Although preeminently a rtiral district, with little 
trade and less manufacturing, Delaware joined with 
the other colonies in resistance to Great Britain, and 
in 1765 entered into the nonimportation agreement, 
sent delegates to the Continental Congress, ratified 
the Articles of Confederation in 1779. and was the 
first State to ratify the Constitution, Decem- 
ber 7, 1787. 

Delaware has had four State constitutions, none of 
which have been submitted to the people tor ratifica- 
tion but all promulgated by constitutional con- 
ventions. The present constitution (1897) pro- 
vides for a governor elected for fotir years, a Gen- 
eral Assembly, consisting of a Senate of 17 elected for 
four years and a House of Representatives of 35 
elected for two years. The Federalist party and its j 
successor, the Whig party, controlled Delaware imtU 
1852; then the Democrats gained control tmtil 1S96, 
with the exception of 1872 when the State went for 
Grant. Since 1896 the presidential vote has been 
Republican with the exception of 1912, when it was 
Progressive. 

Delaware is chiefly an agricultural State, seven 
eightlis of the land being in farms. Corn and wheat 
are the chief crops, but peaches and other small 
fruits are very important. Delaware ranks second 
in the quantity of tomatoes packed . The chief man- 
ulactm'ed products are leather goods (the output of 
which equals all the other mantifactures combined), 
iron and steel work, and in recent years explosives. 
The State has two normal schools, agrictdtnral and 
mechanical colleges at Newark, and Delaware Col- 
lege, foimded in 1834. The common schools are 
free, and attendance is comptilsory. 



Chronology. 



1638. April. Swedish settlements (New Swe- 
den) begin on Delaware River. 

1655. October. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 

1661. English conquer Dutch. 

168^. .iug. 2i. Lower coimties on the Delaware 
deeded by York to William Penn. 
Dec. 7. United to Pennsylvania. 

1703. Becomes a separate colony imder Penn 
proprietarj". same governor as Pennsylvania. 

1776. Aug. ir-Scpi. 10. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution, not submitted to people, 
proclaimed September 21. 

1787. Dec. 7. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1791. Nov. S9. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns June 12, 1792. New constitu- 
tion proclaimed without submission to people. 

1831. Nov. S-Dec. i. Third constitutional con- 
vention. Amended constitution put in operation 
without submission to people. 

1865. Dec. IS. Slavery abolished by Federal 
Thirteenth Amendment. 

1896. Dec. 1. Constitutional convention meets. 
Adjourned Jime 4, 1897. New constitiition. not 
submitted to people, effective Jtme 10, 1897. 

PENNSYLVANIA (2). 

Historical Outline. 

Pennsylvania, the " Keystone State," so called 
from its geographical position in the center of the 
thirteen original States on the Atlantic seaboard, 
was founded as a colony by William Penn in 16S1, 
imder a proprietary charter by which the govern- 
ment and the land were vested in the foimder. To 
attract settlers, Penn, himself a Quaker, appealed 
especially to that sect and other persecuted sects 
throughout England and Europe, promising them 
toleration in religion, a liberal frame of govern- 
ment, and generous land grants. His policy' was 
successful, and Pennsylvania sooii became one of the 
most populous colonies. From an early time it at^ 
traded a large non-English immigration. The first 
settlers were English Quakers, but they were soon 
followed by Welsh, Germans, and Scotch-Irish. 



The political life of the colony was turbulent. Al- 
though the Quakers were in the minority. Peim ap- 
pointed Quakers as governors, and the western 
counties felt that they had not adequate represen- 
tation, while his land policy aroused opposition. In 
the treatment of the Indians the Quakers were very 
successful, but their immiuiity from Indian troubles 
and their hatred of all war caused them to refuse 
aid to other colonies who were less fortimate. 

Philadelphia was the seat of the Continental 
Congresses of 1775 and 1776 and the Constitu- 
tional Convention of 1787. Pennsylvania was the 
second State to ratify the Constitution and exercised 
great influence in the early history of the cotm try- 
through its leaders, especially Benjamin Franklin, 
John Dicldnson, Rol)ert Moiris, Thomas Mifflm, 
and, later, Albert Gallatm. One president, Bu- 
chanan, was a Pennsylvanian. 

During the Revolution the battles of Brandy- 
wine and Germantown were fought in Pennsyl- 
vania, and Philadelphia was occupied by the Brit- 
ish. In the Civil War the great struggle at Get- 
tysburg was the only action of importance on 
Pennsylvania soil. 

The first constitution of Peimsylvania. framed 
in 1776, was unique in that it provided tor an execu- 
tive coimcil, a single-chambered legislature, and a 
coimcU of censors, who were to see that the constitu- 
tion was observed and that needed amendments were 
proposed. In the second constitution (1790) these 
peculiarities disappeared, and a governor with large 
appointing powers was established. The demand 
for a more democratic form of government produced 
the third constitution in 1838, and the present one 
was adopted in 1873. The governor serves for four 
years and appoints tlie secretary of the common- 
wealth, the attorney-general, and the superintendent 
of instruction: he also has the right to veto items in 
appropriation bills. The legislature, holding bien- 
nial sessions, consists of a Senate of .50, chosen for 
four years: and a House of Representatives of 207, 
chosen for two years. PajTnent of a State or coimty 
tax is reiiiuired for voting. 

Politically, as well as geographically, Peimsyl- 
vania was for many years the " Keystone State." 
Beginning in 1797 Pennsylvania cast its electoral 
vote for tile Jeflersoiiian party and its successor, the 
Democratic party, until 18R0, with the exception of 
1840, when it supported the 'VVliig candidate, Harri- 
son. Since 1860 it has been consistently Republi- 
can with the exception of 1912 when it supported 
Roosevelt and the Progressive party. In State poli- 
tics Pemisylvania was generally Democratic until 
the Civil War; since then it has been Republican with 
but two exceptions. The Republican party is higliiy 
organized and obtams enormous pluralities — over 
.500.000 for Roosevelt in 1904. This continued Re- 
publican triumph and successful organization has 
been variously explamed as due to the benefits of 
the tariff to Pennsyhania's industries; to the easily 
controlled foreign vote; to the strong political organ- 
izations in the large cities which tend to neutralize 
independent voting; and to the apathy of certain 
religious sects. 

The University of Pennsylvania, foimded in 
1740, was the earliest institution of learning in the 
United States to assume the title of university. 
Other notable institutions are the Pennsylvania State 
College: Temple University (Philadelphia), the imi- 
versities of Pittsburgh, Lehigh, Duquesne, and 
Bucknell; Dickinson, Franklin and ^Marshall, Alle- 
gheny, Lafayette, Haverford, Swart hmore.Wasliing- 
ton and Jefferson, Grove City, St. Vincent, Bea"ver, 
Pennsylvania, and BrjTi JIawr (for women) colleges ; 
the Cai'negie Institute of Technology. Drexel In- 
stitute, and Girard College as technical schools. 

Once the greatest agricultural colony, and still a 
rich fanning State. Peimsylvania has become tiie 
leading State in the production of coal, pig iron, 
and cement, and second only to W. Va. in natural 
gas. Its most important industries as reported in 1910 
are steel and rolling mills, with products of S500.000,- 
000; tex-tiles, 5267,000,000: foimdry and macliine 
work. 8210.000,000; blast furnaces, 8168,000,000. 

Chronology. 

1638. April. Swedish settlements (New Swe- 
den) on the Delaware begin. 

1655. September. Dutch conquer New Sweden. 

1664. English conquer Dutch settlements on the 
Delaware. 

1681. March I,. Royal proprietary charter of 
Pennsylvania granted to William Penn. [others).! 

1682. English settlement begins (Quakers andl 



1701. New plan of government (" Charter of Priv- 
ileges ") granted to the colony by Penn. 

1776. Jxdy lo-Sept. SS. First constitutional con- 
vention iu the United States chosen solely to 
frame an instrument of government. Constitu- 
tion not submitted to people. 

1787. Dec. 12. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1789. Nov. 24. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns September 2, 1790. New con- 
stitution proclaimed without popular vote. 

1837. May 2. Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns February 22, 1838. New con- 
stitution ratified by people. 

1873. Nov. 12. Fourth constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns November 3, 1873. New con- 
stitution, ratified by people, in force January i; 
1874. 

NEW JERSEY (3). 

Historical Outline. 

New Jersey was first settled by the Dutch in the 
northeastern part and by the Swedes along the Dela- 
ware River. In 1655 Peter Stuyvesant set up Dutch 
authority over the whole region, but in 1664 -it was 
surrendered to the English. Charles II. granted 
it along with New York to his brother James, Duke 
of Y'ork, W'ho in turn gave it to two of his friends as 
a proprietary provmce. After various changes, in- 
cluding division into East Jersey and West Jersey, 
it came into the hands of William Penn and liis asso- 
ciates who, in 1702, surrendered the government to 
the British administration. During the Revolu- 
tion New Jersey was the scene of Washmgton's 
battles of Trenton. Princeton, and Moimiouth. 

The first constitution (1776) established the 
ordinary tj-pe of State government, except that the 
governor was elected by joint ballot of the two houses 
of the legislature, and that the suffrage clause was 
later supposed to give women the right to vote. 
The present constitution ( 1844) gave to the governor 
unusual executive authority, through his power to 
appoint the secretary of state, attorney-general, su- 
perintendent of public instruction, chancellor, chief 
justice, supreme court, circuit, inferior, and district 
judges, as well as the usual administrative officers. 

New Jersey has liad a varied party history. At 
first it was strongly Federalist, then Jcffersonian Re- 
pubhcan in 1804, RepubUcan 1816 to 1828, Demo- 
cratic in 1832, and Whig until 1852; from that time 
Democratic imtil 1860, when it divided its vote be- 
tween Lincoln and Douglas. From 18()4 to 1896 it 
was Democratic, except in 1872: Repubhcan tmtil 
1912, when it was Progressive. Its public men in- 
clude General George B. McClellan and President 
Woodrow W'ilson. 

Agriculture, market gardening, and fruit raising 
are important pursuits. The leading industries 
are the manufacture of textiles, silk, cotton goods, 
hosiery, petroleum products, foimdry and machine 
work, and chemicals, the smelting of copper and 
silver, and, more recently, shipbuilding. 

The leading institution of learning is Princeton 
University, foimded in 1746. Rutgers College 
(1766) is the principal seminary of the. Dutch Re- 
formed Church and Stevens Institute of Technology, 
the leading scientific school. 

Chronology. 

1664. March IS. Region, held by the Dutch and 
already having settlements, included in grant to 
Duke of Y'ork. 

June 2J,. New Jersey granted to Berkeley and 
Carteret by Y'ork. Later divided. 

1688. April 7. Included in Dominion of New 
England until 1689. 

1703. Reimited as a royal province. 

1776. May 2e-July 2. First constitutional conven- 
tion, Constitution not submitted to people. 

1787. Dec. 18. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1844. May lJ,-June 29. Second constitutional 
convention, new constitution, adopted by people, 
in force September 2. 

GEORGIA (4). 

Historical Outline. 

Georgia, the " Empire State of the South," 

called also, sometimes, the " Cracl<er State," was 
in the disputed belt between English Virginia and 
Spanish Florida, and was the last of the original 
thirteen colonies to be foimded. The first settlers 
were sent out in 1733 as a result of a scheme, devised 
by James Oglethorpe, to relieve English debtors. 



* The numbers in parentheses after the names of the States indicate the order in which the States Joined the Union; for the original thirteen colonies, this 
means the order in which they ratified the Federal Constitution. — See tables pages 220 and 221 where the population and area of each State are also shown. 

(195) 



196 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



N 



R 



U 



W 



Within a few years, bands of Salzburgers, Higliland- 
ers, Swiss, Moravians, and new recruits from Eng- 
land made otlier settlements. In 1734 Ogle- 
thorpe made a second visit to the colony, brmgiiig 
Charles Wesley as his secretary, and Jolui Wesley as a 
missionary to the Indians. Somewhat later George 
Whitefleld made a visit to the colony. After this the 
government of the colony was placed in the hands of 
trustees, who became impopular for restricting land 
tenure, prohibiting slave labor and liquor, and forcing 
the cultivation of silk, (la,\, and hemp. In 1754 the 
colony was surrendered to the crown and governed 
like otlier royal provinces. Under this management 
the colony prospered and fulfilled one of its piu-poses, 
to serve as a bitffer between the Spanish in Florida 
and the more thickly settled colonies in Carolina. 

With the outbreak of the Revolution, Georgia was 
involved in domestic strife and nowhere was the con- 
flict between the loyalists and patriots more bitter. 
In 177S the British succeeded in captiu-ing Savan- 
nah, which they used as a base of operations through- 
out most of the war. On the news of the Declara- 
tion of Independence, a convention framed and rati- 
fied the first State constitution; but there was little 
opportimity to test it, as the arrival of the British 
forces threw the State into confusion. Georgia was 
the fourth State to ratify the Constitution (January 
2, 17SS) and framed the second of her seven consti- 
tutions in 1789. 

Georgia showed a very independent spirit with re- 
spect to the western lands (ceded in 1802); and to 
the Creek and Cherokee Indian lands. The most 
eminent son of Georgia was Alexander H. Stephens, 
vice president of the Confederacy. Although the 
Whig party was strong, Georgia ratified the ordinance 
of secession, January 10, 1861, and was the scene of 
heavy fighting; the battle of Chiokamauga (1S63), 
the campaign between Chattanooga and Atlanta 
(1864), and Sherman's " March to the Sea " (1864) 
all took place on her soil. 

During the Reconstruction period Georgia suffered 
both from carpetbaggers and from the misdirected 
zeal of her on-n citizens. Even after military gov- 
ernment had been once aboUshed, Congress felt 
obliged to restore it in order to protect the Negroes, 
and Georgia was not Anally readmitted to the Union 
tmtil July 15, 1870, the last of the Confederate 
States to be restored. Dtu'ing this period tliree 
constitutions were framed and experimented with. 
In the present constitution, adopted in 1877, repre- 
sentation is based in part upon counties, which some- 
times enables the minority to control. 

Georgia has always been an agricultural State, 
although possessing great resotu-ces of lumber. Until 
recent years cotton has outranked the other agri- 
cultiu-al products; but in 1918, the value of the cereal 
crops — com, oats, and wheat — exceeded that of 
cotton. After 1880 manufacturing of cotton goods 
rapidly developed, and the output of this industry- 
exceeds all others. lumber coming next; the manu- 
factiu-e of cottonseed oil, oil cake, and fertilizers is 
also important- 

Among the institutions of higher learning are the 
University of Georgia, a State institution; Emory 
University; Georgia School of Teduiology ; the North 
Georgia Agrictatural College, Agnes Scott, Brenau, 
Wesleyan Female, and Piedmont colleges; and At- 
lanta University and Morehouse College for Negroes. 



Chronology. 



173?. June 9. Proprietary charter of Georgia: 

boimdaries extend to Pacific Ocean. 

1733. Feb. IS. Settlement begins at Savannah. 

175i. Charter surrendered. Royal province. 

1776. Oct. 1. First constitutional convention. 
Adjourns February 5. 1777, constitution going 
into force without submission to people. 

1788. Jan. J. Federal Constitution ratified. 

Nov. /,. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns May 6, 1789. New constitu- 
tion not submitted to people. 

1795. Man. Third constitutional convention. 
Amendments not submitted to people; in force 
October 5. 

1798. Maij S-30. Fourth constitutional conven- 
tion. New constitution not submitted to people; 
in force October 1 . 

1802. April 34. Western claims relinquished. 

1833. May 6-1.5. Fifth constitutional convention 
to equalize representation only. People reject re- 
sults. 

1839. May 6-16. Sixth constitutional convention 
for same purpose. Ratified by people. 

18C1. Jan. le-March 23. Seventh constitutional 
convention. Ordinance of secession, Jan. 19. 
Revised constitution ratified by people, July 2. 

186.5. Oct.2.5-Nov.8. Sixth constitutional conven- 
tion; secession repealed October 30; slavery abol- 
ished. New constitution not submitted to people. 

1867. Dec. 9. Seventh (Reconstruction) constitu- 
tional convention meets. Adjomns March 11, 
1868. New constitution ratified by people. 

1870. July 1.5. Readmitted to Union. 

1877. July 11- Aug. zg. Eighth constitutional 
convention. New constitution, ratified by peo- 
ple, in force December 21. 



CONNECTICUT (5). 
Historical Outline. 

Connecticut has various nicknames: "Nutmeg 
State," " Land of Steady Habits," " Blue 
Law State," and *' Freestone State." The river 
from wliich the State takes its name was discovered 
by Adrian Block in 1614, and a small trading post 
was soon established by the Dutch on the site of 
Hartford. Traders also came from Plymouth, 
Ma.ssachusetts. In 1636 the first permanent settle- 
ments were begtm by colonists from Massachusetts, 
who foimded the towns of Hartford, Windsor, and 
Wethersfleld and framed the first popular consti- 
tution made in America. 

The colony of New Haven was foimded in 1638 on 
a grant of Lord Saye and Sele by a group of wealthy 
settlers who desired to foimd a commonwealth after 
a Biblical pattern. In 1662 Charles II. granted a 
charter to John Winthrop and his associates for 
the whole region occupied by both colonies, includ- 
ing the settlements already made. Tliis charter was 
so liberal and allowed so much self-government and 
feave England so few opportimities tu interfere that it 
was contmued as the first State constitution imtU 
1818. In 16S6 Sir Edmund Andros became gov- 
ernor of all New England and took over the govern- 
ment of Connecticut, but failed to obtain the orig- 
inal charter, which, according to tradition, was 
hidden in an oak tree. (See Ch.^rter 0.\k, in Diet.) 

Diu-ing the Revolution, Connecticut suffered com- 
paratively little, except m an attack on Groton ; but 
took an active part, fmiiishing 30,000 troops and, 
also, Jonathan Trumbull, one of Washmgton's most 
tnisted advisers, believed to be the original " Brother 
Jonathan." 

In framing the Constitution of the United States. 
Comiecticut was ably represented on the conserva- 
tive side, particularly by Roger Sherman, who suc- 
cessfully advocated the eqtial representation of the 
States in the Senate. Dm-ing the War of 1812 Con- 
necticut, in common with all New England, was in 
opposition, and a convention was held at Hartford 
from Dec. 15, 1814, to Jan. 5, 1815, to formulate 
plans of possible resistance. (See Hartford Con- 
vention, in the Dictionary.) 

By the Charter of 1662 Connecticut obtained the 
right to a strip of land extending to the Pacific Ocean. 
Wlien this impossii^le claim to a tract which cut 
straight acro.ss Pemisylvania was released, Con- 
necticut retained a tract along Lake Erie called the 
Western Reserve and the Fire Lands. From the 
sale of these lands Coimecticut realized a large sum. 
which was appropriated for the common school 
system, one of the earliest and most progressive in 
the period. At present there are more than a thou- 
sand public elementary' schools, 75 high schools, 4 
normal schools. 15 model schools, and the Coimecti- 
cut Agricultural College. The most famous educa- 
tional institution in Connecticut is Yale University, 
foimded in 1701. Other private institutions of 
higher learning are Wesleyan Univei'sity, Trinity Col- 
lege, and the Connecticut College for Women. 

Connecticut has been a doubtful State in politics. 
In State politics it was Federalist imtil 1817, when it 
began to alternate at almost every election until 1896. 
Smce 1896 it has been Republican, except in 1910 and 
1912. In national politics it has been Federalist. 
Republican, or WHiig, with two exceptions until 1873, 
when it became Democratic until 1896, with the 
exception of 1884; since 1896 it has been Republican, 
with the exriptii.u of 1912. 

The c<pnstitutU>n of Comiecticut, adopted in 1818, 
has been amended Ihirty-five times, but still retains 
many of the old characteristics of the colonial char- 
ter. The legislature consists of a House of Rep- 
resentatives of 258 members, and a Senate of 36. 
Since each town imdcr 5,000 is entitled to send one 
representative, and no town sends more than two, the 
small communities, containing a minority of the popu- 
lation, may outvote the majority living in the cities. 
Every effort tochange this system has been imavailing. 
The governor and legislature are elected biennially. 

Although Connecticut ranl<s thirty-first of tlie 
States in population, it ranks twelfth in manufac- 
tured products. The proximity of New York, the 
excellent opporttmities for water transportation 
through Long Island Soimd and the great tidal 
rivers, together with good railroad facilities, all com- 
bined with the traditional Yankee ingenuity, gave 
Connecticut a start which it has never relinquished. 
Manufacturing of all sorts, from small notions to 
large machinery, is carried on. In recent years the 
munition plants at Bridgeport and elsewhere have 
been greatly expanded. Hartford is the national 
center for the life-insurance business. The soil of 
Connecticut is fertile and the climate suitable for the 
production of tobacco. In addition, forest products, 
fRiits, nuts, and garden truck are important. The 
fisheries, particularly of oy.';ters, are very profitable. 

Chronology. 

Settlement begms on Connecticut 



1635-1636. 

River. 
1638. April 25 



New Haven Colony foimded. 



1639. Fundamental Orders framed by delegates 
of the new colony of Connecticut. First Amer- 
ican constitution put into effect by a popular 
assembly. 

1643. Alay 19. New England Confederation 
formed. Lasts 41 years. 

1662. April iO. Boyal charter to Connecticut 
includes New Haven Colony; boundaries extend 
to the Pacific. 

1686. Included in the Dominion of New England ; 
charter in abeyance. 

1689. Charter resumed. 

1776. Charter adapted to independent statehood. 

1786. Sept.li. Westernclaims, except the West- 
ern Reserve, relinciuished. 

17SS. Jan. 9. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1890. Jiu-isdiction over Western Reserve relin- 
quished; becomes part of Ohio in 1802. 

1818. Aug. £6-Scpt. 16. Constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution approved by people ; in force 
October 12. 

MASSACHUSETTS (6). 
Historical Outline. 

M.^ssACHrsETTs, the " Bay Stale " or " Old 
Bay State," was visited possibly by Northmen and 
certainly by Verrazano. Capt. John Smitli gave it 
the general name of New England. 

The first settlement to be made within the limits 
of Massachusetts was made by Bartholomew Gos- 
nold in 1602 on one of the Elizabeth Islands. The 
first important colony was settled by the Pilgrims 
(1620), a little band of religious exiles, who planted 
I and successfully maintained the colony of Plymouth 
j until, after two generations, it was absorbed in the 
larger province of Ma.ssachusetts Bay. This later 
settlement owed its foimdation to the Massachu- 
setts Bay Company, under the control of John 
Winthrop and his associates, who were Puritans in 
religion, but people of wealth and importance. 
The " great emigration." as theu- coming was called, 
began in 1629 and contmued for aljout ten years, at 
i the end of wliich period Massachusetts approached 
Virginia in population. 

From 1629 until 1684 the government of the col- 
ony was vested in the Governor, Assistants, and 
Freemen of the Massachusetts Bay Company; 
and the right to vote and take part in thego\emnient 
of the colony was acquired only by election to mem- 
bership in the company of members of the Congre- 
gational Church. Hence the early settlers and 
their descendants were able to retain their influence 
and perpetuate the Puritan doctrines of church and 
state. 

In 1684, after a long struggle, the charter of the 
company was vacated by legal proceedings in Eng- 
land, and Massachusetts and the other New Eng- 
land colonies were for a short time united under the 
rule of Sir Edmund Andros, a governor appointed 
by the crown. 

After the fall of the Stuarts in England, Massa- 
chusetts received the second or provincial charter 
(1691), imder which it lived mitil the Revolution. 
Under this the right to vote was based on a property 
qualification, with no restriction as to religious belief. 
The governor was appointed by the crown ; the House 
of Representatives was elected by the people, accord- 
ing to towns; and the General Court — as the legis- 
lature was, and is still, called — cho^e the upper 
house, or Council. Thus the colonists of Massachu- 
setts were able to exercise more influence, and more 
frequently to obtain their desires, than those of the 
other rojal provuices. The colonists early devel- 
oped great political capacity and learned the art of 
self-government. 

During the colonial period. Massachusetts suf- 
fered from Indian wars, both King Philip's War 
(1675-76) and the French and Indian wars of the 
early eighteenth ccntiur. Frequent raids were 
made overland from Canada; and counter expedi- 
tions were fitted out by the colony with the aid of 
England against Montreal and the French posses- 
sions in Nova Scotia. Port Royal (Annapolis) was 
captured in 1690, but retunied by the Treaty of 
Ryswick (Rijswijk) ; it was again captured by an ex- 
pedition from England (1710). 

The large commerce of Massachusetts and the 
independent and self-reliant spirit which developed 
in the colony marked it out for discipline by the king. 
Troops were sent to Boston in 1768. but the 
street fight between soldiers and civilians in 1770 and 
the Boston Tea Party of 1773 brought down the 
wrath of the British government. In 1774 Acts of 
Parliament closed the port of Boston to commerce, 
and the charter was altered to secure the appoint- 
ment of the Coimcil and judges. General Gage was 
appointed governor as well as commander in chief. 
The inevitable clash between the jieople and the royal 
troojis came in April. 1775. The British evacuated 
Boston the next year, and from that time Massa- 
chusetts was free from serious invasion. 

In 1780 the first State constitution, framed by 
a special convention and then submitted to popular 
vote, was provided for Massachusetts. The con- 
stitution has been frequently amended and was al- 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



197 



tered and rearranged by a constitutional conven- 
tion of 1917-19. Massachusetts has always been 
a forward State in legislation and now has a respon- 
sive governmental system with the popular initiative 
and referendum. 

During the " Critical Period " of the Confedera- 
tion. Massachusetts was in i:)ad condition. Trade 
suffered grievously, the treasury was empty, taxes 
were liigh, and the debtor class was demanding paper 
money for relief. In 17S6-87 occurred an armed up- 
rising, Ivnown from the name of its leader as Shays's 
Rebellion. Such disturbances made the conserva- 
tives and merchants an.xious to adopt the Federal 
Constitution of 17S7; but the Antifederalists were 
strong enough to prevent ratification imless the 
amendments they proposed were added with an ur- 
gent recommendation. This proved a liappy ex- 
pedient and was followed by other pivotal States, 
and thus made ultimate ratification possil>le. 

In national politics Massachusetts voted for Jef- 
ferson in 1804. Monroe in 1820. and Wilson in 1912; 
in all other presidential elections it lias supported the 
candidates of the Federalist. Whig, or Republican 
parties. In State elections mitil 1910 it was gener- 
ally Republican, but since that time it may be classed 
as a doul:)tful State. Among the great men of 
Massachusetts have been JamesOtis. Samuel Adams, 
President Jolm Adams, his son, President John 
Quincy Adams, and Daniel Webster. 

The State has been the birthplace or abiding place 
of many men and women of letters — Emerson, 
Hawthorne, Lowell, Longfellow, Bancroft, Whittier, 
and others. 

In education Massachusetts was a jiionciT in tlie 
establishment of both common sclnsols ;in(l rui- 
leges. In 1635 free schools were estal)!!.shed ; in 
1636 Harvard College was foimded; in 1647 every 
town having fifty families was obliged to have a free 
school. Its present school system is based upon the 
town or city as the unit, although the State Board 
of Education has supervisory powers and grants aid 
from the State school fimd to small towns. A sys- 
tem of vocational schools as well as high schools is 
established. Although Massachusetts has no State 
imiversity, the State supports an agricultural col- 
lege (Massachusetts Agricultural College) and ten 
normal schools, and there are altogether more than 
tiwenty institutions of liigher learning, academic and 
scientific, for men and women. Among them may 
be mentioned Harvard. Boston, and Clark imiver- 
sities; Williams, Amherst. Holy Cross. Tufts, Bos- 
ton, and Clark colleges ; Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, W^orcester Polytechnic Institute. In- 
ternational Y. M. C. A. College (Springfield) ; and 
Moimt Holyoke, WeUesley. Smith, Radclifl'e, and 
Simmons colleges for women. There are also nu- 
merous professional schools. 

Massachusetts is the second State in density of 
population: nearly 80 per cent of its population 
lives in 36 cities, mostly grouped about Boston. 
These cities are the centers of most varied manu- 
facturing establishments, and Massachusetts ranks 
fourth in the value of its manufactured prod- 
ucts. In the production of boots, shoes, and cot- 
ton goods it exceeds any other State. Other impor- 
tant products are foundry and machine-shop prod- 
ucts, electrical machinery, paper, and wood piUp. 
The investment in fisheries exceeds that of any 
other State; and from colonial times the cod, had- 
dock, and mackerel fisheries have been important. 
The chief mineral products are granite and trap 
rock. Agricultiu-e is relatively imimportant, hay 
and forage producing a third of the value and veg- 
etables one quarter. 

Chronology. 

1620. November. INIayflower compact; agreement 
of Pilgrims signed on board Mayflower (signed 
by 41 persons. Nov. 11 [21 N.S.I) to act together 
as a commimity. 

December. First Settlement at Plymouth. 
Plymouth Colony foimded. 

1639. March 4- Royal charter for Massachusetts 
Bay Company; boundaries extend to the Pacific. 

1630. Colony organized in new settlement. "Gen- 
eral Court " of the Company soon becomes a 
representative legislature. 

1643. May 19. New England Confederation formed. 
Lasts 41 years. 

1654. Refusal of Massachusetts to be boimd by a 
vote of the Confederation. 

1684. Oct. 23. Charter annulled. 

1686. Included in Dominion of New England. 

1691. Ocl. 7. Second royal charter, including 
Plymouth and Maine. 

1774. May 20. Act of Parliament virtually abro- 
gates charter. 

1775. JulyZS. Government resumed by action of 
General Court, nominally under charter, actu- 
ally as a revolutionary body. 

1777. June 17. General Court sits as a constitu- 
tional convention; Febniary 28, 1778, submits 
draft to people, who reject it. 

1779. Sept. 1. Constitutional convention meets. 
Adjoiu'ns September 7, 1780, submitting its 
work to the people, who ratify it. First case in 



history of a constitution framed by a body chosen 
solely for the purpose, and ratified by popular 
vote. 

1785. April 19. Western claims relinquished to 
the United States. [title retained. I 

1786. Claims to western New York relinquished: I 
1788. Feb. 6. Federal Constitution ratified. 
1830. Maine set up as a separate State. 

Nov. IS. Second constitutional convention. 
Adjourns January 9, 1821. Amendments sub- 
mitted, adopted by people. 

1853. May i- Aug. 1. Third constitutional conven- 
tion. Amendments rejected by people. 

1917. June 6. Fourth constitutional convention 
assembles. Final adjournment August 13. 1919. 
Amendments submitted, adopted by people; con- 
stitution rearranged. 

MARYLAND (7). 

Historical Outline. 

Maryland, known as the ** Old Line State," 

was coasted by early Spanish. French, Dutch, and 
English explorers. It owed its foundation to the 
colonizing zeal of Sir George Calvert, first Lord Bal- 
timore, a Catholic gentleman of the reign of James 
I., and his son Cecil, to whom the king issued a pro- 
prietary charter giving both territorial and govern- 
mental rights. Cecil Calvert plaimcd two things: a 
profitable venture in trade and land : and the estab- 
lishment of a colony which should be a refuge for the 
persecuted sects in England. The first expedition 
contained both Roman Catholics and Protestants, 
and while the men of wealth and prominence were 
gcnrrally Roman Catholic, the majority of the colo- 
nists were always Protestants. To protect the Cath- 
olic minority, a law was passed, in 1649 granting 
toleration to aU Cliristians. 

In 1689 the Baltimore family was deprived of the 
governmental power in the colony, but allowed to 
retain its proprietary rights. In 1715 the proprietor- 
ship was restored to the fourth Lord Baltimore on 
his becoming a Protestant, and it remained in the 
family imtil the Revolution. A long dispute between 
the Baltimore and Perm families concerning the 
boimdaries of their respective provinces resulted in 
the rimning of Mason and Dixon's line in 1767. 
The trade of Maryland was imfavorably affected by 
the British navigation acts, and the colony feU in 
with the movement for independence and drafted a 
constitution in 1776 wlncb was in force imtil 1851. 

The attack on Fort McHenry in 1814 suggested 
the national song " The Star-Spangled Banner " 
(composed by Francis Scott Key). During I lie 
Civil War. Maryland was the scene of numerous 
minor conflicts, and the great battle of Antietam 
(1862). 

Maryiand delayed ratification of the Articles of the 
Confederation imtil assured that the western lands 
should become the property of the L'nion; but by 
a large majority ratified the Federal Constitution, 
April 28. 1788. In State politics Maryland has been 
Democratic since 1868. with few exceptions. In na- 
tional politics it was Republican from 1896 to 1912, 
but Democratic at other elections since 1868. 

It has had four constitutions, the present one 
adopted in 1.867. Among its national statesmen 
have been Charles Carroll. William Pinkney. and 
Senator Arthur P. Gorman. The suffrage is wide, and 
every attempt to limit it has failed. Each coimty 
and legislative district, of wliich there are four for the 
city of Baltimore alone, has one Senator; while the 
House of Delegates is chosen by counties according 
to population. The governor is elected for four 
years and has wide appointing power. 

The most important institution of higher learning 
is Johns Hopkins University, famous for its gradu- 
atr instrui'tion and its medical school and hospital. 
Tlu- I'nited States Naval Academy is situated at 
Annapolis, nn'l < Voucher Cohege for women at Bal- 
timore. There is a State university (Maryland 
State College of Agriculture). Among other in- 
stitutions of higher learning may be mentioned 
Hood and Western Maryland colleges. 

Agriculture is important, the principal crops being 
corn, wheat, hay, potatoes, and tobacco. In industry 
the output of men's clothing is more than three 
times aS great as any other product . Next in succes- 
sion are tinware, copper and sheet tin, tobacco man- 
m'actures, foundry and machine work. The oyster 
fisheries of the State are more important than those 
of any other State. It has also valuable coal deposits. 

Chronology. 

1632. June SO. Royal proprietary charter to 

Maryland granted to George Calvert (Lord 
Baltimore). rMarj'S. 1 

1634. March 27. Settlement begins at Saint I 

1649. Act for toleration of religions. 

1681. Controversy with Pennsylvania over bound- 
aries begins : covers three quarters of a century. 

1689. Royal provincial government supersedes 
proprietary government. 

1715. Proprietary restored. 

1776. Aug. 14- Nov. 11. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution not submitted to the people. 



1788. April 2S. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1850. Nov. 4. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns May 13, 1851. New constitu- 
tion, ratified by people, in force July 4. 1851. 

1861. April. Effort to bring about secession fails. 

1864. April 27-Sepi. 6. Tliird constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, wliich abolishes 
slavery, ratified by the people, and in force Nov. 1. 

1867. May S-A.ug. 17. Fourth constitutional Con- 
vention. New constitutiun. ratified by people, in 
force October 5. 

SOUTH CAROLINA (8). 

Historical Outline. 

South Carolina, the " Palnielto State," was 

early coasted by Spaniards and later by French and 
English. The first settlement of Europeans was 
attempted by the French in 1562 at Port Royal, but 
it was a failure. The first English settlement was 
made under a proprietary charter, granted by Charles 
II- in 1063 to eight noblemen of his court, covering 
all the territory lying between the 31st and 36th 
parallels. By a second charter, issued in 1605, the 
limits were extended to 29° and 36° 30'. In order 
to attract settlers, liberal concessions were promised 
and toleration in religion allowed: and the phi- 
losopher John Locke was commissioned to draw 
up a frame of government, which, however, proved 
impractical. Within this one colony of Carolina, 
two centers of settlement appear, and the colony 
was divided into North Carolina and South Caro- 
lina in 1710. (See North Carolina, below.) 

In 1680 English colonists foimded Charleston, 
and soon a number of French Huguenots came to find 
refuge. The growth of the colony was rapid, but its 
political hfe "was turbulent, and in 1729 the Crown 
bought out the rights of the proprietors, the colony 
becoming a royal province. 

The South Carolinians took part in an unsuccess- 
ful expedition against Saint Augustine in 1702. and 
were frequently involved in Indian troubles. They 
resisted the Stamp Act, adhered to the nonimporta- 
tion agreement of 1774, and sent food to Boston. 
During the Revolution Fort Moultrie was imsuc- 
cessfully attacked; but Charleston was captured by 
the British in 1780, and the battles of King's Moun- 
tain. Cowpens, Eutaw Springs, and Camden were 
fought within its territory. 

Politically South Carolina has always been Dem- 
ocratic, except in 1792, and during the Reconstruc- 
tion period, 1S6S-1S76, but it has not always been in 
agreement with that party. Thus Jolin C. Calhoun, 
bilieving that Congress was sacrificing the agricul- 
tui'al interest of the comitry to manufacturing from 
1828 to 1833, led a movement for nullification, in 
wliich South Carolina held that it had the right to 
declare niiU and void the acts of Congress. The 
prompt action of President Jackson, and the compro- 
mise of 1833. by wliich the objectionable duties were 
reduced, brought about a settlement, if not an aban- 
donment, of the doctrine. 

South Carolina was the first State to secede in 
1860 and the first formal attack upon the Union forces 
was made at Fort Sumter, Aoril 12, 1,S61. The 
State was the scene of several battles during the 
Civil War. around Charleston and Beaufort (taken 
by Union fleet. 1861) and in 1865 through the in- 
vasions by Sherman's army. 

During the period of Reconstruction, South Caro- 
lina suffered from the misrule of the ignorant blacks 
and corrupt whites, and the debt was increased five- 
fold in five years. 

The present constitution, the fourth, was framed 
in 1895. Until 1898 the suffrage was given to all who 
could explain a section of the constitution when 
read to them; since that date a voter must be able 
to read and write a section of the constitution or 
must pay taxes upon $300 worth of property. These 
provisions secure the supremacy of the white vote 
and the dominance of the Democratic party. 

The constitution may be amended only upon the 
two-thirds vote of both houses of two successive legis- 
latures, ratified by a majority of the electors. The 
governor is elected for two years, and although he has 
the veto and item veto, has little appointing power 
and but slight control over the State or local officials. 
He has an independent pardoning power, without 
the necessity of consulting the Board of Pardons; 
and a single governor pardoned nearly 3,000 con- 
victs during his administration, mostly as a protest 
against prison conditions. 

The Senate of 44 is chosen one from each coimty 
for a term, of four years, one half retiring at each elec- 
tion. The House of Representatives consists of 
124 members chosen for two years from the coun- 
ties, according to population. From 1907 to 1911 
the State attempted to regulate the liquor traffic 
by the establishment of State dispensaries, but in 
1915 adopted State-wide prohibition. 

School attendance is not compiilsor>', but there 
are restrictions upon the emploj-ment of illiterate 
children in factories or mines. Separate schools are 
required for white and colored children. There 19 
a State imiversity (University of South Carolina), 
the Clemson Agricultural College, and several othet 



198 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES - THE STATES. 



institutions of higher learning, as Furman Uni- 
Kl versity. Newberrj- and Wotlorii colleges, and Bene- 

'^ diet College for Negroes. 

Tlie chief products are cotton, com, tobacco, nee, 
and oats, and tbe cliief manufactured products are 
cotton goods, lumber, cottonseed oil, and oU cake. 

Chronology. 

1663. March S4. Proprietary charter of Carolina. 
f^ 1670. Settlement begins on Ashley River near 

O future site of Charleston. 

1680. Charleston foimded. 

1729. Julu2B, Charter relmquished. Royal prov- 
ince of South Carohna. 

1776. March 26. .\doption of a constitution by 
the provincial congress; not submitted to people. 

1778. March 19. Second constitution adopted as 
an act by the Assembly, not submitted to people. 
P 1788. May 23. Federal Constitution ratified. 

179o! May-June 3. First constitutional conven- 
tion. New constitution in effect without sul> 
mission to people. 

1832. Nod. 2J,. Nulllflcatlon Ordinance passed. 

1833.' March 15. Nulliflcation Ordinance repealed. 

1860. Dec. 17. Second constitutional convention 
meets December 20, ordinance of secession 

Q passed. Adjourns April S, 1861. Revisions of 

constitution not submitted to people. 
1865. Sep'. 13-27. Tlilrd constitutional conven- 
tion; secession repealed; slavery abolished. New 
constitution not submitted to people. 
1868. Jan.H-Marchl7. Fourth (Reconstruction) 
constitutional convention. New constitution 
ratified by people April 10. 

July IS. Readmitted to rnion. 
R 1895. ■Scpl. 10-Dec. 4. Fifth constitutional con- 

vention. New constitution, not submitted to 
people, in force December 31. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE (9). 

Historical Outline. 

The coast of New Hampshire, the " Granite 

S State," was explored as early as 1603 by Martin 

Pring, but the first grant was made in 1622 to John 
Mason and Sir Ferdlnando Gorges, and scattered 
settlements began in 1623. The settlers were di- 
verse in character; some were Royalists from Eng- 
land; some, Cburch-of -England men; some, dissat^ 
isfied colonists from Massaciiusetts. In the years 
from 1641 to 1643 Massachusetts acquired posses- 
_. sion of this region and exercised jurisdiction over it; 

I but in 1677 an Englisli decision pronoimced this to 

be a usurpation, and in 1679 the colony was made a 
separate royal province. 

During the colonial period New Hampshire suf» 
fered greatly from Indian raids and was largely de- 
pendent upon Massaciiusetts for protection. Under 
the advice of the Continental Congress, the colonists 
formed the flrst constitution framed for a State 

U(1776) ■ another was adopted in 17S4; whUe the pres- 
ent one dates from 1792. Provision is made that 
every seven years the question of revision shall be 
submitted to the people . A convention to revise the 
constitution sat in 1919-20. 

In politics New Hamsphire was Federahst until 

1S16 with the exception of 1804,'when it voted for 

Jeffereon; Democratic until 18.52; and Republican 

. , imtil 1912, when Progressive. In State politics Re- 

V publican from 1875 to 1912. In 1916, Democratic. 

The greatest New Hampshire statesman was 

Daniel Webster. The State has also furnished 

one president. Franklin Pierce. 

New Hampshire has been progressive in educa- 
tion; public schools were established in 1767, and ar- 
rangements are made for the secondary education of 
children in commimities too small to maintain a liigh 
VV school. Tlie State has always taken an advanced 

stand in educational administration and methods. 
Dartmouth College is the cliiet institution of liigher 
learning There is al.so the New Hampshire CoUege 
of AgriciUture, and the Phillips Exeter Academy. 

The chief manufactured products are boots and 
slioes — in which New Hampsliire ranks fourth — 
cotton goods, woolens, lumlicr, paper, and wood pulp. 

XThe granite quarries are important. The agricul- 
tural products are hay, potatoes, and dairy products. 

Chronology 



1850. Nop. 6. Fifth constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns AprU 17, 1852. Amendments, 
except three, rejected by people. 

1876. Dec. 6-16. Sixth constitutional conven- 
tion. Amendments adopted by people. 

1889. Jan. 2-12. Seventh constitutional conven- 
tion. People ratify 6 of 7 amendments. 

1902. Dec. 2-19. Eighth constitutional conven- 
tion. People ratify 4 of 10 amendments. 

1912. June 6-22. Ninth constitutional conven- 
tion. People ratify only 4 of 12 amendments. 



1622. Aug. to. Grant to INlason and Gorges. 

1623. Settlement begins. Later, Massachusetts 
extends her jurisdiction over most of the towns. 

1629. Nor. 7. Grant of New Hampshire to Mason. 

1679. Sept. IS. Royal province. (10S9-I 

1686. Included in Dominion of New England until I 

1776. Jan. 5. Constitution adopted by provin- 
cial convention or congress. 

1778. June 10. Second constitutional convention 
meets; adjoumsJuneS, 1779. Towns reject results. 

1781. June H. Third constitutional convention 
meets. AdjoumsOctober 31, 1783. New consti- 
tution effective Jime 2, 17S4. 

1788. June2t. Ratifies Federal Constitution. 

1791. Sepf. 7. Foiuth constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns September 5, 1792. Portion of 
amendments adopted by people. 



1919-1920. Tenth constitutional convention. 
VIRGINU (lo). 
Historical Outline. 

Virginia is variously known as the " Old Domin- 
ion," the " Mother of Presidents," and the 
" Mother of States." 

The coast of Virginia was early explored by the 
Spanish, French, and English. The name was given 
in honor of Queen Elizabeth to the region explored by 
three e.xpeditions sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, be- 
ginning in 1584. Two attempts were made at coloni- 
zation, but tlie flrst permanent settlement was 
that of 1607. sent by the Virginia Company, a trading 
and colonizing company chartered by James I. in 
1606. The .settlers built a stockade at Jamestown, 
but were ill-supplied and imsuited for pioneer work. 
Famine, disease, and attacks by tlie Indians would 
have caused the total destruction of the colony had it 
not been for the energy of Captain John Smith, who 
secured food from the Indians and won their friend- 
ship. The little colony was reenforced in 1608; but 
the winter of 1609, " the starving time," reduced it 
from 500 to 60, and the enterprise was about to be 
abandoned, when the arrival of Lord De La Warr 
with fresh supplies and colonists saved the venture. 

In 1612 the success of the colony was assured 
through the discovery of the proper method of cur- 
ing tobacco by John Rolfe, also famous tor his 
marriage to Pocahontas, an Indian princess, who. 
Smith mamtained, saved his life. The attempts at 
comnumism were abandoned and individual owner- 
ship of land and tlie development of agriculture began 
to bring prosperity to the colony, although during 
the Indian Wars of 1618 to 1622 nearly 400 of the 
colonists perished. In 1618 tlie more hberal element 
in the Virginia Company gave permission for a form 
of seU-govemment, and the flrst representative 
assembly held in America assembled in 1619. After 
the execution of Charles I., some of his adherents, 
the Cavaliers, came to Virginia, and although com- 
pelled to submit to the authority of the Common- 
wealth, Virginia was tlio first English possession to 
recognize Charles II., from which is said to come its 
name of the Old Dominion. 

Agriculture, particularly the raising of tobacco, 
gave Virginia a large foreign trade and made it res- 
tive under the commercial system established by 
the Navigation Acts. ^Vhen Parliament attempted 
(X765) to impose the Stamp Act and other taxes on 
the colonies, Virginia was one of the first to voice re- 
sistance. It was active in tlie movement for inde- 
pendence, organized committees of correspondence 
; with other colonies, and furnished leaders in both the 
Continental Congresses. The first Virginia con- 
stitution, mider the influence of Thomas Jefferson, 
was one of the best expressions of popular govern- 
ment of its time. During the Revolution Virginia 
was invaded by Benedict Arnold, and was the scene 
of tlie surrender of C'ornwalHs at Yorktown. 

In the framing of the Federal Constitution, Vir- 
ginia took a leading part. The president of the Con- 
vention was Washington; its most faitliful and tire- 
less supporter. James IVIadison. In the organization 
of the new government, Virginia played a prominent 
role, furnishing four of the fii-st five presidents 
(namely, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and 
Monroe), each of whom served two terms, and the 
State thus became known as the " Motlier of Presi- 
I dents." The great C^hief Justice John Marshall 
i and, later. President Tyler were also Virginians. 
In 1798 the Virginia legislature, aroused by the 
Alien and Sedition Acts, adopted resolutions denying 
tlie imlimited power of the national government, 
asserting that to the States belonged all rights not 
distinctly delegated to the national government by 
the Federal Constitution, and maintaining that the 
States had the legal authority to determine the ex- 
tent of the powers so granted. In later times this 
theory was developed into the doctrine of State 
Rights and State Sovereignty, which fiuTiished 
the legal justification for nullification and secession. 
In 1861 the issue of secession was put squarely l5e- 
fore the people and adopted by overwhelming major- 
ities in the eastern coimties. Tlie western counties, 
however, remained in the l^nion and formed the 
State of West Virginia. During the war the capi- 
tal of the Confederacy was Richmond, and many im- 
portant campaigns were fought in the State, includ- 
ing the critical battles of BiUI Run (first and sec- 
ond! Fair Oaks, Seven Pines, ChancellorsviUc, 
Fredericksburg, Wilderness, Cold Harbor, the siege 
of Petersburg, and many battles in the Shenandoah 
VaUey. 



Virginia had the usual troubles and difficulties 
during the Reconstruction period, but was flnaUy 
readmitted to the Union January 26, 1870. The 
present constitution, adopted in 1902, was the work 
of a convention, and was not submitted to the people 
for ratiflcation. Suffrage ciau-ses requirmg an educa- 
tional test and payment of poll ta.xes for three years, 
orownersliip of property, barred many of the Negroes 
and wliites from votmg. 

The governor is elected for a four-year term; the 
legislature meets biennially, and is composed of the 
House of Delegates, chosen for two years, and the 
Senate, chosen for four. Representation is granted 
according to population by districts apportioned 
every ten years. The apportioimient by population 
instead of by voters gives undue representation to 
the whites in the older counties, where there are 
many nonvoting Negroes. 

Great progress has been made in recent years m 
education, which is rendered difficult by tlie large 
number of ignorant Negroes and the fact that tlie 
population is widely scattered. Schools are estab- 
lished, and attendance is compidsory between the 
ages of eight and twelve. There are four .State 
normal schools and about twelve principal mstitu- 
tions of higher learnlns, the largest lx;mg the Uni- 
versity of Virginia, foimded by Jefferson (1S25) 
and celebrated tliroughoiit tlie country. Among the 
others are William and Mary CoUege, Waslungton 
and Lee University, Randolph-Macon, Richmond, 
Roanoke, Hampden-Sidney, and Emory and Henry 
coUeges, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, and \ ir- 
ginia Military Institute. Within the past few years 
laws have been passed Umiting hoiu-s of labor, 
restricting the employment of children, and pro- 
viding for safety m industry. 

The products of the State are both agricultural 
and nimeral. Crops rank in the foUowing order, 
corn, tobacco, hay, wheat, potatoes, peanuts. The 
ctiief industrial products are lumber and timber, to- 
bacco, flour, and grist. Virginia has some coal and 
some large ironworks. Newport News and Norfolk 
are among the finest ports on the Atlantic coast. 



Chronology. 

1584-1587. Raleigh's tlirco attempts at coloniza- 
tion; onlv result tlie naming of the region 

"Virginia," in honor of Elizabeth (the "Virgin 
Queen"). 

1606. April 10. First royal charter to London 
(Virginia) Company. 

1607. Mayli. Settlement begins at Jamestown. 
1609. May 23. Second royal charter; boimdaries 

extend to tlie PacLflc. 
1619. First popular assembly in America, [ince.l 
1624. June 26. Charter aimulled. Royal prov-l 
1776. May 6-June 29. First constitutional con- 
vention. Bill of rights and constitution not sub- 
mitted to people. Irelrnqmsiied.! 
1784. March 1 . Western claims north of the Oluoj 
1788. June 26. Federal Constitution ratified. 
1829. Oct 5 Second constitutional convention. 
Adjourns January 15, 1830. New constitution 
ratified by people. 
1850 Oct 14 Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns August 1, 1851. New consti- 
tution received poptUar approval on Oct. 25, 1851. 
1861. Feb. 13-Dec. 6. Fourth constitutional con- 
vention Ordinance of secession passed April 17; 
ratified by people May 23. New constitution re- 
jected by people Mai'ch 13, 1862. 

1864. New constitution for 3 counties. Restored 
Pierpont (" vest-pocket") government (so called 
from Gov. Francis H. Pierpont). 

Feb IS-Aprit 7. Fifth (loyal) constitutional 
convention. Slavery abolished; new constitu- 
tion not submitted to jieople. 

1865. Reorganization imder Pierpont government, 
which continues until March, 1867. 

1867. Dec. 3. SLxth (Reconstruction) constitu- 
tional convention meets. Adjourns April 17, 1868. 
New constitution ratified liy peojile July 6, 1869. 

1870. Jan. 26. Readmitted to Union. 

1901. June 12. Seventh constitutional conven- 
tionmeets: adjourns Jmie 26, 1902. Newconstitu- 
tion, not submitted to people, m force July 10, 1902. 

NEW YORK (ii). 

Historical Outline. 

New York is generally knomi as the " Empire 
State " but it is sometimes called the " Excelsior 
State," from its motto. Althougli Verrazano \ns- 
ited New York Bay on his voyage in 1524, the flrst 
explorer was Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the 
employ of the Dutch East India Company, who en- 
tered the bay and sailed up the river wliich liears his 
name (1609). Trading posts were established on 
Manhattan island and at Fort Nassau, just below 
Albany in 1613. The Dutch West India Company 
began'a settlement on Manhattan (1623), the object 
being to tap the valuable fur trade rather than to 
estalilish a colony. The settlement grew slowly, but 
attracted diverse nationalities, and during the Dutch 
I period had very little self-government. In 1664 it was 
I conquered by the English; It was reconquered by the 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



199 



Dutch in 1673 but returned to the EngHsh that same 
year. The Dutch contributed httle to the institu- 
tional life of tlie colonies in America, and not until 
well into the period of the English control did New- 
York become of great importance. 

With the English conquest of 1664 the colony be- 
came a proprietary colony of the Duke of York, after 
whom it was named; hence the " Duke's Laws," 
framed in 1665, wliich became the basis of future 
codes. When the Duke became King James II. 
(1685) the colony became a royal province. Al- 
though New York never was granted a charter, it 
was given a representative assembly, which had the 
right to levy taxes and appropriate money. Witli 
this power the colonists succeeded in obtaming sulj- 
stantially the same frame of government as existed in 
the other provinces. Part of the lesson of self-govern- 
ment was learned in frequent quarrels with the Eng- 
lish authorities. 

Its rapidly developing commerce made New York 
impatient of the English restrictions on trade, and in 
1762 the colonial legislatui'o framed remonstrances 
against the commercial policy of Parliament, estab- 
lished committees of correspondence with other col- 
onies in 1764. and was tlie scene of the Stamp Act 
Congress of 1765. A strong Tory influence held 
New York back at the beglnnmg of the Revolution ; 
but it joined in the Declaration of Independence, 
and in 1777 a convention established the first con- 
stitution. Diu-ing almost the entire Revolution the 
British held possession of the city of New York, not 
evacuating it imtil December. 1783. 

New York was sharply divided over the ratifica- 
tion of the Federal Constitution. Two of the three 
delegates withdrew from the Philadelphia Conven- 
tion, leaving Hamilton to represent the .Stat« alone. 
During the campaign for ratification Hamilton. Jolm 
Jay. and Madison wrote a series of cssa.vs in favor of 
the Constitution, wliich were collected and published 
imder the title of The Federalist. This and the pres- 
siu^ of the commercial interests brought about the 
ratification of the Constitution as the eleventh State, 
after a vigorous campaign (1788). 

The State was Federalist from 1795 to 1800, but 
after that became Jeffersonian under De Witt Clin- 
ton, who remained the political loader imtil 1822. 
His partisans were rewarded with appomtments and 
charters, and the spoils system was introduced and 
perfected. It was dm-ing this period that the work 
on the Erie Canal was begim; it was completed 
in 1825. Clinton was succeeded by the " Alljany 
Regency." a group of men who reduced macliine pol- 
itics to a science. Personal rivalries and short^Uved 
popular movements characterized this period. The 
Antimasonic movement had its origin in the State 
and was powerful enough to determine at least one 
campaign. The antirent troubles, originating in old 
Dutcli i>rivileges of the landlords, lasted imtil 1843. 

Smce the Civil War, as before, the State has been 
doubtful both in national and State politics. Of its 
recent governors the more notable have been Theo- 
dore Roosevelt and Cliarles E. Huglies, under 
both of whom reform measures were passed. Otlier 
notable men of the State have been, among others. 
George Clinton. De Witt Clmton. and Presidents 
Van Buren and Cleveland. 

New York is Uvmg mider its fourth constitu- 
tion, adopted in 1894. This provides for a legisla- 
ture consisting of an Assembly of 150 and a Senate of 
SO. both elected for two years from districts appor- 
tioned every ten years. Although New York and 
Kings coimties contain one half the population, they 
are allowed but two fifths of the members of the .Sen- 
ate. The legislatm-e has all power not withdrawn by 
positive provisions of the Constitution. 

With this strong legislature there is a governor, 
chosen for two years, whose power is weakened both 
by the number of elective officers and the fact that 
much of the administration of the State is m the 
hands of locally appomted or elected offlcers who are 
not responsible to the governor. Nevertheless, the | 
governor has certain powers which may enable a res- 
olute man to enforce his policy. He has a qualified 
veto poW'Cr over the bUls as passed by the legislature, 
and an absolute veto power for thirty days after the 
adjoiu-nment of the legislature over bills then wait- 
ing his consideration. In addition he has the power 
to veto items in appropriation bills. In 1917, New 
York granted suffrage to women. 

New York did not establish a system of free \ 
schools imtil 1851 but has developed one of the most | 
advanced systems of education. The educational i 
policy of the State is directed by a Board of Regents, 
which has charge of the management and supervi- 
sion of the public schools and alt educational work 
of the State. School attendance is compulsory be- 
tween the ages of 7 and 16. and great attention is 
paid to secondary and vocational schools. In 1918 
a law was passetl requiring military training for three 
hours a week for all boys between the ages of 16 and 
19 in public schools. The State has many institu- 
tions of higher learning, of which the oldest as well 
as the Iftrgest is Columbia University, once Kings 
College, in New York City. Other important in.sti- 
tutions are Alfred, Buffalo, Colgate, Cornell, Ford- 
ham, New York, Rochester, St. Lawrence, Syracuse, 



and Union universities: and the following colleges; 
Adelplii, City of New York. Elmira, Hamilton. Ho- 
bart. St. Jolm's; Barnard. Hunter. Vassar, Wells, 
and William Smith for women. There are also the 
United States Military Academy at West Pomt. and 
the Brooklj-n and Rensselaer Pol.rtechnic institutes. 
New York ranks first in shipping, banl<ing, and 
total manufactures and also m many lines of 
manufacture. The most important industries ac- 
cording to value of production are : women's clothing, 
men's clothing, printuig and publishing, foundry 
and machine-shop work, slaughtering and meat pack- 
ing. The important agricultural products are; hay. 
com, potatoes, oats, and dairy products, the value 
of wliich in 1918 was 877,000,000. New York is 
thus well called the " Empire State." 

Chronology. 

1613. Beginning of Dutch occupation of New 

Amsterdam. 

16S1. June 3. Dutch West India Company con- 
trols New Netherland. [York. I 

1664. March 12. Grant Of New York to Duke of I 
Ana. 29. English conquest of New Nether- 
land, renamed New York. 

1685. Feb. 6. Becomes a royal province. 

1688. April 7. Included hi Dominion of New 
England untU 1689. 

1176. July 10. First constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns April 20, 1777. Constitution 
not submitted to people. 

1788. July S6. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1801. Oct. 1S-S7. Second constitutional conven- 
tion. Amendments not submitted to people. 

1831. Aug. 2S-Nov. 10. Third constitutional 
convention. New constitution, ratified by people, 
in force December 31, 1822. 

1846. June 1-Oct. 0. Fom-th constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, 
in force January 1, 1847. 

1867. June 4. Fifth constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns February 28, 1868. Amended 
constitution rejected by people, except one article, 
November 2, 1869. 

1894. May S-Sept. 29. Sixth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution ratified by people; in 
force January 1, 1895. 

1915. April S-Sept. 10. Seventh constitutional 
convention. People reject revised constitution, 
November 2. 

NORTH CAROLINA (12). 

Historical Outline. 

North Carolina, popularly known as the " Old 
North State" and the " Turpentine State," was 
the scene of the first English settlements in Amer- 
ica (Roanoke Island!. These settlements were un- 
successful. Later it was peopled by colonists from 
Virginia, but in 1663 formed a portion of the Caro- 
lina grant given by Charles II. to eight noblemen of 
his court (see South C.abolina. above). The atten- 
tion of these proprietors was concentrated on the 
development of South Carolma, and the northern 
region with a rude and turbulent population was 
neglected. In 1729 the proprietors sold their rights 
to the croivn, and a more settled form of government 
was established. Numlwrs of immigrants, Scotch- 
Irish and Germans, went into the western regions, 
wiiich developed along different lines from the east- 
ern. Tliis divergence is the key to many of the po- 
litical conflicts down to the time of the Civil War. 

At the outbreak of the revolutionary movement, 
the people of North Carolma, against the protests 
of the governor, held a convention and estabhshed 
a frame of government. A convention of Alecklen- 
burg Couirty (Charlotte) drew up a statement, one 
version of which is called the Mecklenburg Dec- 
laration (May, 1775). It contains phrases which 
closely resemble phrases in the final great Declara- 
tion of Independence of 1776. A State constitu- 
tion was adopted in 1776 m which the Assembly 
was the real power, for it elected the governor and 
all other officials. North Carolina delayed ratifica- 
tion of the Federal Constitution until 1789 and thus 
did not vote at the first presidential election. 

In politics the State has been Democratic except 
from 1840 to 1848, when the Whigs had control, 
largely over the question of internal miprovements 
which were demanded by the people of the western 
counties. The Populists in 1892 acquired great 
Influence and in 1896 imited with the Democrats. 

A State convention in 1861 adjourned without 
action on secession. But on Lmcoln's call for 
troops North Carolma joined the other Confederate 
States. The capital was captured by General Sher- 
man in 1865 and the State placed under military 
rule. It was readmitted on July 11, 1868. 

The State is now living under its fourth consti- 
tution (1876) by which, according to the amend- 
ments of 1900. the suffrage is granted only upon ful- 
fillment of educational qualifications, except that 
those persons, and their descendants, wiio could vote 
in 1.S67 are not retiuired to fidflll this test. In prac- 
tice the Negro vote is nearly all excluded, without 
aflectmg the white vote. The governor is elected 



for two years but unlike all the other State executives 
he has no veto power. The legislature consists of a 
Senate of 50 and a House of 120. 

The educational problem is difficult owing to the 
scattered poi:)ulation and the large number of igno- 
rant Negroes. Separate schools are required for the 
blacks, but the schools for the wliites are more nu- 
merous aud better attended. The school law com- 
pels the attendance of children of school age for a 
term of four to eight months each school year during 
four to six years. There are numerous farm schools 
in the coimties, a State university (University of 
North Carolina), Trmity, Elon, Meredith, and 
Wake Forest colleges, Salem Academy and Col- 
lege; and Shaw University and Livingstone College 
for Negroes. 

North Carolina is an agricultural State and its 
products rank in the following order; corn, cotton, 
tobacco, wheat, peanuts, and hay. Its manufac- 
tures are increasing, the cliief ones being cotton 
goods, tobacco, lumber and timber, cottonseed oil 
and cake. The fisheries are also important. 

Chronology. 

1663. March 21,. Proprietary charter of Carolina 
with boundaries to the Pacific (compare South 
(-'.\ROLiN.\, above). Settlements already exist. 

1669. John Locke, the philosopher, drafts famous 
Fundamental Constitutions ("Grand Model"), 
with feudal features. Do not work, though sev- 
eral times re%ised, and finally abrogated in 1693, 
the colonists being governed by "instructions." 

1719. Organization of settlers breaks up proprie- 
tary government. New government in 1721. 

1729. July 25. Charter relinquished. Colony di- 
vided. Royal province of North Carolina. 

1776. A'or. 12-Dec. IS. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution not submitted to people. 

1789. A"o!\ 21. Federal Constitution ratified. 

1790. Feb. 2d. Western claims relinquished. Ac- 
cepted by Congress, April 2. 

1S35. June 4-July 11. Second constitutional con- 
vention. Amendments ratified by people. 

1861. May 20. Tliird constitutional convention 
meets. Ordinance of secession passed same day. 
Final session May 13, 1862. Various amend- 
ments adopted witliout submission to people. 

1865. Oct. 2-19. Fourth constitutional conven- 
tion meets. Secession repealed. Slavery 
abolished, October 9. Convention reassembles 
May, 1866; Reconstruction constitution but peo- 
ple reject the work. 

1868. Jan. 14-Mnrch 16. Fifth (Reconstruction) 
constitutional convention. New constitution 
ratified by people. 

July 11. Readmitted to Union. 

1875. Sept. 6-Ocl. 11. Sixth constitutional conven- 
tion. Amended constitution, ratified by people, 
in force January 1, 18T7. [frage.l 

1890. Amendments to constitution restricting suI-1 

RHODE ISLAND (13). 
Historical Outline. 

Rhode Isl.vnt), the smallest State, and hence pop- 
ularly called " Little Ehody," owes its founda- 
tion as a colony to religious exiles chiefly from 
Massaciiu.setts, the most famous of wiiom were 
Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, who 
founded separate settlements at Providence and 
Portsmouth. In 1653 Williams obtained a charter 
from Charles II., and the scattered settlements were 
united. The charter provod so satisfactory that it 
was contmued until 1843, when the present consti- 
tution was adopted. . 

Diu-ing the colonial period the colony suffered 
from King Philip's War and boundary disputes 
with its neighbors and showed such independence 
and disregard of the British commercial regulations 
that it was constantly on the defense. During the 
Revolution the British occupied Newport from 1776 
to 1779, but Rhode Island furnished great aid to the 
patriot cause through the privateers which were 
fitted out in the colony. General Nathanael 
Greene, one of Washington's most trusted generals, 
was a native of the State. Rhode Island did not 
send delegates to the Constitutional Convention, 
and seven times voted against ratification, only 
acquiescmg when Congress passed a tariff act in 
which Rhode Island was treated as foreign territory. 

The long delay over revision of the charter pro- 
duced Dorr's Rebellion, wliich finally led to the 
adoption of the constitution of 1842. By tliis the 
right to vote is extended to all adult males of twenty- 
one, but the right to vote on questions of taxation in 
Providence is still restricted to those who are the 
possessors of 134 dollars' worth of real estate. The 
Senate consists of one member from each town, and 
the membership of the House is never to exceed 
72; no single town shall be accorded more than one 
fourth of the representation. These arrangements 
make it possible for the small towns, in which the 
population is declining, to control the political situa- 
tion and they have played into the hands of a politi- 
cal machine. Rhode Island is generally RepubUcan 
in both State ajod national politics. 



200 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



N 



R 






U 



The educational system is excellent. Although 
the large number of foreign born make the percent- 
age of illiteracy high, every attempt is made to pro- 
\ide an adequate school system. Education is com- 
pulsory between the ages of 5 and 15, every town 
must provide a high school, and there are excellent 
industrial schools and schools of design. Brown 
University, at Providence, is the chief institution 
of higher learnmg. There is a State agricultural 
college (Rhode Island State CoUege). 

Rhode Island is the most densely settled State 
in the Union and although it ranks thirty-eighth in 
population, it ranks sixteentli in manufacturmg. The 
industries, in the order of the value of their products, 
are woolen and worsted goods, cotton goods, jewelry, 
foundry and machine work. 

Chronology. 

1636. June. Settlement begins at Providence. 

1644. March IJ,. Parliamentary patent to Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations. 

166S. July S. Royal charter. 

16,S8. Included in Dominion of New England ; char- 
ter in abeyance. 

16S9. Charter resumed. 

1776. Charter adapted to independent statehood. 

1790. May S9. Federal Constitution ratified. 

18il. Nov. 1. Constitutional convention assem- 
bles: (FYeemen's) constitution framed Febru- 
ary 19, 1.S42. Adopted on resubmission to people. 
Installed, May 3, 1843. 



VERMONT (14). 
Historical Outline. 

Vermont, the " Green Mountain State," was 

first explored by Champlatn, and the first European 
settlement was made by the French at St. Anne in 
1665. In 1724 Massacliusetts established Fort Duni- 
mer on the site of Brattleboro. Later, under the 
claims of New Hampshire, Governor Wentworth of 
that State made lavish land grants whicli produced 
numerous scattered settlements. The territory was 
long claimed by l^oth New York and New Hamp- 
shire, whicli caused a dispute that w'as not finally 
settled imtil just before the admission of Vermont to 
the Union. In 1777 a State government was or- 
ganized under the first antlslavcry constitution 
ever drafted. 

Diu'ing the Revolution Vermont was practically 
an independent commonwealth, without represen- 
tation in Congress, and waged practically a sepa- 
rate war with Great Britain, Tlie capture otTicon- 
deroga by the State hero, Ethan Allen, in 1775 was 
the result of its efforts. The battle of Benning- 
ton was fought in Vermont. 

The constitution of 1792 has been radically re- 
vised and submitted to popxilar vote four different 
times. Tlie governor is chosen for four years, the 
legislature consisting of a Senate of 30 apportioned 
to the coimties according to population, and a Hou.se 
of Representatives of 246, one from each towTi and 
city, is elected biennially. 

Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people, 
the principal crops being hay. potatoes, maple sugar 
and sirup. Dairy products are very important, and 
Vermont leads all the States of tlie l^nion in pounds 
of butter per cow, and m the ratio of dairy cows to 
population. Manufacturing is relatively unimpor- 
tant except the products of the marlile quarries. 

Education is compulsory for ciiildren between 
the ages of 8 and 15, and no child who has not com- 
pleted the nine-year school cour.se can lawfully be 
employed in any factory, mine, or quarry or as a 
messenger during school hours. As a consequence of 
a small foreign-born population and the excellent 
educational system, the percentage of Illiteracy is 
lower in Vermont tlian in any other State. The Uni- 
versity of Vermont, ISIiddlebury CoUege. and Nor- 
wich University are the principal institutions of 
higher learning. 

Chronology. 

1777. Jan. 17. New Hampshire Grants, claimed 
by New York. New Hampshire, and Massachu- 
setts, declared by a convention the independent 
state of New Connecticut (name changed to Ver- 
mont June 4), 

July 2-8. Convention frames a constitution. 

1781. March 8. Massachusetts relinquishes claim. 

1782. New Hampshire relinquislies claim. 

1786. June 39-Julij 4- Second constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution framed; established, 
March. 17R7. 

1790. March G. New York relinquishes claim. 

1791. March 4- Admitted to the Union. 

179S. July 3-9. Third constitutional convention. 
New constitution framed; established, July 9. 
1793. 

KENTUCKY (15). 

Historical Outline. 

Kentucky. " the Dark and Bloody Groimd," 
known as the " Blue-Grass State," was included 
in the French claim to the whole valley of the Mis- 



sissippi, but the English settlers early disputed it. 
The early history of the region is connected with 
Daniel Boone, a North Carolinian, who explored 
the region in 1769. In 1775, wliile in the employ of 
the Transylvania Company, he foiuided a fort at 
Boonesi)orough. Many settlers from Virginia and 
North Carolina were attracted to the region because 
of its rich pasture lauds in the blue grass. Under 
the influence of George Rogers Clark, the Virginia 
Assembly established Kentucky as a county in 1776. 
It remained a part of the parent State imtil admitted 
directly in 1792. Diu-ing the Civil War it tried to 
remaui neutral, but finally sided with the Union and 
sulTered much from the occupation and hostihties of 
both armies. 

In State politics Kentucky has generally been 
Democratic, except from 1836 to 1850, when it sup- 
ported the Wliigs, imder the mfluence of Henry 
Clay, its leading citizen. In recent times it has been 
Democratic till 1890. after which the RepubUcans 
several times carried it. Kentucky has been rich in 
national statesmen, notably Henry Clay, John J. 
Crittenden, and Vice President Breckinridge. 

Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 
and 14 for eight consecutive weeks during the year. 
The schools in the moimtains especially are back- 
ward. There are four normal schools and several 
institutions of higher learning, among them the Uni- 
versity of Kentucky (State). University of LouisviUe. 
Central University of Kentucky (C'enter College), 
Berea, Georgetov.m, and Transylvania colleges. 

Kentucky is preeminently an agricultural 
State, the chief products in order of value being 
corn, tobacco, hay, and w'heat. Its most important 
mineral is coal. The cliief manufactured products 
are flour and grist, and tobacco, and (until 1920) 
distillery products. 

Chronology. 

1609. May 23. Included in Vu-ginia under second 
charter. 

1763. Feb. 10. French claim ceded to Great Britain. 

1775. Permanent Enijlish settlement begins. 

1783. Sept. S. Included in territory of United 
States by Treaty of Paris. 

1789. Dec. IS. Virginia agrees to statehood. 
Earlier acts on same subject. 

1793. April g-19. Constitution adopted by a 
convention. Several other conventions preceded 
this one. Not submitted to people. 
June 1. Admitted to Union. 

1799. July '23-.\ua. 17. Second constitutional 
convention. Amended constitution, not submit- 
ted to people, in force June 1, 1800. 

1849. Oct. 1. Third constitutional convention 
assembles. Adjourns June 11, 1850. New con- 
stitution ratified by people. 

1861. Aug. S. Union success at State election 
finally settles secession question. 

1865. Dec. IS. Slavery abolished by Federal 
Thirteenth Amendment. 

1890. Sept. S. Fourth constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns September 28, 1891. New 
constitution not submitted to people. 



TENNESSEE (16). 
Historical Outline. 

Tennessee, tlie " Volunteer State," was 
part of French Louisiana but was included in the 
charter to the Carolinas. It was first made known 
to the English by Daniel Boone about 1769. From 
the Revolution to 1790 it was a part of North Caro- 
lina and from 1777 was organized as tlie County of 
Washington. In 177S a settlement was made on the 
Cumberland River, near the site of Nashville, and 
an attempt was made to establish a separate govern- 
ment called the " State of Franklin." under Jolui 
Sevier as governor. In 1790 Nortli Carolina ceded 
the territory to the United States and Tennessee was 
organized as the Territory South of the Ohio River. 
It was admitted to the Union in 1796. 

During the Civil War Temiessee seceded, but 
East Tennessee remained loyal and played an im- 
portant parti in the operations of the war in that 
section. The .severe battles of Shiloh. Chattanooga, 
Island No. 10. Stone River, and Nashville were fought 
in Tennessee; and the whole State was almost in 
cessantly the scene of conflict. Tennessee was the 
first of the seceding States to be reorganized, and 
was restored to the Union (July 24, 1866), after 
ratifying the Federal Constitution, with amendments, 
and adopting an antislavery State constitution. 

Since 1870 the Democratic party has controlled 
the State government, e.xcept in 1880, 1894, and 
1910, when the Democratic party was divided and 
Repubhcans were elected. In the National elections 
the State has been uniformly Democratic. Two 
presidents, Jackson and Jolinson, were Teimesseeans 

There is no State law requiring education, al- 
though school attendance is compulsory and tlirough- 
out the State the employment of children under 14 
years of age in workshops, factories, or mines is ille- 
gal. There are .several .State normal schools and 
about 20 universities and colleges, the largest of which 
is the (State) University of Tennessee. Vander- 



bilt University, the University of the South. Union 
University, Maryville College, and lor Negroes, Fisk 
University and KnoxviUe College, may be mentioned. 
The chief agricultural products are corn, cotton, 
and hay. The chief manufactured product is lum- 
ber, the most important mineral product coal. 

Chronology. 

1663. March Si. Charter of Carolma, extending 
to Pacific Ocean, includes region. (Cf. So. Caro- 
lina). (Great Britain. I 

1763. Feb. 10. France cedes claim to region to I 

1769. Settlementof Eastern Tennessee (Watauga) 
begins. 

1783. Sept. 3. Region included in United States 
by Treaty of Paris. Iquished.l 

1790. April 2. Claim of North Carolina relin-l 
May 26. Territory South of the Ohio, co- 
terminous with Teimessee, organized. 

1796. Jan. 11 -Feb. 6. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution not submitted to people. 
June 1. Admitted to Union. 

1834. May 19-Aug. SO. Second constitutional 
convention. New constitution, ratified by the 
people. March 6, 1835. 

1861. May 6. Ordinance of secession, passed by 
legislature. Ratified by people June 8. 

1865. Jan. 9-26. Tliird constitutional convention. 
Slavery abolished, secession declared null and 
void. Amendments ratified by people Feb. 22. 

1866. July 24. Bead mitted to Union. 

1870. Jan. 10-Feb. 23. Fourth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, in 
force Alay 5. 

OHIO (17). 

Historical Outline. 

This State, the " Buckeye State," was within 
the French claims to the valleys of the St. Lawrence 
and Mississippi rivers. It was transferred to Eng- 
land in 1763 and affirmed to the United States by the 
treaty of 17S3. New York, Connecticut, and Vir- 
ginia claimed parts of it. Most of it was included in 
the Northwest Territory (1787) which has since 
been divided into the States of Oliio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, and Wisconsin. By the Northwest Ordi- 
nance a system of government was estabUshed and 
slavery forbidden throughout tiiis region. 

Tiiree main streams of immigration poured into 
this region; from Virginia to the Central area; from 
Connecticut to the Northern; from Massachusetts 
under General Rufus Putnam to the Soutliem. The 
Northwest Territory was organized in 1787, with 
General Arthur Saint Clair as governor, with whom 
were associated Mana.s.seh Cutler and tieneral An- 
thony Wayne, who had had a large share in the sul> 
jugation of the Indians. The government estab- 
lished by the Ordinance was higlily centralized, and 
the governor possessed great power This form 
lastetl until 1798, when a representative territorial 
government was established and an assembly met in 
1799. Ohio was admitted as a State in 1803. 

The first constitution of the State was framed in 
1.S02 and showed a reaction against the centralized 
government and strong executive. The legislature 
was practicaUy the governing power, the governor 
having lost the veto power. The State rapidly 
filled up and became a force in national affairs. It 
has f lu'nished to the national government t he follow- 
ing presidents: Harrison. Grant. Hayes. Garfield, 
McKinley, and Taft. In 1851 the second constitu- 
tion established a government of the ordinary type, 
with biennial elections, a governor chosen for a fom-- 
year term, a Senate of 23 and a House of Repre- 
sentatives of 123, both elected for two years. 

In 1912 the State government was much altered, 
42 amendments being submitted to the people, of 
which 34 were adopted. The judicial system was 
revised, the powers of the legislature defined, and the 
initiative and referendum and direct primary 
adopted. The local government in Ohio is of the 
mixed tj-pe, a combination of the county system of 
the South and the town system of New England. 

In National politics Ohio was Jeffersonian imtil 
the Jackson era, after which it oscillated until ISSfi; 
it then became Republican and so remamed in na- 
tional elections imtil 1912. In State politics it was 
Republican from 1856 to 1905 with six exceptions. 
It has therefore been ranked as a doubtfid State, and 
one from winch it is desirable to pick the presidential 
candidate, smce it lias a large electoral vote, is cen- 
trally located, and the candidate may be supposed 
to have strength in his own locality. 

Education in Ohio has been greatly aided by the 
wise policy initiated by Congress in 1802, when it 
granted sixteen sections of each townsliip for the 
school fimd. The first school law was adopted in 
1821. and the school fimd established six years later. 
In 1002 a thorough revision of the school system was 
imdertaken, the schools were standardized, and high 
schools of three grades established. School attend- 
ance is compulsory during the full term of each year 
for all children between 6 and 14. There are eight 
public normal schools and forty colleges and uni- 
versities, the largest of which is the Ohio State Uni- 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



201 



versity at Columbus. Among others are Ohio Uni- 
versity. Ohio Northern University, Oliio Wesleyan 
University. University of Cincinnati. Municipal Uni- 
versity of Aiiron. Western Reserve. Miami. Deni- 
son, and Toledo universities; Wittenberg, Wooster, 
.St. Mary. Defiance. Oberlin. Baldwin- Wallace, Ken- 
yon Findlay. Muskingum, Rio tsrande, Otterbein, 
and Hiram colleges, Wilberforce University for Ne- 
groes, and Case School of Applied .Science. 

Ohio is rich in natural resources. It is one of 
tlie leading agricultural and grazing States, the 
chief crop, com. amomiting to over $200,000,000 in 
1918: other important crops are wheat, hay oats, 
potatoes, and tobacco. Hoi*se and cattle breeding 
and dairy fanning are also important. The State 
has extensive mineral resources antl ranlis fourtii of 
the States In mineral output, the two leading prod- 
ucts being coal and manufactures from clay. Ohio 
ranks fifth as a manufacturing State. In 1916 
the products of the iron and steel mihs were nearly 
S200.000.000 and of foimdries and macliine shops 
Sl'50.000,000. Other importaru pnnhicts are iron 
and steel, rubber goods, pottrrx, shiu^'htering and 
packing products, flour and gristmill products. Ohio 
has excellent facilities for water transportation. Its 
most important city is Cleveland, on Lake Erie, with 
a population in 1920 of 796.830 (5th city). 

Chronology. 

1609. .1/(71/ 23. Second charter of Virginia in- 
cludes region. 

1G6?. April 20. Charter of Connecticut includes 
portion of region. lain.! 

176.3. Feb. 10. French claim ceded to Great Brit^l 

1775. Included in colony of Quebec. 

1779. Included in region affected by George 
Rogers Clark's conqtiest. 

1781. March 1. Indefinite New York claim relin- 
quished. 

1783. Sepl. 3. Region becomes part of United 
States by Treaty of Paris. 

1784. March 1. Virginia claim relinquished. 
17S6. Sept. 14. Connecticut claim relinquished. 

except Western Reserve. 

1787. July 13. Ordinance for Territory North- 
west of tlie Ohio. Slavery prohibited. 

1788. Settlement begins at Marietta. 
1800. Connecticut cedes the Reserve. 

180?. A'ov. l-;^0. First constitutional convention. 
Constitution not submitted to people. 

1803. Feb. 19. Congress recognizes Ohio as a 
State in the Union. 

1850. May 6. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjoiuus March 10, 18.51. New con- 
stitution ratified by people Jime 17. 18.51. 

1873. May 13. Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjoiuns May 15. 1874. People reject 
amended constitution August IS, 1874. 

1913. Jan. 9-June 1. Foiu'th constitutional con- 
vention. People, September 3, ratify 33 of 41 
amendments submitted. 

LOUISIANA (i8). 

Historical Outline. 

LouiaiAN.4 is popularly known as the ** Pelican 
State '* and the ** C'reole State.'* The name 
*' Lotiisiana." after Louis XIV., was given by La 
Salle to the whole Mississippi basin extending from 
the Alleghenies to the Rocky Moimtains, and from 
the Gulf to the soiu'ces of the Oliio, Missotu'i, Platte. 
Arkansas. Mississippi, and Red rivers. At the 
close of the French and Indian War in 1762-1763, 
France ceded to Spain the region west of the Missis- 
sippi, and to Clreat Britain the region east of the 
Mississippi and north of the Bayou Iber\il!e. In 
1783 Great Britain recognized the eastern portion as 
part of the United States. In 1800 Spain transferred 
the territory west of the Mississippi to France, and 
in 1803 Jefferson, realizing the importance of the 
territory, bought it for S15.000.000. Shortly af- 
ter, the portion now occupied by the State of Louis- 
iana was organized as the Territory of Orleans, and 
in 1812 was received into the Union. 

The last battle of the War of 1812 was fought in 
1815, when General Jackson repulsed the British 
before New Orleans. Din*ing the Ci\ll War, lower 
Louisiana was occupied by the Union forces. During 
Reconstruction, political quarrels kept the State In 
confusion imtil 1876. 

The constitution of Louisiana, adopted in 1913, 
provides for a governor, elected every four years; a 
General Assembly, consisting of a Senate of from 36 
to 41 members, based on population, and a House of 
Representatives of not more than 120 based on popu- 
lation, except that each parish and each ward in the 
City of New Orleans is entitled to at least one repre- 
sentative. 

In politics Louisiana, with the exception of four 
years when a Whig governor was elected, has been 
consistently Democratic. In national elections as 
well it has chosen Democratic electors since the Civil 
War. The sugar growers are ardent protectionists 
and some of them were Progressives in 1912. Lou- 
isiana has fiu'nished one president. Zachary Taylor. 

The law of Louisiana is unique in that it is not 



based upon EngUsh contmon law, but upon the Code 
Napoleon, slightly modified by Anglo-Saxon insti- 
tutions. 

For a long time education was in an unsatisfac- 
tory condition ;butinl912and 1916a comprehensive 
State system was established centering in a State 
Board of Education. Collegiate education is given 
at the Louisiana State University, Tulane Univer- 
sity, Loyola University. Jefferson College, the H. S. 
Newcomb Memorial College (for women), and also 
at other colleges established for colored people. 
The chief crops are cotton, com, and rice. The 
chief industries are lumbering and the productions 
sugar and oU. There are also important sulphur 
mines and oil and gas deposits. The port of New 
Orleans has a large international trade. 

Chronology. 

1683. Possession taken by La Salle for France. 
1718. French settlement begins at New Orleans. 

1762. Nov. 3. Portion west of the Mississippi and 
Isle of Orleans conveyed by France to Spain, 

1763. Feb. 10. Part east of the Mississippi ceded 
to Great Britain; becomes part of West Florida. 

17.83. Sept. 3. West Florida ceded to Spain. 

1809. Oct. 1. Spanish " Louisiana " retroceded to 
France, 

1803. .ipril 30. Spanish (French) Louisiana 
ceded to United States. Under the treaty West 
Florida claimed. [rary government I 

Oct. 31. President authorized to form tempo- 1 

1804. March £6. Territory of Orleans organized 
by Congress. 

1810. Oct. 27. West Florida west of Pearl River 
occupied by United States. Added to Louisiana 
April 19. 1812. 

1811. Nov. i. First constitutional convention 
meets. Adjoiuns January 22, 1812. Constitu- 
tion not submitted to people. 

1813. April S. .4dmitted to Union. 

1819. Feb. 12. Western boundary established by 
treaty with Spain. 

1844. Aug. 6. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjotmis May 16, 1.845. New constitu- 
tion ratified by people November 5, 1845, 

1853. July .5-31. Tliird constitutional convention. 
Amended constitution ratified by people Nov, 1, 

1861. Jan. S3-March 28. Foiu'th constitutional 
convention. Ordinance of secession January 26. 
Amendments not submitted to people. 

1864. April e -July 2.5. Fifth (loyal) constitutional 
convention. Amended constitution, abolishing 
slavery, ratified by people within Federal lines, 
September 5. 

1867. Dec. 23. Sbtth (Reconstmction) constitu- 
tional convention meets. AdjoiuTis March 9, 1868. 
New constitution ratified by people April 18, 1868. 

1868. July IS. Readmitted to Union. 

1879. April 21-July 23. Seventh constitutional 
convention. New constitution ratified by people 
December 8. 

1898. Feb. S-.^fay 12. Eighth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, not submitted to 
people, declared immediately in force. 

1913. Nov. 10-22. Ninth constitutional conven- 
tion. Amended constitution, making only a few 
Umited changes, not submitted to people, in force 
November 22. 

INDIANA (19). 

Historical Outline. 

Indian.^, the ** Hoosier State," a part of the 
Northwest Territory, received separate territorial 
organization ui 1809, imder Govemor William 
Henry Harrison. Seciu-ity from the Indians was 
obtauied by the victory of Harrison over Tecumseh 
at the battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. 

Indiana was admitted as a State in 1816. The pres- 
ent constitution was adopted in 1851, and since it 
requires for amendment a majority of the members 
of each of the two houses in two successive sessions 
and a majority of all the votes cast at the elections, 
and since only one amendment shall be put before the 
people at one time, it has proved impossible of di- 
rect amendment. This constitution provides for a 
govemor elected for four years, a Senate of fifty 
chosen for four years and a House of Representatives 
of 100 chosen for two years. Enumerations and ap- 
portionments are made every six years. 

Politically Indiana is a doubtful State, both in 
State and national politics. It has given to the 
nation Vice Presidents Hendricks, Fairbanks, and 
Marshall. 

The educational standards of Indiana are high, 
and the illiteracy rate extremely low. Education is 
compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. The prin- 
cipal imiversities are Indiana and Pm-due, both of 
which are tmder State control, and De Pauw, Notre 
Dame, and Valparaiso, wliich are private institu- 
tions. Wabash. Butler. Hanover, and Earlham 
colleges should also be mentioned. 

Indiana has been the home of many noted writers, 
among whom may be mentioned Lew Wallace. James 
Whitcomb Riley, Eugene Field, Edward Eggleston, 
and Booth Tarkington. 



The State is largely agricultural, 94% of the 

territory being in farms. The important crops are 
com. wheat, hay, oats, and potatoes. The prin- 
cipal manufactiu'ed products are floiu- and grist, 
meat products, foundry and machine-shop goods, 
iron and steel products, and automobiles. 

Chronology. 

1609. May 23. Second charter of Virginia in- 
cludes region. Iportion of region.) 

1663. April 20. Charter of Cotmecticut includesi 

1727. French settlement begms at Vincennes; 
probable date. 

1763. Feb. 10. French claim ceded to Great Britain. 

1783. Sept. 3. Region becomes part of United 
States by Treaty of Paris. 

1784. March 1. Virginia claim relinquished, 

1786. Sept. 14. Cotmecticut claim relinquished. 

1787. July 13. Ordinance for Territory Northwest 
of the Ohio. Slavery probibited. 

1800. May 7. Indiana Territory organized. 

1816. June 10-29. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution not submitted to people. 

Dec. 11. Admitted to Union. 

1860. Oct. 7. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjom-ns February 10. 1851. Newcon- 
stltutlon, ratified by jjeople. m force Nov, 1. 1851. 

1911. March 4. Legislatiu-e frames a new constl- 
tiuion and submits it to people. Declared uncon- 
stitutional by State Supreme Court, July 5, 1912. 

1914. Nov. S. People reject callmg of a constitu- 
tional convention. 

1917. Feb. 1. Act for election of delegates to a con- 
stitutional convention. Declared null by State 
Supreme Court. July 13. 

MISSISSIPPI (20). 

Historical Outline. 

Mississippi, the " Bayou State." was a part of 
French Louisiana, then of the British dominions; 
and was included in the United States tmder the 
Treaty of 1783. except the extreme southern part, 
which' was in West Florida. Most of it was organ- 
ized as the Mississippi Territory in 1798, and it was 
admitted as a State in 1817. 

Dtu-lngthe Civil War numerous battles were fought 
on its territory, including Cormth, Vlcksburg, and 
Holl.v Springs. 

The present constitution, adopted in 1890, was 
designed to preserve the wliite supremacy, voters 
being required to prove the payment of taxes for the 
two years previous to the election, and to read and 
interpret the Constitution of the United States. In 
politics Mississippi has been Democratic, except m 
1835 when it was \Vhig. and during the Reconstruc- 
tion period from 1870 to 1876, Its best-known pub- 
lic man was Jefferson Davis, United States Senator 
and later President of the Confederate States, 

Because of the large colored population the edu- 
cational problems are difficult. White and colored 
children are taught at separate schools, but there 
is no compulsory education law. Among the imi- 
versities and colleges are the (State) University of 
Mississippi, the Mississippi Agricultiual and Me- 
chanical CoUege, Mississippi Industrial Institute 
and College, Mississippi and Meridian colleges, and 
Rust College tor Negroes. 

The alluvial river bottoms are very rich, and the 
chief agricultural products are cotton, com, oats, 
and hay. 

Chronology. 

1699. French settlement begins at Bilo.xi; part of 
Loiusiana. 

1733. June 9. Charter of Georgia, extending to 
Pacific Ocean, covers portion of region . 

1763. Feb. 10. France cedes eastern Louisiana to 
Great Britain. 

Oct. 7. British West Florida proclaimed; cov- 
ers portion of Mississippi. 

1783. Sept. 3. Retrocession of West Florida to 
Spain; balance of Mississippi becomes part of 
United States; dividmg Une disputed. 

1795. Oct. S7. Spain cedes claim north of 31°. 

1798. Aprin. Mississippi Territory created. 

1803. April 24. Georgia relinquishes claims. 
Added to Mississippi Territory. 

1803. .\pril 3(1. Louisiana Purchase Treaty, un- 
der which U.S. claims Spanish West Florida. 

1813. Feb. 12. Act for American occupation of 
Mississippi portion of West Florida. Added to 
Mississippi Territory. 

1817. July 7- Aug. IB. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution not submitted to people. 

Dec. to. Admitted to Union. 
1833. Sept. 10-Oct. 26. Second constitutional con- 
vention. Amended constitution not submitted to 
people. 

1861. Jan. 7-March SO. Third constitutional con- 
vention. Ordinance of secession January 9. 
Amendments not submitted to people. 

1865. Aug. 14-24. Fourth constitutional conven- 
tion. Slavery abolished August 21; secession 
declared null and void August 22. Amendments 
not submitted to people. 



202 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES -THE STATES. 



u 



w 



1868. Jan.r-MaylS. Fifth (Reconstruction) con- 
stitutional convention. New constitution rejected 
by people June 28. but accepted at second elec- 
tion December 1. 

1870. Feb. 2S. Readmitted to Union. 

1890. Aug. 12- Not. 1. Sbcth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution not submitted to 
people. 

ILLINOIS (2i). 



Historical Outline. 

Illinois is popularly known as the "Prairie 
State " and the " Sucker State." 

The first Europeans to set foot within the present 
limits of the State were the French eiplorcrs La 
Salle (1670) and SMarQuette and Joliet (16731, who 
reached the Illinois River and established trading 
posts as early as 1682. A few French inliabitants 
drifted m and lived m harmony with the Indians. 
For a long time the Illinois country was mcluded m 
the Louisiana government. In 1763 this region was 
ceded by France to England and later claimed by 
Virginia bv virtue of George Rogers Clark's e.xpedi- 
tion This imperfect claim was yielded in 1/84 by 
Virginia: and also the claims of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut by those States m 1785-86. In 1787 
it became a part of the Northwest Territory; then 
of Indiana Territory: then was organized as the sep- 
arate territory of Illmois m 1809. and flnaUy was 
admitted as a State in 1818. 

The State rapidly filled up and great enterprise 
was shown, but such heavy mdebtedness was m- 
curred for internal improvements that its credit was 
imperiled. In 1847 the people restored their credit 
by subjecting themselves to a heavy tax. The growth 
of the State was accelerated by the opening of the 
Erie Canal and the Great Lakes route and by the 
government grant of land for the Illmois Central 
RaUroad m 1850, so that by 1870 the State ranked 
Qrst In railway mileage. 

In 1850 began the great German immigration, to- 
gether with a small Irish element, and in the ne.\t ten 
years the population doubled. In the succeeding dec- 
ade in spite of the drain of the Civil War, it tripled. 
Chicago, the metropolis, a city of 30.000 m 1850 rose 
to over 300,000 m 1870. In 1871 the city was al- 
most totally destroyed by fire, but rapidly recovered 
and is now the second city in the United States, with 
a population (1920) of 2,701,705. 

The " Prairie State's " great wealth is still mainly 
in farms, the chief crops being com, wheat, oats, and 
hay. It is also a great industrial State, ranking third 
in the value of its manufactured products, and lead- 
mg in slaughtermg and meat packing. Other impor- 
tant products besides meat are foundry and machine- 
shop products, clothmg. iron and steel, and agricul- 
tural implements. Illinois ranks third after Penn- 
sylvania and Oliio in mineral output, the chief prod- 
ucts being coal, petroleum, natural gas, and zinc. 
On the Great Lakes a large fleet of steamers carries 
coal, ore, and cereals. 

Education is free and compulsory for children 
between 7 and 14. and the school system is excellent. 
There are 6 public normal schools and more than 25 
colleges and universities, the largest of wliich is the 
University of Chicago, with over 9.000 students. 
The University of Illinois ranks second, with over 
7.000 students, and Northwestern University has 
over 4.000. Among, the other mstitutions may be 
mentioned Illinois Wesleyan. Loyola. De Paul, and 
James Millikin imiversities: linox. Lake Forest. 
Illmois. Eureka. Northwestern, and Illmois Woman's 
colleges; and the Armour Institute of Technology. 

The constitution adopted m 1870 (a constitu- 
tional convention sat in 1920) provides for a legisla- 
ture meetmg biennially, consistmg of a Senate of 51 
chosen for foiu- years from districts based on popula- 
tion, and a House of Representatives containing 
three representatives from each Senatorial district. 
For representatives each elector has three votes, 
which he may cast for three candidates or divide as 
he wishes. 

Illinois is a doubtful State politically and has 
alternated between the Democratic and Republican 
parties in recent presidential elections. In State 
politics it has also frequently changed parties. It 
was the home of one president. Abraham Lincoln, 
and of many other national figures, including 
Stephen A. Douglas and U. S. Grant. 

Chronology. 

1G09. May 23. Region mcluded m second charter 

of Virginia. , , . j 

1629. March I,. Small portion of region mcluded 

in charter of Massachusetts. 
imt. .April 20. Small portion of region included 

in charter of Connecticut. 
1700. French settlement begins at Kaskaskia and 

Cahokia (approximate date). lain. I 

1763. Feb. W. French claim ceded to Great Brit- 1 
1778. Conquest by Vu-ginia troops imder Clark. 

1783. Sept. .1. Region becomes part of United 
States by Treaty of Paris. 

1784. March I. Virginia claim relinquished. 

1785. April 19. Massachusetts claim relinquished. 



1786. Sepl. H. Connecticut claim reUnquished. 

1787. July IS. Territory Northwest of the Ohio 
organized. Slavery prohibited. 

1800. May 7. Included m Indiana Territory. 

1809. Feb. S. Illinois Territory organized. 

1818. Aug. 1-20. Fmst constitutional convention. 
Constitution not submitted to people. 
Dec. 3. Admitted to Union. 

1833. Agitation for slavery; people defeat pro- 
slavery amendment. 

1847. June 7-Aug. 31. Second constitutional 
convention. New constitution ratified by people, 
March 5, 1848. 

1869. Dec. IS. Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns May 13, 1870. New constitu- 
tion, ratified by people, in force August S, 1870. 

1920. Fourth constitutional convention meets. 



ALABAMA (22I. 
Historical Outline. 



Alabama is popularly caUed the " Cotton State." 
The region was originally discovered by De Soto and 
other Spanish explorers, became English in 1763, 
and was included in the territory of Mississippi set 
up by the Union in 179S. It received territorial 
government in 1817, and was admitted as a State 
in 1819. Like most pioneer communities at that 
time the State favored the Democratic party and its 
senators and representatives have generally been 
Democrats, except for certain commercial centers 
which sometimes sent Whigs to Congress before 
the Civil War. Since then it has been consistently 
Democratic. William L. Yancey, senator and Con- 
federate leader, was an Alabaman. 

The present constitution, adopted in 1901. as- 
sures the political control of the whites by an edu- 
cational qualification modified in favor of the whites 
by the so-called " grandfather clause." The ses- 
sions 01 the legislature were made quadrennial and 
sections were introduced providing for the regulation 
of corporations. In spite of strong Union sentiment 
in the Northern centers, Alabama seceded early in 
January In 1861. 

Originally, and for many years. Alabama was 
agricultural and cotton is its chief product. But the 
e-xtensive deposits of coal and iron are rapidly chang- 
ing it to an industrial and manufacturing State. It 
already ranks third In production of Iron ore, 
and hi 1918 its production of coal mcreased 60 % and 
of coke 19% over the previous year. During the 
World War its industries rapidly developed, espe- 
cially shlpbuildmg, both for, completed hulls and plate 
mills" for fabricated vessels. Atmospheric nitrogen 
has l>vn produced at Muscle Shoals on the Tennes- 
see KiMT, where in the future the vast electric power 
wUl be utilized. At present the development is in- 
complete. 

There are nearly 7.000 public elementary schools, 
with over half a million enrolled pupils; eight public 
normal schools, with over 2,000 students. Eleven 
mstitutions provide for higher learning, mcluding 
the University of Alabama, under State control: 
Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute for colored 
people, founded by Booker T. Wasliington m 1S80, 
with nearly 2.(XX) students; and Alabama Poly- 
technic Institute. St. Bernard. Howard, and Spring 
HiU colleges, and the Woman's College of Alabama. 

Chronology. 

1702. French settlement begins at Mobile (old 

site) ; part of Louisiana. 
1732. June ff. Charter of Georgia, extending to 

Pacific Ocean, covers portion of Alabama. 
1763. Feb. 10. France cedes eastern Louisiana and 

Spain cedes Florida to Great Britain. 

Oct. 7. British West Florida proclaimed ; covers 

southern portion of Alabama. 
1783. Sept. S. Retrocession of West Florida to 

Spain; balance of Alabama becomes part of 

United States; dividing Ime disputed. 
1795. Oct. 27. Spain cedes claim north of 31° 
1798. April 7. Mississippi Territory created. 

1802. April H- Georgia relinquishes claim. 
Added to Mississippi Territory. 

1803. .4 pril .30. Louisiana Purchase Treaty, under 
wliich United States claims Spanish West Florida. 

1813. Feb. 13. Act for American occupation of 
Alabama portion of West Florida. Added to 
Mississippi Territorj-. 

1817. March S. Alabama Territory created. 

1819. July o-.iun. 2. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution not submitted to people. 
Dec. H. Admitted to Union. 

1861. Jan. 7-MnTch 20. Second constitutional 
convention. Ordmance of secession January 11. 
Amendments not submitted to people. 

1865. Sepl. 12-30. Third constitutional convention. 
Secession declared null and void; slavery abol- 
ished. Amended constitution not submitted to 
people. 

1867. Nov. o-Dec. 6. Fourth (Reconstruction) 
constitutional convention. New constitution fails 
of ratification, February 8, 1S6S, but is imposed on 
the State by Congress. 

1868. July 20. Keadmitted to Union. 



1875. Sept. e-Oct. 2. Fifth constitutional conven- 
tion. New constitution, ratified by people, in 
force December 6. 

1901. May 21 -Sept. S. Sixth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, m 
force November 28. 

MAINE (23). 

Historical Outline. 

Maine is called the " Pine-Tree State " and 
the " Lumber State." The coast was visited by 
French explorers and in 1607 an attempt was made 
at a settlement near the mouth of the Keimebec 
River. The first permanent settlements made by 
the English were at Monliegan and Saco about 
1622. Since Maine was the frontier, invasion was 
easy, and during the colonial wars it was frequently 
raided. Many settlers came from Massachusetts, 
by wliich Commonwealth the title was bought in 
1678. although control had been e.xercised smce 
1652. Durmg the Revolution British vessels made 
descents upon the coast and burned Falmouth, now 
Portland. 

Until 1820 Maine was recognized as a district of 
Massachusetts. In the War of 1812 British forces 
invaded and took possession of Castme. Mame was 
admitted to the Union in 1820 by consent of the par- 
ent State. For a long time the boundary between 
Mame and the British possessions was m dispute, 
but tliis was settled by the treaty of 1842. 

The constitution of Mame. adopted in 1819 and 
soon amended, provides for a House of Representa- 
tives of 151 chosen every two years, and a Senate of 
31. which meets biennially, and a governor elected 
for two years. 

The educational standards of Maine are high, a 
school fund having been established in 1828 by set- 
tmg aside 20 townships of pubUc land. Education 
is free between the years of 5 and 21 and compul- 
sory between 5 and 14. There are nearly 20(1 puli- 
Uc high schools, 7 pubUc normal schools, and four 
colleges and institutions of higher education,— 
the LIniversity of Maine, Bowdom College, founded 
in 1794, Bates College, and Colby College. 

The chief products of Maine are hay, potatoes, 
and oats; also, granite, in which Maine ranks third 
of the New England States, and sea food — chiefly 
lobsters, cod, and herring. Its forests are large and 
important. The first growth of pme has been cut 
off, but the land gradually reforests. 

Before the Civil War Makie was generally Demo- 
cratic, smce then Republican. It furnished to na- 
tional politics Vice President Hamlin. Its most re- 
nowned statesmen have been James G. Blaine and 
Thomas B. Reed. 

Chronology. 

1622. Aug. 10. Grant of province of Maine to 
Gorges and Mason. Various settlements started 
in next few years. Icovermg part of Maine. I 

1639. April 3. Gorges obtains a royal charter! 

1664. March 12. Grant of Mame north of the 
Kennebec to Duke of York. 

1678. March IS. By purchase of Gorges grant 
Massachusetts fixes her control on southern por- 
tion of Maine, [by chart<T.I 

1691. Oct. 7. Maine Included In Massachusetts! 

1819. Oct. 29. Separate state constitution framed: 
adopted by people, December 6. 

1820. March la. Admitted as a separate State, 
Massachusetts having given consent, February 25. 



MISSOURI (24). 
Historical Outline. 

MissocBi has been called the " Bullion State " 
because of the advocacy by Senator Thomas H. 
Benton of gold and silver ciu-rency. 

The coimtry now occupied by the State was visited 
by Marquette" and Joliet in 1683, who gave the name 
" Missoiu-i," or " Muddy Water," to the river and 
the country bordering it. It was annexed to the 
United States as a portion of the Louisiana Purchase 
and became the District of Louisiana m 1804. The 
district was organized as Louisiana Territory in 1805, 
and m 1812 its name was changed to Missouri Ter- 
ritory. In 1817 it applied for admission to the 
Union. Tliis request gave rise to a bitter contro- 
versy over the slavery question, wliich was finally 
decided by the famous Missouri Compromise of 
1820 and 1821, by which Missouri was admitted as 
a slave State, but slavery was prohibited " forever" 
m the rest of the Louisiana cession north of 36° 
30'. Altliough distinctly a Southern State, the 
slave-holdmg mterest was unable to carry it mto 
secession and the Missouri government remained 
loyal to the Union. 

The constitution adopted in 1875 is the thu-d and 
has Ijeen frequently amended, recently to provide for 
direct legislation. In the House of Representatives 
the larger counties are discriminated against in fa- 
vor of the smaller ones, and the representatives are 
chosen for two years. For the Senate the State is 
divided into 34 districts, approximately equal m 
population, each choosing one senator for a term of 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



203 



four years, one half tLe number being chosen bien- 
nially. 

In politics Missouri was almost uniformly Demo- 
cratic, with tlie exception of the Civil War period, 
until 1904, when the Repubhcans succeeded in elect- 
ing most of their ticket. The Republicans carried 
the State for president again in 190S, but the Demo- 
crats in 1912 and 1916. Missouri, therefore, may 
now be ranked as a doubtful State. Its most dis- 
tinguished men have been the Blairs, father and son, 
and Thomas H. Benton. 

School attendance is compulsory for children 
from eight to fourteen years for not less than three 
fourtlis of the school term. There are over 600 pub- 
lic high schools and seven public normal schools, 
together with about a dozen institutions of higher 
learning, among whicii may l>e mentioned the Uni- 
versity of Missouri, Wasliington University, and St. 
Louis University; and William Jewell, Park. Mis- 
souri Wesleyan, and Central Wesleyan colleges. 

Agriculture is still the chief occupation of the 
State, the more important crops being wheat, oats, 
potatoes, and, in the south, cotton. Missouri 
leads all other States in the production of zinc and 
lead and has large deposits of coal. In manufactur- 
ing Missouri ranks tenth, its chief industries being 
slaughtering and meat packing, boot and shoe mak- 
ing, flour and gristmilling. 

Chronology. 

1735. French settlement begins at Sainte Gene- 
vieve (approximate date). [to Spain,] 
176*8. Nov. 3. French claim to region conveyed I 
1800. Oct. 1. Retrocession to France. 

1803. April 30. Ceded to United States by 
Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. District of Louisiana authorized. 

1805. March 3. Louisiana Territory organized. 
1812. June 4. Name changed to Missouri Terri- 
tory. 

1830. March 3. Missouri Compromise permits 
admission as slave State. 

June 12-July 19. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution not submitted to people. 

November. Missouri casts votes for presidential 
electors. 

1821. Aug. 10. Admitted to Union. 

1836. June 7. Increase in territory. 

1845. Nov. 7. Second constitutional convention 
meets. AdjoiuTis January 14, 1846. People 
reject the draft constitution. 

1861-1865. During Civil War several battles are 
fought in Missouri (Wilson's Creek, Springfield, 
etc.) and there is a long period of " bushwhacking." 

1861. Feb. 2S. Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns July 1. 1863. Amendments 
not submitted to people. Ordinance of July 1, 
1863. provides for gradual emancipation. 

1865. Jan. 6- April 10. Fourth constitutional con- 
vention. Ordinance abolisliing slavery passed 
January 11. New constitution, ratified by peo- 
ple, in force July 4. 

1875. May 6-Aug. 2. Fifth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, 
in force November 30. 

ARKANSAS (25). 

Historical Outline. 

Arkansas, sometimes called the ** Bear State," 
originally a portion of the Louisiana Territory, re- 
ceived territorial organization in 1819 and was ad- 
mitted as a State in 1836. In was closely connected 
with the best of the Southern interests and se- 
ceded May 6, 1861. For several years after the war, 
it was the scene of acute political conflict. The 
present constitution, adopted in 1874. has been 
frequently amended, but an attempt to adopt a new 
constitution extending the suffrage to women and 
establishing state-wide prohibition was defeated in 
1918. Like other Southern States Arkansas has 
been baclrward in education, but in 1007 a com- 
prehensive system was established providing for 
compulsory education. No child under 14 can be 
employed in a manufacturing establishment unless 
he attends school 12 weeks in a year and can read 
and write English. There are two public normal 
schools and eight colleges, the largest being the 
LTniversity of Arkansas, a State institution; Oua- 
chita, Arkansas. Hendrix. Henderson-Brown, and 
Philander Smith colleges are of importance. 

Arkansas is an agricultural State* the cliief 
crops being cotton, com. wheat, and hay. The 
State has a large coal area and manganese ores. lead, 
and bauxite (for aluminium) are found. The chief 
industries are lumbering and the production of cot- 
tonseed oil and oil cake. 

Chronology. 

1685 or 1686. French settlement begins at Ar- 
kansas Post. [to Spain. I 
1762. Nov. 3. French claims to region conveyed | 
1800. Oct. 1. Retrocession to France. 

1803. April SO. Ceded to United States by 
Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Included in district of Louisiana. 



1805. March 3. Louisiana Territory organized. 

181'^. June 4. Missouri Territory succeeds Louisi- 
ana Territory. 

1819. March £. Arkansas Territory organized. 

1836. Jan. 4-30. First constitutional convention. 
Constitution not submitted to people. 
June 16. Admitted to Union. 

1861. March 4~June 3. Second constitutional 
convention. Ordinance of secession May 6. 
Ajuendments not submitted to i>eople. 

1864. Jan. 4-23. Third (loyal) constitutional 
convention. Amended constitution, abolishing 
slavery, ratified by popular vote March 14. 

1868. Jan. 7-Feb. 14. Fourth (Reconstruction) 
constitutional convention. New constitution rat- 
ified by people in March. 

June 22. Readmitted to Union. 

1874. July 14-Sept. 7. Fifth constitutional con- 
vention. Revised constitution, ratified by people, 
in force October 30. 

1917. Nov. 17. SLvth constitutional convention 
meets. New constitution rejected by people 
December 14. 1918. 

MICHIGAN (26). 

Historical Outline. 

Michigan is popularly knomi as the ** Wolverine 
State " and also, sometimes, as the ** Lake State.** 

The shores of Lake Michigan were partly ex- 
plored by French traders and missionaries between 
1634 and 1640, and the first settlement was made 
by Marquette at Sault Sainte Marie in 1668. In 
1701 a militar>' post was planted at Detroit by Cadil- 
lac which in 1760, during the French and Indian War, 
fell into the hands of the English. By the Treaty of 
1763 the English were given possession of all this 
region, but they had to fight for it with Pontiac, 
an Indian chief. 

By the Treaty of 1783 the coimtry was acknowl- 
edged a part of the United States and was included 
later in the Northwest Territory. In 1805 Micliigan 
was erected into a separate territory and l>ecame a 
Stat« (1837) after a sharp dispute with Ohio concern- 
ing the boimdary. The Upper Peninsula was added 
by Congress as a mollifier. 

The present constitution, adopted in 1908. pro- 
\ides for a Senate of 32 and a House of Representa- 
tives of not fewer than 64 nor more than 100, elected 
for two years on the basis of decennial apportion- 
ments of the population. The governor is also 
chosen for two years. Both amendments to the con- 
stitution and laws may be made and proposed by the 
Initiative; and all elected ofl3cers except judges are 
subject to recall. 

Since the organization of the Republican party the 
State has been RepubHcan, except in 1892 when five 
of its electors were Democratic; and in 1912 when 
it followed the Progressive party. All the United 
States senators and a majority of the members of 
Congress have always been RepubUcan. In State 
poUtics the governors have always been Republican 
since 1S56. The most renowned Michigan states- 
man was Lewis Cass. 

Michigan is one of the foremost States in educa- 
tion and has an excellent system of schools, with 
compulsory' attendance for children from 7 to 16. 
The State also has sLx normal schools. There is a 
State university (University of Michigan) at Ann 
Arbor, founded in 1841 and now having nearly 7,000 
students. Albion, Hope, Hillsdale, and Kalamazoo 
colleges, the University of Detroit, and Michigan 
Agricultural College are other higher institutions 
of learning. 

The State is largely agricultural; the chief crops 
being oats, com, wheat, hay, potatoes, and sugar 
beets. Michigan ranks si.xth in the production of 
mineral wealth; the chief products being iron, 
copper, and coal; and the total mineral output was 
valued in 1918 at more than $199,000,000. The in- 
dustries of the State are chiefly comiected with lum- 
ber and automobiles: of the latter Michigan pro- 
duces about three fourths of the entire output in 
the United States. Other important; industries are 
foundry and machine work, flour and gristmilling, 
furniture manufacture, copper smelting, and the 
production of beet sugar. 

Chronology. 

1609. May 23. Region inchided in second charter 
of Virginia. 

1629. March 4. Portion of region included in 
charter of Massachusetts. 

1662. April 20. Small portion of region included 
in charter of Connecticut, 

1701. French settlement begins at Detroit. Mis- 
sions and forts at Sault Sainte Marie and Michih- 
mackinac earUer. [ain.l 

1763. Feb. 10. French claim cedpd to Great Brit-I 

1783. Sept. 3. Becomes part of United States by 
Treaty of Paris. 

1784. March 1. Virginia claim relinquished. 

1785. April 19. Massachusetts claim relinquished. 

1786. Sept. 14- Connecticut claim relinquished. 

1787. July 13. Territory Northwest of the Ohio 
organized. Slavery prohibited. 



1800. May 7. Western portion included in Indi- 
ana Territory. 

1805. Jan. 11. Michigan Territory organized 
over eastern portion. 

1809. Feb. 3. Western portion divided between 
Indiana and Illinois territories. 

1818. April 18. Balance of region added to 
Michigan Territory. 

1835. May 11 -June 29. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Nov. 2. 

1837. Jan. 26. Admitted to Union. 

1850. June 3-Aug. 15. Second constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, 
in force January 1, 1851. 

1907. Oct. 22. Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns March 3, 190S. New constitu- 
tion, ratified by people, in force January 1, 1909. 

FLORIDA (27). 

Historical Outline. 

FLORmA is called the " Peninsular State " and 
also the *' Everglade State." 

The southeastern peninsula of North America was 
discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon in the search for 
gold and the Foimtain of Youth. The oldest per- 
manent existing European settlement In America 
was made at Saint Augustine in 1565, an expedi- 
tion from which destroyed a colony of French Hugue- 
nots who, in 1564, had built Fort Caroline, on the 
Saint Johns River. After the settlement of the Caro- 
linas and Georgia there were frequent disputes and 
frontier wars, sometimes reflecting European con- 
ditions and sometimes representing local difficulties 
between the English and the Spaniards. 

In 1763 Florida was ceded to England but was re- 
turned to Spain by the Treaty of 17S3. Its position 
rendered it an asylum for runaway slaves and a basis 
of operations for hostile Indians. When the Semi- 
nole War broke out in 1818 the Spanish authorities 
in Florida were supposed to give aid to the Indians, 
and Andrew Jackson, in command of the United 
States forces, acting without orders crossed the bor- 
der and carried on the war there. In 1819 the 
United States bought Florida from Spain for 
$5,000,000. It was organized as a territory in 1822 
and admitted as a State in 1845. 

The Reconstruction constitution of Florida 
provided for a cabinet system, but it was soon dis- 
continued. The present constitution was adopted 
in 1885 and provides for a governor, elected for 
four years; a bicameral legislature; a lower house, 
elected every two years; and a Senate of 32, one half 
being elected every two years; holding office for four 
years. The constitution provides for the Austra- 
lian ballot with nonpartisan tickets, thuscontroUing 
the Negro vote. School attendance is not compul- 
sory, and separate schools are provided for white chil- 
dren and colored children. Higher education is 
provided for by the (State) University of Florida, 
the Florida State College for Women, and, among 
others, the John B. Stetson University and Southern 
and Rollins colleges. 

Agriculture is pursued in all parts of the State, 
the chief products being pineapples, oranges, grape- 
fruit, and tobacco. The chief mineral wealth is phos- 
phate rock. The extensive fisheries include sponges, 
of which Florida has almost a monopoly. The at- 
tractive climate of Florida has made it a famous 
winter resort, and considerable immigration has 
come from the North. 

Chronology. 

1565, Spanish settlement at Saint Augustine. 

1763. Feb. 10. Spain cedes region to Great Britain. 

1783. Sept. S. Retrocession to Spain 

1819. Feb. 22. Ceded to United States. 

March 3. Act to authorize president to form 
temporary government. 
1832. March 30. Florida Territory organized. 

1838. Dec. 3. First constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns January 11, 1839. Constitu- 
tion not submitted to people. 

1845. March 3. Admitted to Union. 

1861. Jan. S- April 27. Second constitutional con- 
vention. Ordinance of secession January 10. 
Amendments not submitted to people. 

1865. Oct. 25- Nov. 7. Third constitutional con- 
vention. Secession annulled October 28; slavery 
abolished. Amended constitution not sub- 
mitted to people. 

1868. Jan. 20-Feb. 25. Fourth (Reconstruction) 
constitutional convention. New constitution rat- 
ified by people May 6 

July 11. Readmitted to Union. 

1885. June 9- Aug. 3. Fifth constitutional conven- 
tion. New constitution, ratified by people, in 
force January 1, 1887. 

TEXAS (28). 

Historical Outline. 

The coast of Texas, the '* Lone-Star State," 
was included by the Spaniards in their earliest claims 
but the first settlement was made by the French in 
1685. This, however, was only shortrUved. The 



204 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES -THE STATES. 



u 



w 



Spanish occupation did not begin until 1715. Wlien | 
the United States bought Louisiana from France m j 
1803 it clauned that Texas was included m the pur- 
chase, but the title remained uncertam until the 
Florida purchase in 1819, when the United States re- 
linqiuslied any right it might have to the territory 
west of the Sabme River. 

Texas became a province of the repubhc of Mex- 
ico when that country revolted from Spanish rule. 
Meanwhile a considerable immigration from the 
United States had taken place, and Texas won its 
independence from Mexico by the decisive battle of 
San Jacinto (1836), at which General Sam Hous- 
ton, the first president of Texas, commanded. 

Texas was recognized by the United States and 
several European powers as an independent state, 
and sought amiexation to the United States. This 
was favored bv the slaveholdmg mterests of the 
South and was accomphshed in 184.5 by jomt resolu- 
tion. By this annexation the United States was in- 
volved in a boundary dispute with Mexico The 
Mexican War followed (1846). during wliich Mexico 
was invaded and its capital captured. As a result 
the southern boundary of Texas was established at 
the Rio Grande. . 

The present constitution of Texas, adopted m 
1876 provides for a legislature consisting of a Senate 
and a House of Representatives, fLxed respectively at 
31 senators and 150 representatives. Senators are 
elected for foiu- years, one half biennially, the repre- 
sentatives, for two years. Reapportionment is re- 
quired after each Federal census. The governor is 
elected biennially. 

Texas has been almost imiformly a Democratic 
State since admission, except for a short period diu-- 
ing Reconstruction. Its most distmguished citizen 
was Sam Houston, president of the Lone-Star 
Republic. 

The constitution requires the legislatiu-e to pro- 
vide an " efficient system of free public schools " 
and for that purpose vast quantities of public land 
and portions of other taxes and revenue have been 
appropriated. Funds are apportioned to school dis- 
tricts amiually on the basis of the school popiUation. 
The employment of illiterate chUdren under 14 years 
of age in factorie.s is prohibited. There are 6 public 
normal schools and about 20 mstitutions of higher 
learning, the most important of which is the Uni- 
versity of Texas. Among the others may be men- 
tioned the Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
Texas Christian University, Baylor, Trmity, Dallas, 
Southern Methodist, and Southw&stern universi- 
ties, Simmons, Austin, Baylor Female, and Howard 
Payne colleges, the College of Industrial Arts (wo- 
men), and Rice Institute. 

Texas is one of the most Important agricul- 
tural States in the Union. The total value of farm 
property is nearly $3,000,000,000 and some of the 
arid region is bemg reclaimed tlirough u-rigation. 
The most hnportant crops are cotton, com, wheat, 
oats, and rice. The State has a great live-stock 
Industry and the wool clip amounts to over 10.000,- 
000 pounds. Texas ranks second among the States 
m the production of mercury ; coal is also of great im- 
portance The most important nuneral production, 
however, is petroleum. The chief manufacturing 
industries are meat packing, flour and gristmillmg. 
lumbering and sawmilllng, and the manufacture of 
cottonseed oil and oil cake. 

Chronology. 

1685-1687. La Salle attempts a French settlement 
at Matagorda Bay. French claim to Texas as 
part of Louisiana. 

1690. Beginning of Spanish settlement; prov- 
ince of Mexico (New Spain). 

1803. April 30. United States, by Louisiana 
Purcha.se Treaty, acquires French claim. 

1810. Begmning of Mexican struggle for mde- 
pendence from Spain. 

1819. Feb. 22. United States clami to Texas re- 
linquished by treaty with Spam. Isettlemcnt.l 

1831. Dec. 21. Beginning of Anglo-American I 

1827. March 11. Constitution of the (Mexican) 
State of Coahuila and Texas. Adopted by the 
State Congress. . . 

1835. Nov. IS. Provisional constitution put m 
force by Assemlily. 

1836. Miirrh 1-17. (Independent) constitutional 
convention. Declaration of mdependence from 
Mexico, March 2. Constitution as separate na- 
tion (Republic of Texas) not submitted to people, 

Dec. 19. Act of Texan Congi-ess assertmg Rio 
Grande as boundary, to its source. 
1845. March 1 . Resolution of ' United States 
Congress for annexation. Accepted by Texas 

Julv 4. 

July 4-Aug. 27. First State constitutional 

convention. Constitution ratified hy people 

October 13. 

Dec. 29. Admitted as State of Union. 
1848. Frh. 2. Boundary with Mexico estaljlished 

by Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
1850. Sepl. 9. Texas cedes (sells tor $10,000,000) 

her claims to territory east of the upper Rio Grande 

beyond the present limits of the State, to be in- 



cluded m the new territory of New Mexico. 
(Part of Compromise of 1850.) 
1861. Jan. 28-March 25. Second constitutional 
convention. Ordinance of secession February 
1; rrftifled by people February 23. Amendments 
not submitted to people. 

1865. Dec. 18. Slavery abolished by Federal 
Tliirteenth Amendment. 

1866. Feb. 7- April 2. Third constitutional con- 
vention. Secession declared null and void, 
March 15. Amended constitution, abolishing 
slavery, ratified by people June 4, 

1868. June 1. Fourth (Reconstruction) constitu- 
tional convention meets. Adjourns February 6, 
1S69. New constitution ratified by people Dec, 3. 

1870. March 30. Readmitted to Union. 

187S. Sept. e- Nod. 2i. Fifth constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution ratified by people 
February 17, 1876. 

IOWA (29). 

Historical Outline. 

Iowa takes its name from an Indian tribal name 
(said to mean " Sleepy Ones"). It is often called 
by the nickname of the " Hawkeye State." It was 
a part of tlie Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The first 
settler was probably Julien Dubuque, in 178S, but 
permanent occupation did not begin imtil 1830. In 
1833 the Iowa coimtry was opened up by the Black 
Hawk Purchase and settlers came from all parts of 
the Union. For a time part of Missouri Territory'. 
Iowa was organized as a separate territory in 1838 
and admitted to the Union m 1846. 

The constitution adopted in 1857 provides for a 
legislature consisting of a Senate of 50, elected for 
four years, and a House of Representatives of 108, 
elected for two years; also, a governor, elected for 
two years. Local government was organized on the 
county-township or commissioner plan. Beginning 
in 1913 several cities adopted the commission 
form of government. 

School attendance is compulsory for 16 consecu- 
tive weeks annually diu-mg the school age (7 to 16). 
In the State there are 25 universities and colleges, 
tlie largest being the (State) University of Iowa, 
Others are the Iowa State College, Iowa State 
Teachers College, Drake University, and Grumell, 
Simpson, Cornell, Coe, Ellsworth, Des Momes, and 
Momingside colleges. 

Iowa is preeminently an agricultural State, 
and its farm property is valued at over 34,000.000,- 
000. The chief crops are wheat, oats, barley, rye, 
and hay. The State also has live-stock mdustry, 
and its wool clip ^^elds nearly 5,000,000 pounds. 
There are large productive coal fields, and the output 
of Clay products and cement is Important. The 
chief manufacturing industries are meat packing, 
butter making, flour and gristmilling, and foundry 
and machine work. 

In politics Iowa has been with few exceptions 
Republican. Its most distinguished statesman was 
Senator William B. Allison. 



The constitution providing for a State uni\ersity. 
the University of Wisconsin was founds I in IMS 
and is now one of the most important educational 
institutions in the United States, havmg over 5,000 
students. Other important institutions are Beloit, 
Lawrence, Ripon, and Campion colleges, and Mar- 
quette University. School attendance is compul- 
sorj' for all cliildren between 7 and 14 in cities dur- 
ing the entu-e school year and in towiis and villages 
for six months a year. Where industrial or continu- 
ation schools are established, children between 14 
and 17 who are regularly employed must attend 
such schools. 

Wisconsm is largely an agricultural State, 
farm property bemg valued at nearly .«2.000,000,(X)0, 
The most important crops are oats, com. barley, and 
wheat. It has a large live-stock mdustry, and the 
wool clip amounts to over 2,000,000 pounds. Zmc 
is the most important nuneral, but the production of 
iron ore and the manufacture of pig iron are exten- 
sive. The most important manufactures are cheese, 
butter, and condensed milk, foundry and machine- 
shop products, lumber, and leather. 

The Democratic party was formerly strong m Wis- 
consm, but during recent years the Repubhcan party 
has controlled the State, and under the lead of Sena- 
tor La Follette passed many progressive, if not rad- 
ical, measures, particularly in the regiUation of rail- 
roads and corporations and taxation. With the 
exception of 1892 and 1912 Wisconsm has voted tor 
Republican presidents. 

Chronology. 

1609. May 23. Region included in second charter 
of Virginia. Iter of Massachusetts.) 

1629. Marchi. Portionof region mcluded in char-l 
1673. Marquette and .loliet cross Wisconsin. 
1517. First permanent settlement. 



1745. French settlement begins at Green Bay. 

Mission there in 1670. 
1763. Feb. 10. French claim ceded to Great Britam. 

1783. Sept. S. Becomes part of United States by 
Treaty of Paris. 

1784. Marchi. Virginia claim relinquished. 

1785. Aprill9. Massachusetts clahnrelmquished. 
1787. July 13. Territory Northwest of the Ohio 

organized. Slavery prohibited. 
1800. May 7. Included in Indiana Territory. 
Feb. S. Included in Illinois Territory. 
April IS. Added to Micliigan Territory. 
April 20. Wisconsin Territory organized. 
Dec. IS. First constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns February 1, 1848. Constitu- 
tion ratified by people March 13, 1848. 
1848. May 29. Admitted to Union. 



Chronology. 



1809. 
1818. 
1836. 
1847. 



CALIFORNIA (31). 



1762. Nov. S. French claim conveyed to Spam. 
1800. Oct. 1. Retrocession to France. 

1803. April 30. Ceded to United States by 
Louisiana Piu-chase Treaty. 

1804. March SS. Included m district of Louisiana, 
wliich becomes Louisiana Territory (March 3, 
1805) and Missouri Territory (.lime 4, 1812). 
Territorial government ends with admission of 
Missouri I1.S21). [Compromise.! 

1820. March 3. Slavery forbidden by Missouri] 
1830-1833. Settlement begins. Itory.l 

1834. June 28. Region added to Michigan Terri- 1 
1836. April 20. Included in Wisconsm Territory. 
1838. June 12. Iowa Territory organized. 
1844. Oct. 7- Noi). I . First constitutional con- 
vention. Draft constitution rejected by people 
August 4, 1845. 
1846. May 4-18. Second constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution ratified by people August 3. 
Dec. 28. Admitted to Union. 
1857. Jan. 10-March 5. Third constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, in 
force September 3. 



WISCONSIN (30). 
Historical Outline. 

Wisconsin, " the Badger State," was visited 
by Jean Nicolet in lt)34, but the first permanent 
settlement was not made until 1717. The coim- 
try formed a part of the Northwest Territory, then 
of Michigan Territory; in 1836 it became a separate 
territory, and was admitted as a State in 1848. 

The 'constitution adopted in 1848, though 
greatly amended, is still in force. It provides for a 
governor elected biemiially; also, a legislature consist- 
ing of an Assembly to nimiber between 54 and 100 
and a Senate to be between one third and one fourth 
as numerous, elected biennially. Electoral districts 
are arranged according to the Federal decennial cen- 
sus, and are to be as compact as possible. 



Historical Outline. 

California, the " Golden State " or " El 
Dorado," was coasted by the Spaniards between 
1537 and 1542 and named after the imagmary kmg- 
dom of the Amazons of Spanish romance. Sir Fran- 
cis Drake for the English visited the coast in 1579, 
but the English did not enforce their claims. No per- 
manent settlements were made within the present 
lunits of the State mitil the Franciscan missions were 
established, beginning in 1769; through these the 
Spanish cidture and language were extended to 
the Indians. When Me.xico became mdependent, 
California remamed one of its provinces, but was 
brought mto the possession of the United States ui 
1846-1847 through conquest by military and naval 
forces m the Mexican War. By the treaty with 
Mexico the United States retamed possession of 
California. . . 

In 1848 placer gold was discovered in quantities 
by Marshall at Sutter's Mill, near the spot where 
Coloma village now stands. Adventurers of all sorts 
soon were flockmg to the new cotmtry (see fobtt- 
NiNER, in the Dictionary), and within four years the 
population reached a quarter of a million. 

California was admitted as a free State as part of 
the Compromise of 1850. In 1906 large portions of 
San Francisco were destroyed by fire following an 
earthquake. The city government at the time 
attempted to turn this disaster to its profit. Public 
indignation was stirred throughout the State and a 
reform movement initiated which bore fruit m the 
constitutional amendments of 1911. 

The present constitution, adopted in 1879, has 
been frequently amended; most radically in 1911 and 
1914, m the way of providing more popular control 
of the government and regulatmg corporations and 
railroads. The legislature consists of a House of 
Representatives of 80 members elected for two years 
and a Senate of 40 elected for four years, one half 
retiring every two years. Legislative sessions are di- 
vided into two parts. In the first, which may not 
exceed thirty days, and must be followed by an ad- 
journment of at least 30 days, no bill may be intro- 
duced except by permission of a three-fourths ma- 
jority. The governor is elected for a term of four 
years. Provisions are made for the Initiative, 
referendum, and recall of all elected ofl3cers, in- 
cluding the judges. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



205 



The educational system is excellent, under the 
inspection and classiflcation of the State university, 
wiiicii adopted the accrediting system in 1SS4. 
School attendance is compulsory for ciiildren between 
8 and 15 for at least Ave months in each year. There 
are three large universities, the University of 
California. Iceland Stanford Junior University, and 
the University of Southern California. There are 
also a number of smaller institutions, such as Po- 
mona and Occidental colleges, College of the Pa- 
cific, and Throop College of Technology. 

Since the Civil War California has been Demo- 
cratic five times. Republican seven times, and Pro- 
gressive once in State elections. In national politics 
it has been normally RepubUcan. although in 18S0. 
1S92, and 1916 it went Democratic and in 1912, Pro- 
gressive. 

The agricultural products of California have an 
annual value of over a hundred and fifty milHon 
dollars. Its diversified climate, extending from the 
temperate to the subtropical, is favorable to prod- 
ucts of great variety, including not only the cereals, 
but subtropical fruits, citrous fruits, and the best 
European varieties of grapes. California has great 
resources of gold, silver, copper, lead, and quick- 
silver and produces more oil thar any other State 
save Oklahoma. Its chief manufacturing industries 
are canning and preserving, flour milling, and oil 
refining. 

Chronology. 

1543-1543. Voyage of CabriJlo and Ferrer begins 
Spanish claim to region. 

1769. Spanish settlement begins at San Diego: a 
province of Mexico. San Francisco Bay discov- 
ered, fence.! 

1810. Beginning of Mexican struggle for independ- 1 

1846. American military occupation. 

1848. Jan. 2^. Discovery of placer gold in quan- 
tities at Sutter's Mill; great inflow of adventiu-ers 
begins (" forty-niners "). 

Feb. 2. Ceded to United States by Mexico; 
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 

1849. hepi. t-Oct. 13. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution ratified by people Nov, 13. 

1850. Sept. 9. Admitted to Union. 

1878. Sept. 2S. Second constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns March 3, 1S79. New constitu- 
tion, ratified by people, in force January 1, ISSO. 

MINNESOTA (32). 

Historical Outline. 

Minnesota is generally known by the nickname of 
*' Gopher State,*' although it is also sometimes 
called the ** New England of the West '* and the 
** Northern-Star State." 

The region of Minnesota, or " Cloudy Water," was 
first visited by La Salle and Hemiepin in 1680. The 
State lies on both sides of the I\Iississippi and its 
territory lay partly in the old Northwest Territory 
and partly in the Lomsiana Purchase. It was or- 
ganized as a territory in 1849 and admitted as a State 
in 1858. In 1862 the State suffered severely from a 
rising of the Sioux Indians, when over 700 settlers 
were massacred. 

The present constitution was adopted in 1858 
and has been frequently amended. Since 1898 
amendments have been difficult, since the process 
requires a majority of all those voting at the election. 
The constitution provides for a governor elected for 
two years, whose e.xecutive power is shared with a 
large number of officiaN and commissioners: a legis- 
lature consisting of a Senate of 67 chosen for four 
years from senatorial districts and a House of Rei>re- 
sentatives of 130 members chosen biennially from 
the same districts in proportion to the population. 
Minnesota was the first State to adopt a compulsory 
pri mary election law applicable to the whole State. 

Politically Minnesota has been Republican with 
pronounced Independent tendencies, although the 
Democrats have occasionally elected the governor. 
In national elections it has been Republican since 
its admission to the Union, with the exception of 
1912. Among its public men have been Secretary 
of the Treasury WiUiam Windom and Sen. Nelson. 

The State has a good public school system, 
both elementary and high, and 6 public normal 
schools. The I'niversity of Minnesota heads the 
State educational system. Other important higher 
institutions are St. Olaf Colle-ge, St. John's Univer- 
sity. Hamlme University, and Carleton and Macales- 
ter colleges. 

Minnesota is chiefly an agricultural State, the 
main crops being oats, corn, and wheat. Live stock 
raising is important and the wool clip is nearly three 
million poimds. It contains immensely valuable 
iron mines, chiefly red hematite in the Mesaba and 
Vermilion ranges. The most important manufac- 
tured product is fioiu-. Minneapolis is one of the 
most important centers of the grain trade, and Du- 
luth is an important port. 

Chronology. 

1609. May 23. Portion east of Mississippi ac- 
tively claimed by Virginia under second charter. 



1670. May 2. Northern portion included in char- 
ter of English Hudson's Bay Company, 

1680. Hennepin's exploration of upper Mississippi 
River. [sippi conveyed to Spain, j 

1762. Nov. 3. French claim west of the Missis- 1 

1763. Feb. 10. French claim east of the Missis- 
sippi ceded to Great Britain : also the northern por- 
tion within present State limits, as a part of Canada. 

1783. Sept. S, Portion east of the Mississippi be- 
comes part of United States by Treaty of Paris. 

1784. March 1. Virginia claim relinquished. 
1787. July 13. Territory Northwest of the Ohio 

organized over portion east of the Mississippi. 
Slavery prohibited. 
1800. May 7. Eastern portion included in In- 
diana Territory. [PYance by Spain. I 
Oct. 1. Retrocession of western portion to I 

1803. April 30. Western portion ceded to 
Tnlted States by Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Western portion included in dis- 
trict of Louisiana, wliich becomes Louisiana Ter- 
ritory (March 3. 1S05) and Missouri Territory 
(June 4, 1812). Territorial government ends with 
admission of Missouri (1821). [nois Territory.! 

1809. Feb. 3. Eastern portion included in Ilii-j 
1814. Dec. 24. Commission to delimitate Cana- 
dian boundary provided by Treaty of Ghent. 
Commission disagrees. Lme finally prescribed by 
treaty of August 9. 1842 (A.shburton Treaty). 
1817-1833. Commission of 1S14 descri!>es northern 
boundary of Minnesota. [gan Territory.! 

1818. April IS. Eastern portion included in Michi-1 
1830. Permanent American occupation begins at 
Fort Snelling. 

March 3. Slavery forbidden in western por- 
tion by Missouri Compromise. [gan Territory.) 
1834. June B-i. Western portion added to Miclii-| 
1836. April 20. Whole region included in Wiscon- 
sin Territorj-. (Territory,! 
1838. June 12. Western portion included in lowal 
1849. March 3. Minnesota Territory organized. 

1857. July 13-.\uq. 29. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Oct. 13. 

1858. May 11. Admitted to Union. 

OREGON (33). 
Historical Outline. 

Oregon, " Sunset State " or ** Webfoot State," 

is part of the area between former Russian and 
Mexican territory along the Pacific Coast, west of the 
continental divide. Between 1543 and 1792 thecoast 
was visited by Spanish, Russian, British, and French 
e-xplorers; and the mouth of the Cohmibia River 
was entered in 1792 by Captain Gray of Boston. In 
1804 Jefferson sent out an e.xploring expedition imder 
Lewis and Clark, which passed up the Missouri and 
thence to its headwaters across the moimtains and 
down the Cohmibia to the Pacific Coast (1805). As 
a result. John Jacob Asfor of New York founded a 
fiu'-trading post at Astoria, 1811. The Hudson's 
Bay Company of fur traders also established posts 
and the region of Oregon was claimed by both Great 
Britain and the United States as far north as 54° 40', 
where Russian Alaska came in. By a treaty of 1818 
the citizens of Great Britain and the United States 
were free to occupy the country. In 1846 the present 
dividing line at 49° was determined. (See fifty-four 

FORTY OR FIGHT and NoRTHWEST BOUND.VRY DiSPCTE, 

in the Dictionary.) 

Oregon was self-organized as a territory in 1843, 
regularly organized by Congress in 1S4S. and ad- 
mitted as a State in 1859. The constitution then 
adopted has been frequently amended, particularly 
in 1902 by the establishment of the initiative and 
referendum for both constitutional amendments 
and the passage of laws. By utilizing this method. 
Oregon has attempted radical solutions for social 
and economic problems. The State, though nor- 
mally Republican, has become Independent in 
State affairs, although it has remained Republican 
(except in 1912) in national aff'airs. 

School attendance is compulsory- for the full 
school term for children 9 to 15 years of age. There 
is a public normal school, an agricultural college 
(Oregon Agricultural College), and the University 
of Oregon, all supported by the State, and several 
smaller colleges, such as Reed College, Pacific Uni- 
versity, and Willamette University, carried on by 
various denominations. 

Oregon has one sixth of the standing timber in 
the United States, and its for&st products are of great 
value. Other products are hay. potatoes, and wheat; 
the wool clip amoimts to 15,000,000 poimds. The 
fisheries of salmon, sturgeon, halibut, and oysters 
are abundant. The mineral resources of the State 
are as yet not higlily developed. The cliief indus- 
tries are lumbering, flour and gristmilling, slaughter- 
ing, and packing. 



Chronology. 



1543. Voyage of Ferrer begins Spanish claim to 

region . [ to region . I 

1778. Voyage of James Cook begins British claim I 

1793. May 11. Discovery of Columbia River by 

Gray begins American claim to region. 



1804-1806. Lewis and Clark Expedition; further 
foundation of American claim. 

1818. Oct. 20. Joint Anglo-American occupation 
of Oregon Country. [Country, l 

1819. Feb. 22. Spain relinquishes claim to Oregon! 
1841. Feb. 18. Volunteer government of Oregon 

settlers; revised July 5, by a provisional constitu- 
tion. 

1843. First large immigration over Oregon Trail, 
accompanied by Dr. Marcus Whitman. 

1846. June Id. Great Britain relinquishes 
claim to region. 

1848. Aug. 14. Oregon Territory organized. 

1857. Aug. 17-Sept. IS. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Nov. 9. 

1859. Feb. 14. Admitted to Union. 

KANSAS (34). 
Historical Outline. 

Kansas, called the ** Sunflower State " and 
" Jayhawlcer State," was fh-st made known by 
Coronado's expedition of 1540, and caine into the 
United States as part of the Louisiana Cession. It 
was still almost an unknown land until the opening 
of the Oregon and Santa Fe trails, about 1835. 

By the Kansas-Nebraslta Act of 1854 part of the 
Louisiana Purchase was organized into the Territo- 
ries of Kansas and Nebraska, with the proviso that 
the inliabitants of these territories should choose for 
themselves whether the territory should be slave or 
free when admitted as a State. 

Immediately emigrants l)egan pouring into the 
country both from the North and the South, each 
section aiming to control the elections. The poUtical 
conflict was so violent that at one time there were 
two governments and two capitals of Kansas, while 
from 1855 to 1857 actual civil war raged. The aid 
given by societies in the North stimulated emigra- 
tion from that section and Kansas was admitted as 
a free State in 1861. There was border warfare 
during the Civil War. 

The constitution (lS59)hashad few amendments, 
the most important being for prohibition (1880) 
and woman's suffrage (1912). The legislature 
consists of a Senate of 40 members elected for four 
years, and a House of Representatives of 125 elected 
for two years. Sessions are biennial. In State 
politics Kansas has been Republican with the ex- 
ception of the Populist movement in 1890. 1892, and 
1894. In national affairs it went Democratic in 
1896 and in the three following State elections. 

The State maintains the University of Kansas, 
with nearly four thousand students, and the Kansas 
State Agricultural College. Among the other insti- 
tutions may be mentioned McPherson, Washbm-n, 
and Southwestern colleges, and Baker, Kansas City, 
and Ottawa universities. 

Kansas is preeminently agricultural, the chief 
crops being com, wheat, and hay. It has also a 
most extensive live-stock industry. There are large 
coal and oil fields and valuable deposits of zinc. The 
chief industries are flour and gristmilling, slaughter- 
ing, manufacturing of railway cars, and zinc smelt- 
ing. 

Chronology. 

1763. Nov. 3. Region, as part of Louisiana, con. 

veyed by France to Spain. 
1800. Oct. 1. Retrocession to France. 

1803. AprU SO. Ceded to United States by 

Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Included in district of Louisiana, 
wliich becomes Louisiana Territory (March 3, 
1805) and Missouri Territory (June 4, 1812). 
Territorial government ends with admission of 
Missoiu"i (1821). [souri Compromise.! 

1830. iMarch 3. Slavery prohibited by Mis-| 

1854. May 30. Ka nsas Terr! tory organized. 
Open to slavery. Settlement begins at once. 

1855. Oct. 23 - Nov. 2. First (free-State) consti- 
tution convention. Ratified by free-State settlers. 
Framed at Topeka. No action under it. 

1857. Sept. 6~Nov. 7. Second (proslaverj-) con- 
stitutional convention. (Lecompton) Constitu- 
tion rejected by people January 4, 1859. 

1858. March 23. Third (free-State) constitutional 
convention meets. Adjourns April 3, 1859. 
Constitution drafted: no action under it. 

1859. July 5-29. Fourth (free-State) constitu- 
tional convention. Constltuttoa ratified by 
people October 4. 

1861. Jan. 29. Admitted to Union. 

WEST VIRGINIA (35). 
Historical Outline. 

West ViRai>n.\. the '* Panhandle State,** till 
1861 part of the colony and State of Virginia, was 
admitted as a separate State in 1S63. Its amended 
constitution (1872) provides for a governor and six 
other executive officials, electe-d once every foxir years, 
and a legislature of 30 senators and 86 represent- 
atives. In recent years the most vital political 
questions related to tax reforms and extension of 
State supervision and regulation. Although the ite- 



206 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



N 



U 



W 



publicans have controlled the State in national elec- 
tions since 1896 (with the exception of 1912), they 
have not had the same success in State politics. 

Elementary education is compulsory between 
the ages of S and 14 and free for all between the ages 
of 6 and 21. There are 7 pubUc normal schools and 
the (State) West Virginia University, West Virginia 
Wesleyan, Bethany, and Davis and Elkins colleges. 

The State has ei tensive mining Industries and 
ranks second for mineral production in the United 
States, the chief products being coal and petroleum. 
In agriculture the chief products are corn, potatoes, 
wheat, and oats. Other important products are 
lumber, leather, iron, steel, and natural gas. 

Chronology. 

1527. Settlement begins in Berkeley and Jeffer- 
son coimties. 

1861. May 23. Western coimties of Virginia vote 
against ordinance of secession. 

June 11-25. Loyal government of Virginia 
formed at Wheeling by a convention. 

Nov. 36. First constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns February 18, 1862. Constitu- 
tion ratified by people April 3, 1862. Amend- 
ment required by Congress for gradual emancipa- 
tion ratified by people March 26, 1S63. 

186.3. June 19. West Virginia admitted to 
Union with gradual emancipation. Approval of 
loyal government of Virginia. May 13, 1862, ac- 
cepted as constitutional requirement. 

1865. Dec. IS. Immediate emancipation effected 
by Federal Thirteenth Amendment. 

1872. Jan. G-.Aprit 9. Second constitutional con- 
vention. New ronstltution, ratified by people, 
in force August 22. 

NEVADA (36). 

Historical Outline. 

Nevada, taking its name from the Sierra Nevada 
moimtains, and called the " Silver State," was a 
remote part of the Spanish territory ceded by the 
Treaty of 1848 with RIexico. Nevada is also known 
as the " Sagebrush State." For a time part of 
Utah Territory, it was organized as a territory in 
1861 and admitted to the Union in 1864. The con- 
stitution provides for a legislature consisting of a 
Senate of 22 elected for four years, an Assembly 
of S3 elected for two years, and a governor elected 
for four years. Nevada has been Democratic since 
1896, with the exception of 1904. The public 
school system was organized by the code of 1911 
and is supported chiefly from a Federal land grant 
of 2,(X)0,000 acres and a tax of ten cents on each 
himdred-doUar valuation. School attendance is 
compulsory between the ages of 8 and 16. The 
(State) University of Nevada is at Reno. 

The mineral resources of the State are chiefly 
gold and silver, but copper, lead, zinc, and tungsten 
are also found. The chief crops are wheat, potatoes, 
and com. In 1917 the wool clip amounted to over 
10,000,000 pounds. 

Chronology. 

1827. Region crossed by Jedediah Smith, first 

white explorer. 
1818. Feb. 2. Region, part of province of New 

Mexico, ceded by Mexico to United States; 

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
1850. Se-pt. 9. Included in Utah Territory: open 

to slavery. [in the DictionaTy) .\ 

1859. Discovery of sliver (see Comstock lode,| 
1861. March 2. Nevada Territory organized. 

1863. November. First constitutional convention. 
Draft constitution rejected by people Jan., 1864. 

1864. July .>,-2S. Second constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution ratified by people Sept. 7. 

Oct. 31. Admitted to Union with territory in- 
creased on the east. [dition of territory.! 

1866. May B. Further eastern and southern ad- 1 

NEBRASKA (37). 
Historical Outline. 

Nebraska is an Indian word which signifies 
" Water Valley," and the State is sometimes called 
the " Blaciiwater State." 

At first a part of French Louisiana, later included 
in Mi.ssouri Territory, and then, after being long imor- 
ganized, Nebraska Territory was formed by the Act 
of 1854 and thrown open to newcomers, who were to 
determine whether it should be a free or a slave terri- 
tory. Nebraska was admitted as a free State in 1 867 . 

The present constitution, that of 187,5, provides 
lor a legislating consisting of 33 senators and 100 
representatives and for a governor, all elected for a 
two-year term. 

Until 1890 the State was generally Republican. 
From 1890 to 1900 there were frequent changes of 
party in the State government. In national politics 
it went Democratic in 1896, 1008, 1912, and 1916. 
The reasons for these frequent alterations are the 
rise of the Populist party and the prominence of 
William Jennings Bryan, tlirice candidate of the 
Pemocratic party for president. 



The school system is founded on the district unit 
and county superintendents manage the rural schools . 
School attendance is compulsory for children be- 
tween 7 and 15 for not less than 12 weeks in the 
school term. There are eleven principal institutions 
of higher learning, the largest of which is the Uni- 
versity of Nebrasi<a; among the others may be 
named Creighton, Nebraska Wesleyan, Cotner, and 
Omaha universities, and Doane and Union colleges. 

Nebraska is one of the most Important agricul- 
tural States, its principal crops being corn, wheat, 
and oats, while beet sugar is also produced. The 
chief industries are slaughtering and flour milling. 

Chronology. 

1762. Nov. 3. Region, as part of Louisiana, con- 
veyed by France to Spain. 
1800. Oct. 1 . Retrocession to France. 

1803. April 30. Ceded to United States by 
Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Included in district of Louisiana, 
which becomes Louisiana Territory (March 3, 
1.805) and Missour Territory (June 4, 1812). 
Territorial government ends with admission of 
Missouri (1821). [Compromise.! 

1820. March 3. Slavery prohibited by Missouri | 
1851. May SO. Nebrasiia Territory organized. 

Open to slavery. 
1862. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1866. Feb. 9. First constitutional convention. 
Constitution ratifled by people June 21. 

1867. March I. Admitted to Union. 

1875. May Il-Junel2. Second constitutional con- 
vention. New constitution, ratified by people, in 
force November 1. 

1919. Preparations for a constitutional convention . 

COLORADO (38). 
Historical Outline. 

Colorado is sometimes called the ** Centennial 
State," from its being admitted in 1876, the year of 
the centennial of United States independence. 

The central Rocky Mountains were known to the 
.Spaniards and were explored by Pike in 1806. Long 
in 1819, and Fremont in the early forties. The 
discovery of gold near Pikes Peak in 1858 brought 
the first Anglo-Saxon settlements to this region ; but 
the difficulties of quartz mining and the discoveries 
in other sections checked immigration. The terri- 
tory was organized in 1861 and the State admitted 
in 1876. 

The constitution adopted in that year has been 
frequently amended, and provides for a General 
Assembly consisting of a Senate of 35 elected for 4 
years, one half retiring every two years, and a House 
of Representatives of 65 elected for two years: also, 
a governor elected for two years. All citizens, male 
and female, 21 years of age are qualified as voters. 
Since 1912 all elective officers and judicial decisions 
are subject to recall. The Initiative and refer- 
endum were adopted in 1910. Colorado is a doubt- 
ful State politically, but may be considered Repub- 
lican with radical leanings tending to the Demo- 
cratic party. 

The public schools are under the supervision of a 
State superintendent and include the State Teach- 
ers College and a normal school. For higher edu- 
cation there are several institutions, among them 
the University of Colorado, the University of Denver, 
Colorado Agricultural College, and Colorado College. 

Denver is the center of the traffic in live stocl< 
west of the Rocky Moimtains, and slaughtering and 
meat packing are the principal industries of the State 
other than mining. The chief agricultural products 
are oats and com, the yield of which is increasing, 
owing to the extension of the irrigation projects. 
Colorado is rich in mineral resources: gold, silver, 
copper, lead, zinc, timgsten, and coal. The State 
abounds in summer and winter resorts and has a 
considerable Eastern population. 

Chronology. 

1762. Nov. 3. Louisiana, covering by natural 
boimdaries region east of crest of Rocky Moun- 
tains, conveyed by France to Spain. 

1800. Oct. I. Retrocession of Louisiana to France. 

1803. April ,50 Ceded to United States by 
Ijiouisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Tills portion included in district 
of Louisiana, which became Louisiana Territory 
(March 3, 1805) and Missouri Territory (Jime 4, 
1812). Territorial government ends with admis- 
sion of Missouri (1821). 

1806. Explorations by Pike. 

1819. Explorations of Long. 

Feb. 22. Treaty with Spain leaves region south 
and west of Arkansas River to Mexico (Texas, 
New Mexico). [Compromise. I 

1820. March 3. Slavery prohibited by Missouri] 
1842. Explorations by Fremont. 

1845. March I. Southeastern portion annexed as 

part of claim of Texas. 
1848. Feb. 2. Balance of region ceded by Mexico: 

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
1850. Sept. 9. Texas transfers her claim to United 



States (see Texas, Chronology). Region west of 
Rocky Mountains mcluded in Utah Territory and 
opened to slavery. Small southern portion in- 
cluded in New Mexico Territory. 

1854. May SO. Portion east of Rocky Mountains 
and New Mexico Territory included in Kansas Ter- 
ritory (south of 40°) and Nebraska Territory. 
Open to slavery. 

1859. Attempted State of Jefferson. 

1861. Feb. 2S. Colorado Territory organized. 

1862. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1864. July 4-11. First constitutional convention. 
People reject draft constitution Septemter 13. 

1865. Aug. S-12. Second constitutional conven- 
tion. People ratify constitution September 5. 
Bill to admit State under the constitution vetoed 
by President Johnson May 15, 1866. 

1875. Dec. 20. Third constitutional convention 
meets. Adjoiuiis March 14, 1876. Constitution 
ratified by people July 1, 1876. 

1876. Aug. 1. Admitted to Union. 

NORTH DAKOTA (39). 
Historical Outline. 

North Dakota, originally part of the Louisiana 
Purchase, was included in the Territory of Dakota 
in 1861 and admitted as a State in 1889. Its con- 
stitution, adopted that year, provides for a Legis- 
lative Assembly consisting of a .Senate of 49 elected 
for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 113 
elected for two years; also, a governor elected for 
two years. The constitution itself is long and con- 
tains many provisions ordinarily found in statute 
laws. In politics the State is normally Republican 
but at various times the Democrats have been in 
control. In the presidential elections of 1912 and 
1916 it supported the Democratic candidates. In 
1918 the candidates of the Nonpartisan League 
controlled the State government and passed many 
economic measures of a radical nature. 

School attendance is compulsory for children 
between 7 and 15, and two sections in each township 
are set aside for the school fund. The chief higher 
educational institutions are the University of 
North Dakota, Fargo and Jamestown colleges, and 
the State Agricultural College. 

Agriculture is the chief pursuit, the principal 
crops being wheat — which in 1918 amounted to 
nearly 100,000,000 bushels — , oats, and barley. Much 
live stock is also raised. 

Chronology. 

1670. May 2. Northeastern portion included in 
charter of English Hudson's Bay Company. 

1743. Verendrye brothers first Europeans to see 
Rocky Mountains; probably from North Dakota. 

1762. Nov. 3. Southwestern portion as part of 
Louisiana (natural boundaries) conveyed by 
France to Spain. 

1763. Feb. 10. Northeastern portion as part of 
Canada ceded by France to Great Britain. 

1800. Ocl.l. Louisiana retroceded to France. 

1803. .4pri7 SO. Ceded to United States by 
Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Included in district of Louisiana, 
wliich becomes Louisiana Territory (March 3, 1805) 
and Missouri Territory (June 4, 1812). Territo- 
rial government ends with admission of Missouri 
(1821). 

1818. Oct. 20. Canadian boundary established 
by treaty with Great Britain. [Compromise.! 

1820. March 3. Slavery prohibited by Missouri I 
1834. June 28. Portion east of tlie Missouri and 
Wliite Earth River added to Michigan Terri- 
tory, [sin Territory.! 
1836. A pril 20. That portion included in Wiscon- 1 
That portion mcluded in Iowa 
[sota Territory. I 
That portion included in Minne-| 
Rest of region included in Nebraska 
Territory. Opened to slavery. 

1861. March 2. Dakota Territory organized. 

1862. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 
1889. July i-Aug. 17. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Oct. 1. 

Nov. 2. Admitted to Union by division of 
the territory. 

SOUTH DAKOTA (40). 

Historical Outline. 

South Dakota, sometimes called the " Blizzard 
State," was admitted as a State in 1880 under such 
a liberal constitution that although it has Ijeen 
amended it has never been completely revised. It 
provides for a governor, elected every two years, and 
a legislature consisting of a Senate of not less than 
25 nor more than 45 members and a House of Rep- 
resentatives of not less than 75 nor more than 135 
members. By amendment, the Initiative and ref- 
erendum are allowed and the direct primary is 
used tor all elective officers. In politics the State 
has been since its admission Progressive once and 
Democratic once. At the rest of the elections it re- 
turned a majority for the Republican electors. 



1838. June 12. 

Territory. 
1849. March 3. 
1854. May 30. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



207 



1838. June IB. 

Territory. 
1849. March S. 
1854. May SO. 



Elenientary and secondarj' education is free to 
all from the ages of 6 to 21 and compulsory between 
the ages of 8 and 16. There are four normal schools, 
a State university (University of South Dakota), and 
South Dakota State College with departments for 
agriculture and mining, t)esidej> Dakota Wesleyan 
University, and Huron and Yankton colleges. 

The Black Hills region is rich In forests of pine 
and hard wood, and there are extensive deposits of 
gold, silver, and tin. South Dakota ranking fourth 
in the production of gold. The chief ocoupatlons 
of the State are agriculture and cattle grazing, and 
the chief industry floiu- and gristniilling. 

Chronology. 

176?. Nov. 3. Eegion, as part of Louisiana, con- 
veyed by France to Spain. 
1800. Ocl. 1. Retroceded to France. 

1803. April SO. Ceded to United States by 

Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 36. Included in district of Louisiana, 
which becomes Louisiana Territory (March 3, 
1805) and Missouri Territory (June 4, 1812). 
Territorial government ends with admission of 
Missouri (1821). ICompromisel 

1830. March S. Slavery prohibited by Missouri] 
1834. JuneSS. Portion east of the Missouri added 
to Michigan Territory. [sin Territory. I 

1836. A pril SO. That portion included in Wiscon- 1 
That portion included in Iowa 
[sota Territory.) 
That portion included in Minne-| 
Portion west of the Missouri in- 
cluded in Nebraska Territory and opened to slavery. 
1861. March S. Dakota Territory organized. 
1863. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 
1883. Sept. 1,-18. First constitutional convention. 
Draft constitution ratified by voters of southern 
half of territory, Nov. 6. No action by Congress 
1885. Sfp(. S-25. Second constitutional conven- 
tion. Draft constitution ratified by voters of 
southern half of territory November 3. No action 
by Congress. 
1889. July 4-.-I11J. 15. Third constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Oct. 1. 
A'ou. 2. Admitted to Union. 

MONTANA (41). 

Historical Outline. 

MoNTAN.v, part of French Louisiana, was organized 
as a territory in 1.S64 and admitted as a State in 
1889. The name |from Latin monfana. fern. of mon- 
lanus mountainousl suggests the situation, one sixth 
of its area being on the western slope of the Rocky 
moimtains and the remainder on the eastern slope, 
extending to the plains of the Mississippi valley. In- 
cluded in the latter are the " Bad Lands," abound- 
ing in iron and coal and producing rich grasses that 
facilitate the rearmg of cattle. The climate is dry 
and bracing and modified by the warm " Chinook " 
winds, which come down from the mountains. 

The valleys are fertile and adapted to raising cat- 
tle, sheep, and horses. Large Irrigation projects 
are being carried out by the Federal government, 
wliich will increase the area of agricultural land 
The chief crops are wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes. 

Montana has great mineral resources and is 
among the three States producing the largest amount 
of copper. Other mineral products include gold, 
silver, and coal. 

The constitution, adopted in 18S9, provides for 
a governor elected for two years with extensive pow- 
ers, a Senate of 43 elected for 4 years, one half re- 
tiring every two years, and a House of Representa- 
tives of 97. 

The University of Montana is the State uni- 
versity.' There are also the Montana College of 
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, the Montana State 
School of Mines, a State normal school, and the Mon- 
tana Wesleyan College. 

Chronology. 

1763. Most of region (east of crest of Rocky 
Mountains) as part of Louisiana (natural bound- 
aries) conveyed by France to Spain. 

1800. Ocl. I. Retrocession of Louisiana to France. 

1803. April SO. Ceded to United States by Lou- 
isiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 28. This portion included in district 
of Louisiana, which becomes Louisiana Territory 
(March 3. 1805) and Missouri Territory (June 4, 
1812) . Territorial government ends on admission 
of Missouri (1821). 

1818. Oct. 20. Boundary with Canada to crest of 
Rocky Mountains settled tiy British treaty. Part 
west of the Rock}" Mountains (Oregon Country) 
in joint occupation with Great Britain. 

1819. Feb. 22. Spain relinquishes claim to Oregon 
Country. [Compromise I 

1830. March S. Slavery prohibited by Missouri I 
1846. June IS. British claim to portion west of the 

Rockies relinquished. [Territory.! 

1848. Aug. H, That portion included in Oregon! 
18S3. March 2. Most of western portion included 

in Washington Territory. 



1864. May SO. Portion east of the Rocky Moim- 
tains included in Nebraska Territory. Open to 
slavery. 

1859. Feb. 14. Rest of western portion included in 
Washington Territory. [kota Territory. I 

1861. March 2. Eastern portion included in Da-I 

1863. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1863. March 3. All of region included in Idaho 
Territory. 

1864. May 26. Montana Territory organized. 

1884. Jan. li-Feb. 0. First constitutional con- 
vention. Draft constitution ratified by peoi)le 
November 4. No action by Congress. 

1889. July 4-Aug. 17. Second constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Oct. 1. 
Nov. S. .Admitted to Union. 

WASHINGTON (42). 

Historical Outline. 

Wabhington. the** Evergreen State," isthemost 
northwestern of the United States. Its coasts were 
visited by the Spaniards, French, English, and Rus- 
sians and its territory was long jointly occupied by 
Great Britain and the United States. In 1S46 the 
region was divided and the present northern iwimd- 
ary line on the 49th parallel was agreed upon , and in 
184.S Wasliington was included in the territory of 
Oregon. Diu-ing the period of joint occupation, 
American pioneers, particularly the missionaries to 
the Indians, eminent among whom was Doctor 
Marcus Whitman, did much to stimulate settle- 
ment from the East. In 1872 the last point of the 
disputed boimdary was settled by the award of the 
German emperor, who substantiated the American 
claim to San Juan Island. Washington was organ- 
ized as a separate territory in 1853 and admitted as 
a State in 1889. 

The constitution provides for a governor elected 
bicimially and a legislature consisting of a House of 
Representatives of not less than 63 nor more than 
99 and a Senate which shall not he more than one 
half nor less than one third of the House of Repre- 
sentati^■es, elected for foiu' years, one half retiring 
biennially. By amendments to the constitution the 
Initiative and referendum and the recall, which 
does not apply in this State to judges, were estab- 
lished in 1912. In politics Washington is normally 
a Republican State, with Progressive tendencies. In 
1912 it voted for Progressive electors, and in 1916 
for Democratic. 

Generous provision has been made by Congress 
and the State for maintenance of schools, attend- 
ance on which is compulsory for cliildren from 8 to 
16. There are four normal schools, a State imi- 
versity (University of Washington) , the Washington 
State College for science and agricultiu-e. Whitman 
and Puget Sound colleges, and Gonzaga University. 

The important agricultural products are wheat, 
barley, oats, and small fruits, the cultivation of 
which has more than doubled within the past two 
years. The State is also rich in timber, in coal 
and other minerals, and the quarries of granite, 
sandstone, and marble are extensive. The most 
important manufactiu-ing industries are sawmilling, 
floiu- and gristniilling. slaughtering and packing, and 
the canning of fish and fruit . The ports of Seattle and 
Tacoma are increasingly important in Oriental trade. 

Chronology. 

1543-1806. Discoveries and explorations (see Ore- 
gon). 

1818. Oct. 20. Joint Anglo-American occupation 
of region (Oregon Coimtry). 

1819. Feb. 22. Spain relinquishes claim to Oregon 
Country. [to region. | 

1846. June 15. Great Britain relinquishes claim] 

1848. Aug. IJ,. Included in Oregon Territory. 

1853. March 2. Washington Territory organ- 
ized. 

1863. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1889. July i-Aug. 23. First constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Oct 1. 
Nov. 11. Admitted to Union. 

IDAHO (43). 

Historical Outline. 

Idaho was a part of the Oregon Coimtry , was organ- 
ized as a separate territory in 1863. and admitted as 
a State in 1890. The name is from the Indian word 
meaning " gem of the moimtains." The constitution 
provides for a governor elected for two years, a legis- 
lature consisting of a Senate of 37 and a House of 
Representatives of 65. Sulfrage was extended to 
women in 1.S96, and women may also hold office and 
perform jury duty. In State administration the 
Republicans have generally controlled, except for a 
period Ijetween 1890 and 1897 when the Democrats, 
Populists, and Free-Silver Republicans were in power. 
In 1904 and 190S the State went Republican in the 
national elections, in 1892 Populist, in all other elec- 
tions Democratic. 

Public education Is provided for by a thorough 
and uniform system of free public common schools, 
high schools, and a unified State university (Uni- 



versity of Idaho). The State also has an industrial 
training school and several sectarian colleges. 

Part of the State is naturally arid, but extensive 
irrigation works now water over 3,0CX),000 acres. 
The most Important crops are wheat, oats, and 
barley. The live-stock interest is active, and the 
wool clip amounted to 15,000,000 pomids in 1917. 
There is a national forest of over 17,(X)0,000 acres 
in the State. 

Chronology. 

1543-1806. Discoveries and explorations (see Ore- 
gon). 

1818. Oct. SO. Joint Anglo-.\merican occupation 
of the region (Oregon Country). 

1819. Feb. 22. Spain relinquishes claim to region. 
1846. June to. Great Britain relinquishes claim. 
1848. Aug. H. Included in Oregon Territory. 

1853. March 2. Portion north of 46° included in 
Washington Territory. 

1863. June 19. Territorial slavery prohibited. 
1863. March 3. Idaho Territory organized. 

1889. July 4-.-iug. S. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution ratified by people Nov. 5. 

1890. July 3. Admitted to Union. 

WYOMING (44)- 
Historical Outline. 

Wyoming is situated in the Rocky Mountain re- 
gion and extends eastwardly into the great plain of 
the Mississippi, though the southwestern portion 
slopes toward the Pacific. Tlie name is corrupted 
from Delaware Indian M'chenu6mijik, meaning 
" upon the great plain." The greater part of the 
State is mountainous, but between the mountains 
there are fertile valleys and table-lands in which rise 
many large streams. Chief among these is the Yel- 
lowstone River, the largest tributary of the Missouri. 
The source of the Y'ellowstone is in Y'ellowstone Lake, 
which lies at an elevation of over 7,000 feet in 
the great Yellowstone National Park. The soil 
of the plains is extremely fertile; irrigation is afforded 
by abundant streams, and the pasturage lasts 
thoughout the year, supporting millions of cattle 
and sheep. The wool clip yields over 26,000,000 
poimds. A large part of the territory is covered with 
valuable timber. Wyoming also has large deposits 
of coal and copper, gold, and some gypsum and 
petroleum. 

The constitution adopted in 1889 provides for 
a governor elected every four years, a legislature con- 
sisting of 27 senators elected for four years, one half 
retiring biennially, and a Hou.se of Representatives 
of 57 elected for two years. Women have voted 
since 1869. In State politics the Repuljlicans gen- 
erally are in the majority, but the Democrats and 
Populists controlled the State from 1892 to 1895. 
In national politics it was Democratic in 1896, 1912, 
and 1916. The system of public education m- 
cludes free schools of every grade and the University 
of Wyoming. 

Chronology. 

1762. Nov. 3. Louisiana, covering by natural 
boundaries region east of Rocky Mountains, con- 
veyed to Spain by France. 

1800. Oct. 1. Retrocession of Louisiana to France. 

1803. April SO. Ceded to United States by 
Louisiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. This portion mcluded in district 
of Louisiana, which Ijecomes Louisiana Territory 
(March 3, 1805) and Missouri Territory (June 4, 
1812). Territorial government ends with admis- 
sion of Missouri (1821). 

1818. Oct. 20. Joint Anglo-American occupation 
of portion of region west of the Rocky Mountains 
(Oregon Country). 

1819. Feb. 22. By treaty with Spain United States 
relinquishes claim to southwestern corner of re- 
gion (south of 42°). Spain relinquishes claim to 
Oregon Country (north of 42°). [Compromise.! 

1830. March 3. Slavery prohibited by Missouri] 

1845. March 1. Small southern portion becomes 
part of claim of Texas. 

1846. June 15. Great Britain relinquishes claim 
to Oregon Country. 

1848. Feb. 2. Balance of region ceded by INIexico. 
Aug. 14. Oregon Country portion included in 

Oregon Territory. 
1850. .Sept. 9. Texas transfers her claim to United 

States. Southwestern comer included in Utah 

Territory and opened to slavery. ' 

1854. MaySO. Portion east of Rocky Moimtains in- 
cluded in Nebraska Territory and opened to slavery. 

1859. Feb. 14. Oregon Territory portion added to 
Washington Territory. 

1861. March 2. Eastern portion north of 43° in- 
cluded in Dakota Territory. Nebraska Territory 
extended over additional southwestern portion. 

1863. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1863. March S. All of Wyoming except south- 
western comer included in Idaho Territory. 

1868. July 25. Wyoming Territory organized. 
Woman suffrage adopted (first instance in United 
States) . 



208 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE STATES. 



1889. .SVpf. 2-SO. First constitutional convention. 
Kl Constitution ratified by people November 5. 

'' 1890. July 10. Admitted to Union. 

UTAH (45). 

Historical Outline. 

Utah, sometimes called the " Mormon State," 
is named from the Ute, or Utah, Indians. The early 

Ospellmg of the name was varied. " Yuta " was 
conunon among the Spaniards: later are found 
" Yduta," " Eutaw," " Utaw," and " Utah." Utah 
lies in the Great Basin of the interior and includes 
the head waters of the Columbia and Colorado rivers. 
It was first e.\plored by the Spaniards, then by fur 
traders and by Fremont. It was part of Spain, then 
of Mexico, till its annexation in 1848; organized as 
a territory in 1850, it was admitted mto the Union 
P in 1896. 

The first permanent settlers were Mormons, led 
from Illinois and Missouri by Brigbam Young in 
1847. He was for a time territorial governor and 
then, as Prophet of the Cliiu-ch of Jesus Christ of the 
Latter-<lay Saints, was the leader of the commimity. 
From 1851 to 1859 there was a conflict between 
the Mormon authorities and the United States 

Q authorities. 

The State consists of two great plateaus, 5,000 feet 
above the sea, divided by the Wasatch Range of 
mountains, with peaks rising up nearly 12,000 feet. 
Many fertile valleys are in a high state of cultivation, 
but in the west all the streams disappear in the desert 
or into the salt lakes, especially Great Salt Lake, 
SO miles long, from 20 to 35 miles wide, and having no 
outlet. It is so salt that no fish can live in it. The 
(^ streams flowing into the lake have been used to irri- 

gate the valleys and plains. Except some pine in the 
moimtains and Cottonwood along the banks of the 
streams, there are no forests. In the northwestern 
part of the State there is good pasturage, and the 
wool clip is over 15,000,000 pounds. The State pro- 
duces a diversity of metals, especially lead, copper, 
silver, gold, zinc, and coal. 

SThe constitution of 1896, while promising toler- 
ation in religion, prohibits polygamous marriages, 
and provides for a Senate of 18 elected for 4 years and 
a House of Representatives of 46 elected for 2 years: 
also, a governor elected for 4 years. Suffrage is 
extended to both men and women. The State is 
doubtful and shifting in politics. Education is 
compulsory between the ages of 8 and 16 and the per- 
centage of illiterates was only 2.5. There is a good 
"^ public school system, a State normal school, the 

(State) University of Utah, and Brigham Young 
College. 

Chronology. 

1540. Spanish explorers, sent out by Coronado, 

reach the Colorado River. 
1776. Franciscan friars, having set out from Santa 

Fe to seek a direct route to the Pacific, reach 

Utah Lake on August 23. 
1806. Fir.st exploration by members of Lewis and 

Clark Kxprilitinn. 
18?4. Discovery of Great Salt Lake by James 

Bridger. 

1847. Settlement by Mormons begins at Salt 
Lake City. 

1848. Feb. 2, Region as part of New Mexico ceded 

V by Mexico to United States; Treaty of Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo. 

1849. March 6-10. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Constitution for provisional state of Des- 
eret put in operation. Continues imtil 1851, when 
superseded legally by territorial government, but 
continued as a fiction by the Mormons. 

1850. Sept. 9. Utah Territory organized. Open 
*«# to slavery. 

''' 1856. March 17-27. Second constitutional con- 

vention. Draft constitution ratified by people. 
No action by Congress. 
1857-1858. Mormon War, due to the attempt of 

Mormons to ignore the Federal government. 
1863. Jan. 20-23. Third constitutional conven- 
tion. Draft constitution ratified by people and 
_. state of Deseret inaugurated. Never recognized 

X by Congress. 

June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 
1869. Woman suffrage adopted. 
1873. Feb. 19-March 2. Fourth constitutional 
convention. Draft constitution ratified by people 
March 18. No action by Congress. 
1883. March 22. Act of Congress forbidding po- 
lygamy in territories. Further act, March 3, 

Y 1887. Mormons profess submission to law. 

' April 10-27. Fifth constitutional convention. 

Draft constitution ratified by people May 22. No 
action by Congress. 
1887. June 30-July 7. Sixth constitutional con- 
vention. Draft constitution, forbidding polyg- 
amy, ratified by people August 1. No action by 
Congress. 
_ 1895. March 4-May S. Seventh constitutional 

^ convention. Constitution, proliibiting polyg- 

amy, ratified by people November 5. 
1896. Jan. 4. Admitted to Union. 



u 



1911. Legislative act puts all cities of first and sec- 
ond class under commission form of government. 
Commissioners to be chosen at the general election, 
1911, and to assume office January, 1912. 

OKLAHOMA (46). 

Historical Outline. 

Oklahoma (from an Indian word meaning "land 
of red men ") was a part of the Louisiana Cession of 
1803. After 1S.30 it was nearly covered with Indian 
Reservations and part of it was popularly, though 
not officially, called the Indian Territory. The ter- 
ritory of Oklahoma was organized in 1890 with pro- 
visions by wliich any member of an Indian tribe 
might obtain naturalization as an American citizen 
and still retain his rights and privileges in tribal 
property. Immigration was rapid: the territory was 
admitted as a State in 1907 and now ranks twenty- 
flrst in population. 

The State is Southern in character and has been 
usually Deniocradc in politics. 

The constitution is extremely long and contains 
many provisions usually found in statutes, particu- 
larly concerning the regulation of corporations. It 
provides for the initiative and referendum* and 
the suffrage was extended to women in 1918. The 
legislature consists of a Senate of 44 elected for 4 
years, and a House of Representatives of not less 
than 99 nor more than 102, elected for 2 years. The 
governor is elected for 4 years. The State has a sys- 
tem of free elementary, high, and normal schools, 
the University of Oklahoma and the Oklahoma Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College. Phillips Univer- 
sity and Henry Kendall College are important insti- 
tutions. Separate schools for the whites and blacks 
are established. 

Oklahoma is rich in agricultural and mineral prod- 
ucts. Its chief crops are com. wheat, oats, fruits, 
and cotton. It has great deposits of coal and oil. 
Lead and zinc mines are also worked. Tlie chief 
manufacturing industries are flour milling and the 
manufacture of cottonseed oil cake. 

Chronology. 

1762. Nov. 5. Region, claimed as part of Louisi- 
ana, conveyed by France to Spain. 
1800. Oct. 1. Louisiana retroceded to France. 

1803. A pril 30. Ceded to United States by Lou- 
isiana Purchase Treaty. 

1804. March 26. Included in district of Louisiana, 
which l>ecomes Louisiana Territory (March 3. 
1805) and Missouri Territory {June 4, 1S12). 

1819. Feb. 22. Treaty with Spain settles boundary 
between Mexico (Texas) and Louisiana Purchase. 

March 2. Included in Arkansas Territory. 

1820. March 3. Slavery permitted by Missouri 
Compromise. 

1820-1840. Indian Territory (unorganized) set 
apart by various Indian treaties as home of the 
Five Civilized Tribes, with local self-government. 
Other Indians also located there. 

1824. May 26. Arkansas Territory reduced in 
size; again May 6, 1828. Territorial government 
over region ends. 

1845. March 1. Western panhandle acquired by 
United States with annexation of Texas. 

1850. Sept. 9. ' Texas cedes her claim to panhandle. 

1862. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1889. April 22. First opening to settlement by 
whites. 

1890. May 2. Oklahoma Territory organized 
out of part of Indian Territory. Later increased 
in size. 

1905. Completion of work of Dawes Commission; 
tribal government in Five Ci\ilized Tribes dis- 
snl\f(i, land allotted in severalty and Indians be- 
come citizens. 

1906. Nov. 20. First constitutional convention 
meets. Adjourns July 16. 1907. Constitution 
ratified by people September 17, 1907. 

1907. Nov. 16. Admitted to Union. 

1915. June 21. "Grandfather clause" of constitu- 
tion disallowed by LTnited States Supreme Court. 

NEW MEXICO (47). 

Historical Outline. 

From the time of its discovery by Europeans the 
territory now included in the State of New Mexico 
was a part of Mexico. The title was gained for the 
United States by the Mexican cessions of 1848 and 
the Gadsden Purchase of 1853- It was organized as 
a territory in 1850. Joint statehood with Arizona 
was proposed in 1906. but rejected by the latter. A 
State constitution was framed in 191 1 but rejected 
by President Taft because of the difficult method 
prescribed for amendment. A new constitution was 
then framed and the State was admitted, 1912. 
The legislature consists of a Senate of 24 members 
and a House of 49 ; a governor is chosen for two years. 
Since admission as a State, New Mexico has been 
Democratic in politics. 

Elementary education is free and compulsory for 
all children between 7 and 14. The use of the Eng- 
lish language is enforced in schools. There are 71 



high schools. 26 Indian schools (maintained by the 
Federal government), three pubUc normal schools, 
ihe New Mexico College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts, School of Mines, and the (State) Univer- 
sity of New Mexico. 

The principal crops are corn, wheat, and pota- 
toes. Irrigation, necessary over wide tracts of fer- 
tile territory, is being extended, and the irrigated 
area is over a million acres. Sheep raising is an 
important industry, and the woo! clip amounts to 
over 18,000.000 poimds. The Sjate has valuable 
mineral resoiu-ces of copper, zinc, silver, and gold. 
The chief manufacturing interests of New Mexico 
are car construction and repairs for railroad compa- 
nies, lumber and timber work, flour and gristmilling. 

Chronology. 

1598. Spanish settlement begins. Province in 
New Spain (Mexico). 

1810. Mexican struggle for independence begins. 

1845. March 1. Portion east of the Rio Grande 
annexed to United States as part of Texas claim. 

1848. Feb. 2. Balance of region ceded by Mexico 
except belt on south ; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 

1850. Sept. 9. Texas transfeis herclaim to United 
States. New Mexico Territory organized. 
Open to slavery. 

1853. Dec. 30. Southern belt ceded by Mexico- 
Gadsden Purchase. 

1862. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1889. Sept. 3-23. First constitutional convention. 
Draft constitution rejected by people Oct. 7, 1890. 

1910. Oct. 3- Nov. 21. Second constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Janu- 
ary 21, 1911. 

1912. Jan. 6. Admitted to Union. 

ARIZONA (48). 

Historical Outline. 

Arizon.4, sometimes known as the " Valentine 
State,** from its having been admitted on Ffhruary 
14, 1912, was Spanish and Mexican from the first 
explorations to the transfer to the United States by 
the Mexican treaties of 1848 and 1853. It was in- 
cluded in the territory of New Mexico in 1850. or- 
ganized as a separate territory in 1S63. refused to 
join with New Mexico as a State in 1906, and sub- 
mitted a constitution for the approval of Congress 
in 1911. The resolution accepting this constitution 
and admitting Arizona was vetoed by President 
Taft because of the radical nature of the constitu- 
tion proposed, his objection being directed chiefly 
against the recall of judicial officers. Arizona with- 
drew the clauses and was admitted in 1912. By con- 
stitutional amendments, ratified in November, 1912, 
Arizona restored the provision for the recall of 
judges and cxtrndod the suffrage to women. The 
const it lit i( in |)ni\ ides for a governor elected for tliree 
years, a Senate of 19 and House of Representatives 
of 35, all elected for two years. The State has been 
Democratic in national and State elections since its 
admission. 

School attendance is compulsory for 12 weeks 
(6 consecutive) for children between S and 14 and 
free for children from 6 to 21. There is a good 
system of elementary schools; there are also high 
schools, two pubhc normal schools, the (State) Uni- 
versity of Arizona, and an agricultural school in 
connection with the latter. 

Arizona, with its dry climate, is not well adapted 
for agriculture; but where irrigation is used the soil 
is productive. The wide pasture lands are favorable 
for the rearing of cattle and sheep, and the wool clip 
of 1917 amounted to nearly 6.000.000 poimds. The 
national forests in the State have an area of over 
11.000,000 acres. The mining indiLstries of the 
State are important, the chief minerals being copper, 
silver, gold, and lead. The most important manu- 
factiu-ing industries are connected with copper smelt- 
ing and refining, car construction and repair, lumber 
and timl>er working, flour and gristmilling. 

The State is a haven for consumptives; the climate 
is dry and healthful. The Grand Canon of the 
Colorado and other scenic wonders attract great 
numbers of visitors. 

Chronology. 

1598-1845. Under Spanish dominion (see New 

Mexico). 
1848. Feb. 2. Region, except southern belt, part of 

province of New Mexico ceded to United States 

by Mexico: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
1850. Sept. 9. New Mexico Territory organized. 

Open to slavery. 
1853. Dec. 30. Southern belt ceded by Mexico; 

Gadsden Purchase. 

1862. June 19. Territorial slavery abolished. 

1863. Feb. 24. Arizona Territory organized. 

1891. Sept. 1-Oct. 3. First constitutional conven- 
tion. Draft constitution ratified by people. No 
action by Congress. 

1910 Oct. 10-Dec. 9. Second constitutional con- 
vention. Constitution ratified by people Febru- 
ary 9, 1911. 

1912. Feb. 14. Admitted to Union. 



TEERITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF UNITED STATES. 



ALASKA. 
Historical Outline. 

Alaska is a vast tract 500. 8S4 square miles in ex- 
tent — greater than the area of the original thirteen 
States — which was acquired from Russia by the 
United States in 1S67. 

The first Europeans to see the wild coast were 
early Spanish voyagers and Drake in 1580. Cook 
and other explorers skirted it from 1778 to 1800. 
The first Russian discoveries were made by Bering 
in 1741. 

The Russian- American Fur Company had a mo- 
nopoly of AJaskan trade, and in 1821 Russia claimed 
ownership south to 51" and also a monopoly of the 
North Pacific Ocean. In 1824 Russia by treaty 
withdrew all claims south of 54° 40'. In 1867 the 
United States purchased the whole enormous area 
from Russia for 87,200.000. The Canadian North- 
west thus became the eastern neighbor of Alaska; the 
boundary was left unsettled till the arbitration of 
1903, under which the Canadians remained shut off 
from the coast north of 54° 40'. 

Alaska is separated from the rest of the United 
States by British Columbia. The island of Attu. 
which is the most westerly of the Alaskan islands, ex- 
tends American territory into the Eastern Hemi- 
sphere and is as many degrees of longitude west of 
San Francisco as San Francisco is west of Maine. 
Including the islands and its deeply indented shores, 
the coast line of Alaska is 20,000 miles. The great 
coast range of mountains is from 50 to 75 miles in 
width, and includes Mount McKinley, 20,300 feet 
in height, the loftiest peak on the continent of North 
America. The extension of tliis chain forms the 
mountainous Aleutian Islands, One third of the 
territory lies witiiin tlie Arctic zone, and the slopes of 
the great range are covered with glaciers that afford 
magnificent scenery. 

'The interior contains grassy plains and groves of 
pines on the mountains. The Yukon River, which 
rises in British Columbia and fiows through Alaska 
into the Pacific, is one of the great streams of the 
world, being navigable by steamers for 2.000 miles 
and having a width of a mile, six hundred miles from 
its mouth. The ciimate of the coast and Pacific 
islands is moderated by the warm Japan Current, 
which produces an immense rainfall. In southwest- 
ern Alaska it rains or snows two days out of three 
throughout the year. At Sitka in midsummer there 
is no darkness, the sun dipping below the horizon 
and immediately rising again. East of the coast 
range the mnter cold is intense, the thermometer 
sometimes falling to 70° below zero. 

By act of Congress in 1912 .VJaska became an or- 
ganized territory, with a legislative assembly con- 
sisting of eight senators and sixteen representatives 
elected biennially, and an appointed governor, meet- 
inp, at the capital. Juneau. 

Religious missions represent almost all denomi- 
nations of the Protestant, Russian, and Roman Cath- 
olic churches. The territory is well supplied with 
sctiools, the Federal government having appropri- 
ated S200,000. The great problem of Alaska is 
transportation, and in 1914 Congress passed an act 
authorizing the president to construct and operate a 
railroad from the coast to the coal deposits, wliich 
are valuable for naval purposes. Alaska is ricli in 
gold deposits in the ulterior on the Yukon River and 
at Cape Nome. Other important industries are the 
seal and salmon fisheries, the annual catch of the 
latter bemg valued at over Sf 14.000,000. 

Chronology. 

1741. Russian discovery. 

1784. Beginning of Russian settlement, follow- 
ing years of trade on the coast. 

1824. April 17. _ Russo- American treaty delimit- 
ing Alaska. Similar Russo-Eritish treaty, Febru- 
ary 28, 1825. 

1867. March 30. Purchase by United States. j 

1884. May 1 7. First organic act ; governor, courts, 
and commissioners. 

1893. Aug. 15. Fur-Sea! Arbitration with Great 
Britain. 

1899. March 3. Criminal code enact^ed. 

1900. June 6. Civil code and district government 
acts. 

1903. Oct. 20. Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute 

settlement. 
1906. May 7. Granted a delegate to Congress. 

1913. Aug. 24. Alaska Territory organized. 

1914. March 13. Act for government railroad. 

CORN ISLANDS. 

Gre.\t .WD Little Corn Islands, off the Atlantic 
coast of Nicaragua, were ceded to the United 
States by treaty signed Aug. 5, 1914, and ratified by 



U.S. Senate Feb. IS. 1916. By this convention, 
Nicaragua grants to United States privileges of canal 
construction, and cedes Little Corn and Great Com 
Islands; also, the right to establish and maintain a 
naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca. Practically ex- 
cludes other nations from constructing a canal across 
Nicaragua. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

A DISTRICT tA^xi miles square, oi>tained by cessions 
of jurisdiction by Maryland and Virginia in 1788 and 

1789, was set apart by Act of Congress in 1790 for 
the seat of government of the United States. Com- 
missioners were appointed by President Washington 
in 1791 to lay out the District, and to secure a proper 
title to the soil. Major L'Enfant, a Frencli engi- 
neer, plamied the city of Wasliington: and the build- 
ings necessary for the accommodation of Congress 
and the President were erected before December, 
1800. The city suffered loss from the occupation 
and burning by the British in 1814. In 1846 the Vir- 
ginia portion of the District was retroceded to that 
State. For many years after its establishment, tlie 
only local government was that of the municipalities 
of Georgetown and Washington, The question of 
slavery and the slave trade in the District caused 
violent controversies down to the act proliibiting the 
trade in 1850: and the act for compensated eman- 
cipation in 1862. In 1871 a territorial govern- 
ment was established, followed in 1874 by a govern- 
ment by a Conunission appointed by the President, 
which is still hi action. There are tlu"ee large insti- 
tutions of learning in the District of Columbia — 
George Washington University, Catholic University 
of America, and Georgetown L^niversity. 

Chronology. 

1790. July 16. Establishment as seat of Federal 
government authorized. 

1800. Nov. 1. President takes up his residence. 

1801. Feb. 27. Act for District government. 
1803. May 3. Act for incorporation of Wash- 
ington. 

18^7-1837. Controversy in Congress over petitions 
for prohibition of slavery in the District of Co- 
lumbia. 

1846. July 9. Portion of District on southern side 
of Potomac retroceded to Virginia. 

1850. iricpi. 20. Slave trade abolished. 

186'i. April 16. Slavery abolished. 

1871. Feb. 21. Act for territorial government; 
charters of Washington and Georgetown annulled. 

1874. June 20. Temporary act for government by 
Commission. [by Commission.! 

1878. June 11. Permanent act for government! 

GUANTANAMO NAVAL STATION. 

By act of Congress (Spooner Amendment) of 
March 2, 1901, prescribing future relations with 
Cuba, requirement was made that that country sell 
or lease to the Unit-ed States land necessary for 
naval stations at pohits to be agreed upon with the 
president. Cuba accepted the requirement in her 
constitution, May 20, 1902. 

The United States government selected Guantd- 
namo Bay in Oriente province at the eastern ex- 
tremity of the island, and on February 16-23, 1903, 
agreement was made with Cuba for indefinite lease 
of the station. The lease was signed July 2, 1903. 
Cuba retains ultimate sovereignty but during period 
of occupation the United -States " shall exercise com- 
plete jurisdiction and control." 

HAWAH. 

Historical Outline. 

The archipelago known formerly as the Sandwich 
Islands, more recently by the native name of Ha- 
waii-Nei or the Hawaiian Islands, and now as the 
Territory of Hawaii, consists of a group of twelve 
islands, of which eight are inhabited and four unin- 
habited, lying in the central North Pacific on the 
crossroads of the ocean. Their entire area is 
6,449 square miles. Tlie largest islands are: Hawaii, 
4,015 square miles; Maui, 728; Oahu, 598: Kauai, 
547; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoo- 
lawe, 69. 

The capital city, Honolulu, on the island of Oahu, 
is 2,400 iniles from Seattle, 2.09S from San Francisco, 
3,310 from Acapulco, 4,685 from Panama, 5,147 from 
Callao. 2,263 from Pagopago, 3.850 from Auckland, 
4,424 from Sydney, 3,387 from Guam. 4.778 from 
Manila. 4.917 from Hongkong, 3.400 from Yokohama. 
This strategic center commands the main routes of 
international commerceand communication between 
the East and West and dominates the development 
of the Pacific. Pearl Harbor, in Oahu. near Hono- 
lulu, is capable of being rendered at relatively small 
outlay one of tlie finest harbors in the world. 



By tradition the islands were discovered by Span- 
ish navigators in the sbcteenth century. Possibly 
shipwrecked Spaniards are responsible for an element 
at the present time showing light complexion and 
other European characteristics. The natives call 
them Kekea and themselves Kanakas. 

The first recorded discovery of the Hawaiian 
group was made by the English Captain Cook, in 
1778; later he provoked the natives, who killed him 
(February, 1779). At tliis time, each island was 
ruled by its own chief. The chief of Hawaii, named 
Kamehameha, was a man of enterprise; he was 
taught by the English explorer, Vancouver, to build 
ships and made an insular fleet of twenty vessels. 
Kamehameha supplied his soldiers with firearms and 
conquered t he neighboring islands, miiting six of them 
in one K<nirnment, Thus he Ixjcarae king of the 
so-called Sandwich Islands. He was succeeded by 
his son, Kamehameha II. To this epoch l:)elongs the 
abolition of idolatry and of the system of taboo. 
Many of the old barbaric customs were interdicted 
from this time forth. 

In 1820 a company of American missionaries 
reache<l Honolulu, and soon the English missionary, 
Ellis, brought with him Cliristian natives from Ta- 
Iiiti (Society Islands). Prom this time there was 
progress in the direction of European ci\ilization. 
The native language was reduced to a written form. 
A little later the missionaries induced the sovereign 
to accept the Ten Commandments as the constitu- 
tion of the kingdom. 

In 1840 Kamehameha III., then ia the seventh 
year of liis reign, granted a new frame of government 
with civil rights to liis people. In 1843 a provisional 
cession of the islands was made to Great Britain, but 
in 1844 the independence of Hawaii was restored, 
and was guaranteed by Great Britain, France, and 
the United States. In 1891 Queen Liliuokalani suc- 
ceeded, but because of evasions and nullifications of 
the constitution, and the granting of opium and lot- 
tery monopolies, the queen was dethroned in 1893 by 
an uprising of the Americans and the better class of 
natives. 

The American minister. Stevens, declared Ha- 
waii imder the protection of the United States, and 
negotiated a treaty of amiexation which President 
Harrison submitted to the Senate. Tliis was with- 
drawn by President Cleveland ; and since Liliuokalani 
refused to grant amnesty the United States inter- 
posed no obstacle to the establishment of t,he Re- 
public of Hawaii m 1894. In 1898. at the time of 
the Spanish American War, the strat^^gic importance 
of the Islands was demonstrated and in tliat year, in 
accordance with the desire of the Hawaiian Gov- 
ernment, the islands were annexed to the United 
States. 

In 1900 Hawaii was organized as the Territory of 
Hawaii. The legislature consists of a Senate of 15 
meml>ers elected for four years with a suffrage based 
on intelligence quahfications, which shuts out many 
of the natives, and a House of Representatives of 30 
elected for two years. The governor and secretary 
are appointed by the president, and a delegate to the 
Congress of the United States is elected biennially. 
By the t.erms of annexation all persons who were citi- 
zens of the Republic of Hawaii became citizens of 
both Hawaii and the United States. Since that 
time citizenship is acquired as in the United States. 

The population is diverse. The native Hawaiians, 
because of a high death rate, are declinmg. as are the 
Chinese tlirough emigration to Cliina. On the other 
hand the Americans and Em-opeans are increasing. 
There were in 1920 about 100,000 Japanese whose 
children are born into citizenship. At present Chi- 
nese, Japanese, and Korean immigration is proliib- 
ited. The total population is somewhat over 250,- 
000. Because of the difficulty of obtaining labor, 
the Department of Labor and Immigration and the 
Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association gave assistance 
to certain classes of immigrants. Thus by 1920, 
12,000 Filipinos had been introduced, and efforts 
are made to attract European emigrants, particularly 
the Portuguese. 

Nearly all the natives are Christian, the Protes- 
tants bemg nearly twice as numerous as the Catho- 
lics, who are chiefly Portuguese. Since 1840 schools 
have been established and education is now free and 
compulsory between the ages of 6 and 17. There 
are several industrial schools and the College of 
Hawaii. Great effort is made to improve and pre- 
serve the health of the inhabitants, the bubonic 
plague has been practically eliminated, and every 
effort is made to control leprosy and tuberculosis, to 
which the natives are peculiarly susceptible. 

The islands are to a great extent moimtainous 
and volcanic, but the soil is highly fertile. Sugar 
and pineapples are the staple products, while coffee, 
honey, liides, wool, tobacco, and rubber are also 
exported, 

(209) 



210 NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES - TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES. 



u 



w 



Chronology. 

1778. Discovery by James Cook. 

179S. Group united under kingship of Kame- 
bameha I. [their labors! 

18?0. March 31. American missionaries begm] 

1810. Constitutional gorernment inaugurated. 

1843. Nov. 2S. Anglo-French agreement to con- 
sider Hawaii an independent state. 

1819. Dee. 20. First treaty witli United States. 

1SS4. Treaty of anne.\ation to United States 
drafted; not acceptable to American government. 

1875. March 18. Reciprocity treaty with United 
States. EarUer treaties (1855, 1867) not ratified 
by Senate. 

1893. Jariuary. Revolution deposes queen. 
Treaty of annexation to United States signed, 
February 14. but withdrawn by President Cleve- 
land, March 9. . 

1894. Independent republic. Officially recognized 
by the United States, August 8. 

1898. July 7. Annexed to United States by 

joint resolution of Congress. (acted. 1 

1900. April 30. Territorial government en-l 

PACIFIC ISLANDS. 
GUAM. 

Guam, the largest of the Ladrone or Mariana 
Islands early discovered by the Spaniards, was cap- 
tured by the United States in the Spanish American 
War and ceded by Spam in tlie subsequent treaty of 
1898 The area is 225 square miles and the popula- 
tion 13 275 ( 1920). Under Spain the island was neg- 
lected, but since 1900 a system of schools has been 
established and improvements introduced m roads, 
agriculture, and sanitation. A government radio 
station exists on the island, which is also m cable 
communication with the rest of the world. The 
only local government is that admmistered by a 
naval officer appomted by the president, who exer- 
cises executive, legislative, and judicial fimctions. 
The harbor of Agana is closed to all vessels except by 
permission of the navy department. The products 
of the island are maize, rice, sugar, and copra; and 
the e.xports amounted to about $100,000 in 1918, 
while the imports were three times as much. 

Chronology. 

1521. Discovered by Magellan. 

1688. Occupied by Spam. 

1898. June 20. Captured by the American crmser 

Charleston while en route to Philippmes. 

Dec. 10. Ceded to United States by Spain. 

Governor is a naval officer, chief of the Naval 

Government of the Island of Guam. 

THE SAMOA ISLANDS. 

In 1722 the Dutch Captain Roggeveen discovered 
the cluster of islands to which, forty-six years after- 
ward, Louis Antoine de Bougainville gave the name 
lies des Navigateurs, or Navigators Islands. He 
•was struck with the way m wliich the natives handled 
their canoes. He found the islanders a gay, light- 
hearted, mdolent people, living under the easiest 
conditions of climate and soil. 

In recent times the name of this group has been 
changed to the native word " Samoa." The cluster 
consists of fourteen islands in all, having a total area 
of 1 070 square miles. The three important ones are 
Savaii. Upolu, and Tutuila. On the northern shore 
of the second named is the harbor of Apia, which, by 
the tripartite agreement of 1879, made by Germany. 
Great Britain, and the United States, was declared 
to be an mternational port of entry, to be controlled 
by the consuls of the three powers named. The 
German party at Apia, instigated by the Hamburg 
commercial house of GodefTroy and Son, took sides 
with one of the national factions imder Tamasese. 
The islands were desired by Germany, Great Brit- 
ain, and the United States — chiefly as a naval 
center. In 1881 the three powers agreed on a 
scheme involving nominal jomt control. The 
scheme was a faihu-e, and the other powers mter- 
fered, and In a conference at Berlm in 1889 it was 
agreed that Samoa should be independent and neu- 
tral, with the right to govern itself, includmg the 
right to elect its king. Apia, the capital of the 
country, was declared to be a municipal district un- 
der control of the consuls resident of the three pow- 
ers, and having its president, as well as chief justice, 
nominated by them. 

In 1899, owing to trouble over the kingship, the 
treaty powers started negotiations for a change of 
government; while these were in progress. Great 
Britain in exchange for other territory ceded to 
Germany all her Samoan mterests. Finally, in 
1900 it was agreed between Germany and the United 
States that the island of Tutuila and all other islands 
of the Samoan group east of 171° west of Greenwich 
should belong to the United States; wliile the 
Islands west of that meridian should belong to Ger- 
many. This group was ceded by Germany to the 
Allies in the treaty of 1919. 

The situation of Samoa on the main lines of 
navigation between San Francisco and Auckland, 



Honolulu and Sydney, Queensland and Panama, 
Tokyo and Cape Horn, gives to the Islands whatever 
world mterest they may claim. They are, though 
smaU, very productive. The local products in- 
clude copra, coffee, cacao, and cotton. The popula- 
tion in American Samoa nimibers S,056, mostly 
pure Polynesians, all of whom have been Chris- 
tianized by the missionaries. There are 69 schools 
on the islands, attended by over a thousand boys 
and nearly a thousand girls. 

The harbor of Pagopago, in Tutuila, one of the best 
small ports in the Paciflc. was ceded to the United 
States as a naval and coalmg station in 1872. The 
United States mamtams a naval station there under 
a commandant who is also governor of the islands. 
The msular officers are appointed by liim and he is 
maker of such regulations as he deems necessary. 
StUl, the customs of the people are not mterfered 
with, and they enjoy practical self-government. 

Chronology. 

1723. Sighted by Dutch navigator Roggeveen. 
1839. Explored by American naval officer Wilkes. 
1853. American commercial agent appointed. 
1873. Feb. 17. United States obtains Pagopago 
Bay (Tutuila Island) as naval station. 

1878. Jan. 16. Treaty with United States. Na- 
val station at'Pagopago confirmed. 

1879. Jan. 24. Treaty with Germany. Naval 
station at Saluafata (Upolu Island). 

Aug. 28. Treaty with Great Britain. Naval 
station at site to be selected. 

1884. Nov. 10. Treaty of Kmg Malietoa with 
Germany; virtual protectorate. Americans 
and British object. Kmg refuses to carry out 

1885. Dec. 31. German reprisals on Malietoa. 
Conference of three powers follows. 

1887. Germany dethrones Malietoa. Civil war 
follows. . 

1889. June H. Tripartite treaty by United 
States, Great Britain, and Germany. Independ- 
ence of islands; jomt supervision. Does not work 
satisfactorily. 

1899. Dec. 2. Second tripartite treaty. Islands 
divided; Tutuila and Manua annexed to United 
States, rest to Germany; Great Britain satisQed 
elsewhere. American islands have a naval gov- 
ernor. 



WAKE ISLAND. 

W.vKE I3L.\ND is a smaU isolated island, bing about 
19 degrees north of the equator almost on the direct 
Ime connecting Honolulu and Manila and not far 
from midway between the two. Its importance lies 
in its use as a cable station between Honolulu and 
Manila. 

1898. July i. United States flag hoisted over 
Wake Island by Gen, F. V. Greene, commandmg 
Second Detachment Philippme expedition. 

1899. Jan. 17. Formal possession taken by an 
American naval offlcer. 

MIDWAY ISLANDS. 

A QROtip of four small, low islands, useful only as 
a cable relay station. 

1867. Aug. 28. Midway (or Brook) Island for- 
mally occupied by American naval commander. 
1903. Becomes a United States cable station. 
1909. Transferred to jurisdiction of HawaU. 

GUANO ISLANDS. 

By an act of Congress passed on August 18, 1856, 
any guano island discovered and occupied by a citi- 
zen of United States shall be considered as apper- 
taming to United States. Provision was made for 
working the deposits imder bond, and relinquish- 
ment after removal of guano. Under the act some 
70 or more islands have been bonded, mostly in the 
Paciflc. notably Baker. Cltristraas. and Howland. 
Many have been stricken from the list. Christmas 
Island was later occupied by the British. 



PANAMA CANAL ZONE. 

The Panam.\ C.\^.\h Zone, a strip of territory five 
miles on either side of the Canal route, was ceded by 
Panama to the United States by the treaty of 
1903. Since the Zone is a military reservation, no 
private individuals or traders are permitted to settle 
or acquire land. The government is vested in a gov- 
ernor appomted by the president for a term of four 
years and in such other officers as the president shall 
deem necessary. 

Tlie Canal has a summit elevation of 85 feet 
above the sea and is 43.8 nautical miles in length, 
includhig its approaches. From shore to shore the 
Canal is about 35 miles long. The channel ranges 
from 300 to 100 feet wide and has a mhiimum depth ' 
of 41 feet. The average time of passage through the 
Canal is from seven to eight hours. It is estimated 
that the maximum traffic capacity of the Canal is 36 
sliips per day. The cost of the construction of the 
Canal to Juiie 30, 1917. was S363,631 ,760. The cost 
of operation and mamtenance in 1917 was $6,000,788. 



The tolls coUected for 1918 were S6,454.198; in 1919 
the tolls were $6,972,000. The Canal was formally 
opened August 15, 1914, and has been m use ever smce 
except when temporarily closed owing to landslides. 
The population of the Canal Zone (1920) was 
22.858, of whom about 7,000 were Americans. 

Chronology. 

1903. Not. 13. By treaty, Panama cedes to 
United States sovereign rights over a zone of 
land five miles wide on each side of the proposed 
canal; excludmg cities of Panama and Colon and 
their harbors. Grant also of such land outside the 
flve-mUe zone convenient for construction and op- 
eration of the canal ; also certam islands m Panama 
Bay. Right to impose sanitarj' ordinances and to 
mamtam order m cities of Panama and Col6n. 

1904. April 28. Act of Congress authorizhig pos- 
session and occupation of the Zone, and such tem- 
porary government as president creates. 

May 9. Instructions issued by president to 
Isthmian Canal Commission, one member of which 
is governor of the Zone, to make all needful rules 
for government and administration of the military, 
civil, and judicial affairs. 
1911. March 4. First appropriation for fortifica- 
tions for the Canal and Zone. 

1913. Aug. 24. Act for operation of Panama 
Canal and government of Canal Zone. Governor 
of the Canal to have full civil control over the 
Zone. " which is to be . . . governed as an adjunct 
of . . Panama Canal." District court created. 

1914. Sept. 2. Treaty with Panama defining 
boundaries of Zone. 

1916. Aug. 21 . Act authorizing president to make 
rules affectmg health, sanitation, quarantme, taxa- 
tion, roads, automobiles, police powers, and immi- 
gration and deportation. 

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

Historical Outline. 

The Philippine Islands (Spanish, Islas Filipinas) 
m the last years of the nineteenth century acquired a 
historical importance greater than had been hitherto 
attached to them. Whfie they had long been cov- 
eted by other European nations, they remained the 
Spanish outpost and naval base m the Paciflc imtil 
the hold of Spam was broken by the destruction of 
her fleet m the East and the capture of Manila in the 
war with the United States (1898). 

Tills extensive arcliipelago was first visited by 
men of the white race in 1521. Magellan on his 
roimd-the-world voyage reached the httle island of 
Homonhon or Malhon. near Samar. The next 
month he was killed by the natives on the island 
of Mactan. He called the group the Islands of 
St. Lazarus. Subsequently, they were called Islas de 
Poniente. and by the Portuguese. Islas de Oriente. 
Villalotaos gave the name Isla Filipina to the island 
of Samar, in honor of Philip II.. of Spam. 

Subsequent explorations made better known the 
number and character of the islands. San Miguel, 
in Cebu, afterwards called The Holy Name of Jesus, 
was founded by Legazpi. From this time the name 
of Plillipphies was used by the Spanish clironiclers. 
The conquest of the islands was effected without the 
cruel methods practiced by the Spaniards m the 
West Indies. 

In 1571, Manila, on the island of Luzon, the larg- 
est and most important member of the group, was 
chosen as the capital of the whole. A Spanish gov- 
ernment was organized. Civil authority of varying 
extent was extended over the archipelago, Includmg 
about 3.140 islands. Most of the islands are small, 
and many are uninhabited; Luzon, the largest, has 
40 969 square miles, being over one thu-d of the total 
land surface of the whole, which has been estimated 
at 1 15,026 square miles. The other prmcipal islands 
are eight; Mmdanao, Samar. Mlndoro, Panay. Leyte, 
Negros. Masbate. and Cebu. All are of volcanic 
origin. 

In Luzon the moimtams rise to the height of 7,000 
feet. Owing to tlie prevailmg moisture and warmth, 
the forests grow to the mountam tops. The region 
is subject to earthquakes, and volcanoes occasion- 
ally burst out. 

The history of the Philippmes under the Spamards 
offers few important events. The native tribes, as 
mdeed the whole population, have often shown a dis- 
position to rebel agamst Spanish authority. The 
islands have been ravaged occasionally by pirates. 

The Philippines have had little connection with 
Western Europe. Once, m 1762, an English arma- 
ment imder Draper and Cornish bore down on Ma- 
nUa and compelled the pajmient of $5,000,000 as a 
ransom. The city was held for nearly two years, but 
was restored according to the terms of the Treaty of 
Paris in 1763 At the outbreak of the war between 
Spam and the United States, in 1898. Commodore 
George Dewey, commanding the Paciflc division of 
the American navy, attacked and destroyed the 
Spanish squadron under command of Admiral Mon- 
tojo in the harbor of Manila, and blockaded Luzon. 
A large division of the American army imder Gen- 
eral Merritt was sent from San Francisco across the 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES. 



211 



Pacific to the assistance of Dewey in the siege of 
Manila, wliidi city was eventually occupied by the 

Americans. 

By tlie Treaty of Paris ((ratified in 1899) the 
Pliilippines were ceded by Spain to the I'nited 
States, Spain receiving sao.CKKJ.OOO for her outlays 
in the islands. President McKiiiley did not at that 
time desire their retention, but saw no other course. 
A long struggle ensued with msurgents led by Eniilio 
Aguinaldo. who proclaimed liimselt president. After 
biscaptiu-ein 1901. resistance to American occupation 
gradually ceased, except for occasional brigandage. 

Organization. 

GoTernment. William U. Taft was appointed 
the first American civil governor in 1901 and ttie 
first Legislative Assembly was convened in 1907. 
By the organic act of the Philippine Islands in 1916. 
autonomous government was e,\tcnded to the islands, 
and the whole arcliipelago was put under ci-\il gov- 
ernment. The governor-general, the vice governor, 
who is also secretary of the Department of Public 
Instruction, the auditor, and the deputy auditor are 
appointed by the United .States. Botli branches of 
the legislative body are elected, the Senate for si.s 
years and the House of Representatives for three; 
and the legislature elects two resident commissioners 
of the Islands to hold office for three years. 

There are six executive departments: Interior, 
Public Instruction, Finance, Justice. Agricultiu-e and 
Natural Resources. Conmicrce and Communic;itii)n. j 
The secretaries of those departments. ai:pi)iiitr(l liy j 
the governor-general with the consent of the Philip- 
pine Senate, are all Filipinos with the exception of 
the secretary of the Department of Public Instruc- j 
tion. The government of the jiroviiice^ and towais 
is closely connected with the Insidar government, 
the olBcials being m part designated from aboie. 

The leading races of the Pliilippines are the Ne- 
gritos, of whom about 2.5,000 remain; the Indone- 
sians or non-Christian tribes, such as the Igorrotes, 
Tinguianes, etc., and the pure Malays, as the Taga- 
logs. Visayans, Bicols. There are also many types 
of mestizos. In course of time a large Malay popu- 
lation has come in, as also have consideraljle num- 
bers of Cliinese immigrants. The Spaniards are 
comparatively few in numbers, and these reside 
chiefiy in Manila, Cavite. Batangas, and a few other 
towns. Negro slavery was never iutrodiKTil into the 
islands, and lience the Afriran clcniciii is wanting. 

According to tlie censu.i of I'.il.^ then' wen- 10.;{.")0.- 
640 people. Of these more than 1 .000.000 were non- 
Cliristian. mostly savages, with many Mohamme- 
dans in the South. The capital. Manila, had 266.943 
inhaljitants in 1914 The .Spanish-Malay mixed race 
furnished most of the leaders. Aguinaldo, the rev- 
olutionary cliieftaitt. is of mixed Cliinese and Malay 
blood. 

The productions of the Philippines are abtmdant 
and valuable. The commercial woods include 
teak, ebony, cedar, gumwoofl. ironwood. sapan wood, 
etc. The breadfruit tree, the coconut, the orange, 
the citron, and the mango grow luxuriantly and yield 
abtmdant fruits. The great staples are coffee, 
sugar, copra, hemp, tobacco, with some rice, wheat. 
com, pepper, ginger, vanilla, cinnamon, cacao, etc. 
The mineral wealth includes gold, copper, cinna- 
bar, iron, saltpeter, sulphur, coal. etc. The tobacco 
products, chiefly the cigars of Manila, are regarded 
by many as the finest in the world. Tlie Bureau of 
Agricidture has done much in improving methods of 
cultivation and of rearing live stock and in combat- 
ing the ravages of destructive insects. 

The total exports in 1919 amoimted to $113,000,- 
000; the total Imports to $107,000,000. When the 
United States entered the islands there were only 120 
mtle.s of narrow gauge railway. There are now 7o~ 
miles of railway, 5,471 miles of insular telegraph 
lines, 9S6 miles of cable. 

Education. The archipelago is divided into 48 
educational divisions in which tliere are over 4,000 
schools with 406 American teachers, over 11,000 
Filipino teachers and over 671,000 pupils. The an- 
nua! expenditure for education is about $.5,000,000. 
Higher education is provided by the state-sujiported 
University of the Pliilippines witli colleges of liberal 
arts, medicine and surgery, engineering, law, veter- 



inary medicine, and agriculture, and with schools of 
fine arts, pharmacy, education, dentistry, and a con- 
servatory of music. The total numlier of students 
in 1918-19 was over 3,000. There is also the Univer- 
sity of Santo Tomds, founded in 1611 and conducted 
by the Dominican Order. 

One of the vexing controversies was that of the 
" Friars' lands." During Spanish rule, immense 
estates, occupied by ttie peasantry, were owned by 
religious orders from Spain, who became obnoxious 
to the Pliilippine Catholic clergy and people in gen- 
eral. This condition of affairs caused contmual 
strife and confusion. By an act of Congress in 1902, 
the Pliilippine government received authority to ac- 
quire l)y purchase the lands in question and to dispose 
of them by sale or lease. The preliminary negotia- 
tions at Rome and Manila were conducted by Gover- 
nor William H. Taft. More than 410.000 acres were 
purchased at a cost of $7. 239. (XX). to be sold or leased 
to their occupants. 

Chronology. 

1521. Discovery by Magellan for Spain. 

1565. Legazpi begins Spanish settlement. De- 
velopment of colony largely work of friars, who 
gain both political and economic supremacy. 

176?. Manila taken by the British. Returned by 
treaty of 1763. 

1896-1897. Revolt imder Aguinaldo. 

1898. May 1. Battle of Manila Bay. Ameri- 
can fleet imder Dewey destroys Spanish fleet and 
holds city at mercy. American troops sent, who 
captm-e city, August 13. [Spain. I 

Dec. 10. Islands ceded to United States byl 

1899-1903; Insurrection under Aguinaldo 
against .\merican control. 

1900. March 16. Commission of five appointed 
by president under war powers to establish and 
administer civil government. 

1901. March 2. Congress authorizes president to 
establish temporary civil goveniment; commis- 
sion continued. [tary governor 1 

July /,. Civil governor (Taft) succeeds mill- 1 
Sept. 1. Three Filipinos added to Commission. 

1902. July 1. Act for civil government. Acts 
of Commission confirmed; bill of rights; governor 
(governor-general) ; future bicameral legislature 
of elected house and commission; two resident 
commissioners in United States. 

1903. Dec. 22- Agreement for purchase of 
" Friars' lands." 

1907. Ocl. 16. First legislature meets 
1909. Aug. 0. Free trade with United States in 
native products, except as to rice and excess quan- 
tity of sugar and tobacco. Exception repealed by 
act of October 3. 1913 
1916. Aug. 20. New civil government (Jones) 
act; increased autonomy as [ireparation for inde- 
pendence. Elected Senate; wide powers invested 
in legislature. 

PORTO RICO. 

Historical Outline. 

Columbus, on his second voyage in 1493. ap- 
proached the coast of an island which the natives 
called Borinquen. but whicli the Spaniards called 
Puerto Rico ("rich harbor"). Ponce de Leon, 
who was governor in 1510. founded the towns of Ca- 
parra. now known as Pueblo Viejo. and San Juan. 
Tlie Spaniards first subdued and tlien virtually ex- 
terminated the native population. The Englisli 
sacked Caparra in 1595. Several other attacks were 
made in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
On the downfall of the Spanish Bourbons. Porto 
Rico like Cuba remained faithful to the dethroned 
dj-nasty, though in 1820 an ineffectual attempt at 
independence was started by a faction. .Sulise- 
quently Porto Rico was ruled by a Spanisli officer, 
who oppressed the people and kept them in t>Tanni- 
cal subjection. Slavery prevailed until abolished in 
1873. 

In the War of 1898 Porto Rico was occupied hy 
an American army under Miles, without serious 
resistance, and its possession was confirmed to tlie 
LTnited States by the Treaty of Paris. At present, 
under the organic-act of 1917, it is an organized ter- 



ritory. American citizensliip is granted to citizens 
of Porto Rico and also a large measure of self-govern- 
ment. The president of the United States appoints 
the governor, but the legislative ftmctions are vested 
in a legislature, composed of two houses chosen by the 
citizens of 21 years or over. The Senate consists of 
19 members and the House of Representatives of 35. 
Porto Rico is represented in Congress by a resident 
commissioner elected for four years. 

In 1899 over 83% of the population could neither 
read nor write; but as a result of the excellent school 
system established by the United States, the per- 
centage of illiteracy was reduced to 65% ten years 
later. The University of Porto Rico is at Rio Pie- 
dras, near San Juan. 

Two tiiirds of the cidtivated land of tiie island is 
devoted to tiie raising of sugar, and a little more 
than a nintli to tobacco, wiiicli ranks second in 
value. Other important ex ports are coffee, bananas, 
pmeapples, oranges, and cotton. Over 1,000 miles of 
highway have beei) constructed on the island and 
about 300 miles of railroad. 

The island has an area of 3.606 square miles, and 
in 1918 had a population of 1,299,809, or 360 per 
square mile. The colored population was about a 
tliird. 

Chronology. 

1508. Spanish settlement begins. 
1898. July. American invasion and occupation. 
Dec. 10. Ceded to United States by Spain. 
Military government continues. 

1900. April 12. Foraker Act for territorial gov- 
ernment; executive coimcil forms upper house of 
legislature. [States begins. I 

1901. July 25. Free trade with contmental United I 
1917. March 2. Territorial Government Act. 

Porto Ricans citizens of United States. Elective 
Senate. Not granted delegate in Congress. 

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS. 

The group of islands consisting of St. Croix. St. 
Thomas, and St. John have at various times been 
held by the Dutch. English. Spaniards, and French. 
In 1733 they passed tmder the control of Denmark 
and were known as the Danish West Indies. An 
effort was made to annex them to the United States 
in 1867, but the Senate refused to ratify. Negotia- 
tions were revived in 1916, and Denmark accepted a 
payment of $25,0(X).000. 

The government is vested in such officers as the 
president shall appoint imtil Congress acts. Sugar 
cane, cotton, fruit, and vegetables are grown on the 
islands and about a million dollars' worth exported 
to the United States. The islands are now officially 
known as the Virgin Islands of the United States. 

The islands have a combined area of 132 square 
miles; and a population of about 26,000, a fourth 
of whom in 1919 were illiterate. 

Chronology. 

1493. Discovered by Columbus and named Virgin 
Islands. [pation of St. Croix. I 

1625. Probable date of Dutch and English occu-| 

1650. Aug. 10. Spanish conquer St. Croix. Soon 
after conquered by French. 

1666. March SO. Possession taken of St. Thomas 
for Denmark. Development l)y Danish West 
India and Guinea Company. [nized in 1716.1 

1684. Danes take possession of St. John. Colo- 1 

1733. St. CroLx purchased by king of Denmark. 

1861. Oct. 24. Treaty of sale of St. Thomas and 
St. John to United States tor $7,500,000. Not 
ratified by American Senate. 

1902. Jan. 24. Treaty of sale of St. Thomas. St. 
Jolin. and St. Croix, with adjacent islands anu 
rocks, to United States for $5,000,000. Danish 
Landsthing refuses to ratify. 

1916. .Aug. 4. Treaty of sale of the islands, called 
Danish West Indies, to United States for $25,000.- 
000. Sale ratified by the United States Senate 
Sept. 7. by Danish plebiscite Dec. 14. and by the 
Danish government Dec. 22. Group renamed 
Virgin Lslands of the United States. 

1917. March S. Act for temporary government as 
president shoidd decide. NavaJ governor ap- 
pointed. 



N 



THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



U 



W 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

George Washington, the first president of the 
United States, as also the first leader of the armies 
of tlie United States, was born in Westmoreland 
County, Virginia, February 22, 1732. His father, a 
planter, died when the son was eleven years old; his 
mother lived to the ago of eighty-two; to her training 
he owed especially his liigh sense of honor and his 
integrity. As a you th, he was methodical in his hab- 
its, active in athletic pursuits, and conversant with 
nature. ^Vlien seventeen years old, he received a 
commission as a public surveyor, having showTi a 
great aptitude for that career. At nineteen years he 
was made adjutant general, with rank of major, in 
ciiarge of one of the militia districts of Virginia. His 
brother, at this time residing a*t Mount Vernon, Vir- 
ginia, died, leaving him in charge of liis estate. 

It was now 1753. The French on the frontier 
were setting up claims to territory already claimed 
by Virginia. Washington was chosen by Governor 
Dinwiddle to go as commissioner with large powers 
to learn the intentions of the French and to warn 
them against encroachment. To accomplish tliis. 
he had to make alone a perilous journey through 
the wilderness. This task he performed success- 
fully and with rare good judgment. The Governor 
decided to take active measures to repel the French 
encroachments, and Washington was appointed lieu- 
tenant colonel in command. He was captured by a 
party of French at Great Meadows — the beginning 
of the French and Indian War. In 1755 he ac- 
companied General Braddock on his ill-fated expedi- 
tion. He was exposed to extreme peril, but escaped 
imhurt. and his courage and ability made hira a 
marked man. He served in this war for three years, 
taking active part in the capture of Fort Duquesne. 
This training gave him an admirable knowledge of 
military affairs. His success had made him the most 
prominent Virginian in military service. 

In 1759, in his twenty-seventh year, he married 
Mrs. Martha Custis, a yoimg widow with two chil- 
dren, who became his charge. Washington never had | 
children of his own. The joint estate which he now 
held was large and required great attention, but he 
could not avoid public life, and he took an active 
part in the discussions which led to the Revolution- 
ary movements. He was a delegate to the first Con- 
tinental Congress, held in 1774, and Patrick Henry 
pronounced him the greatest man on the floor for 
solid information and sound judgment Wlien the 
second Congress assembletl in 177r>, Wa.shington was 
again a member and was placed at once at l lie head of 
important committees. When the hour came and 
the colonies prepared to take up arms in defense of 
their liberties, he was the unanimous choice of Con- 
gress for the post of commander in chief of the 
American armies. 

Washington, profoundly humble, but firm in his 
conviction of the righteousness of the comitry's 
cause, accepted the trust. On the 3d of July, 1775. 
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, he drew his sword as 
commander of the army, beneath or near a great i 
elm, which still stands, now with a commemorative 
stone at its base. He retained command throughout 
the war and proved himself a great general, for he was 
patient and cautious when the odds were against him. 
prompt and bold to act when opportimity offered, 
and held the army in his hand now as a shield to pro- 
tect the coimtry. now as a weapon to strike a decisive 
blow. He commanded men. for he was a born ruler 
and had learned the mastery of him.se!f. 

Wlien the war was over, he resigned his commis- 
sion and retired to private life. He would receive no 
money other than expenses for his public services, 
but at once began to devise plans for increasing the 
resources of Virginia. It was impossible that he 
should be left alone. AVhen a great civil need arose, 
the people again demanded him. He went as a dele- 
gate from Virginia to the convention which framed 
the Constitution, and was its presiding officer. Upon 
the adoption of the Constitution, he was unani- 
mously chosen first president of the United States, 
in 17S9. He went to New York to take the office 
April 30, 1789, and his journey was a triumphal 
procession. In the organization of the government 
under the new Constitution he rendered great serv- 
ice: he made all the first appointments to executive 
and judicial office; he favored sound finance and a 
national bank. AVhen war broke out in Europe in 
1793, he stood firm for neutrality. His skill aided in 
settling controversies with England by the Jay 
Treaty of 1794: and he put down the Whiskj- Insur- 
rection. After four years of service, he was unani- 
mously chosen for a second term. No other man 
stood as he in the hearts of men. and by his firmness, 
his large wisdom, and his singleness of purpose to 
promote only the good of the country, he kept the 
young nation together wiien it was forming, against 



perils from faction within, and perils from enemies 
without. He refused to hold office for a tliird t«rm, 
and wrote a Farewell Address wtiich has the tone of 
a benignant father to liis children. He returned to 
liis coimtry estate, but in 1798, when there was im- 
minent prospect of war with France, the coimtry 
again turned to liim and he was appointed com- 
mander m chief of the army. He immediately be- 
gan the organization of his command, but died at his 
home, December 14, 1799. in the sixty-eighth year of 
his age. His remains were buried in the family tomb 
at Mount Vernon, where they still rest. His death 
was followed by universal mourning. He was pro- 
noimced " first in war, first in peace, and first in the 
hearts of his countrymen," 

Chronology. 

1733. Feb. 22 (N.S.). Born at Pope's Creek, Va. 
1759. Feb. 22. Member of Virginia House of Bur- 



1774. Atig. 1. Member of Virginia Convention. 
Sept. 5. Member of First Continental Congress, 

1775. May 10. Member of Second Continental 
Congress. 

June 17. Commander in chief of Continental 
Army. Takes command at Cambridge, July 3. 

1783. Dec. 23. Surrenders command of army. 

1787. May 25-Sepi. 1 7. President of Federal Con- 
vention. 

1789. April SO. Inaugurated first president of 
United States. Reelected in 1792. Retires. 1797. 

1796. Sept. 19. Farewell Address. 

1798. July 3. Commissioned lieutenant general 
in command of United States Army. 

1799. Dec. lA. Dies at Mt. Vernon. 



JOHN ADAMS. 



John Ad.uvis, who succeeded Washington in the 
presidency, was associated with him as vice presi- 
dent. He was a Massachusetts man, bom October 
30, 1735. In early life he was a schoolmaster and at 
the outbreak of the War for Independence he was a 
lawyer. He took a leading part in the early meas- 
ures of resistance against the British crown, but was 
not at first in favor of separation. He was very in- 
dependent in spirit and courageous in his convic- 
tions, as when he defended the soldiers concerned in 
the Boston Massacre, taking the xmpopular side then 
as often afterward. He was a delegate to the first 
and second Continental Congresses. In the latter 
he proposed the name of CJeorge Washington as com- 
mander in chief, seconded the resolution for inde- 
pendence introduced by Richard Henry Lee, and was 
one of a committee of five, the other members being 
Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- 
man, and Robert R. Livingstone, to draw up a decla- 
ration of independence. 

In February. 1778, he was sent to France as oneof 
the commissioners from the new nation. There he 
made but a short stay, inasmuch as the object of his 
ntission had already been accomphshed by Benjamin 
Franklin, after the siu-render of Burgo>Tie. He re- 
turned to America in August, 1779. In October of 
the same year he was again sent abroad by Congress 
and was active on the commission which negotiated a 
favorable peace with Great Britain (Sept. 3. 1783). 
He was first minister of the United States to Great 
Britain, holding that office till near the close of 1789. 

SimuUaiu'ousiN' with the adoption of the Constitu- 
tion, Aflams H'turned to the United States and was 
elected to the office of vice president. This position 
he held for eight years, and then, upon the retire- 
ment of Washington, was elected president. He 
came into power when the Federal party, to which he 
belonged, was gi\ing way before the Republican 
party, headed by Jefferson. Adams was not in sym- 
pathy with al! the measures advocated by his own 
party, nor did he get on well with Hamilton, another 
able leader of the Federalists. The faction in the 
party and the bitter political feuds throughout the 
coimtry, together with the fierce European war. 
brought the United states into peril. Adams fa- 
vored the Alien and Sedition Acts of 179S, which in- 
jured his party. In the controversies with France, 
including the X Y Z mission of 1797. he stood for 
national honor and for peace, but he accepted the 
Naval War of 1799, Then he hastened the peace of 
1800 with France, 

The rest of his life he spent in retirement at his 
home in Quincy. Massachusetts. His wife, to whom 
he was married in 1764. was a remarkable woman, as 
shown by the letters which passed between them dur- 
ing the separation caused by his public duties. His 
own character is significantly shown in this corre- 
spondence, and is well described in the words of his 
grandson: " Ardent, vehement in support of what he 
believed to be right, easily roused to anger by oppo- 
sition^ but sincere, placable, and generous, when 



made conscious of having committed the slightest 
wrong, there is no individual of his time about whom 
there are so few concealments of either faults or vir- 
tues." He died, July 4, 1826. just fifty years after 
that Declaration of Independence in which he bore 
so important a part. 

Chronology. 

1735. Oct. 30 iN.S.). Born at Braintree (Quincy), 

Mass. 
1755. July 16. Graduated at Harvard College. 

1774. Sept. 5. Member of First Continental Con- 
gress, [ciai Congress! 

Nov. 28. Member of Massachusetts Provin-| 

1775. May 10. Member of Second Continental 
Congress. 

1776. Aug. 2. Signs Declaration of Independence, 
having been a member of the committee which 
prepared it. [France.! 

1778. April s. Reaches Paris as commissioner to | 

1779. Sept. 1. Member of Massachusetts Con- 
stitutional Convention. Drafts the constitution. 

1780. Dec. 29. Minister to the Netherlands. 
1783. Sept. 3. Signs treaty of peace with Great 

Britain at Paris. 
1785. May 14. Mhiister to Great Britam. 
1789. .4pri7 21. Vice president of United States. 
1797. ■ March 4. President of United States. 
1800. Defeated for reelection. Retires 1801. 
18:30. Nov. 15. Member of second constitutional 

convention of Massachusetts. 
1836. July 4. Dies at Quincy, Mass. 

THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

Thomas JEFP-ERaoN, third president, was the son of 
a Virginia planter. He was born in 1743, and edu- 
cated at William and Mary College. His first nota- 
ble public service was in the second Continental Con- 
gress. He succeeded Adams and held the oflBce of 
president for two terms, from 1801 to 1809. The 
Federalists, who had been the special advocates of 
the Constitution and had exercised the chief govern- 
mental power up to this time, had often been in the 
minority and yet had retained control because they 
had a definite policy. Their opponents at first were 
known by the negative title of Antifederalists, and 
their party, if such it may be called, though it was 
never organized, was the Antifederalist party. But 
by degrees the various elements of the opposition be- 
came consolidated into a party with a positive politi- 
cal creed. Tfiis work of consolidation was largely 
the accomplishment of their great leader, Jefferson, 
who named his new party " Republican.** The 
name *' Democratic,*' borrowed from French poli- 
tics, was, however, applied to him and his followers 
by their enemies, and though Jefferson never ac- 
cepted it, the designation stuck and after more than 
thirty years was even adopted by the party itself, 
the official name of which is Democratic-Repubhcan. 
As long as he lived he gave direction to many other- 
wise divergent forces. He was a comparatively 
yoimg man when he drew up the draft of the Decla- 
ration of Independence, in 1776 

He was elected governor of Virginia, an oflBce 
which he held for two years, and was then an efficient 
member of the Congress of the Confederation. He 
was the author of the Federal Ordinance of 1784. and 
also of the system of rectangidar land survej-ing. 
Afterwards, in 1784, he went to Europe as commis- 
sioner to negotiate treaties with foreign powers, in 
connection with Franklin and Adams. When he 
came back to America, in 1789, he was at once in- 
vited by Washington to serve as Secretary of State 
in his cabinet. Wasliington's cabinet was composed 
of somewhat discordant elements, and Jefferson 
often found himself at odds with Alexander Hamil- 
ton, the Secretary of the Treasury, and opposed the 
National Bank. Jefferson was a determined op- 
ponent of centralization. He held that through 
the distribution of powers good go\'ernment is ef- 
fected. His views with regard to tlio Constitution 
looked toward the doctriin' of state sovrrcignty, and 
he was in open sympathy with tiio ]>liilo.sophers of 
the French Revolution, who aimed at the recon- 
struction of society on a more democratic basis. 

His fundamental principle was belief " in the ac- 
curacy of the popular judgment," and he always re- 
lied with firm confidence upon the people. A strict 
constructionist of the Constitution, as president he 
did not allow his theories to interfere with his actions 
when circumstances demanded a certain course. 
WTien vested with responsibility he cared less to show 
himself consistent than to guide the countrj' to suc- 
cessful issues. Important policies were piu*sued dur- 
ing his administration. By the exercise of extreme 
economy the public debt and the expenses of the gov- 
ernment were greatly reduced, but the eflSciency of 
the navj-- was somewhat impaired, though it wor great 
(212) 






• y%»_ ioBOr 




«e% »»&, <Ka. fS i 



HISTORIC BUILDINGS 



1. STATE. WAR, AND NAVr DEPARTMENT, Washington. 

2, TREASURY DEPARTMENT, Washington. 

3 BUNKER HILL MONUMENT, Charlestown, Mass. 

4. FANEUIL HALL. Boston. 



5. WHITE HOUSE, Washington. 

6. CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY. Washington. 

7. OLD SOUTH CHURCH, Boston. 

8. INDEPENDENCE HALL. Philadelphia. 



9. UNITED STATU CAPITOL, Washington. 






Sj'X 



THOMAS JEFFERSON 
i8oi-i8og 



JAiMES MADISON 
1809-1S17 




JOHN ADAMS 
1797-1801 



JAMES MONROE 
1817-1S2S 




THE PRESIDENTS 



OF THE 



UNITED STATES 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 
1825-1829 




MARllN VAN r.UREN 
18J7-1S41 






ANDREW JACKSON 
1829-18J7 







\VM. HENRY HARRISON 
1841-Died 



GEORGE WASHINGTON 
1789-1797 



'^^mm^^smy' 



ZACHARY TAYLOR 
i849-i8so-Died 





JAMES K. POLK 
:S4s-i849 



MILLARD FILLUOR£ 



FRANKLIN PIERCE 





JAMES BUCHANAN 
1857-1S61 




RUTHERFORD B, HAYES 
1S77-1S81 



I "^ 






ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
1861-186S lS6s-Died 




ANDREW 1(.)HNS0N 




ULYSSES S. GRANT 
1869-1877 



THE PRESIDENTS 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 







JAMES A. UAKHELD 
1881-Died 




;R0VER CLEVELAND 
1883-1889 1893-1897 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT 
1901-1909 



WILLLAM H. TAFT 
1909-1913 



WOODROW WILSON 
1913-1921 



BRITISH GOVERNMENT BUILDINGa 




I. HOUSES OF PARLIAMFNT, 

Ottawa. 
a. HOUSE OF COMMONS, 

London. 
». HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, 

London. 



4. PARLIAMENT HOUSE, Cape 
Town. 

5. HOUSE OF LORDS, London 

6. GOVERNMENT BUILDING, 
Pretoria. 

7. GOVERNMENT BUILDING. 
Melbourne. 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



213 



distinction in the war with Algiers. The purchase 
of Louisiana was the most conspicuous and the 
most important act of his administration, but one of 
those acts wliurein Iiis theory and liis practice disa- 
greed. In tlie difficulties arising out of European 
politics and war, Jefferson had been disposed to sym- 
pathize with France rather tlian Great Britain, but 
as president he found liimseLf forced into antagonism 
witli both countries. His remedy, the Embargo Act 
of 1807, proved a failure. 

Declining urgent solicitation to accept a thirtl 
term of office, in 1S09 he returned to private life at 
Monticello in Virginia, near the place of his birth. 
By a singular coincidence he died on the 4th of July, 
1S26. Adams died the same day and being igno- 
rant of Jefferson's death is said to have nttered as his 
last words, "Jefferson survives." The epitaph on 
Jefferson's monument at Monticello. written by liim- 
self, indicates what he esteemed the greatest achieve- 
ments of his life: " Author of the Declaration of In- 
dependence, of the Statute of Virginia for religious 
freedom, and Father of the University of Virginia." 



the peace members of his own party. He was re- 
sponsible for much of the uicapacity in the manage- 
ment of the war whicii led to disasters and defeats 
on land culminating in the British capture of Wash- 
ington. The brilliant successes of the navy, and 
the flnal triumph of arms at New Orleans, however, 
left a feeling of national elation. Madison's own 
character was imimpeached, and at the close of liis 
second term he retired to his farm, leading a ciuiet 
life in the pursuit of his studies, and succeedhag Jef- 
ferson as Rector of the University of Vii^inia. He 
died peacefully June 2S, 1S36. 



Chronology. 



Chronology. 



1790. 


March i 


1797.. 


March 4 


1801. 


March 4 


elected. 1804. 


1819. 


March 2i 


1S26. 


July 4- 



1743. April £(N.S.). Bom at Shadwell, Va. 
1763. April go. Graduated at College of William 
and Mary. [gesses.j 

17G9. May It. Memberof Virginia House of Bur- 1 
1775. June 21. Member of Continental Congres.s. 
177C. Aug. e. Signs Declaration of Independence, 
wliich he liad drafted and which had been agreed 
to in Congi-ess July 4. 
1779. Junet. Governor of Virginia. 
1785. March 10. Minister to France. [States. I 
't. Secretary of State of United! 
Vice president of United States. 
President of United States. Re- 
Retires, 1809. 
'. Rector of University of Virginia. 
Dies at Monticello, Va. 

JAMES MADISON. 

James Madison, fourth presidc^nt, was born March 
16, 1751. His home was at Montpelier. a ham- 
let of Virginia in the neighborhood of Monticello. 
He was a graduate of the College of New Jersey 
(now Princeton University) and came into places of 
responsibility in his native State. As member of the 
Congress of the Confederation he was active in urg- 
ing reforms, and learned the need of a stronger 
Union. In 17S7 he was chosen as one of the Vir- 
ginia delegates to the convention and was author 
of the so-called "Randolph" or "Virginia Plan," 
which became the basis of the Constitution. The 
proceedings of the convention were secret, and pos- 
terity has been dependent for an exact knowledge of 
its doings mainly upon the notes of Madison, which 
he made with great care and diligence. He was one 
of the foremost debaters in the convention, and 
when the result was reached he was an able defender 
of the Constitution in the long public discussion 
which followed before the action of the convention 
was ratified by the people. In connection with 
Hamilton and Jay, he wrote the papers wliich con- 
stitute the series collectively called " The Federal- 
ist," his own part being especially the exposition of 
the powers proposed to be vested in the Union, the 
relations of the general to the State authorities, and 
the separation and mutual dependence of the forces 
of the central authority. 

More, perhaps, than any other man, Madison may 
be regarded as having personal and practical rela- 
tions with the interpretation of the Constitu- 
tion. He was one of the two most prominent fram- 
ers of it; one of the tliree most able defenders of it 
before the people. For eight years imder Jefferson 
he was Secretary of State, and for eight years after- 
ward, namely, from 1809 to 1S17. President of the 
United States. His writmgs on the Constitution are i 
the most important which we have on the subject, 
and he is, perhaps, the greatest of .American consti- , 
tutional statesmen. He never swerved from the po- [ 
sition which he took at the time of the convention, j 
that an adoption of the Constitution by the States j 
was forever oi>ligatory. and in his old age. when \ 
South Carolina held the doctrine of nullification, he 
pronoimced it a " colossal heresy." He parted com- 
pany, however, with Jay and Hamilton quite early 
in his career, and held within strict limits the State 
rights creed, which more than any other man he 
helped to formulate, especially by what are known as 
the Virginia Resolutions of 1798-99. 

Wlien he entered upon the office of president the 
country was on the brink of war with England. Jef- 
ferson and Madison had strauied every point to pre- 
serve peace, and the party wliich they led had suf- 
fered m consequence. A division arose, therefore, in 
the Democratic-Republican party, and a war faction, 
coming to the front, took the lead and brought about 
a change in tactics. The change occurrmg near the 
close of Madison's first term, it was said that his ac- 
ceptance of the change had much to do with his re- 
election. The second war with England was fought 
during his administration, and Madison foimd him- 
self bitterly opposed by the Federalists and also by 



1751. March 16 (N.S.). Born at Port Conway. Va, 
1771. Graduated at College of New Jersey (Prince- 
ton College). 

Member of Virgmia constitutional 

[council. I 

Member of Virginia executive 1 

Member of Continental Congress. 

Member of Federal Convention. 

Member of Virginia Ratification 



177«. May 6. 

convention. 

1778. Ja7i. 14 

1780. March 2( 

1787. May 25 

1788. June 2. 
Convention. 

1789. April I. Member of the House of Repre- 
sentatives. Reelected, 1808. Retires. 1813. 

1801. May 3. Secretary of state of United States. 
1809. March 4- President of United States. 
18?6. Rector of University of Virginia. 
1839. Oct. 5. Member second constitutional con- 
vention of Virginia. 
1836. Junt 28. Dies at Montpelier, Va. 

JAMES MONROE. 

James Monroe, fifth president, was one of the 
yoimgest of the company of men whom wo associate 
together as fomiders of the nation. At the time of 
the Declaration of Independence, Monroe, who was 
bom April 2S. 1758. was eighteen years old. Mon- 
roe was also a Virginian and served with distinction 
undiT Washington during the War for Inilependence 
and in thrCnnt^rfssof thcC^onft'dcration was very ac- 
tive and did his best to pn'Vfnt ilir inipt'nfjing wreck. 

Under the new Federal Government, he was sent 
by Washington as minister to France, where his re- 
l)ublican and antifederal views made him almost a 
partisan of the French government. In the delicate 
relations between England, France, and the United 
States, the presence hi France of a minister so pro- 
nounced in his views was embarrassing, and Monroe 
was recalled, almost m disgrace, but he was after- 
wards sent by Jefferson to France in ISO.S. when he 
completed negotiations with NaiK)leon for the pur- 
chase of Louisiana. Monroe ever after regarded 
the act as one in which he felt special pride. 

In 1806 Monroe was appointed minister to Eng- 
land, with William Pinkney. and negotiated a treaty 
of Commerce (1806), which was not accepted by 
Jefferson. After his return he was governor of 
Virginia, and in 1811 was called by Madison to be 
secretary of state in his admini.stration. an office 
which he held imtU he was elected in 1816 to suc- 
ceed Madison as president. 

He also acted for a time as secretary of war. 
Wlien nommated lor reelection at the end of his first 
term, out of two hundred and tliirty-two electoral 
votes he received all but one. The period of his 
presidency, especially the earlier part, when the 
country had closed the war with Great Britain and 
was entering upon a time of prosperity, was called 
the " Era of Good Feeling," and a journey taken by 
the President through the Northern States called out 
a general expression of harmony. He died on the 
4th of July, 1831. 

Monroe's presidency and his name are especially 
remembered for the enunciation of what is now 
known as the Monroe Doctrine. The allied sov- 
ereigns of Europe proposed to aid Spain in reduc- 
ing to ot:)edience her revolted colonies in America, 
Monroe, in a message to Congress, declared that in 
the war between Spain and her colonies the United 
States woiUd obser\'e strict neutrality, adding: 
" That we should consider any attempt on the part 
of the allied powers to extend their system to any 
portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace 
and safety. . . . But with the governments who 
have declared their independence and maintained it. 
and whose independence we have, on great consider- 
ation and on just principles, acknowledged, we could 
not \iew any interposition for the piu*pose of oppress- 
ing them, or controllmg in any other manner their 
destiny, hy any European power, in any other light 
than as the manifestation of an imfriendl\- flisposition 
toward the United States " In tlip (Ithatt-s which 
afterward sprang up about the me.ssage, the con- 
struction was put upon this declaration wliich it has 
ever since borne, that the American continents were 
thenceforth not to be considered as fields for coloni- 
zation by any European power. The acquisition of 
Florida from Spain and the " Missouri Compromise " 
also signalized Monroe's term. 

Chronology. 

1758. April 2S. Born in Westmoreland Co., Va. 
1774. Enters College of William and Mary. 



1775. Sept. 2S. Commissioned heutenant in Con- 
tinental Army. 

1782. Oct. 21. Meml>er of Virginia House of Dele- 
gates. Later member of Virginia executive council. 

1783. Dec. 13. Member of Congress of Confedera- 
tion. [Convention.! 

1788. June 2. Member of Virginia Ratification! 
1790. Dec. 6. United States senator. 
1794. May 28. Minister to France. 
1799. Dec. 1. Governor of Virginia. 

1803. Envoy to France to negotiate Louisiana 
Purchase Treaty. 

April IS. Minister to Great Britain. 

1804. \ov. 9. Minister to Spam. 

1811. Jt*n. 4. Again governor of Virginia. 

April 6. St'cretary of state of United States. 
Serves as .secrutary of state to March 3, 1817; 
also serves as secretary of war from Sept. 27, 1814, 
to March. 1815. 

1817. March 4. President of United States. Re- 
elected. 1820. Retires, 1825. 

1829. Oct. 6. Member of second Constitutional 
Convention of Virginia. 

1831. Dies at New York. 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 

John Quincy Adams, sixth president, bom July 11, 
1767, son of John Adams, began his public career 
when liis father took him with liim. when he went as 
commissioner to France in 1778. and kept him with 
him during his stay in Europe. The son may be said 
to have grown up in the diplomatic ser\ice, haidng 
been appointed minister, successively, to the Neth- 
erlands, to Portugal, and to Russia. He was chosen 
to the Massachusetts Senate in 1802. and the next 
year to the United States Senate. He accepted a 
position in 1806 as Professor of Rhetoric in Harvard 
University, but though he had strong literary tastes 
as well as legal training, his experience and the pub- 
lic demand made a political life inevitable. In 1809 
Madison appointed him minister to Russia, and in 
1814 he was one of the commissioners who negotiated 
the peace between Great Britain and the United 
States, known as the Treaty of Ghent. Shortly 
afterward he was made minister to Great Britain, 
and upon the accession of President !Monroe he be- 
came secretary of state. In that office he made 
many commercial treaties, and was even more active 
than Monroe in the decisions and phrasing of the 
Monroe Doctrine. 

At the presidential election of 1S24, there were 
foiu* candidates, all of the Democratic-RepubUcan 
party: Adams. Andrew Jackson. William H. Craw- 
ford, and Heiu-y Clay. Since no one received a ma- 
jority of electoral votes, the election devolved upon 
the House of Representatives. That body, voting by 
States, chose Mr. Adams, though in both the popular 
and the electoral vote he had i>een below General 
Jackson. He took the presidential oath in the 
face of strong opposition and was confronted 
tliroughout his entire term by bitter political ene- 
mies. Any measure he might propose was almost 
sure of defeat. Of independent character, strict in- 
tegrity, and unflagging industry, he endeavored faith- 
fully to discharge all the duties of liis office though 
encoimtering in many directions only dislike and 
studied insult. His diary is a valuable commentary 
upon contemporary history, and reveals also in em- 
phatic lines the strong, obstinate, suspicious, but 
high-minded and patriotic, man. 

He left the White House almost unnoticed, when 
his successor entered, and indeed turned his back 
with little show of civility upon Washington and its 
men, retiuriing to his ancestral farm at Quincy, to 
live in retirement. In 1831. however, he was sent 
back to the House of Representatives, to which he 
was constantly reelected until his death. He was 
the most notable member of the House at a very 
stormy period, always defending the right of peti- 
tion, when Congress, on the demand of the pro-slav- 
ery element attempted to enforce a policy of silence. 
Twice the attempt was made to censure and humih- 
ate him for venturing to present petitions bearing on 
slavery. Both times he defied his enemies, and Iiis 
public defense of the right of petition had a great in- 
fluence upon the conscience of the country- His 
death was dramatic, for he fell upon the floor of the 
House when in the midst of a speech. Feb. 23. 1848. 

Chronology. 

1767. July 11. Bom at Braintree (Quincy), Mass. 

1787. July 18. Graduated at Harvard Collie. 

1794. May 30. Minister to the Netherlands. 

1797. Junel. Minister to Prussia. 

1803. May 26. Member of Massachusetts Senate. 

1803. Oct. 21. United States senator. 

1809. June 27. Minister to Russia. 

1814. Dec. 24. Signs treaty of peace with Great 
Britain at Ghent. 

1815. Feb. 23. Mmister to Great Britam. 

1817. Sept. 22. Secretary of state of United States. 

1825. March 4. President of United States. 

1828. Defeated for reelection. Retires, 1829. 

1831. Dec. 5. Member of Hou.se of Representatives. 

1848. Feb. S3. Dies at Washington. 



214 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



ANDREW JACKSON. 

The election, in 1S28. of Andrew Jackson of 
Tennessee as seventh president was in tlie nature of a 
political and social revolution. The preceding presi- 
dents had belonged to well-to-do families of either 
Virginia or Massachusetts and had been connected 
with the public service of the nation. Jackson's 
early life had been passed in hardship and all liis asso- 
ciations were rugged. He was bom in the same year, 
1767, as Jolm Quincy Adams, on the 15th of March, 
in Union County, North Carolina. In 17.S0, at the 
age of thirteen, he volunteered with his brother Rob- 
ert to flght under General Sumter. In 1786 he was 
admitted to the bar, and two years later removed to 
Nashville, Tennessee. He was a member of the 
House of Representatives from Tennessee, 1706-97, 
and in 1797 was appointed to fill a vacancy in the 
United States Senate, which he entered Nov. 22. 
After ills return to his State in 1798 he was elected 
by the legislature to a place on the bench of the 
State supreme court, which he held for six years, and 
during Ills term of office was chosen major general of 
the State militia. He resigned his judgeship in 1804 
and applied himself to business, but in the rough con- 
dition of the country and the times liis fighting ca- 
pacity was a conspicuous part of his reputation, so 
that upon the breaking out of the war with Eng- 
land in 1812 he came forward rapidly as a military 
leader. His great reputation was won by his bril- 
liant and successful defense of New Orleans at the 
close of the war, and from that time he was one of 
the marked men of the coimtry. Three years later, 
in 1818, when engaged in quelling disturbances 
among the Georgia Indians, he disregarded the 
boimdary which separated the United States from | 
the Spanish territory and without orders made a 
raid into Florida. Tliis act produced a momentary 
consternation, but the purchase of Florida shortly [ 
aft«r removed diplomatic difficulties. I 

The people liked a man who was willing to take re- 
sponsibility. The independence and will which Jack- 
son showed made him a popular hero. He was ap- 
pointed governor of Florida in 1821, and then for a 
time sat as senator from Tennessee at Washington. 
At the next general election, in 1824. he was nomi- ] 
nated for the presidency as a Democrat by the legis- 
lature of Tennessee Though he had a slight superi- 
ority of electoral votes there was no choice under 
the Constitution. The House of Representatives 
elected Mr. .\dams As the close of Adams's term 
approached, Jackson was again nominated. He 
was successful by an electoral vote of more than two 
to one. In 18,32 he was again elected for a second 
term by a still larger majority. 

The period was one of sharp political feeling. 
Jackson's own individual and remarkable character 
had much to do wnth the direction taken by events. 
He was peculiarly a man of the people, in the sense 
of deriving his power from their personal rather than 
political adherence. He had a lunited education, 
little experience m statesmansliip, strong prejudices, 
but much common sense, unwavering patriotism, 
and, above all, the inborn genius of leadership in any 
form of conflict. As a Democrat he was opposed to 
what he regarded as loose constructions of the Con- 
stitution: he was especially hostile to the National 
Bank, and liis persistent hostility, which sometimes 
found expression in what his enemies called arbitrary 
measures, led finally to the overtlirow of the bank. 
He was also a passionate lover of the Union, and 
when South Carolina attempted nullification, Jack- 
son's will and promptness interposed at once the force 
of the nation to crush the movement. He had bitter 
enemies and enthusiastic and devoted friends. His 
administration " formed an era in the pohtical, social, 
and industrial history of the United States." 

Like Washington and Jefferson, refusing a tliird 
election to the chief magistracy, he retired at the end 
of his second term and spent the rest of his life in 
quiet at his countryseat. known as The Hermitage, 
in Tennessee. There he died on June, 8, 1845. 

Chronology. 

1787. March IS. Bom at the Waxhaw Settle- 
ment, Union County, N. C. 

1796. Jan. II. Member of Tennessee Constitu- 
tional Convention. 

Dec. 5. Member of House of Representatives. 

1797. Nov. ^2. United States senator. 

1798. Judge of Tennessee supreme court. 
1812. Major general of volimteers. 

1814. A-prill9. Brigadier general in United States 
Army. 

1815. Jan. 8. Battle of New Orleans. 
1818. March. Invasion of Florida. 
1831. March 10. Governor of Florida. 
1823. Dec. 5. Again United States senator. 
1829. March 4. President of United States. Re- 
elected 1832: retires 1S37. 

184S. June S. Dies at The Hermitage. Tenn. 

MARTIN VAN BUREN. 

Martin van Buhen. eighth president, a native of 
New York, was born at Kinderhook, December 5, 



I 1782. His early education was without special ad- 
vantages, but the law was his profession, and he was 
admitted to the bar m 1803. He was early a politi- 
cian and greatly concerned in party affairs. He held 
various offices in his State, being member of the Sen- 
ate, and at one time attorney-general. In 1821 he 
was elected to the United States Senate, and in 1829 
he became governor of the State of New York 
He held tliis office, however, but a short time, for he 
was called b,\- Jackson in the same year to be secre- 
tary of state. Resigning his position as secretary 
of state in the spring of 1831, he was appointed 
minister to England in August and was cordially 
received in London, but within a few weeks learned 
that the senate had failed to confirm his nomina- 
tion. In the political quarrel which followed he 
was nominated to the vice presidency in Jackson's 
second term, and in 1837 succeeded him as president. 
The principal measiu'e of his administration was the 
Subtreasury Plan, which he persistently advocated 
until it was adopted. 

Van Buren was again the candidate of liis party 
when his terra closed, but he failed of reclection. 
Again, in 1844, he was brought forward, but did not 
receive the nomination in the party convention. In 
1.S4S, when the Democratic party was divided upon 
the slavery question. Van Buren secured a nomina- 
tion from the Free-soil party, an act wliich could not 
obtain an election for him, but helped to defeat the 
regular Democratic candidate. He passed the re- 
mainder of his life on his farm, and wrote an " En- 
quiry into the Origin and Coiu-se of Political Parties 
in the United States " He died at Kinderhook, July 
24, 1862. 

Chronology. 

1782. Dec. 5. Bom at Kinderhook, N.Y. 
1808. Feb. 20. Surrogate of Columbia Coimty. 
1812. Not>. S. Member of New York Senate. 
1815. Feb. 17. Attorney-general of New York. 
1821. Aug. 28. Member of the third Constitu- 
tional Convention of New York. 

Dec. 3. United States senator. 
1829. Jan. 1. Governor of New York. 

March '28. United States secretary of state. 
1831. Aug. 1. Minister to Great Britain. 
1833. March 4- Vice president of United States. 
1837. March J,. President of United States. 

1840. November. Defeated for reelection. Retires 
1841. 

1848. Nor. 7. Defeated as Free-soil candidate for 

presidency. 
1862. July 24. Dies at Kinderhook. 

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 

William Henry Harrison, ninth president, was 
bom in Virginia, February 9, 1773, and spent his 
early life on the frontier as an oflilcer of the United 
States army. He was appointed governor of Indi- 
ana Territory, and won his greatest fame in conflicts 
with the Indians, especially at the Battle of Tippe- 
canoe, when he defeated the Indian chief Tecumseh. 
He took an active part in the second war with Great 
Britain, and in 1828 was sent as minister to (Colombia. 
He was nominated by the Wliig party against Van 
Buren in 1840, and a political canvass followed which 
was marked by great enthusiasm on the part of the 
Wliigs. The discontent with the administration, 
wliich financial distress had helped to create, was 
turned to accoimt, and Harrison's personal popular- 
ity was vigorously used in the prosecution of the can- 
vass. All manner of devices were employed, and the 
autumn following the nominations became a general 
political festival. Harrison was elected, but had 
scarcely chosen his cabinet before he died, April 4, 

1841, just a month after his inauguration. He was 
the first president to die in office. 

Chronology. 

Bom at Berkeley, Va. 
Ensign in United States Army. 
Secretary of Territory Northwest 

Territorial delegate to Congress. 
Governor of Indiana Territory. 
Defeats Indians at battle of Tippe- 

Brigadier general in United States 



Feb. 9. 



1773. 

1791. Aug. 10. 

1798. June 28. 
of the Ohio. 

1799. Dec. 2. 

1800. May 13 

1811. Nov. 7. 
canoe. 

1812. Aug. 22 
Army. 

1813. Oct. 0. Battle of the Thames. 

1816. Dec. 2. Member of United States House of 

Representatives . 
1819. Dec. 6. Member of Ohio Senate. 
1825. March 4. United States senator. 
1828. May 24. Minister to Colombia. 
1841. President of United States. 
April 4. Dies at Washington. 



JOHN TYLER. 



On the death of Mr. Harrison, the vice president, 
John Tyler of Virginia, succeeded to the executive 
chair, as tenth president. He was bom on March 
29, 1790, was a member of the State legislature at 
the age of twenty-one, successively held every offlce 



in the gift of his native State, and was candidate 
for the vice presidency in 1836. He had been a po- 
litical opponent of Jackson, but he was, in political 
education, a follower of the extreme State-rights 
Democrat, John C. Callioun. On becoming presi- 
dent, this lack of adherence to the pohtical principles 
of the Whigs who had elected him caused a breach 
with the Whigs, who were headed by Henry Clay. 
All the cabinet resigned except Webster. The 
Democrats did not take the president up and he 
was left isolated. Nevertheless, his administration 
had several successes In diplomacy. Webster 
negotiated the Ashburton Treaty, wliich fixed 
the northeast boundary of the Lunited States for 
2,000 miles. The first treaty with China was se- 
cured (1844): and Calhoim was made secretary of 
state to negotiate a treaty of annexation of Texas, 
which failed of ratification. At the close of his term 
Tyler returned to Virginia where he lived in retire- 
ment until January, 1801, when he presided over the 
peace convention called at Washington to avert civil 
war. A few weeks later he voted for secession in the 
Virginia State Convention. He died in Richmond, 
January 18, 1862, being at that time a member of the 
House of Representatives of the Confederate States. 

Chronology. 

1790. March 29. Bom m Charles City Co., Va. 
1807. July. Graduated at College of William and 

Mary. 
1811. December. Member of Virginia House of 

Delegates. 
1815. Member of Virginia executive coimcil. 



1816. D: 

tives. 
1825. Dec. 1. 
1827. Dec. 3. 
1829. Oct. 5. 



Member of House of Representa- 



Govemor of Virginia. 
United States senator. 
Member of second Constitutional 
Convention of Virginia. 
1841. March 4. Vice president of United States. 
April 6. President of United States by death 
of Harrison. Retires 1845. 
1859. Chancellor of College of WilUam and Mary. 

1861. Feb. 6. President of Peace Conference. 
March 1. Member of Virginia Secession Con- 
vention. 

July 2C 
Congress 

1862. yon. IS. 



Delegate to Confederate Provisional 
Dies at Richmond, Va. 



JAMES KNOX POLK. 

James Knox Polk, eleventh president, was bom in 
North Carolina in 1795, became a member of the 
bar in Tennessee in 1820, was elected a member of 
Congress in 1S25, and three times was elected 
Speaker of the House. In 1844 he was nominated 
for the presidency by the Democrats as a "dark 
horse " because he supported the annexation of 
Texas. Hi^ opponent, Henry Clay, was uncertain, 
and Polk was elected in a very clo^e contest, and 
no president has lieen more successful in gaining his 
ends. He adjusted the Oregon boundary (1846) and 
annexed California and New Mexico. The Mexican 
War, which was prosecuted during his term of offlce, 
was'favored largely by those who saw in it a means 
of strengthening the power of the Southern slavery 
forces. He was a man of industry and ability. He 
served one term, 1845—19, declining to seek renom- 
ination, and died on Jime 15, 1849, tliree months 
after his departure from the White House. 

Chronology. 

1795. Nov. 2. Bom in Mecklenburg Co., N. C. 
1818. June. Graduated at University of North 

Carolina. 
1823. Sept. 16. Member of Tennessee House of 

Representatives. 
1825. Dec. 6. Member of United States House of 

Representatives. 
1835. Dec. 7. 

tives. 
1839. Oct. 14. 
1845. March 4 

tires 1849. 
1849. June IS. 



Speaker of House of Representa- 



Govemor of Tennessee. 
President of United States. 

Dies at Nashville, Term. 



Re- 



ZACHARY TAYLOR. 

Zachary Taylor, twelfth president, was bom in 
Virginia, Septemtier 24, 1784, but liis father early re- 
moved his family to Kentuckj", where frontier life 
developed the military ability of the boy. He 
joined the army in 1807, and Madison, a relative, 
who was then secretary of state, procured him a lieu- 
tenancy. He was engaged in the war of 1812 and 
in wars against the Inchans in Arkansas and Florida, 
and rose through all grades to the rank of brigadier 
general. In 1846 he was in command on the fron- 
tiers of Mexico, and when the war broke out he at 
once crossed the Rio Grande and gained striking vic- 
tories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. His 
success afterward at Monterey, and Buena Vista, 
and his general conduct of the campaign, marked him 
as an able soldier. Though his knowledge of civil 
affairs was slight, and he had had no political train- 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



215 



ing for the otBce, his personal popularity made him 
an available candidate, and he was elected in 184S. 
He held the chair for sixteen months only, dying from 
an attack of cholera. July 9. 1850. 

Chronology. 

;. Born in Orimpe Co.. Va. 

Lieutenant in I'nited .States Army. 
9. Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca 



1784. Sept. i. 
1808. May 3. 

1846. May 8, 

de la Palma 
June 19. 
July IS. 

2, 1847, and 
Sept. ei-s 

1847. Feb. B2 

1849. March 

1850. July 9. 



Major general. 

Thanks of Congress. Also on March 
May 9, 1S4S. 

4. Capture of Monterey. 
-^3. Battle of Buena Vista. 
J. President of United States. 
Dies at Wasliington. 



MILLARD FILLMORE. 

Millard Fillmore, thirteenth president, was 
bom January 7, l.SOO, in Locke, now Summerhill. 
Caj'uga County. New York. His early life was one 
of struggle with adversity, but he succeeded in secur- 
ing a legal education, and was admitted to the bar in 
1827. Buffalo became his home shortly after, and 
he was sent to the State legislature. In 1832 and 
again in 1836 he was elected to Congress, where he 
made his mark, especially as an advocate of tariff 
legislation. In 1844 he was nominated by the 
Whigs to the otBce of governor of New York, but 
failed of election. In 1847 he was elected comp- 
troller of the State, and in 1848 was nominated for 
vice president. By the death of President Taylor. 
July 9. 1S50, Fillmore succeeded to the chair. He 
surrounded himself with an able cai>inet and en- 
deavored to follow a middle course between the po- 
litical extremes. The passage of the Fugitive Slave 
Bill during his administration, and his proclamation 
enforcing it, estranged from him a large section of the 
Whig party. After his retirement from office (1853) 
he spent some time in travel at home and abroad, and 
while at)sent received a nomination for tlie presi- 
dency at the hands of the American party in 1856. 
He obtained the electoral votes of one State, Mary- 
land. He spent the remainder of his life quietly in 
Buffalo, where he died. March 8, 1874. 

Chronology. 

1800. Jan. 7. Bom in Ca>-uga Co , N. Y. 
1829. Jan. 6. Member of New York Assembly. 
1833. Dec. 2. Member of House of Representa- 
tives. 
1818. Jan. 1. Comptroller of New York. 

1849. March S. Vice president of United States. 

1850. July 10. President of United States by death 
of Taylor. Retires 1853. 

1856. Nov. 4. Defeated as American, or Know- 

Nothing, candidate for presidency. 
1874. March 8. Dies at Buffalo, 

FRANKLIN PIERCE. 

Franklin Pierce, fourteenth president, was bom 
In Hillsborough, New Hampshire, November 23, 
1804, and after graduating at Bowdoin College, 
where he and Nathaniel Hawthorne were intimate 
friends, he studied law under Levi Woodbury He 
was member of the State legislature from 1829 to 

1833, and Speaker of the House during the last year, 
when he was elected to Congress and served two 
years in the lower house. In 1836 he was sent to the 
United States Senate, but at the close of his term re- 
turned to the practice of the law. In the Mexican 
War he became a volunteer, was colonel in command 
of a regiment, and saw some service. 

In 1852 Pierce was little known in the country, but 
was nominated by the Democratic Convention on 
the forty-ninth ballot. The Whig candidate was 
General Winfleld Scott, who in the Mexican War 
had g-ained little less distinction than had General 
Taylor. Pierce received more than six sevenths of 
the entire electoral vote and the Whig party rapidly 
disintegrated, never again putting a presidential 
ticket in the field. Though a Northern man. Pierce 
sympathized with the extreme .Southern scliool and 
made Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, his secretary 
of war. As chief magistrate he sliowed little ability 
to direct or command. Personally agreeable, of ele- 
gant manners, most estimable in private life, he 
lacked vigor tor the conduct of affairs and merely 
drifted with the tide. He failed to receive a renonii- 
nation in 1856: and, retiring to private life, died at 
Concord, New Hampshire. October 8. 1869. During 
his term the " Missouri Compromise " was re- 
pealed, opening the Territories to slavery. 

Chronology. 

1804. Nov. £3. Born at Hillsborough, N. H. 

1834. Graduated at Bowdoin College. 

1829. Junes. Member New Hampsliire House of 
Representatives. [Reprasentatives. I 

1833. Dec. g. Member United States House of| 

1837. March 4. United States senator. 

1847. Feb. le. Colonel in United States Army: 
Brigadier general. March 3. 



1850. Non. 6. Member of fifth Constitutional 
Convention of New Hampshire. 

1853. March 4. President of United States. Re- 
tires 1857. 

1869. Oct. S. Dies at Concord. New Hampshire. 

JAMES BUCHANAN. 

J.-uiEs BucH.\N.\N, fifteenth president, was bom in 
Franklin County, Pennsylvania. April 23, 1791. 
graduated at Dickinson College, and in 1812 was ad- 
mitted to the bar. He was a Federalist in the early 
days. He was sent to Congress in 1821 . after serving 
in the State legislature, and was ten years in the 
House. In 1S32 he became minister to Russia 
under appointment of President Jackson, to whose 
party he had attached himself, and in 1834 was 
chosen to the United States Senate, where he sup- 
ported Jackson and Van Buren. He was President 
Poik's secretary of state, and was sent by Pierce 
as minister to England. \\Tiile there he joined 
the ministers to France and Spain in a paper called, 
from the place where it was dra^vn up. the Ostend 
Manifesto, in which an attempt was made to force 
the United States into a policy for the possession of 
Cuba, a policy which formed part of the Southern 
program, since it would erect an additional safe- 
guard to slavery. 

The contest between the slave power and the anti- 
slavery sentiment had been growing in intensity dur- 
ing Pierce's administration, so that at the election in 
1856 a great increase in the popular vote for the anti- 
slavery, now called the Republican, candidate oc- 
curred; but the Democratic party was highly organ- 
ized, and responded, moreover, to the will of t!ie 
South, which was now thoroughly sensible of its de- 
clining power and put forth a strong effort to retain 
control. 

Upon his elevation to the presidency Buchanan 
placed several extreme Southerners in his cabinet. 
and made repeated efforts to annex Mexico and 
Central American territory. After the election of 
Abraham Lincoln, in 1860, Buchanan drifted along. 
His message of December. 1860. tied his own hands 
against taking action by accepting the construction 
of the Constitution under which the South justified 
its preparation to secede. The occupation of Fort 
Sumter by Major Anderson. Dec 26. brought about 
a cabinet crisis. Buchanan was ready to surrender 
the fort, but Jeremiah Black, his secretary of state, 
threatened to resign; Buchanan gave in helplessly 
and from that time to the end of his term. March 4. 
1861. was a chip in the stream. The events which 
followed his administration so plunged him into ob- 
scurity, that his death, in 1868, was almost a surprise 
to people at large, so entirely had he been forgotten 

Chronology. 

1791, April 23. Born near Mercersburg. Pa. 

1809. September. Graduated at Dickinson College 

1814. Dec. 6. Member of Pennsylvania House of 
Representatives. 

1821. Dec. 3. Member of United States House of 
Representatives. 

1832. Jan. 4. Minister to Russia. 

1834. Dec. 15. United States senator. 

1845. March 10. Secretary of state of United 
States. 

1853. April 11. Minister to Great Britain. 

1857. March 4. President of United States. Re- 
tires 1861. 

1868. June 1. Dies at Lancaster, Pa. 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 

Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth president, was bom in 
Hardin Coimty. Kentucky, February- 12, 1809. of ob- 
scure parentage, his father being unable to read or 
write: his early life was passed amid hardships and in 
a slow development of mental power. At nineteen 
he was a common hand on a fiatboat, and for a few 
years was occupied with some of the humbler forms 
of trade, while he patiently sought a qualification for 
higher pursuits. He enlisted in the war against the 
Black Hawk Indians, and was chosen captain of a 
company. After various vicissitudes he seciu-ed ad- 
mission to the bar, and at the same time was urged 
by his friends, who early were won by his strong, kind 
natiu-e, to accept political office. He was a great ad- 
mirer of Henry Clay, and in 1844 took an active part 
in the canvass for his election. He had been identi- 
fied from the beginning with the Whig party, and in 
1846 waselected to Congress. He was not conspicu- 
ous in the House, but in the test questions upon 
slavery was always found upon the side of those who 
would restrict it and obstruct its encroachments. 
He was a candidate for election to the Senate in 1849, 
but was defeated. He was at this time engaged in 
the practice of his profession at Springfield, Illinois. 
As the Whig party melted away and the Republican 
rose, he attached himself to the latter, and was urged 
by his neighbors as a candidate for the vice presi- 
dency with Fremont in 1856. He did not receive the 
nomination, but two years afterward he was chosen 
with great unanimity to confront Stephen A. Doug- 
las, who was the Democratic candidate for United 



States senator. Douglas had a powerful following 
and was one of the most prominent men in the coun- 
try. A memorable campaign followed, when the 
two rivals fought the intellectual battle in a series 
of personal encounters throughout the length and 
lireadth of the State. Lincoln's homely force, his 
unfailing good nature, and the moral strength of his 
convictions made a deep impression upon liis audi- 
tors; he failed of an election by tlie legislature, al- 
though he had secured a popular majority, but the 
contest served to make him more conspicuous and 
trusted. His nomination as president was followed 
by his election, and the mmds of the North turned 
anxiously to the subject of their choice. At first he 
disappointed many : he did not move quickly enough 
for some; he seemed to others un appreciative of the 
gravity of the situation. He came to AVashington in 
secret — because of a plot to assassinate liim. 

Nevertheless, his inaugural address was full of 
power and hope. There was something in his quiet 
manner wliich inspired confidence, and his regard for 
the Constitution was plainly a part, also, of liis in- 
grained sense of the sanctity of the L^nion. He 
sought by practical means t-o hold the South in will- 
ing loyalty to the federal bond, but when the blow 
was struck at Fort Sumter there was no delay in tak- 
ing his place at the head of the armed forces of the 
nation. He addressed himself at once to the 
people; he had confidence in them; and in the four 
years of war which followed he never swerved from 
his faith. The confidence which he reposed in the 
people was returned, at first slowly, at last unre- 
servedly. The history of the war and of the politi- 
cal measures which marked its course is a history 
of President Lincoln's administration. He had no 
arbitrary ways; he assumed no power; but he was 
patiently responsive to all the signs of the time, and 
moved at the head of the people, taking successive 
steps only as he was sure that they were close be- 
hind him. He was never separated from them in his 
solemn leadership, and he turned from time to time 
with words of cheer, of encouragement and trust, 
which were of great importance in fixing confidence 
when it was wavering. 

There was an absence of ceremony often in his 
ways which disconcerted many people, and those 
who knew him slightly thought him often a mere 
jester. The South recognized his power more thor- 
oughly, as the intensity of its hostile expression 
showed. His power grew more impressive as the 
hour came when victory was in the hands of the 
Union, and the President, abating nothing of the 
claims wliich the coimtrj' made, stretched out a hand 
of welcome to the Southern States. He had been re- 
elected by the people to a second term of office, and 
in January, 1865. overtures for peace were received, 
which were immediately responded to by Mr. Lin- 
coln. He sent Mr. Seward to Fortress Monroe to 
meet commissioners from Jefferson Davis, and. in 
^his eagerness, having little regard for what might be 
said, himself followed and joined the conference. 
His action was not misunderstood, and the temper in 
which his mind worked was nobly illustrated by the 
speech which he deUvered upon the occasion of his 
inaugiu-ation. The conference had been fruitless, 
but the fortimes of war were fast solving the prob- 
lem. Mr. Lincoln did not live to see the full con- 
summation of his desires. On the night of Friday, 
April 14. 1865, while sitting in a private box at Ford's 
Theater, Washington, he was shot by an assassin. 
He died the next morning at a few minutes before 
seven o'clock. His death plunged the nation into 
mourning, but it lifted the victim uito the place of a 
mart>T. 

Among the great events of his service besides 
the military and civil combats, were the prohibition 
of slavery in the Territories and District of Colum- 
bia (1863); the Pacific Railroad, Homestead and 
Agricultural College Acts (1862); the preliminary 
and final Emancipation Proclamations (1862, 1863); 
and the Thirteenth Amendment (1865). 

Chronology. 

1809. Fth. 12. Bom in Hardin County, Ky. 

1832. April. Captain in Black Hawk War. 

1834. Dec. 1. Member of lUinois House of Repre- 
sentatives. [Representatives.! 

1847. Dec. 6. Member of United States House of | 

1858. August-October. Joint debates with Doug- 
las'for senatorship. 

1860. Feb. 27. Cooper Union speech at New York. 

1861. March 4. President of United States. Re- 
elected 1864. 

1862. Sept. 22. Preliminary Emancipation Proc- 
lamation. 

1863. Jan. 1. Final Emancipation Proclamation. 
Nov. 19. Gettysburg Address. 

1865. March 4. Second Inaugiu-al Address. 
1865. April 14- Wounded by an assassin. 
April 15. Dies at Washington. 

ANDREW JOHNSON. 

Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, upon the death of 
Lincoln succeeded to the office as seventeenth presi- 
dent. He was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, 



216 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



Q 



Decemt^er 29, 1808, and knew a youth of poverty 
M and privation. Still Iiis natural ability and force 

of character carried him rapidly forward until, in 
1842, he was elected to the House of Representatives 
in Congress, where he remained for ten years as a 
Democrat. In 1853 he was elected governor of his 
State, was reelected in 1855, and in 1857 was sent to 
the United States Senate. As the secession move- 
ment grew imminent, Joluison in speeches both in 
Oand out of Congress opposed it with all his might. 
President Lincoln made him provisional governor of 
Tennessee during the Civil War. He was elected 
with Lincoln on the " Union " ticket in 1864. On 
the death of Lincoln in 1865 he became president 
and reorganized the Southern States on a basis of 
control by the non-slaveholding whites. In 1866 
Congress with its two-thirds Republican majorities, 
substituted a very different plan of reconstruction, 
P and therefore the President was in opposition to 

Congress. Many measures were passed over his 
\'eto, and in 1868 he was impeached and tried be- 
fore the Senate. His opponents lacked one vote of 
the two thirds necessary to convict. His term of of- 
fice expired the next year, and he retired to his home 
in Greenville, Tennessee. He was elected to the 
Senate in 1874, but died July 31, 1875. 

Chronology. 

1808. Dec. 39. Born at Raleigh, N. C. 

1828. Alderman of CreenevilJe, Tenn. 

1830. Mayor of Greeneville. 

1835. Oct. 6. Member of Tennessee House of Rep- 
resentatives. 

1841. Oct. 4. State senator. 

1843. Dec. 4. Member of United States House of 
Representatives. 

1853. Oct. 3. Governor of Tennessee. 

1857. Dec. 7. United States senator. 

1862. March 4- Military governor of Tennessee. 

1865. March 4. Vice president of United States. 
April 16. President of United States by death 
of Lincoln. Retires 1869. 

1868. May 16. Acquitted by Senate in impeach- 
ment trial. 

1875. March 4. Again United States senator. 
July 31. Dies at Carter's Station, Tenn. 

ULYSSES SIMPSON GRANT. 

Ulysses Simpson Grant, eigliteonth president, 
was born April 27, 1822, at Point Pleasant, Oiiio, and 
baptized as Hiram Ulysses, but by an accident was 
entered at the West Point Military Academy, to 
which he had received an appointment, as Ulysses 
S., with the assumption that he bore his mother's 
maiden name of Simpson. The error was perpetu- 
ated and Grant carried through the restof his life the 
significant initials, " U.S." After his course at West 
Point was completed he was ordered with his regi- 
ment to join General Taylor's army in Texas. He 
saw active service as second lieutenant and quarter- 
master in the Mexican War, and after the close of 
the war, when he married, he was ordered to Oregon, 
where he received his commission as captain. In 
1854 he resigned his commission, returned to St. 
Louis, near which he owned a small farm, and in 1859 
went to Galena. Illinois, where he joined his father 
and brothers, who were engaged in the leather trade. 
_ Three days after the call for voUmteers in 1861 a 

V pubHc meeting was held at Galena, at wliich he pre- 
sided. Within a week he was drilling a company of 
volunteers, and on April 23d he went to Springfield 
with them. He was commissioned captain, made 
colonel of the Twenty-first Regiment Illinois Volun- 
teers, and shortly afterward brigadier general, each 
promotion coming to him unsought. From this time 
forward his services form a part of the military his- 

\A/ tory of the war for the Union ; he rose rapidly to the 

highest rank, and was recognized as one of the great 
generals of modern times. He was the com- 
manding officer at Forts Henry and Donelson, at 
Pittsburg Landing, in the Mississippi campaign and 
the Vicl^burg campaign, and at Chattanooga, and 
then was transferred to the Eastern field and was 
made commanding officer of all the Union Armies, 

v^ and received Lee's surrender in 1865. 

J\. The close of the war foimd General Grant the hero 

of the hour. He sought in vain to heal the breach 
between the President and Congress. Before the 
close of Jolinson's term his elevation to the presi- 
dency was clearly foreshadowed. He was nomi- 
nated by the Republican party in May, 1868, and 
elected by a large majority. 

During his first term the great question of Re- 

Y construction of the Southern States was upper- 
most, and the plan formed by Congress, in 1867. was 
carried out. In spite of this drastic legislation, sup- 
ported by troops in the South, gradually the former 
leadership of the South came to the front. The 
Ku-Klux conspiracies and other forces broke up the 
Negro suffrage in many States, in spit« of Grant's 
vigorous resistance and strong coercive acts. 

Z Grant came into collision with Sumner and other 

leading Republicans over his effort to annex the 
whole or part of Santo Domingo: and there was a 
disoi^anizmg atmosphere of corruption among some 



U 



1866. July 25. 

1867. AuQ. 13. 
1869. March -} 

elected 1872. 



of his appointees and personal friends. Hence, 
1S72, a strong anti-Urant feeling was crystallized in 
the Liberal Republican convention, but Grant was 
easily reelected over Horace Greeley. Grant now 
earned the thanks of the nation by the interposition 
of his veto upon a bill which threatened a disastrous 
further expansion of the currency. 

In 1877-79, following his presidency, he visited 
various foreign coimtries and everywhere received 
great attention as the most illustrious living Amer- 
ican. In 1880 he de.sired a third nomination, but 
was opposed by the majority of his party. In his 
last years he regained his former place in Ms coun- 
trymen's estimation when, in heroic endurance of a 
distressing disease, he composed for the benefit of his 
family a personal memoir of liigli merit, and spoke 
memorable parting words of affection for his reunited 
coimtry. He died July 23, 1885. 

Chronology. 

1822. April 27. Born at Point Pleasant, Ohio. 
1843. July 1. Graduated at West Point; second 

lieutenant United States Army. 
1851. July St. Resigns (captain) from army. 

1861. Miy 17 (August 7). Brigadier general of 
volmiteers. 

1862. Feb. 16. Capture of Fort Donelson. Major 
general of volunteers. 

April 6-7. Battle of Shiloh. 

1863. July 4. Capture of Vicksburg. Major 
general in United States Army. 

Nov. 23-25. Battle of Chattanooga. 
Dec. 17. Thanks of Congress. 

1864. March 9. Receives commission as lieuten- 
ant general in command of armies of United 
States. 

May 4-Jutie 13. Wilderness campaign. 

1865. April 9. Receives surrender of Lee's army. 
General in United States Army. 
Secretary of war ad interim. 

President of United States. Re- 
Retires 1877. 
1877-1879. Tour of the world. 
1885. March 3. Restored to army as general on 
retired list. 

July 23. Dies at Moimt McGregor, N. Y. 

RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD HAYES. 

The next occupant of the White House was Ruth- 
erford BiRcH.^RD Hayes, the nineteenth president 
He was born on October 4, 1822, at Delaware, Oliio, 
educated at Kenyon College, Gambier, and at the 
law school of Harvard University. He practiced his 
profession successfully in Cincinnati, and. without 
engaging very closely in politics, made a careful 
study of history and statesmanship. When the war 
for the Union opened he refused a commission imtil 
he had mastered the tactics, but having accomiilished 
this he was made successively major, lieutenant colo- 
nel, colonel, and brigadier general. He saw se- 
vere fighting and kept to his post steadily mitil the 
war closed. He was chosen representative to Con- 
gress during the last year of the war. and, without 
being prominent on the floor, was an indefatigable 
worker. In 1867 he was nominated for governor of 
Ohio, and held the office two terms. Again in 1875 
he was elected after an exciting campaign, and his 
ability and popularity made him a conspicuous can- 
didate for the presidency in 1876. 

In the hot struggle between the supporters of 
Grant and Blaine in the Republican Convention of 
1S76, Hayes was put up as a compromise candidate 
and duly nominated against Samuel J. Tilden, who 
was nominated by the Democrats. The election was 
closely contested, and after its close the country was 
kept in suspense by imcertainty as to the residt, both 
parties claiming the votes of certain States. This 
dispute was settled only by an agreement to refer the 
decision to an Elertoral Commission created by 
Congress, consisting of five senators, five representa- 
tives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. The de- 
cisions of this body, by a vote of eight to seven, gave 
the election to Mr. Hayes, on March 2, 1877, declar- 
ing that he bad received 185 electoral votes to 184 
received by Mr. Tilden, but Ills title was bitterly 
challenged throughout his term of office by many 
persons who considered the decision of the Electoral 
Commission unjust. He annoimced at once his de- 
termination to secure if possible a fair opportimity for 
the people of the South to demonstrate the sincerity 
of their professions of concord , and withdrew the mili- 
tary forces by which alone Republican governors in 
Louisiana and South Carolina could maintain their 
office and authority. In this course he went through 
a nmning fight with Congress over riders attached to 
appropriation bills intended to prevent the carrying 
out of the coercive acts. Personally upright and sin- 
cerely desirous to purify the administration of the 
government from abuses, he was handicapped in his 
best endeavors by the manner of his election. He 
died Januarj' 17, 189.3. 

Chronology. 

1833. Oct. 4. Born at Delaware, Ohio. 

1843. August. Graduated at Kenyon College. 



1845. 


Aug. 27. 


1861. 


June 27. 


1864. 


Oct. 19. 


186S. 


Dec. A. 


fives. 


1868. 


Jan.*lS. 


1876. 


Jan. 10. 


1877. 


March I, 


tires 


1881. 


1893. 


Jan. 17. 



Graduated at Harvard Law School. 

Major of volunteers. 
Brigadier general. 
Member of House of Repre-senta- 



Govemor of Ohio. 
Agam governor (third time). 
President of United States. 

Death at Fremont, Ohio. 



Re- 



JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD. 

Ja-mea Abram Garfield, twentieth president, had 
before his election long been identified with the pub- 
lie service, and was widely known in the coimtry. 
Bom November 19, 1831, in Orange, Ohio, he was 
obliged to struggle with poverty in his early years; 
but he had an imconquerable thirst for knowledge, 
and, in spite of all obstacles, secured a preparation 
for Williams College, from which he was graduated 
in 1856. He chose teachmg for his profession, but 
was sent to the Ohio Senate in 1859, and when the 
war broke out he enlisted and was rapidly promoted 
to the rank of major general. 

In the autimm of 1862 he was elected to Congress 
from the nineteenth Ohio district, and served by re- 
peatiil rirlcctions imtil, near the close of the Hayes 
administration, he was chosen United States senator. 
Before he could take his place, however, he was nom- 
inated and elected president. He entered upon the 
office to wliich he had been elected, March 4, 1881. 
The early days of his administration revealed a rift 
in the Republican party. Senator Conkling of New 
York fought the President over appointments. Be- 
fore Garfield was fairly embarked in the office of pres- 
ident he was shot and mortally wounded on the sec- 
ond of July in a railway station in Wasliington by 
a disappointed office seeker. His death, wliich oc- 
curred at Elberon, New Jersey, did not follow, how- 
ever, imtil September 19, ISSl. His long sickness 
was borne with a courage and serene patience which 
exalted him in the eyes of the people. 



1831. 
1856. 
1857. 
1860. 
1861. 
1863. 



Chronology. 



A'oii. 19. Born at Orange, Ohio. 
Graduated at Williams College. 
President of Hiram Institute, Hiram, Ohio. 
Jan. 2. Oliio State senator. 
Aug. 21. Lieutenant colonel of volimtcers. 
Sept. 19. Major general of volimteers. 
Dec. 7. Member of House of Representatives. 

1880. January. Elected to United States Senate; 
does not take seat. 

1881. March J,. President of United States. 
July 2. Womided by an assassin. 

Sept. 19. Dies at Elberon, N. J. 

CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR. 

The vice president who succeeded President Gar- 
field upon his death, Chester Alan Arthur, twenty- 
first president, was bom at Fairfield, Vermont, Octo- 
ber 5, 1830. He v/as educated at Union College, and 
followed the profession of the law, being admitted to 
the bar in New York City in 1852. During the war 
he was quartermaster-general in New York, a posi- 
tion which he held with signal credit. In 1871 he 
was appointed collector o( the port of New York by 
General Grant. In President Hayes's administra- 
tion he was removed from office on political grounds. 
In 1880 he was nominated for the office of vice presi- 
dent as an Eastern representative of the ticket, was 
elected, and on President Garfield's death at once 
took the oath of office as president. 

His appointments and policies were respectable. 
He faviiri'd for a time Secretary of State Blaine's plan 
for larger infiuence in Latin America. He made a be- 
giiming m carrying out the Civil Service Act of 1882. 
A special effort was made, near the close of his term, 
to make commercial treaties with Spanish-speaking 
countries on both sides of the Atlantic. At the close 
of his term of office he retired to private life. His 
death occurred November 18, 1886. 

Chronology. 

1830. Oct. e. Born at Fairfield, Vt. 

1848. Graduated at Union College. 

1851. Prmcipal of an academy at Nortli Powual, 

Vermont. 
1861. April. Quartermaster-general New York 

militia. 
1871. Dec.l. Collector of the port of New York. 
1878. July 11. Suspended by President Hayes. 
1881. March 4. Vice president of United States. 
Sept. 20. President of United States by death 

of Garfield. Retires 1885. 
1886. A'oii. 18. Dies at New York. 

GROVER CLEVELAND. 

(Stkfhen) Grover Cleveland, twenty-second and 
twenty-fourth president, was born on March IS, 1S37, 
in Caldwell. New Jersey. By the death of his father, 
who was a country minister in New York State, he 
was frlirown on his own resources at the age of six- 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



217 



teen, and went to Buffalo, where he became a clerk 
in a lawyer's office. He was admitted to the bar in 
1859. In 1870 he was elected sheriff of Erie County, 
but resumed the practice of law after serving his 
term of three jears. In 1881 lie was elected mayor of 
Buffalo, and the next year was chosen by a very large 
majority governor of New York. He discharged the 
duties of those offices with emment success. Repre- 
senting the reform element in politics, he was nomi- 
nated in 1884 for the presidency by the National 
Democratic Convention. The Republicans named 
James G. Blaine, who had been secretary of state 
under President Garfield and a prominent candidate 
for the nomination at the two preceding conventions, 
Mr. Cleveland was elected president after a close 
and angry contest. 

As president. Cleveland showed the qualities of 
courage and capacity. He carried the Civil 
Service Act further forward. He made himself 
cliieftam of the Democratic party. 

Near the close of his adTiiinisi ration Mr Cleveland 
made a strong appeal to < 'ori^'nss and 1 iirnu^'li Con- 
gress to the people, to providr for the oxtinction of 
a large surplus in the Treasury, and to prevent the 
accumulation of such a surplus, by a corresponding 
reduction in the imposition of duties on imports. 
The Democratic party renominated Cleveland, but 
he was defeated, and the Republican candidates. 
Harrison and Morton, were chosen. 

Mr. Cleveland returned to the practice of law, this 
time in New York City. In the presidential cam- 
paign of 1892 he was nominated again, against 
ttie protests of Tammany Democracy. Harri- 
son was renominated against Iiim. 

The issue in this campaign turned largely upon the 
question of maintaining a higti protective 
tariff. The Democratic party was successful, and 
Mr. Cleveland was elected. 

Early in his second administration he called a spe- 
cial session of Congress for the purpose of securing 
legislation which should repeal that portion of the 
Sherman Act of 1890 relating to the compulsory 
purchase of silver. The policy of tariff reduction 
was embodied in the Wilson Bill, which was passed 
by the House, but was so materially altered in the 
Senate in the direction of higher protection that 
President Cleveland declared it a betrayal of party 
pledges and reluctantly allowed it to become a law 
without his signature. The President maintained 
the redemption of all government obligations in gold 
and sanctioned large issues of bonds to procure the 
fimds for this purpose. His most striking act was hia 
message to Congress in December, 1895. strongly 
asserting the Monroe Doctrine and making the 
United States an active party in the boundary dis- 
pute between Great Britain and Venezuela. 

Durmg his second term his party drifted away 
from his guidance, partly on the question of a double 
standard of currency. Hence, a rising statesman, 
William Jennings Bryan, was nominated in 1896. 
against the judgment of the Cleveland Democrats 
On retiring from office Mr. Cleveland took up liis 
residence at Princeton. New Jersey, recovered the 
confidence of his own party, and died a trusted na- 
tional character, Jime 24, 190S. 

Mr. Cleveland was a man of rugged honesty, in- 
domitable will, and rigid adherence to what he re- 
garded as duty; he was a statesman of higti de- 
gree. 



Chronology. 



1837. 
1871. 
1882. 
1883. 

1885. 

tires 
1888. 
1893. 

tires 
1908. 



March IS. Bom at Caldwell. N. J. 
Jan. 1. Sheriff of Erie Co., N. Y. 
Jan. 1. Mayor of Buffalo. 
Jan. 1. Governor of New York. 
March 4. President of United States. 
1889. 
November 
March 4- 
1897. 
June 2A. 



Defeated for reelection. 
President for second term. 



Dies at Princeton. N. J. 



Re- 



Re- 



BENJAMIN HARRISON. 

Benjamin Harhison, elected in 1SS8. the twenty- 
third president, with Levi P. Morton of New York as 
vice president, wa.s a grandson of the ninth president, 
William Henry Harrison. He was bom near North 
Bend, Ohio. August 20, 1833, and was graduated 
from Miami University, Oxford. Ohio, when he was 
eighteen, and before he was twenty-one had married 
and was practicing law in Indianapolis. He took an 
active part in politics, supporting Fremont in 1S56 
and Lincoln in 1860. On the siiggestion of Governor 
Morton of Indiana, who offered liim the command, 
he raised a regiment (70th Indiana Volunteers) 
shortly after the commencement of the war for the 
Union, being commissioned first second lieutenant 
and later colonel by the governor. He was brevetted 
brigadier general for gallant service, before the war 
closed. He was a candidate for the governorship of 
Indiana in 1876. but was defeated. In 1880 he was 
elected to the United States Senate, where he served 
his term of sbt years. 

He was inaugurated president, Marcli 4, 1889. In 
accordance with the recommendations of Mr. Har- 



rison. Congress passed a high protective tariff 
measure, called from the name of its principal 
framer, the Mclvinley Bill. In addition to a pro- 
tective tariff. Mr. Harrison favored subsidies in aid 
of ocean shipping, federal intervention to secure to 
the colored citizens of the South the free exercise of 
the right to vote, justice to the Indians, reform of the 
civil service, a great enlargement of the pension list, 
and international arbitration. During the second 
half of his term Mr. Harrison was hampered by the 
congressional elections of 1890, wliich made the 
House of Representatives Democratic, He was re- 
nominated in the presidential campaign of 1892. but 
lost the election. In 1893 he resumed the practice 
of law at Indianapolis. Throughout his public and 
private life he was courageous and coDsclentlous, 
and, although deficient in the arts and traits that 
make men popular, possessed the respect and esteem 
of the American people. Mr. Harrison died March 
13, 1901. 

Chronology. 

1833. Aug. 20. Born at Nortli Bend, Ohio. 

185?. Graduated at Miami University. 

1860. Reporter of Indiana supreme court. 

186?. July 14. Second lieutenant of volunteers. 

1865. Jan. 23. Brevet brigadier general. 

1879. June 30. Member of Mississippi River Com- 
mission. 

1881. March 4. United States senator. 

1889. March 4. President of United States. 

1893. Nov. 8. Defeated for reelection. Retires 
1S93. 

1899. Counsel for Venezuela-British Guiana boimd- 
ary arbitration. 

1900. September. Appointed member of Hague 
Tribunal. 

1901. March 13. Dies at Indianapolis. 

WILLIAM Mckinley. 

Wn-LiAM McKiNLEv, twenty-fifth president, was 
born at Niles, Trumbull Coimty, Ohio, January 
29, 1843. He studied at Union Seminary. Poland. 
Ohio, and later, for a short time, at Allegheny Col- 
lege. Meadville, Pennsylvania, At the outbreak of 
the Civil War he enlisted at the age of eighteen as a 
private soldier in the Twenty-third Ohio, and rose 
through the several grades imtil. on July 25. 1864, he 
was brevetted major by President Lincoln for gallant 
and meritorious services. 

At the close of the war he returned to Ohio, studied 
law, and began the practice of his profession at Can- 
ton. Stark County. He was a member of Congress 
from 1877 until 1891. became chairman of the Com- 
mittee of Ways and Means, when, in 1890, the tariff 
bill that bears his name was framed and passed. At 
that time he showed the personal grace and magne- 
tism and the ability to bring individuals into har- 
monioLLS ser\ice together for a common purpose 
which made liira a national figiu-e. His district was 
gerrymandered so as to tlirow him out of Congress in 
the election of 1S90, but he was at once taken up as 
the Republican candidate for the governorship of 
Oliio, and was elected in November. 1891. He was 
reelected. At the Republican National Convention 
of 1896, he was nominated for the presidency on the 
first ballot, accepting the gold standard as a party 
principle. On this issue he was elected In November 
over the Democratic candidate, William Jennings 
Bryan, of Nebraska. In 1900 he was renominated 
imanimously, and was reelected, his Democratic op- 
ponent again being William Jennings Bryan, but his 
second admmistration was cut short by his death, 
September 14. 1901. 

During the four and a half years that Mr. McKin- 
ley was president, the Wilson Tariff Law. enacted 
under the preceding administration, was replaced by 
the Dingley Tariff Law of 1897, a measure highly 
protective. Decisive action in regard to the cur- 
rency was delayed by a fruitless effort in behalf of 
international bimetallism, and by the war with 
Spain. It was not imtil 1900 that gold was de- 
finitively made the basis of the currency. 

The policy of McKinley which seems likely to in- 
fluence the welfare of the Unit^-d States most deeply 
is that of over-sea territorial annexations. The 
Hawaiian Islands and other small Pacific islands 
were brought in and as a result of the Spanish War of 
1898, came the annexation of Porto Rico, the Philip- 
pines, and Guam. The grave constitutional ques- 
tions involved were settled by the Insular decisions 
of the Supreme Court (1901) in a way that sustained 
the general policy of the government. 

A second important result of the war with Spain 
was the responsibility incurred by the United States 
toward Cuba. The United States established a 
temporary protectorate, and reorganized Cuba ac- 
cording to American ideas. The part taken by the 
United States in the troubles with China, occasioned 
by the Boxer outbreak, was dignified and effective. 

At home the period of McKinley's presidency was 
marked by economic prosperity and the subsi- 
dence of sectional feeling. September .'1, 1901, at the 
Buffalo Pan-American Ex-position President McKin- 
ley made his last public address, a noble plea for in- 



ternational peace and a liberal system of trade. On 
the 6th he was shot by an anarchist, and eight days 
afterward died from the woimd. 

McKinley was a peacemaker. He carried 
friendliness into every relation of life, pubUc as well 
as private. He healed party feuds, softened the as- 
perities of party warfare, and assuaged sectional ani- 
mosities. His spirit toward other peoples is best 
told in the following words taken from the Buffalo 
address: " God and man have linked the nations to- 
gether. No nation can longer be indifferent to any 
other. And as we are brought more and more in 
touch vtith each other, the less occasion is there for 
misunderstand mgs. and the stronger the disposition, 
when we have differences, to adjust them in the court 
of arbitration. . . . Let us ever remember that our 
interest is in concord, not conflict. . . . Our earnest 
prayer is that God will graciously vouchsafe prosper- 
ity, happiness, and peace to all our neighbors, and 
like blessings to all peoples and powers of earth." 

Chronology. 

1843. Jan. 29. Bom at Niles, Ohio. 

1860. Attends Allegheny College. 

1861. June 11. Enlists as a private. 

1865. March 14- Brevet major of volunteers. 

1869. Prosecuting attorney of Stark Co., Ohio. 

1877. Oct. 16. Member of House of Representa- 
tives. 

1892. Jan. 11. Governor of Ohio. 

June 8. Chairman of Republican National 
Convention. 

1897, March 4. President of United States. Re- 
elected 1900. 

1901. Sept. 6. Woimded by an assassin. 
Sept. 14. Dies at Buffalo. 

THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 

Theodore Roosevelt, twenty-sixth president, was 
bom in New York on Octotxr 27, 1858, of a mixed 
Dutch. English, French. Scotch, and Irish descent. 
His mother was a Soutlierner. As a boy he was not 
strong, butwasfond of outdoor life. Hegraduated 
from Harvard College in 1880. In 1881 he was 
elected to the legislature of New York, in which he 
served tliree years. In 1884 he was a delegate to the 
National Republican Convention. A party man, 
he supported the nominee of the convention, Mr. 
Blaine, whose nomination he did not favor. Shortly 
afterward he engaged in cattle raising on a ranch in 
North Dakota. Returning to the East, he was in 
1S86 unsuccessful candidate for mayor of New York. 
He was memljer of the Civil Service Commission . 
(1889-95) and president of the New York Police 
Board (1895-97), in both positions showing himself 
courageous and efficient. 

Assistant secretary of the navy in 1897. he aided 
much in preparing our navy for the impending war 
with Spain. A year later he resigned to help raise 
the regiment of the ** Bough Riders,'* of which he 
was at first lieutenant colonel and later colonel, and 
at the head of which he rendered distioguistied 
service In Cuba. His gallantry at San Juan called 
public attention to him, and the Repubhcan leaders 
in New York were compelled to nominate him for 
governor in 1898. He showed himself such a vigor- 
ous and independent executive that the same leaders 
insisted that he l>e nominated for vice president in 
1900. so as to put him on the shelf. Against his will 
he accepted and was elected with McKinley. The 
death of McKmley raised him to the presidency. 
He took the oath of office on September 14. 1901. 

When about to assume his duties as president, Mr. 
Roosevelt said, " It shall be my aim to continue, ab- 
solutely unbroken, the policies of President McKin- 
ley for the peace, the prosperity, and the honor of 
our beloved country." In his first annual message 
to Congress he indicated what later proved the 
main features In his policy: He recommended 
that the civil and military services be brought to the 
highest possible efficiency, that the Monroe Doctrine 
be maintauied. that the trusts be regulated rather 
than suppressed, that labor and capital have fair 
play, that works of irrigation be advanced, and that 
a transisthmian canal be constructed as quickly as 
possible. 

In 1904 there was no opposing candidate in the 
Republican Convention: and in the election Roose- 
velt easily defeated Judge Alton B. Parker, the Dem- 
ocratic candidate. It was the Erst time that a man 
who had succeeded to the presidency tlu-ough the 
death of the president was himself subsequently 
elected by the people to that office. 

No other pr&sident was equipped for the discharge 
of his official duties with such an exhaustless store of 
vigor and vitality. No other president ever devel- 
oped such energy and activity. Familiar through 
his constant travels with aU parts of the country, he 
appreciated the circumstances and necessities of each 
section. Some of the trusts he caused to be prose- 
cuted ; he made an effort to regulate the railroads and 
to protect employees against accident : he encouraged 
the effort to develop the internal ways and to pre- 
serve and increase the natural resources of the na- 
tion. 



218 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



N 



U 



W 



In 1004 he concluded the treaty with the Repubhc 
of Panama, and the piercing of the Isthmus was soon 
vigorously imdertaken. As long as the Panama 
Canal endiu*es, it may be considered his monu- 
ment. 

The appropriate conclusion of Mr. Roosevelt's 
presidency was the globe-encircling cruise of the 
battleship fleet in 190S, affording practical solution 
of many naval problems and proclaiming, wherever 
it went, the majesty of the Republic and its friendli- 
ness to all. 

In addition to the responsibilities of his office, 
there was hardly a matter of national or humanita- 
rian interest or even of international concern with 
which he did not deal. Thus he was instrumental in 
terminating the coal strike of 1902 through the me- 
diimi of a commission, the findings of wliich have had 
lastmg weight in similar labor disputes. He took 
the uiitiative in l.)ringing about a treaty of peace be- 
tween Russia antl Japan in 1905. 

In 190S Mr. Roose\elt refused the solicitations of 
his party, wliich wished to force a renomination upon 
him, and used all his influence for his friend and secre- 
tary of war, William Howard Taft. 

Shortly after leaving the Wliite House Mr. Roose- 
velt headed the Smitlisonian .\frican Expedition, de- 
voting nearly a year to the himt in Africa and ob- 
taining an exceedingly rich collection of African 
fauna. On his way homeward he delivered ad- 
dresses before many famous societies and universi- 
ties of Continental Europe and Great Britain. He 
received a tremendous demonstration on his arrival 
at New York in June, 1910. 

Roosevelt was an author of versatility. He was 
a tireless speaker and writer. In his numerous lec- 
tures and addresses there are few subjects of moment 
on wliich he has not spoken. He was the author of 
many books, among wliich the more noteworthy 

are: The Winniug of the WrsI, The Slrennous Life, and 

lives of Thomas Hart Benton, Gouverneur Morris, 
and Oliver Cromwell. Returning to private life, he 
became contributing editor of the Outlook. In 1910 
he took active part in the Republican State cam- 
paign in New York ; and in 1912, having become con- 
vinced that a second Taft administration was not for 
the best interests of the coimtry, he attempted to se- 
cure the Repuiilican nomination. When he was de- 
feated he put himself at the head of a new National 
Progressive party. He received over 4.0(K),000 
votes and 88 electoral votes to the Rrjiulilicans' 
3,000,000 votes and 8 electoral votes, hut Wimdrow 
Wilson was elected. After the outbreak of the World 
War he advocated measures of preparedness for 
the United States and an early intervention in the 
war. Always a strong party man, he became one of 
the most severe critics of President Wilson and his 
policy. In the campaign of 1916 he supported the 
Republican candidate. Justice Hughes, and one of 
his last appearances in public was in support of the 
RepubUcan nominees in the New York election of 

1918. He died at his home in Oyster Bay, N. Y., 
January 6, 1919. 

Roosevelt was distinguished In many fields — 
an athlete, a himter, an author, a journalist, an ex- 
plorer, a scientist, an orator, above all a statesman of 
vast genius and success. At the time of his death he 
seemed destined to reenter public life in the highest 
positions. 

Chronology. 

1858. Oct. 27. Born at New York. 
1880. June SO. Graduated at Harvp-l College. 
1882. Jan. S. Member of New York Assembly. 
1889. May IS. Member of United States Civil 

Service Commission. 
1895. May 6. President of New York City Police 

Board. 

1897. April 19. Assistant secretary of the navy. 

1898. May 6. Lieutenant colonel of voltmteers. 
Colonel, July 11. 

1899. Jati. 1. Governor of New York. 

1901. March 4- Vice president of United States. 
Sept. 14. President of United States by death 

of McKinley. 
1904. Reelected. Retires 1909. 
1909-1910. Hunting trip in Africa and tour of 

Europe. 
1912. A't. .5. Defeated as Progressive candidate 

for presidency. 
1914. Exploration of Brazilian wilds. 

1919. Jan. e. Dies at Oyster Bay, N. Y. 

WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT. 

William How.vrd T.\ft, twenty-seventh president- 
was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on September 15, 
1857. His father. Judge Alphonso Taft. was secre- 
tary of war and attorney-general in the cabinet of 
President Grant. Mr. Taft graduated from Yale 
in 1878, being class orator and .salutatorian, and from 
the Cincinnati Law School in 18S0. He was judge of 
the Superior Court in Ohio, 1887-90, solicitor-gen- 
eral of the United States, 1890-92, and United 
States circuit judgo, 6th Circuit, 1.802-1900. He 
then served as president of the United States Philip- 
pine Commission, March 13, 1900, to February 1, 



1904, and as first civil governor of the Philippine 
Islands, July 4, 1901, to February 1, 1904. In 1902, 
by direction of President Roosevelt, he went to 
Rome to confer with Pope Leo XIII., concerning the 
purchase of the agricultural lands of the religious 
orders in the PhiUppines. On February 1, 1904, he 
became secretary of war. 

In 1906 he was sent by the President to quiet the 
troubles In Cuba, and for a time acted as provisional 
governor of the island. In ilarch and April, 1907, 
he visited Panama, Cuba, and Porto Rico Iiy direc- 
tion of the President to remove various difliculties. 
Later in the year he visited the Philippines and Japan, 
returning to America via Russia. 

He was nominated for the presidency on the first 
ballot by the RepubUcan National Convention at 
Cliicago on June 18, 1908. His Democratic antago- 
nist was William Jennings Brj-an, leader of liis party 
for the third time. Tlie campaign was one of great 
activity. Both Taft and Bryan participated vigor- 
ously, each delivering several hundred speeches. 
At the election Taft was successful by comfortable 
majorities. 

During the four years of his administration the 
comitry enjoyed general prosperity. There was 
no financial panic. Work was pushed on the 
Panama Canal. Some of the laiger trusts were vig- 
orously prosecuted. Ivlany judicial appointments 
of a high order were made. Discretion was shown in 
dealing with the complicated questions arising from 
the distracted condition of the Republic of Mexico. 

The Paj-ne-Aldrich Tariff Bill, which he signed 
althougli it had been supposed he did not approve of 
it, and the reciprocity agreement with Canada, 
passed by Congress in a special session but afterwards 
rejected by Canada, greatly affected his popularity. 
Quarrels between members of liis cabinet and their 
inferior officers, together with freiiuent insubordi- 
nation which he was slow to suppress, further dam- 
aged his prestige. 

Meanwhile the Republican party was splitting 
into two hostile camps, the reactionaries or " stand- 
patters " and the insurgents or progressives. Casting 
his lot with the former, Taffs candidacy for a second 
presidential term was hotly o]>posecl by the latter, 
who found an exponent and leader in Mr. Roosevelt. 
Their attacks on Mr. Taft and his administration 
finally induced the President to enter the campaign 
in person. The Republican National Convention 
by a small majority nominated Taft. Shortly after- 
ward Mr. Roosevelt was nominated by the newly 
constituted National Progressive party. The result 
of the election was the choice of the Democratic 
candidate. Governor Wilson, of New Jersey. 

Shortly before relinquishing office, Mr. Taft was 
tendered and accei>ted an appointment as Kent Pro- 
fessor of Law in Yale University. His influence, 
however, was not confined merely to academic cir- 
cles. He was in great demand as a public speaker 
and tlirough his addresses as well as the genial dig- 
nity he displayed did much to regain his popularity. 
During the World War he was one of the joint chair- 
men of the National War Labor Board, wliich did 
much to prevent friction between labor and capital, 
was also president of the League to Enforce Peace, 
and advocated the ratification of the Peace Treaty 
with the League of Nations. 

Chronology. 

1857. Sept. 1.5. Born at Cincinnati. 

1878. June 27. Graduated at Yale College. 

1880. May 28. Graduated at Cincimiati Law 
School. 

1881. Assistant prosecuting attorney, Hamilton 
Co., Ohio. 

1887. Judge of Ohio Superior Coiu-t. 
1890. Feb. I,. Solicitor-general of United States. 
1892. March 17. United States circuit judge. 
1896. Professor and dean, law department. Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati. 

1900. March IS. President of Philippine Com- 
mission. 

1901. July 4. Governor (governor-,^-"ncral) of 
Philippines. 

1904. Feb. 1. Secretary of war. 

1909. March 4. President of United States. De- 
feated for reinfection 1912. 

1913. April 1 . Professor of law at Yale. 

1918. April. Co-chairman National War Labor 
Conference Board. 

WOODROW WILSON. 

(Thomas) Woodrow Wilson, twenty-eighth presi- 
dent, was born Dec. 28, 1856, at Staimton, Virginia, 
son of the Reverend Jo.seph R. Wilson. Thus he is 
the eighth president bom in the "Old Dominion" 
Graduating from Princeton in 1S79 and from the Law 
School of the University of Virginia, he prarticed law 
a shori. time in Atlanta, Georgia. Desiring to spe- 
cialize in history and kindred subjects, lie entered 
Johns Hopkins LTniversity, from which he received 
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1S86, He was 
professor of History and Political Science for three 
years at BrjTi Mawr College and for two years at 
Wesleyan University, then professor of Jurispru- 



dence and PoUtics for 13 years at Princeton. Fruni 
1902 to 1910. he was president of Princeton Uni- 
versity, where he inaugurated the preceptorial sys- 
tem. 

During his administration at Princeton, Mr. 
Wilson became widely known throughout tiie 
country from his writings and lectures on political 
and social questions. He is the author of many 
books on liistorical, literary, and governmental sub- 
jects, among which may be mentioned : Conyressionat 
Oovernment, The State, Division and Reunion, An Old 
Master and Other Political Essays, Mere Literature, 
George Washington, A History of the American Peo- 
ple, Free Life, The New Freedom. 

In 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey, 
the only successful candidate on the Democratic 
State ticket. In office he displayed wisdom and 
firmness in meeting the difficult political and in- 
dustrial problems of the State and soon became a 
national figure, identified with the cause of popular 
rights and practical reform. 

At the Democratic National Convention, held at 
Baltimore in 1912, he was nominated for the presi- 
dency on the 46th ballot tlirough the influence of 
W. J. Bryan. He took an active part in the cam- 
paign, showing himself cliivalrous to Ills opponents, 
though critical of their principles and methods, and 
always mindful of the dignity of the office he was 
seeking. The election showed that the Republi- 
can party was split into two fairly equal parts. Al- 
though the combined popular vote for Mr. Taft and 
Mr. Roosevelt exceeded that for Mr. Wilson by 
1,410,682 and Mr. Wilson received a smaller popu- 
lar vote (6,298,857) than was cast for Mr. Bryan in 
1908 (6,328,601), Wilson was elected by a greater 
electoral vote (435) than was cast for President 
Taft in 1908 (321). Renommated in 1916, he was 
elected by a plurality of 23 electoral votes and by a 
phu-ality of nearly 600.000 popular votes o\'er his 
nearest competitor, Hughes. 

His service as president may be divided Into 
three periods. Diu-ing his first administration the 
Democratic party was luiited and followed his lead- 
ership almost unhesitatingly. In these years great 
constructive measures were passed: The tariff was 
revised; the Federal Reserve Bank established: the 
Federal Trade Commission established ; and the anti- 
trust laws revised. 

With the outbreak of the World War a new issue 
arose and the difficulties of his position were multi- 
plied. He was attacked and criticized because of his 
stand on neutrality and his hesitancy to stimulate 
military and naval preparedness. Nevertheless, he 
kept the confidence of the great majority of the peo- 
ple, was reelected and led a united country Into 
the war. Although bitterly criticized on the score 
of many of his appointments and the methods of his 
subordinates, the government imder his direction 
accomplished in the material, military, and naval 
spheres the task it had set itself and did much to 
bring the war to a victorious close. 

The third period begins with the congressional elec- 
tions of 1918, which rrtumrd a Reiniblican Senate 
and Congress. The ciillicultirs were increased by the 
fact that from Decern her, Idl.s, mitil July, 1919, with 
the exception of a short interval in March, 1919, 
President Wilson was abroad negotiating the treaty 
of peace. Even before the entrance of the United 
States into the war the President had announced 
that he would urge the Unitcti States to enter a fed- 
eration to guarantee the peace of the world. The 
Treaty of Versailles, which terminated the war, in- 
cluded the covenant for the Leag:ue o*" Nations. On 
his return to the United States he submitted the treaty 
to the Senate, only to find it subject to the severest 
criticism and acrimonious debate. In September, 
1919, he made an extended tour tlirough the W^est, 
hoping to rouse public opinion in favor of the treaty 
and the League of Nations. This proved too much 
for his strength and he was overcome by a para- 
lytic shock from which his partial recovery was 
extremely slow. 

During the last year of Resident Wilson's ad- 
ministration, the predominant issue was the rat- 
ification of the Peace Treaty with Covenant of the 
League of Nations At first the President refused 
to admit any reservations whatsoever, but finally 
accepted those proposed by Senator Hitchcock 
Senator Lodge, Chairman of the Senate Committee 
on Foreign Relations, insisted on the adoption of 
reservations which President Wilson felt he could 
not accept, and the treaty was finally rejected by 
the Senate, March 19, 1920. 

Although the President was confined to his room 
he continued to direct the foreign policy of the 
I United States and was extremely jealous of any en- 
croachment upon his prerogatives Thus, Secretary 
of State Lansing was forced to resign (February 
13, 1920) nomiijally, for summoning cabinet meet- 
ings without the President's knowledge. Perhaps 
a more compelling reason was to be found in the 
fact that Secretary Lansing was initiating a policy 
concerning Mexico, which was not in accord with 
the President's desire. 

President Wilson took no part In the presidential 
campaign. He neither publicly favored any partic- 



NATIONAL HISTORIES: UNITED STATES — THE PRESIDENTS. 



219 



uiar candidate to succeed himself, nor did he ac- 
tively aid Governor Cox in his campaign. After the 
election of November 2. President Wilson gradually 
withdrew the United States from its commanding 
position in foreign affairs. lea\ing the way clear for 
his successor to initiat-e liis own policy. 

President Wilson regained sufficient strength to 
preside in person over several cabinet meetings 
and to accompany President-elect Harding to the 
capital, although he was unable to witness his 
successor's inauguration. 

Chronology. 

18S6. Dec. SS. Bom at Staimton, Va. 

1879. June IS. Graduated at Princeton College. 

1881. June 30. Graduated at Virginia Law School. 

1885. Associate professor of liistory and political 
science at Bryn Mawr College. 

1886. Feb. a. Ph.D. at Jolms Hopkins University. 
1888. Professor at Wesleyan University. 

1890. Professor at Princeton. 
1903. .Aus- 1. President of Princeton. 
1911. Jan. 17. Governor of New .Jersey. 
1913. March J,. President of United States. Re- 
elected 1916. 

1919. Jan. IS. Heads American delegation at 
Peace Conference at Paris. 

Sept. 26. Suffers a paralytic shock at Wichita. 
Kansas. 

1920. .4pr!7 Jf. Presides over the first cabinet 
meeting since 1919. 

Dec. 10. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 

WARREN GAMALIEL HARDING. 

W.vRHEN G.\M.\LiEL H.vRDiN-i;, tlic t wcnty-niiith 
president, was born just outside the village of 
Blooming Grove, Morrow Coimty, Ohio. November 
2. 1865. His father. Dr. George T. Harding, the 
village physician, was of old colonial stock. The 
Hardings, originally from Scotland, first settled in 
Connecticut and later moved to Wyoming ^'alk■y. 
Pennsylvania, where some of them perislnd in tlie 
terrible AVyoming massacre. .Some members of the 
family fought in the American Revolution. Pres- 
ident Harding's mother was Ph(.ebe Dickerson, 
a descendant of a Holland-Dutch family, the Van 
Kirks. 

Although the father was a physician, the Harding 
family was busy developing their land, and Warren 
Harding, the oldest of eight children, spent his 
early life as a farmer 's boy. He attended the village 
school until he was fourteen, and then entered Ohio 
Central College, of Iberia, from which he was grad- 
uated with high honors. While there, he was editor 
of tlie college paper, thus first sliowing his interest 
in journalism. After leaving college at seventeen, 
he taught scliool for a year, and during the next 
year he studied law, supporting himself by selling 
insurance and doing odd jobs. When he was nine- 
teen, his father. Dr. Harding, moved to Marion. 
Ohio, the coimty seat, and young Harding olitained 
a job on a democratic paper. He filled all positions 
from printer's devil to editorial writer. As a result 
of an editorial praising James G. Blaine, he was 
forced to sever connections with the paper. Aided 
by his father and his former employer, he purchased 
The -Star, tlien a struggling paper of Marion, almost 
on the verge of bankruptcy. Warren Harding threw 
hisenergy into the development of this paper, making 



it, in course of time, the party organ of the county 
and one of the papers most frequently quoted 
tliroughouf the State. When The Star became estab- 
lished upon a firm Ijasis. he organized a stock com- 
pany and distributed shares to ills employees, allow- 
ing the dividends to count towards their piu-chase 
money tmtil one fourth of the capital stock was 
owned by them. The paper has always been 
operated on the imion basis and has never had 
any labor difficulties or strikes. 

In the conduct of his paper. President Harding 
was always sanguine, urging the establishment of 
new industries and enterprises in the to\vn and 
coimty. Being always a generous subscriber to 
these enterprises, he thus came to serve on many 
boards of directors and was highly regarded Tor 
his business sagacity. 

In 1S99, he was clio.sen State senator from the 
thirteentli senatorial district and served two 
terms in the Ohio legislature. In the State Senate, 
he became floor leader, and was active in his sup- 
port of United States Senator Foraker. He served 
as lieutenant governor 1904-1906. He was nom- 
matcd by the Republicans for governor of Ohio, 
but was defeated by a Democrat, Jiidson Harmon, 
in 1910. In State politics he was a consistent 
organization man, and hence advocated the re- 
nomination of ex-President Taft in 1912. He was 
chosen to present Taft's name at the Republican 
convention at Chicago. In 1916. he was chairman 
of the Republican convention and was suggested 
as a possible candidate for nomination. In 1014. 
he was elected to the United Stales Senate by a 
plurality of more than 100.000. 

In the Senate he served on many Important 
committees. He was chairman of the committee on 
the Philippines and a member of the following com- 
mittees: Commerce; Expenditurts in the Treas- 
ury Department; Foreign Relations; Pacific Is- 
lands. Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands; Public 
Health and National Quarantine; Standards, 
Weights, and Measures; and Territories. During 
the War World he was a strong advocate tf pre- 
paredness, and never hesitated to support the exten- 
sion of the power of the President in war time. With 
the coming of peaci.-, however, he found himself in 
sharp disagreement with President Wilson 's pol- 
icy. He was always an opponent of the League of 
Nations and was one of thesignersof the "Round 
Robin." by which certain senators notified the 
world that they would not ratify the Treaty embody- 
ing tile Covenant of the League of Nations. He 
supported the reservations submitted by Senator 
Lodge, although more inclined to side with those who 
were opposed to the ratification of the Treaty in any 
form He also supported Senator Knox's reso- 
lution declaring tiie war with Germany at an end; 
and Senator Reed's reservation that the United 
States was to be the sole judge as to whether mat- 
ters in wiiich she was interested sliould be submitted 
totlie League. Hefinally votedagainst theTreaty 
as submitted by President Wilson, His attitude on 
prohibition is seen by his vote for the Eighteentli 
Amendment and his support of the Volstead Act 
With regard to labor and railroads, he voted to 
support the Esch-Cummins Bill with the anti-strike 
clause. In a letter to an Ohio labor union, he 
defended his coiu'se in these words: "If the govern- 
ment, reiiresenting all the people, cannot guarantee 
transportation under any and all conditions, it 



fails utterly. If that same government cannot 
provide just consideration for the workmen oper- 
ating the transportation system, it fails again. It 
ought to and it must do both," 

In the pre-couvention canipalgn of 1920, Sena- 
tor Harding was not one of the leaders. In fact, 
during tlie early balloting of thr convention, he 
ranked fourth. On the eighth ballot, however, he 
showed an increase of strengtli and on the ninth 
ballot he received 374 ' ■> votes, the highest of any 
candidate- The tenth ballot gave him 602^ votes, 
200 more than was necessary for the choice. 

The Republican campaign of 1920 was in many 
ways similar to that of 1896. President Hardhig 
seldom left his liome at Marion, but conducted 
what is popularly known as a ** front-porch "cam- 
paign. Various delegations from all parts of the 
country, representing most varied occupations, 
came to Marion and wore addrissui by him. The 
Republican campaign manager. Will H. Hays, 
proved an extremely able harmonizer and succeeded 
in preventing any open dissati.sfaction in the Re- 
publican party. The election. November 2, 1920, 
resulted in an overwhelming victory for the Repub- 
licans. Senator Harding received 16,140,585 pop- 
ular votes and 404 electoral votes. 

In his inaugural address. President Harding 
declared that the United States could have no part 
in any super-government. He advocated an asso- 
ciation of nations for foreign mediation and con- 
ciliation. He urged the protection of American 
Industry, and reconstruction and readjustment 
from war conditions. His cabinet appointments 
included Charles Evans Hughes, former Justice 
of the Supreme Court, and presidential candidate 
1916, as Secretary of State; Senator Albert B. 
Fall of New Mexico, as Secretary of tlie Interior, 
and Herbert C. Hoover, of Califoniia, as Secretary 
of Commerce. President Harding adopted the 
innovation of inviting the vice-president to meet 
with the cabinet. 

A special session of Congress was summoned April 
12, 1921, to which President Harding, following the 
precedent set by President Wilson, presented his 
message in person. Inhisaddress, President Hard- 
ing declared that in the existence of the League of 
Nations, the United .States could have no part. 
He advocated an international association for 
justice unconnected with the Treaty settlement and 
favored a declaration of peace by Congressional 
resolution. In domestic affairs, he advocated the 
repeal of the excess-profits taxes, the passage of an 
emergency tariff bill to protect the farmers, pending 
the permanent revision of the tariff. He opposed 
government ownership of tlie railroads, but ad- 
vocated a congressional investigation. 

President Harding was married in 1891 to Flor- 
ence Klmg, daughter of Amos Kling, of Marion. 

Chronology. 

1865. Nov. 2. Bom near Blooming Grove, Mor- 
row County. Ohio. 
1882. Graduated from Ohio Central College. 
1891. Married Florence Kling. 
1899-1903. Member of the Oliio Senate. 
1904-1906. Lieutenant governor of Ohio. 
1919. Unsuccessful candidate for governor of Ohio. 
1915-1921. Member of United States Senate. 
1921. March A. President of the United States. 



HISTOEICAL AND POPULATION STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. 



States. 

(With TeiTitoriea aud 

Posaesaiona.*) 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

kSoutli Carolina 

New Hampshire. . . . 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio. 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

AVashington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

District of Columbia 



Place of Settlement 
AND Date. 



Wilmington, 1(!;;S 

Philadelphia, Hi.s:i 

Elizabeth, liM\4 

Savannah, ITo.'l 

Wethersfield, li;a5-lGo6 

Plymouth, 10L\» 

St. Marys, 16o4 

Ashley Kiver, 1670. . . . 

Portsmouth, 1623 

Jamestown, Kin? 

New York, IGKJ 

Albemarle Sound, 1653 

Providence, 1636 

Brattleboro, ITIi 

lioonesborough, 177"). . 
Watauga River, 1769. . 

Marietta, 17SS 

New Orleans, 1718 .... 

Vincennes, 1727 

Biloxi. IC'.tO 

K;isk;iskia, 1700 

Mobile Bay, 1702 

Moiihegan, 1622 

St. Genevieve, 17o5 ? . . 
Arkansas Post, 168.5 ? . 
Sault Ste. Marie, KMiS. 
St. Augustine, 1565 . . . 
Matagorda Ba}', 1685. . 

Dubuque, 183^3 

Green Bay, 1745 

San Diego, 1769 

Fort Snelling, 1S20 

Astoria, 1811 

Fort Leavenworth, 1827 

Wheeling, 176!) 

Carson City, 1S49 

Bellevue, IhIO? 

Auraria, 1858 

Pembina, 1811 

Fort Pierre, 1817 

Yellowstone River, 1809 

Tumwater, 1845 

Coeur d'Alene, 1842. . . 
Fort Laramie, 18.34. . . 
Salt Lake City, 1847 . . 
In many places, 1889 . . 

Santa Fe, 1605? . , 

Near Tucson, 1687? . . . 



By whom 

Settled. 



Swedes . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 

Dutch 

English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
English . . . . 
Americans. 
French . . . . 
French . . . . 
French . . . . 
French . . . . 
French . . . . 
English . . . . 
French . . . , 
French . . . . 
French . . . . 
Spaniards. . 
French . . . . 
French . . . . 
French .... 
Spaniards. . 
Americans . 
Americans , 
Americans . 
English. , . , 
Mormons . . 
Americans . 
Americans . 
Americans . 
Americans . 
Americans . 
Americans . 
French . . . . 
Americans . 
Mormons . . 
Americans . 
Spaniards. . 
Spaniards . . 
English . . . . 



Totals {Continental United States)!- 



*Alaska 

*Hawaii 

*■ Porto Rico 

^Philippine Islands 



Kodiak Island, 1784 . 

Honolulu, 1820 

1508 

Cebu, 1565 



Russians.. . 

Americans . 
Spaniards. . 

Spaniards . . 



Capitals. 



Dover 

Harrisburg 

Trenton 

Atlanta 

Hartford 

Boston 

Annapolis 

Columbia 

Concord 

Richmond 

Albany 

Raleigh 

Providence .... 

Montpelier 

Frankfort 

Nashville 

Columbus 

Baton Rouge . . . 
Indianapolis. . . . 

Jackson 

Springfield .... 
Montgomery . . . 

Augusta 

Jefferson City . . 

Little Rock 

Lansing 

Tallahassee .... 

Austin 

Des Moines 

Madison 

Sacramento ... 

St. Paul 

Salem 

Topeka 

Charleston 

Carson City .... 

Lincoln . . 

Denver 

Bismarck 

Pierre 

Helena 

Olympia 

Boise 

Cheyenne 

Salt Lake City . 
Oklahoma City. 

Santa Fe 

Phoenix 

Washington . . . . 



Juneau. . . 
Honolulu. 
San Juan. 
Manila . . . 



Date ad- 
mitted. 


Population 
in 1920. 


Rank 

1920. 


Repr. 
in Con- 
gress. 


liicreaae in 
Population, 
1910-1920. 


Miles of 

Railroad, 

Dec. 31, 

1017. 






223,003 


47 


1 


20,681 


335 






8,720,017 


2 


36 


1,054,906 


11,681 




t, 


3,155,900 


10 


12 


618,733 


2,.344 




m 


2,895,832 


12 


12 


286,711 


7,464 






1,380,6.31 


29 


5 


265,875 


999 




c 


3,S52,;«6 


6 


16 


485,940 


2,135 






1,449,661 


28 


6 


154,315 


1,426 







1,683,724 


26 


i 


168,324 


3,697 






443,083 


41 


2 


12,511 


1,253 




■£ 


2,309,187 


20 


10 


247,575 


4.677 




3 


10,.385,227 


1 


43 


1,271,215 


8,4:i4 






2,.559,123 


14 


10 


3.52,836 


5,492 






004,397 


38 


3 


61,787 


20(! 


1791 


;i52,428 


45 


2 


} 3,528 


1,056 


1792 


2,416,630 


15 


11 


126,725 


3,859 


1790 


2,3137,885 


19 


10 


153,096 


4,076 


i.'^oa 


5,7.59,394 


4 


22 


992,273 


9,044 


1S12 


1,798,509 


QQ 


8 


142,121 


5,363 


1.S16 


2,930,:»0 


11 


13 


22St.514 


7,436 


1.S17 


1,790.618 


23 


8 


} 6,496 


4,447 


1S18 


6,485.28(1 


3 


27 


846.689 


12,1.3.3 


1819 


2.348,174 


18 


10 


210,081 


5,420 


1820 


768,014 


35 


4 


25,643 


2,270 


1821 


3,404,0.55 


9 


16 


110,720 


8,231 


1836 


1,752,204 


25 


7 


177,755 


5,220 


1837 


3,608,412 


7 


13 


858,239 


8,925 


1845 


968,470 


32 


4 


215,851 


5,249 


18-15 


4,6r,3,228 


5 


IS 


766,1586 


15,932 


18-1 (! 


2.4114,021 


16 


. 11 


179,250 


9,8;w 


1848 


2,632,067 


- 13 


11 


298,207 


7,668 


1850 


3,426,861 


8 


11 


1,049,312 


8,359 


1858 


2,387,125 


17 


10 


311,417 


9,162 


1859 


783,389 


34 


3 


110,624 


3,232 


1861 


1,769,257 


24 


8 


78,308 


9,383 


I860 


1,463,701 


27 


6 


242,582 


4,013 


1864 


77,407 


49 


1 


14,468 


2 293 


li-67 


1,29(1,372 


31 


6 


104,158 


6,167 


1876 


939.629 


33 


4 


140,605 


5,640 


1889 


646.872 


.36 


3 


68.624 


5,316 


1889 


636,547 


37 


3 


52,659 


4,279 


1889 


548,889 


39 





172,836 


4,954 


1889 


1,356,621 


30 


5 


214,631 


5,(i50 


ISIX) 


431,866 


43 





1(56,272 


2,861 


1890 


194,402 


48 


1 


48,437 


1,924 


1896 


449,396 


40 





76,045 


2,145 


1907 


2,028,283 


21 


8 


371,128 


6,502 


1912 


360,350 


44 


1 


33,049 


2,974 


1912 


3.34,162 


46 


1 


129,.549 


2,424 


1800 


437,571 


42 





106,502 


37 




105,710,620 




435 


13,736,505 


253,626 


1912 


54,899 




1** 


} 9,457 


381 


1900 


255,912 




1** 


64,003 


242 




1,299,809 




1» 


181,797 


.339 






t 10,350,640 




2** 


§ 2,715,214 


757 



t The Census of 1920 enumerates also 117,238 personsin the military and naval service of the United States, stationed abroad. Including these and also Ala*ka, Hawaii, Porto Rico, 
the Philippines. Guam (pop. 13,275). Panama Canal Zone (22,858), American Samoa (8,056), and the Virgin Islands of the United States (26.051 in 1917). the total population of the 
United States and possessions in 1920 was 117,859,358. { Decrease. •* Territorial delegates have no vote in Congress. t In 1918. § Increase, 1903 to 1918. 



THE ONE HUNDRED LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1920. 



BJS 



New York, N. Y 

Chicago, 111 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Detroit, Mich 

Cleveland, Ohio 

St. Louis. Mo 

Boston, Mass 

Baltimore, Md 

Pittsburgh, Pa 

Los.^ngeles, Calif. .. 

Buffalo, N. Y 

San Francisco, Calif, 

Milwaukee, Wis 

W.ishington. D. C 

Newark, N. .T 

Cincinnati, Ohio 

New Orleans, La 

Minneapolis, -Minn. . . 

Kansas City, Mo 

Seattle, W.ish 

Indianapolis, Ind 

Jersey City, N. J 

Rochester, N. Y 

Portland, Ore 

Denver, Colo 

Toledo, Ohio 

Providence, R. I 

Coluinbas, Ohio. . . . 

Louisville, Ky 

St. Paul, Minn 

Oakland, Calii 

Akron, Ohio 

Atlanta, Ga 

Omaha, Nebr 



(220) 



g-S 



5,620,048 
2,701,705 
1,823,779 
993,678 
796,841 
772,897 
748,000 
7.33,826 
588,343 
576,673 
500,775 
500,070 
4.57,147 
437,571 
414,524 
401,247 
387,219 
380,.'i82 
324,410 
315,312 
314,194 
298,1 13 
295,750 
2.58,288 
256,491 
243,164 
237,.''>9.-j 
237,031 
2.34,891 
234,098 
210,261 
208,435 
200,016 
191,601 



4,766,883 
2,185,283 
],. 549,008 
405,766 
5CO,i;03 
. 687,029 
070,585 
5.58,485 
533,905 
319,198 
423.715 
410,912 
373,857 
.331,069 
347,469 
363,591 
339,075 
301,408 
248,381 
237,194 
233,650 
267,779 
218,149 
207,214 
213,381 
168,497 
224,326 
181 ,.511 
223,928 
214,744 
l.''i0.174 
69,007 
154,8.39 
124,096 



17.9 
23.6 
17.7 

113.3 
42.1 
12.5 
11.0 
31.4 
10.2 
80.7 
19.6 
21.5 
22.3 
32.2 
19.3 
10.4 
14.2 
26.3 
30.6 
32.9 
34.5 
11.3 
35.6 
24.6 
20.2 
44.3 
5.9 
30.6 
4.9 
9.3 
44.0 

201.8 
29.6 
54.4 



1623 

1830 

1083 

1701 

1796 

1764 

1630 

1082 

1754 

1780 

1801 

1776 

1835 

1791 

1606 

1788 

1718 

1849 

1830 

1852 

1819 

1802 I 

1810 : 

1845 

18.58 

1832 

1636 

1,S12 

1778 [ 

1838 

1&52 

1825 

1845 

1854 



35 
36 

37 
38 
39 
,40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

i 51 
52 

i 53 
.54 
65 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
60 
67 
68 



Worcester, Mass 

Birmingham, Ala.. .. 

Syracuse, N. Y 

Richmond, Va 

New Haven, Conn. . . 

Memphis, Tenn 

San Antonio, Texas.. 

Dallas, Texas 

Dayton, Ohio 

Bridgeport, Conn... 

Houston, Texas 

Hartford, Conn 

Scranton, Pa 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Paterson. N. J 

Youngstown, Ohio. . . 

Springfield, Mass 

Des Moines, Iowa... 
New Bedford, Mass. 

Fall River, Mass 

Trenton, N. J 

Nashville, Tenn 

Salt Lake City, Utah 

Camden. N. J 

Norfolk, Va 

Albany, N. Y 

Lowell, Mass 

Wilmington, Del 

Cambridge, Mass ... 

Reading, Pa 

Fort Worth, Texas 
Spokane, Wash.. . . 
Kansas City, Kans. 
Yonkers, N. Y.... 



179,754 
178,806 
171,717 
171,667 
162,537 
102,361 
161,379 
l.-)8,976 
162,559 
143,555 
138,276 
138,036 
137,783 
137,634 
135,876 
132,358 
129,014 
126,468 
121,217 
120,485 
119,289 
118,342 
118,110 
116,309 
116,777 
113,344 
112,759 
110,168 
109,694 
107,784 
106,482 
104,437 
101,177 
100,176 






145,986 
132,685 
137,249 
127,628 
133,605 
131,105 
96,614 
92,104 
116,577 
102,054 
78,800 
98,915 
129,867 
112,571 
126.600 
79,066 
88,920 
86,368 
96,652 
119,295 
96,815 
110,364 
92,777 
94,538 
67,452 
100,263 
106,294 
87,411 
104.839 
90,071 
73,312 
104,402 
82„331 
79,803 



23.1 
34.8 
26.1 
34.5 
21.7 
23.8 
67.0 
72.6 
30.9 
40.7 
75.6 
39.6 

6.1 
22.3 

8.2 
67.4 
46.8 
46.4 
26.4 

1.0 
23.2 

7.2 
27.3 
23.0 
71.6 
13.1 

6.1 
26.0 

4.6 
12.2 
45.2 

# 

22.9 
26.5 



S 



1713 

1871 

1787 

1737 

1638 

1820 

1714 

1843 

1796 

1639 

1836 

1635 

1844 

1833 

1792 

1800 

1636 

1846 

17.S7t 

1803 

1680 

1779 

1847t 

1628 

1705 

1614 

18261 

17.32 

1630 

1748 

1,S49 

1,873 

l.S86-f 

1788 



St' 



Cities. 



Lynn, Mass 

Dnluth, Minn 

Tacoma, Wash 

Elizabeth, N. J 

Lawrence, Mass 

74 lUtica, N. Y 

75 lErie, Pa 

76 ,Sonierville, Mass 

77 IWaterbury, Conn 

78 jFlint, Mich 

79 I Jacksonville, Fla. .. . 

80 'Oklahoma City, Okla. 

81 S.-henectady, N. Y.. 

82 Canton. Ohio 

83 Fort Wavne, Ind.... 

84 lEvansvilie. Ind 

85 'Savannah, Ga 

86 I Manchester, N. H... 

87 ,St. Joseph, Mo 

Knoxville. Tenn 

El Paso. Texas 

Bayonne, N. J 

Peoria, III 

Harrisburg, Pa 

San Diego. Calif 

Wilkes-Barre. Pa 

Allentown, Pa 

Wichita, Kans 

Tulsa, Okia 

Troy, N. Y 

Sioux Cit3'. Iowa.... 
South Bend, Ind 






99,148 
98,917 
96,965 
96,783 
94,270 
94,166 
93,372 
93,091 
91,716 
91.699 
91,558 
91,295 
88,723 
87,091 
86,649 
86,264 
83,262 
78,384 
77,939 
77,818 
77,660 
76,764 
76,121 
75,917 
74,683 
73,833 
73,502 
72,217 
72,076 
72,013 
71, 227 
70,983 



89,336 
78,466 
83,743 
73,409 
85,892 
74,419 
06,525 
77,236 
73,141 
.■58,650 
57,699 
64,205 
72,820 
50,217 
63,933 
69,647 
65,064 
70,003 
77,403 
36.346 
39,279 
55,545 
66,950 
64,186 
39,578 
67,105 
51,913 
52,450 
18,182 
76,813 
47,828 
53,684 



11.0 
26.1 
16.8 
30.6 
9.8 
26.5 
40.4 
20.5 
25.4 

137.6 
58.7 
42.2 
21.8 
73.4 
36.4 
22.4 
28!o 
11.9 
0.7 

114.1 
97.5 
38.2 
13.7 
18,3 
88.7 
10.0 
41.6 
37.7 

296.4 

6.2t 

48.9 

32.2 



1029 

isi;ii 

1868 

1772 

1822 

1758 

1795 

18421 

1667 

1820 

1810 

1889 

1661 

1805 

1794 

1817 

1733 

1730 

1826 

1787 

1827 

186U 

1819 

1726 

1769 

1604 

1762 

1870 

1887 

1752 

1849 

1331 



* Less than one tenth of one per cent. 

t Date of separation from an older city or town. 

t Decrease. 



COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

(Scale, 100 miles to 1 inch.) 



CallfamU 



Mew Mcii-co 

Colorado 
Ortgon^r.r.Cf. 

Duh.K.n.,,...!:'.^':-. 

MinnfsoU--- 
South DikoU, Ncbiuki 

North Diboti 
OLtahoitik. Mi 
Wishmfiion — 

Wbcvuio. Flf>ri<l»..,HI^??i*..'.".";?. 

Ktir Vork.Msrf'' Q".'*''?.* 
■ n I "HiHiisiri'pr 
touituu. Peiuu) [vinu .„ IX. 

TenncK«, Ohio 
VirsiQU. KeniucJ-y *" 




tttint Soulh CirnVl 



Mini*"'! 

Vcnnonl, Nc H imps hi re 



SinJeH, Cermanf 



Raumitnb 



CiicifSlcv<,U» 



Perliifit 
IiiUnd. Aialrl4 



DiUncI oJ Ci^lumhia 



The squares of which the left-hand lower corners coincide, and which are inclosed by solid lines, indicate the areas of the several States. Those 
arranged on the right of the diagram and bounded by broken lines, indicate the areas of foreign countries, and are inserted for the sake of comparison. 
Where two States are of nearly equal area they are of necessity represented by a single square, e. g., South Dakota and Nebraska ; also Vermont and New 
Hampshire ; etc. The areas of the several States, as given in the following table, are land areas from the computations of the Geographer of the United 
States Census. 



States. Foreign Countries. Sq. Miles. 

, Texas 262,398 

France 212,659 

Spain 194,783 

Sweien 173,035 

Germany 171,910 

, Cilitornia 155,652 

Japan 148,756 

Montana 146,201 

Poland Ul,,854 

Hall/ 123,000 

New Mexico 122,503 

Eoi/mania 122,282 

Great Britain arid Irelwnd. . . . 121.633 

Arizona 113.810 

Nevada 109,821 

Colorado 103,658 

Jugoslavia 101,254 

Wyoming 97,594 

Oregon 95,607 

Idaho 83,354 

Utah 82,184 

Kansas 81 ,774 

Minnesota ' 80,858 

South Dakota 76,868 



States. Foreign Countries. Sq. Miles. 

Xebraska 76,808 

Nnrtli Dakota 70,183 

Oklalioma 69.414 

Missouri 68,727 

WasJiington 66.836 

Georgia 58,725 

Michigan 57,480 

Czei-ho-Slomikia 56,316 

Illinois 66,043 

Iowa 55,586 

Wisconsin .55,256 

Florida 54,861 

Arkansas 52,.525 

Alabama 51.279 

Enaland 50,874 

Hungai-y .50.000 

Nortli Carolina 48,740 

New York 47.6.'>4 

Mississippi 46,,362 

Louisiana 45,409 

Pennsylvania 44,832 

Cuba 44,164 

Greece 41,933 

Tennessee 41,687 



States. Foreign Countries. Sq. Miles. 

34. Ohio 40,740 

35. Virginia 40,262 

36. Kentucky 40.181 

37. Indiana 36,045 

Portugal 36,490 

Ireland 32,ii86 

Austria 32,516 

38. South Carolina 30,495 

39. Maine 29,895 

40. West Virginia 24,022 

Denmark 16,585 

Snitzerland 15,976 

Netherlands 12,.582 

Belgium 1 1 .759 

41. Maryland 9.941 

42. Vermont 9,124 

43. New Hampshire 9.031 

44. Massachusetts 8,039 

45. New Jersey 7,514 

46. Connecticut 4,820 

47. Delaware 1,905 

48. Rhode Island 1,007 

District of Columbia 60 



If shown on the same scale employed in the above diagram, the length of the side of the square representing 



Former Russian Empire, except 






United States, continental 


(Area, 3,026,789 sq. 


miles). 


would be 17.4 


Poland and Finland 


(Area, 8.247,624 sq. miles) 
( '• 4,277,170 ■' ) 


would be 28.7 inches. 


Commonwealth of Australia 


( " 2,974,581 


), 


17.2 


China 


" 20.7 


India 


( " 1,802,629 


), 


" 13.4 


United States, including all posses- 






Argentina 


( •■ 1,153,119 




" 10.7 


sions 


( " 3,743,615 " ) 


" 19.3 


Mexico 


( " 767.198 


' j, 


8.8 


Canada 


( " 3,729.665 " ) 


" 19.3 " 


Alaska 


( " 590.884 
( " 473,100 


' { 


" 7.7 


Brazil 


( " 3,275,510 " ) 


•• 18.1 


Union of South Africa 


' ), 


6.9 



(221) 



N 



KECENT STATISTICS OF VARIOUS NATIONS. 

Note. — Where recent census returns are not available trustworthy estimates have been used. 



U 



Government. 



Abyssinia 

Afghanistan 

Albania 

Argentina 

Armenia 

Austria. 

Azerbaijan 

Belgium 

Belgian Congo 

BoLrv'LA 

Brazil 

British Empire 

United Kingdom 

Enfiland 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Indian Possessions 

Otlier Asiatic Possessions. . . 
Coininonwealtli of Australia 
Dominion of New Zealand . . 

Dominion of Canada 

Newfoundlainl and Labrador 

Guiana and Hondiir.as 

Union of South Africa 

Other African Possessions. . . 
Mediterranean Possessions. . 

Various Islands 

Bulgaria t 

Chile 

China 

Colombia 

Costa Rica 

Cuba 

Czecho-Slovakia 

Denmark 

Colony (Greenland) 

Dominican Republic 

Ecuador- 

esthonia 

Finland 

France 

.Algeria 

Colonies in Asia 

Colonies in Africa 

Madagascar and islands in 
Indian Ocean 

Colonies in Oceania 

Colonies in America 

Georgia 

Germany 

Former Colonies 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Haiti 

Hejaz 

Honduras 

Hungary 

li.Ei AND . . . ." 

Italy '. 

Ilependenciea 

Japan 

Dependencies 

-lur.o-SLAVlA 

Latvia 

Liberia 

l thuania 

Luxemburg 

AlESnPOTAMIA 

Mexico 1. 

.Morocco 

N etherlands 

Colonies 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Palestine 

Panama 

p viiaguay 

Persu 

Peru 

Poland 

Portugal 

Cnlonies 

Udumania 

Russia*. 

Vassal States 

Salvador 

SlAM 

Spain 

.\frican Possessions 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Syria 

Turkey 

Ukraine 

United States op America 

.\laslia 

Hawaii 

Panama Canil Zone 

Philippine Islands 

Poito Rico 

Samoa, Virgin, and Guam 

islands 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 



Area in 
Sq. Miles. 



Popula- 
tion. 



350,000 

245,01X1 

11,000 

1,153,110 

•20,130 

3-',516 

40,000 

11,75'J 

903,054 

514,155 

3,275,510 

12,780,3tiO 

121,033 

50,874 

7,400 

30,405 

32,580 

1,802,G2U 

100,242 

3,005,121 

104,751 

3,72il,li05 

102,7.34 

98,072 

473,100 

3,011,009 

3,704 

39,393 

47,750 

289,829 

4,277,170 

440,840 
23.000 
44,104 
60,310 
10,585 
40,740 
19,332 

110,000 
23,160 



8,000,000 
0,380,000 
800,000 
8,279,1,59 
2,159,000 
0,412,430 
4,015,000 
7,020,570 
7,000,000 

2,889,970 

30,492,275 

441,410,000 

45,510.2.59 

34,045,290 

2,025,202 

4,700,904 

4,390,219 

315,150,390 

9,353,000 

5,340,543 

1,2011,(100 

8,301,000 

259,000 

353,000 

0,000,000 

40, 1.80,1 ilX) 

551,,s,",;l 

2,043,510 

5,517.700 

3,945,538 

320,050,000 

5,071,101 

459,423 

2,898,905 

13,914,330 

3,170,979 

13,449 

955.159 

2,000,000 

1,750,000 



212,059 41,475,523 

222,180 ! 5,503,,828 

266,l%i 17,208.728 

3,74_6,790| 23,540,000 

[ 229,700; 3,817,014 



9,194 

33,200 

35,500 

171,910; 

1,024,327 

41,933 

48,290 

10,204 

100,000 

44,275 

50,000 

39,709 

123,000 

590,430 , 

148,7.^0; 

111,982 

101,254 

24,440 

40,(H10 

30,532 

999 

143,250 

707,198 

231, ,-.00 

12,582 

781,403 

49,200 

125,001 

9,000 

32,380 

05,(100 

028,000 

722,401 1 

14I,,S54' 

35.490 

930,204, 

122,282 

8,247,024' 

107,000 

13,170 

195,000 

194,783 

128,149 

173,035 

15.970; 

100,7401 

174,900 

49.S,IOO 

3,020,789 1 

590,,8S4 

6,449 

442 

115.026 

3,(»0 

[ 419 

72,153 
398,594 



81,200 

4.59,082 

3,176,150 

,55,080,000 

12,195,502 

4,821, .'SOO 

2,003,.579 

2,500,000 

750,(100 

005,997 

8,500,000 

85,183 

38,0OO,0W) 

2,000,000 

.55,901,140 

21,043,972 

14,301,459 

2,.500,000 

1,600,000 

4,051 ,000 

203,824 

2,849,282 

15,501,0.54 

6,(100,000 

0,778,(;99 

47,105,022 

740,000 

2,632,010 

647,850 

450,000 

1,000,000 

9,000,000 

4,020,201 ■ 

30,072,381 

5,957,986 

8,735,854 

17,393,149 

160,.501,900 

1,890,000 

1,298,021 

8,819,(;86 

20,7!9,.-.98 

844,339 

5,813,8.';0 

3,937,01)0 

3,1:3,500 

8,000,000 

46,000,000 

105,827,858" 

.54,899 

255,912 

22.868 

10,3.50.640 

1,299,809 

47,382 

1,429,585 
2,250,000 



Capital. 

Population. 



Adis Abeba 

Kabul 

Durazzo 

Buenos Aires 1 

Erivan 

Vienna 1 

Baku 

Brussels 

Boma 

I Sucre 

i La Paz 

Rio de Janeiro 

London 7, 



Edinburgh 333,883 

Du,blin 399,000 

Delhi 232,837 



Canberra 

Wellington 95,235 

Ottawa 87,002 

St. John's 34,045 

Pretoria 57,674 



Sofia 102,812 

Santiago 415,041 

Peking 1,000,000 



Waizeru Zauditu Empress 

AmannUah Khan Ameer 

Hipolito Irigoyen President 

Dr. R. W. Kirchner, Pres. Nat. Assembly 



Albert I King 

E. J. M. Henry Govei-nur-General 

\ President 

Epitacio da Silva Pessoa ; President 

George V King OJ Great Britain, 

) etc., and Emperor 

\ of India 



Baron Ciielmsford Viceroy 

Lord H. W. Forster Gov.-Gen. 

Earl of Liverpool (Jov.-Gen. 

Duke of Devonshire.. Gofer/i07"-Ge«.'i(r/ 
Sir C. A. Harris Governor 

Prince Arthur of Comiaught. . Gov -Gen. 



Boris III Czar 

Arturo Alesandri President 

Hsu Shih-chang President 

Bogota 137,571 .M. F. Suarez President 

San Jost^ 38.01 1 Julio Acosta ... President 

Havana 360.51 7 1 Mario G Menocal President 

Prague 016,031 j Thomas G. Masaryk President 

Copenhagen 005,772 Christian X King 

Santo Domingo. ... . . 20,812 H. S. Knapp Military Gov. 

Quito ■. . . . 70,000 Jose Luis Tamayo President 

Revel 100,(100 August Rei 

President of Constituent Assembly 

Helsingfors 187,544 Kaarlo J. Stahlberg President 

P.aris 2,888,110 Alexandre Millerand President 

Algiers 172,397 M. Abel Governoi--Generiil 



Tiflis 346,766 N. Zhordania President 

Berlin 2,071,257 iFriedrich Ebert President 



Athens 167,479 

Guatemala '.10,000 

Port-au-Prince 120,(H)(1 

Mecca 00,0(10 

Tegucigalpa 28,950 

Budapest 880,371 

Reykjavik 15,328 

Rome 590,960 

Tokyo 2,173,162 

Belgrade 90,890 

Riga 509,100 

Monrovia 6,000 

Vilno 214,000 

Luxemburg 20,355 

Bagdad 2.50.(10(1 

Mexico 471.0110 

Rabat 37 ,.548 

The Hague 352,079 



Managua. - - 
Clli'istiania 
Jerusalem., 
Panama . . . 
Asuncion . . 
Teheran . . . 
Lima 



41,538 
2.59,445 
011,000 
(■,l,30'.i 
1(11, 



Constantine I King 

Carlos Herrera Presulent 

Sudre Dartiguenave President 

Huseiii ibn Ali King 

Rafael Lopez Gutierrez President 

Admiral Nicholas von Hortliy.. Urgent 

Cliristian X. (of Denmark) King 

Victor Eimnanuel III King 

Yosliihito Emperor 

Alexander Prince Regent 

K. Ulmanis Premier 

C. D. B. King President 

A. Smetona President 

Charlotte Grand Duchess 

Sir P. Z. Cox Civil Commissioner 

Alvaro Obregon President 

Mulai Ynsef Saltan 

Wilhelmina i^neen 



National 
Debt. 



...5866,380,000 



Annual 
Revenue. 



Monetary Uhpt. 
Name. Value. 



Talari. . 

. . 54,05«,00O Rupee . 

..169,931,000 Peso... 



. ...fo. 

0. 



{17,008,000,000 . .730,S'.l(),0(Hl Krone 0. 

342.47.^,(ll«l Ruble (rUl 0. 

4,000,000,000 .. 155,4, ;l, (Hid Fnanc 0. 

. . .07,510,000 1 . . . .9,425,000 , Franc 0. 



45,2 
32,4 



20,3 
51,5 
19,3 
19,3 



,.26,6OO,0OO| ...12,198,000 Boliviano 0.38,9 



.1,1 IS. .'-.ii;, (1(111 
47,7.s(1.14r,.i'(i(i ; 



1.0(11. 011(1 Milreis (loflor. 
Pound 



39,314.(.M)(i,(M.lo 4,320, S05,(1(H) 



1,646,237.000 ..589,812,000 Rupee. 



54,6 
86,7 



.0.32,4 



.1,583,000,0001 . .213.708.01111 Pound 4.86,7 

...850,875,000' .1(17.(149.(1011 I'.iund 4.80,7 

.1,935,940,000 . .313,OS4.(iii(i Dollar 1.00,0 

. . . .35,000,000 . . . .0,542,000 Dollar 1 .00,0 

780,760,000 ...93,718,000 Pound 4.86,7 



.2,1.58,000,000 ...93,060,000 Lev (imnc) 0.19,» 

. . .228,377,000 . . .91,223,000 Peso (k,iWi 0.36,5 

.1,.534,575,«)0 ..287,059,000; j^-V^rS;^-^:??;? 

....22,850,000 ...17,330,000, Peso (..l.«fi 0.97,3 

20,2M,0(X) . . . .3,703.000 Colon (soiU) 0.40,6 

0.i,2S9,000 ' . . (/_'. 745.0(10 Peso 1.00,0 

.025,890.000 1,, 571. 7N7 .(10(1 Krone 0.20,3 

124,9(;2,(10(1 Krone 0.26,8 



.101,700,000 

...13,358.000 
. .25,760,000 



34,618,000 

46,025,000.000 
34,787,000 



48,552,000,000 



,.469,307,000 
...10,230,000 
...24,983,000 



Emiliano Chamorro President 

Haakon VII King 

Herbert L. Samuel. /^/pA Commissioner 

Belisario Porras President 

ilaiiuel Gondra President 



...131,771,000 

1 9,412.000.000 

5,21)0,000 

18,102,000,000 

.1,300,000,000 

..' 126,232,000 

..!'.2,V3l",66o 

7,575,000 



. .600,000,000 
...78,960,000 
..98I,349,(X)0 
...91,871,000 
. ..1.8,59t;,000 
. .250,000,000 



22(1.(11 Kl.Mimed Mirza S/ia/i' 

14(1, .5.4 Augusto B. Leguia Presiilenll 

Wai.saw 82(1, Ifiir Joseph Pilsudski President] 

Lisbon 43.5,359 Antonio J. de Almeida President 

Bucharest 308,987 Ferdinand I King 

Moscow (?) 1,121,000 Unsettled; see History, pp. 137 ft'. I 



7,101.000 

13,615,000 

....500,000,000 

31,016,(100 

,.1,3.56,000,0(K1 
,.1,289,046,000 

. 1,022,0(10. 0'lll 
25,000,000,(101! 



. . .0,019,000 Dollar (».W) 1 .00,0 

. ..0,821,000 Sucre 0.48,7 

.206,703,000 Mark 0. 19,3 



..335,178,000 Markka.. 
2,180,900,000 Franc... 
. . .39,676,000 Fr.aiic . . . 



.0.19.3 
.0.19,3 
,.0.19,3 



. .0.23,8 



,.890,481,000 Mark ... 

.221,4.34,000 Drachma 0.19,3 

.1 10,937,000' Peso 0.72,3 

,...3,057,000 Gourde 0.26,0 

, . . .1,949,000! Peso 0.72,8 

.009,717,000 Krone 0.20,3 

049,000 Krone 0.20,8 

.984,247,000 Lira 0.19,3 

.640,319,000; Ten 0.49,8 

" 41,724,000 Dinar 0.19,3 

< 45,348,0001 

273,000 Dollar 1.00,0 

• 2,5,710,0001 

. . .8,237,000 Franc 0.19,3 



Dollar 



.1.00,0 



Florin 0.40,2 

Cordoba 1.00,0 

Krone 0.20,8 

Pound (IWpiMter.) .4.94,3 

Balboa 1.00,0 

Peiso (told) 0.96,5 

Krau 0.13,3 

Libra 4.86,7 

Milreis (lixKirciai ..1.08,6 



SanSalvador 05,007 .lorge MeWndez President. 11.098,00(1 

BnuL'kok 54I.111KI Rama VI. (Maha Vajiravudh) ....King, 32.010,000 

Ma<lrid 652,157 . .\lfonso XIII King . .1,985,774,000 



Stockholm 408,4,50 Gustavus V King 

Bern 112.200 Edmnnd Schulthess ..President 

Damascus 2.50.(iOO|Gen. H. .T. E. Gouraud..///;/// Comrnis.s*r 

Constantinople 1, 203.00(1 1 Mohammed VI Sfillan 

Kiev 610.190 1 Simou Pelhira.. .President of Direetoni 

Washington 437, .571 Warren G. Harding Pre.vident 

Juneau 3,500 Thomas Riggs, Jr Governor 

Honolulu 83,327 IC. J. McCarthy Goreror 

1 Col. Chester Harding Governor 

Manila 260,943 Francis B. Harrison Gov.-General 

San Juan 48,716 Arthur Yager Governor 



Montevideo 361,4.52 

Caracas 86,880 



Baltasar Brum President 

Juan Vict nte Gomez President 



...330,420,000 
. . .205,439,000 

,2,000,000,000 



.125.4.'i3.0fri Leu 0.19,3 

...24,720,0(10 Ruble 0.51,5 

...0,729,000 Peso (.ll.er) 0.72,3 

, . .27,257,000 1 Tical 0.37,1 

.218,218,000 Peseta 0.19,3 



.2.58.498,000 [Krona 0, 

. .44,737,000 Franc 0. 



.140,449,000 
.392.494.000 
24,974,900,000 4,047,0(X),OO0 

0,194,000 ...,9,008,000 

20,470,0001 ...27,390.000 

9,510,000 ...13,578,000 



.164,308,000, . 
..28,983,0001. 



.30,497,0011 
..8,704,000 



Piaster 0. 

Ruble 0, 

Dollar 1. 



,26,8 
19,3 

,04,4 
51,5 
00,0 



Peso . . 
Dollar., 



,50,0 
,00,0 



Peso (gold) 1.03,4 

Bolivar 0.19,3 



t Population and area as estimated in 1917. A Bulgarian authority, after the Peace Treaty in 1920, credited Bulgaria with about 36,000 square miles and 4,600,000 population. 

X Includes 09 per cent of the Austro-Hungarian debt. ♦ Figures are for Russian Empire, omitting Poland and Finland, but retaining all other new States. •* Includes 

117,238 in the U.S. Military and Naval service abroad. 1 Includes 31 per cent of the Austro-Hungarian debt. * National debt of Serbia in 1913. ' Revenue of Serbia 

in 1314. < Figures from Russian budget of 1913. s Approximate only. c For 1913-14. I For 9 months only, ending March 31, 1920. 

(222) 



INDEX 



TO THE 



REFERENCE HISTORY OF THE WORLD. 



The Table of Contents and the Preface, preceding the History, should be read in order 
quickly to comprehend the plan and scope of the Histor>' and to make full use of it. The 
aim in this Index has been to cover all important references to periods, events, places, 
persons, and the like, each under its specific name. Events are given under the names of 
the places where they occurred. Thus, battle of Actium is under .^ctium. Congress of 
Berlin, under Berlin, Treaty of Versailles, under Versailles. etc. Besides this specificin- 
dexing, much of the information is otherwise indexed under topics, as. Aviation. Prohibi- 
tion, Socialism. Woman Sujfraye.io that the whole forms a topical analysis as well asindex. 

In the case of all countries of any importance the index shows, under the name of the 
country (as, for instance, France}, the page on which begins the historical outline of the 
country, its organization, including government, religion, industry and labor, education, 
defense, etc., and its clironology; and in addition are listed all oth^r places where the 
country, or events or persons important in its history, are treated in the histories of other 
countries or periods. These "other reference," are e^peciilly useful in tracing the earlier 
history of a state through the medieval and early modern periods down to the time when 
i ts individual chronology begins, after which time the events contained in this chronology 
do not, of course, need to be indexed in detail under that country. All of the items under 
a country's name or under a topic are arranged both chronologically and alphabetically, 
as in the History itself. 

Besides the direct references from one country or section of the History to another, 
cross references have been freely used, as in the History, to link the treatments together 
or suggest phases of a question that may not at first be evident. It should be remembered 



assas. assassinated 

bat. battlt 

bet. between 

cap. capital, captures, -d 

papt. captures, -d 

conq. conquers, -ed, -or 



d. dies, died 

depend, dependency 

disc, discovers 

dyn. dynasty 

emp. empire, emperor.empress 

exhib. exhibition 



in thi^ connection that many names of the important events, personages and 

tioned in the History will also be found in the mainvocabu- 

Iar>- of the Dictionary, the Biographical section, or the Gazet- - - 

teer, to which further reference may be made. 

ExPLAN.ATiONS: Rcferencenumbers.as 16a. 16f, indicate page 
and column location of the item in the History. The numeral 
shows the page; the letter shows the column and alsowhcther 
the upper or lower half of the column is meant, "a" indicating 
the upper half of the ^rs( column. "b" the /otcer half of the first 
column, "c" the upper half of the second column, "d" the lower 
half, "e" the upper half of the third column, and "f" the lower 
half. This simple method of referring directly to the different 
parts of a page is shown by the accompanying diagram. Where 
several references toaname orevent are to the same half column 
m the History, semicolon, separate the distinct items, and the 
page and column reference is given after the last item only. 

Abbreviations have been freely used in the index, care be- 
ing taken to use only such as are well established or obvious. 
Such abbreviations as Fr.. Ger., etc., are to be read "France", 
"French", "Germany", "Germans", "German", as the sense or 
the construction demands. The following special abbreviations 
have been used: 



places nten 



a 


c 


e 


b 


d 


f 



exped. expedition 

fnd. founds, -ed 

fr. from 

insurr. insurrection 

kdm. kingdom 

Roum. Roumania, -nian 



set. settled, -ment 
suT., surr. surrenders, -ed 
Sw. Sweden, Swedish 
Switz. Switzerland] 
, trans, transferred 
Venez. Venezuela 



Abbas, uncle of Mnhammed. 12b. 

— I. (the Great), of Persia. 18d, 132e. 

— III., of Persia. I32b. 

— Hilmi, khedive of Egypt, 68b&e; de- 
posed. 68f. 

Abbaside caliphate, 12b, 132b. 

Abbott, Sir John, premier, 72b; re- 
signs. 72c. 

ABC powers, alliance, etc. (see in 
Diet.. Addenda), 49c,83b; medialion, 
83d. 125d. 127f. lS5d; treaty. 41b. 83d. 

Abd-el-Kadir. contest with Fr., lOOa. 

Abderrahman I., in Cordoba, 12b. 

— III., in C6rdoba, 12d. 

Abd-er -Rahman Khaii, ameer of 
Afghanistan. 39d&e. 

Abdul-Aziz, sultan, 153a; deposed: 
aisas?.. lJ3b. 

Abdul-Hamid II., of Turkey, reign; 
alienates Albanians; grants demands 
of Young Turks. 151f;aiitocrao'.l.i2b; 
policy of reorganization, 153c; at- 
tempts national zation, 153d: Wm. II. 
of Ger. visits, lo3e: yields to Young 
Turks; revives constitution: orders 
election of pari '^ment; opens pari. 
lo3f; deposed. 151f, lo4a. 

Abdul- Me ji 3. suUan; succeeded, 153a, 

Ab&lard , synod of Soissons; books 
biirnrd, I3b; heresy; St. Bernard. 13c. 

Ab^naberg, battle of, 90d. 

Abercrombie, at Ticonderoga, 168c. 

Aberdeen. 4th Earl of, for. sec. 55d; 
prime min., 55f; resigns, o6a. 

^, 7th Earl of, gov.-gen. Can., 72c. 

AtJlsman u. Booth, Supreme Court de- 
, cision. 174b. 

Abo. Peace of. 21a: Treaty, 140a. 148f. 

Abolition, movement in U. s.. IGOe; 
mail destroyed, 17:Jc; abolitionists at 
Harpers Ferry, 174b; compensated. 
in D. C, 174f. See a\so Slavery. 

Aboukir, cruiser, Brit. lose. 28a. 

Abraham, Hebrew patriarch, 6cite. 

Absinthe, prohibited, 102a. 

Abu-Bakr, ^.ucceeds Mohammed; con- 
(jiHTS Syria; dies, 12a. 

Abukir. Aboukir (see in Gaz.), see 
S'll'-. battle of the. 

Abu Soflan. 12b. 

Abyssinia, historical outline; bounda- 
ries; reliRinn; govt.; industries; area 
&pop. 39a: recent statist cs, 222; map, 
64. Chronology, :;9a.— Other re s.: 
Eng. exped. to. 56b; treaties with, 
57c&e; It. abandons claim to, llCf. 

Academy. Fren-h. fn :.. 19b, 

— of Sciences, Fr . fnd.. 97d. 

— , Royal (Eng.), closed, 58d- 

Acadia (see also Novi Sc •lit: Port 
Royal), settled, 70c&f, 157d; Fr. 
claims in, 167d; enlarged, 97d; Fr. 
settlements destroyed. 70f; Port Royal 
taken, "la; ret'd to Fr., 19e. 52c: 
ceded to Eng.; name changed, 69b. 70c. 
71b. 97f, 158b. 16Sb. 

Acapulco, 126a. 

A.cs333ion Declaration Act, 58c. 

Acevil, pres.; resiuns. 132a. 

Ac3V3do. Cuban revolution. 89e. 

Achsean League {see in Diet.), 8f, 9a, 
b. c.Std. 

AchiBan.3, 7c,9a,c.d. 

Actiaia. ravaged, 9a. 

Achaen. See .\ehin. 

Achi Baba. Allies repulsed at, 28c. 

Achin. Dutch wars in. 130 b&c. 

Acordada Insurrection. Me\.. 126b, 

Acoata, Jutio, pres. Costa Rica, 81f. 

Acre (Brazil), boundary. 48f, 49f.l33e. 

Acre (Syria), siege of (1189. 1191). 13e; 
Turks conquer, 14d, 151a: Bonaparte 
besieges, 68a. 

Acropolis (see in Did.), of Athens, 
stormed; besieged; yields, UOb. 



Actium, battle of. 10a. 
Act iif Settlement, 53b. 
^ iif Supremacy, passed, 17b, 

— of T.'niformity, in Eng., 17d, 52c. 

— of Union. Canada (1840), 71e&f. 
Acts of Trade, Brit.. I58c. 
Adad-nirari III., reigns, 7a. 
^IV.. reigns; takes Damascus, 7b. 
Adair v. United States, Supr. Court de- 
cision, lS2d. 

Adalia. Italians occupy, lllb. 
Adam3, ship, destroyed, 170f. 
Adams, John, life, 212c; chronoIog>'. 

212e; portrait. 212. — Other rets. :197a; 

vice pres., I59c. 169d&e; pres., 22a. 

159c, I 70a. 
^, John Quincy. life. 213e; chronology. 

2131; portrait. 212.— Otherrefs. :197a; 

min. to Rus.. 140c: sec. of state, 171b; 

& Monroe Doctrine. 159e, 171c: pres., 

171d. 
— , Samuel, 168e, 197a. 
^ I.I- Tjimer. Supr. Court decision, 189f. 
Adamson Act. ISSe. l§9e. I92e. 
Adana, O^d; atrocit:es, 154a. 
Addin^ton, prime minister, 54d; re- 
signs, 54e: nome secretary, 54f. 
Addison, Christopher, 60a, 61a. 
Addyston Pipe & Steel Co. v. United 

States. Supr. Court decision. ISOe. 
Ad3laid?, fnd.. 75e. 
Ad-^n, f.2b: 5')d. 112b&d. 
Adis Abeba, Treaty of, 3Jj. 
Adolph of Nassau. =.'lcio/p\Mso/ jVas- 

sau, Duke. 
Adolphus Frederick, of Holstein. 21a; 

king of Sweden, 14Sf; dies, 149a. 

— of Nassau, emp. (1292-98); dies. Hi. 

— of Nassau, Duke (IS;>0), 124e, 130b. 
Adowa, battle of. 39aS:b, 115a. UCf. 
Adrian IV., Pope. 13d. 

Adrian op le, Turks capture { 1361 ),14f, 
15a: Russians take (1878). 141a, 153c; 
besieged; falls, 7Sb, 121f; Turks occu- 
py, 7Sr, 152a: contest over; s.ege Bul- 
garians & SerlM take, 154c; Turks re- 
occupy, 78bif, 154d. 

— , battle of (A.D. 378). lOe. 

— , Treaty of (1S29), 41e. 121f. 136c. 
140d. 152f. 

Adriatic problem, 121e. 

— Sea, mined. 117c; freedom of. 121b. 
"Advancement of Peace" Treaty. 

135a. 
Adventure Bay. Capt. Cook at. 75c. 
.ffigades Islands, 9a. 
Mge&n. Islands, It. in occupation. 

Ilia, 117b; cifded to Greece. See also 

Do'ircancac. 
£gina. .'^thenssubjugatcs, 7f; Gr.goTt. 

withdravs to, UOb. 
.ffigospotami. battle of, Sb. 
.ffinesiaa. jt Sparta. 6b. 
Aifrial Navigation Act, 61b. 
Aeronautics. See Aviation. 
iEschylus, 7f. 
Aetiua, lOf. 
^tolia. See JStotians. 

^tolian League, 8e. 

.ffitolians, unite wth Achrean League. 
9a; active in Gr.(220-167B.C.).9a, b, 
&c: ravage Achaia. 9a; & Macedonia; 
Rome, 9b; Fulvius conquers; patriots 
killed, 9c. 

Affirmation, instead of oath. legal- 
ized (Eng,), 57a. 

Afghanistan (Afghans), hist, outline; 
location: inhabitants, 39b: organiza- 
tion; govt. & finance; industries & 
products; defense; geog,, 39d; area & 
pop ,39e; recent statistics. 222; map, 
64.— Chronology ,39e.— Other refs.: 
Afghans invade India. 62e; conquer 
Persia. 132e; 1st .Afghan War (with 
Eng. 183S-42), 64b; En?, & Pers-ans 
in .Afghanistan, 64c; 2nd Afghan War 
(1878-81). 64d: boundary. 65c. I41b; 
miscd., 5Sa, 64f, 65a. 137c. 



Africa, Roman province, 9d: Franks 
invade, lOd. Vandals in. lOf. llf: Infl. 
Assoc, for Exploration & Civilization 
of. 47c; Stanley explores. 25e; French 
in. 94e; treaties: Eng. & Fr.; Eng. & 
Ger.: Eng. & It.; Eng. & Pg.. 57b; 
partition of. 23e; Ger. authority in 
ended, 29b: mandates over form. Ger. 
colonies assigned. 61c. Map, 64; na- 
tive huts. illust,.128. See also Brif- 
ish East Africa; French Equatorial 
Africa; French West Africa; German 
East Africa; German Southwest 
Africa: Portuguese Eaat & West 
Africa: South Africa. 

Agade= .\kkad. 

Agadir affair. 26e. 94f,101e. 

Aga Khan, 6.5a. 

Agamemnon, 6f. 

Agathocles, tyrant; war with Carthage. 

■Se. 
Age of discovery, 16b. 
^ of Roman Republic. 8e. 
^ of stme. See slon' age. 
Agesilaus, Spartanleader, 8b: recalled 

fr. .\sia: Ccronea, 8b; dies, (c. 
Agincourt, battle of. 15c. 
Agnadello. battle of. 16e. 
Agnes, 'Jue-n, of Ger., 12f. 
Agra, cap-ursl, 64a. 
Agram, tr asi>n trial at, 121a. 
Agricola, defeats Caledonians; conq. 

Britain, 10b. 
AgricuIturalAppropriationsAct.lSSe; 

Bill (1918) vetoed, 19Id. 

— Col!eges(U.S.), origin. 175a; Federal 
grants to, !79b. 

— experiment stati.ns. 178e. 
Agriculture, in any country, see art. 

I TidusCr yd- Labor, under thatconntry. 

— . Dept.of (U.S.), 175a; becomes exec- 
utive; sec. in cabinet. 178f. 

Agrigentum, Sb. 

Agrippa. dies, 10a. 

Ajuascalientes, Convention, 127f. 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 211a&b; revolt; 
:n?ur., 2llc: captured, 181a. 

Ahab. ka. .i Israel. Ob, 7a: defeat. 7b. 

Ahaz, Ling, 7b. 

Ahmadnagar, captured. 64a. 

Ahmad Shah, ameer ol Afghanistan, 
39c&e. 

Ahmed III. , of Turkey, 151c. 

— Fuad, sultan of Egi'pt, 69a. 
^ Mirza. shah of Persia, 132d8:f. 
Ahmes I., expels Hyksos; captures 

Sharuhen. 6f. 

Aidin. See Smurna. 

Algun, Tr.-aty ol, I40f. 

Ainus, llsa. 

Air attacks on Eng. (1914-16;. 59f. 

Air Board. V.ug.. olle; replaced, 60c. 

Aircraft production, director of (U. 
S-), I'Jlc. 

Air Forc3 Constitution Act (Eng.). 
60c; Service .\ct (Eng.), 61b. 

Airplane, Chavez flies o er Alps in 
(1910); -'irst used la war (1911). 117a: 
first review of an airplane armada 
(1912 . lOIf. Types of Airplanes, il- 
lust., 160. See also Aviation. 

Air pump, invented. 19d. 

Air raids. See naval ^ air operations, 
32d. 33f. 35a, 36a, 37d; Ut Bnt.. 32e. 
See also .Air attacks. Zeppelins. 

Air service (U. S.), 191c; Hughes re- 
port on. 191f. See .4i>ia/ion. 

Airahins, types of. illust., 160. See 
also Zevpelinit. 

Aisne. 1st battle of the, 32a; 2d battle. 
opens. 3.5d: ends; attack renewed, 35e. 
Gf-r. retre,it to, 27d, 36e&f. 

Aistulf, 12b. 

Aitutaki. 77b. 

Aix-la-Chapelle. Congress (1818), 
100a, Treaty (Peace) of (1668), 19f. 
52d, 97d, 146d: (1748), 21a. 42d, 44a, 
53d. 9Sb. 106a, 116a, U7a. lG8b. 



, 220. 

, 202c; statis- 



Akbar (the Great), reign. 17c. 63d: 

dies, I7e. 
Akerman, Treaty of, 140d, 152f, 
Akhaltsikh, I40d. 
Akkad, dyn. of. 6d. 
Aknei, 85c. 
Akron, Ohio, statistics, 
Alabama, hist, outlim 
tics, 220: area, 221. Chronology. 
202d .—Other refs.: Ter. created, 171b, 
202d; admitted. 171c; secedes. 174c; 
Reconstruction in, 176b: Democrats 
control, 177c: readmitted, 176d: new 
constitution, ISla; adopts prohibition 
(1908), 182c, 186b; substitutes, local 
option (1911), 182c: bill prohib. a.Iv. 
of liquor, 186c: contract lab^r law 
unconstitutional, 183c; iron & steel 
indus-. 163a. 
— , ship, sails. 56b, 175a: sunk, 175e. 
— claims, arbitration&award,56c&d. 

150d. 164b. 177aS;b. 
Alaja Dagh, battl'; of, 153c. 
Alaman, Lucas, Mex. leader. 126b. 
Aland Islands, Swedenoccupies;Russ. 
removes fortihcations; Ger. occupies. 
93e; Sw.&Finland contest for, 149c. 
Alarcos, battle ot. 13e. 
Alaric, invadea Gr.; sacks Rome, Iflf. 
Alaska, hist, outline; area, 209a, 221; 
statistics. 220&222; chro.iology. 209b; 
map, 64, 194.— Other refs.: d.sc, 21a; 
boundary (1825), 71d; purc.ias? treaty, 
170d; given civil gov't & code, ISOe; 
boundary ( 1903), ISlcid: granted del- 
egate in Cong,, 18If; assembly woman 
suffrage, 184b; Ballinger-Pinchot con- 
troversy. 182f; Cuiiningham coal-land 
claims, 183d: railroad, 185c, 186e; 
coal lands leaaei, 185f: repeals death 
penalty. 186b: prohibition, 189c. 
Alaska- Yukoa -Pacific E.xpos.tion. 

26e. 182f. 
Albania, historical outline; geog.; in- 
habitants. 39l'; industry & labor; reli- 
gion & education; area & pop,, 40a;re- 
cent statistics. 222 .Chronology, 40n. 
— Other rels: Bulgaria conquer3(l21S- 
41), 77f; Venice retains posts in. 20e: 
troops in Egypt, 6Sd: naval demon- 
stration. 153c; supports "Young 
Turks,- lolf: revolts (1911-12). 154a 
S:b; kingdom of esUb. 42f, 121f. 152a: 
Montenegrins besiege, 154c; Serbia 
forbidden control of, 2Gf: blockaded, 
45d; It. to control, 121b; Serbs retreat 
into, 33e: It. in. 33e. 115a; Austria 
driven out, 37b; It. in retreat, 30b, 
Albanian League, 40a. 
Albano, pres. of Chile; dies. 83d. 
Albany, N.Y., Ft. Orange built(1623). 

ISf; statistics. 230. 
^, Cape Colony, settled, 6(if. 

— Congress, 168c. 

— Plan, 158c. 

"Albany Regency," 199a 
Albazin. fnd.. S5c, 
Albemarle, Duke of. See .l/on;t,GeT». 
^. Lord. See Keppel. 

— Sound, explored, 107c; settled, 220, 
Alberoni, Giulio, Cardinal. I45d; in- 

vadesSardiniaS;Sicily;di3mis3cd.l46f, 
Albert (France), capt. by Ger., 30a, 

36d; by Brit. 36e. 
Albert of Austria, or Hapsburg (1398) , 

wars on .Adolphus: emp., 14d; killed, 

14e. 
—.of Austria (1600). gov. of Noth.; at 

Nieuport. 18d. 
Albert I., of Belg.. king, 46fS:47e; 

promises reforms in Congo, 47c; in 

Flandf-rs. 36f; enters Brussels. 48a; 

with queen St crown prince visits U.S.. 

48b, 193d. 
^ of Brandenburg. 17a. 

— II., of Hapsburg (1437), l.-ic 

^of Saxe-Cobuff. weds Victoria. 55d: 
dies, 56b. 

223 



Albert the Bear. 13c, 

— Edward. Prince of Wales, visits 
Can. & U. S., 56a, 71f; India, 56d, 
64d; becomes Edward VII., 57d. 

^Victor, Prince, dies. 57b. 

Alberta, district of Canada; province, 
69d: repr. in Commons, 69e: descr., 
area, & pop.. 70b; admitted loConfed- 
eration, 72d: telephone. 72e; oil disc. 
'": 72f; prohibition approved. 73a. 

Albigenses, crusade against the; mas- 
sacre. I3f. 

Albinus of Britain. 10c. 

Alboin, forms kingdom of Lombards; 
marri.-s Rosamunda, 12a. 

Albuquerque, Alfonso de, 63d. 

Alcieus, I .re -k poet, 7c. 

Alcibiades, ,Sa; eviled, 8b. 

Alcman, Greek poet, 7c. 

Alcoek,Capt. John W., Atlantic flight: 
killed, 6lc. 

Alcolea. battle of (1808). H7d. 

Alcortl,Mex, leader, 126e. 

Alcorta; Jose Figueroa, pres.. 41b. 

Alcoy, rising in (1S73). 147d. 

Alcudia, Duke of. 145d. 

Aldieri. war minister, 117e. 

Aleksandrovsk, railroad to, 142c. 

Aleksinac. battle of. 122c. 

Aleksyeev, Gen., Rus. commander; re- 
•iigns. 143f. ' 

Alem. Dr. Lcandro, 41a;bani3hed.41b. 

Alemanni. 12a. 

Aleppo, Mehemet Ali pasha over. 68d: 
occupied, 37c, I51a. I52b. 

Alessandria, Vic. Amadeus get3;115f. 

Aleutian Islands, 209a, 

Alexander of Battenberg. Prince, elect- 
ed pnnce of Bulgaria, 78a&d; as- 
sumes absolute power; restores consti- 
tution; gov .-gen. of E. Roumelia;ab- 
dicates; restored' abdicates, 7SaS:e. 

^I., of Gr., succeeds Constantine. 35c, 
109f, nOf; Venizelos ministry, llOf. 

^I., of Macedon, 7e. 

^ III. (the Great), of Macedon, born. 
8c; becomes king. 8d; conquests, 6a; 
Persia; at the Granicus; Darius; Sy- 
ria: Tyre; Gaza; Jerusalem; Eg>'pt: 
Alexandria; Triballi; Thebes; at Gau- 
gamela near Arbela; Babylon; Susa; 
Persepolis: returns to Babylon; conq. 
Porus; marries Ro\ana; in India; in 
Parthia & Media; kills Parmenio; in 
Bactria: dies; territories divided, 8d. 

— IV., of Macedon, killed, 8e. 

^ v., of Macedon, reigns; killed, 8e. 

^ III,, Pope; contest with Frederick I.; 

evcommunicatea Frederick. 13d. 

— v.. Pope, 15b. 

— VI, (Borgia), Pope, I5f; grants, 49a. 
IG7a. 

— VII., Pope, 19d. 

— VIII., Pope, 20b. 

— I., of Ru3„ czar. 22b, 137c&d; 140c; 
Napoleon defeats, 99c; conferences 
with Napoleon, 99d; Treaty of Tilsit; 
drives out Fr., 140c; dies. 140d, 

— II,, of Russia, 137d, 140e;freea serfs 
in Three Emperors' League, 140f: pol- 
icy in Poland, 134b; war with Turkey; 
Nihilist troubles; assassinated, I41a. 

— III., of Rus-sia. 137e; 141a; confer- 
ence at Skierniewice: dies, 141b. 

^ I,, of Serbia, king; restores old con- 
stitution, 122c; assass., 122c, 121f. 

— (Karageorgevich)of Serbia, I22b. 

— .ofSerbii, Prince(b.l888),122c.:made 
prince regent of Jugo-SIavia, 12Ic. 

— Balaa, 9c; 9d, 

^ Jannseus. king. 9e. 

— Joan I., king of Roum., 136c;abdi- 
cates. I36c&e. See also Couza. Col. 

^, Sir William (Lord Stirling), receives 
grant of Nova Scotia, 70f. 

Alexandria, fnd., 8d; museum. 8e; 
septuagi nt,8f; library burned, 9f; Cara- 
calla massacres, 10c; bombarded(18SB), 



224 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



u 



56e. 68e; massacre, 6Se: revolt at, 69a. 

Pharos at. illust.. 64. 
Alexandrian Church. 39a. 
Alexis, heir to Rua. throne, born. Hid; 

dies. 139f. 
— (Nord). pres. of Haiti; overthrown, 

IIU. 
AlexiuBCDComnenus. (lOSl), 13a. 

— (V.) Comnenus (1204), of Trebi- 
zond, 13f, 

Alfaro, Geo. Eloy. Icada revolt; de- 
poses Garcia: dictator; constitutional 
pres.; revolts; pres.; murdered. 92f. 

Alionso v., of Aragon. 15c. 

— 1. (the Great), of Asturias. 12d. 

— X.. of Castile. 13e. Ub; elected emp. 
of Ger. 103a. 

— I., of Portugal. 134f. 

^ XII.. of Spain: king, 14,ie; reaches 
Spain. 147d: dies, U5e. 147e. 

— XIII.. of Spain, born. U5e. 147e: 
enthroned; married, 145f. 147e: reign, 
145f; visfts Paris. 147e: narrowly es- 
capes assas., 147e, 

■— , Crown Prince, of Spain, born, I47f, 

Alfred (the Great) . king: fosters learn- 
ing; defeats Danes; Gutfirum; dies, 
12d; millenary of, 57d. 

Algarve. United Hingdomof Portugal, 
Brazil, and, 49b&e. 

Algeciras. conference at (1906), 94f. 
101c; Convention (Treaty), 26d; rati- 
fied by U. S.. 182b. 

Alger, R. A., sec. of war; resigns, ISOd. 

Algeria, hist, outline; gov't; indus. & 
labor. 96a: educ; relig.; defense; area 
& pop.. 96b; recent statistics. 222; 
map 64.— Other refs.: Decatur pun- 
ishes. 171a; Fr. begin conq. of. 24e. 
100c; Fr. control. 94e. See AlgierB, 

Algiers. Blake at. 52a; French at, 97e; 
conquer. 152f. See Aloeria. 

Algonquian family of Indians, 166b. 

Algonquin, ship, sunk, 35c, lS9e. 

Alhucemas, Marquia of. See Prieto. 
Manuel Garcia. 

Ali. caliph. 12b. 

Ali Bey, revolts, 6Sd. 

Atides, 12Se. 

Alien & Sedition Acts, 170a.198d.2l2d. 

— Property Custodian(U.S.). 192b. 194a. 

Aliens, in U. S., ownership of land by, 
prohibited in Arizona; Calif, passes 
anti-alien land ownership act. 184e; 
gov't deports criminal aliens, 192d, 

Aligarh, battle of, 64a. 

Ali Shereef, dyn. in Morocco, 128e. 

Alix of Hesse. Princess, marries Nicho- 
las II., I41b. 

AUectus, lOd. 

Alieghenies. crossed (1671), 167f. 

Allen, Ethan. 168f. 200b. 

AUenby.EdmundHenry Hynman. suc- 
ceeds Murray. 36a; in Palestine. 131d, 
152b: takes Jaffa. 29f; Jerusalem, 29t, 
36a, 151a; Jericho. 30c, 37c; Damas- 
cus. 151a; turns Damascus over to Hc- 
jazadm., 112e:jeleasesNationalist3 in 
Egypt; proclamation, 69a. 

AUende-Salazar. Manuel, premier, 
148b. 

AUentown, Pa., sutistics. 220^ 

AlHa. battle of the, 8b. 

Alliance. (1725) Sp. & Aust., 146f; 
(1725) Fr.. Eng.. Prus.. & (1726) 
Russ.. 146f; (1879) Ger. & Aust.. 107b; 
(1919) Eng., Fr..& U.S. treaty ot (not 
ratified), 61c&d, 189a. See Grand 
Alliance, Hoiu Alliance. Quad- 
ruple Alliance. Triple Alliance; and 
cf . Dreikaiaerbund. Entente, Leaaue. 

Allied War Conference, at Paris, 190c. 

Allies (Balkan: Montenegro. Serbia. 
Or., & Bulgaria), alliance (Balkan 
League) formed, 78e; in 1st Balkan 
War, 78b&e; defeat Turkey, 45d; oc- 
cupy Scutari, 45d; gain by Treaty of 
London(1913).7Sb-— (Entente: see 
Allies & Triple Entente in Diet.. 
Addenda), dates of entry into World 
War. 38e; decline to accept Decl. of 
London; no separate peace, 31e; re- 
treat stops. 32a: permit passage of 
supplies for Belg.. 47f; violate U. S. 
neutrality, 3 If; at Soissons. 33b; agree- 
ment with It., 121b; final offer to 
Bulg., 33a; retire to Saloniki, 33e; 
V. S. protest on neutrality, 33a; at- 
tack Kamerun. 33f; capt. Yaunde; 
KamerunsurT.,34f; mail seizures, 34a; 
controversy with Gr.; take control of 
Saloniki; blockade Gr., llOe; Gr. 
yields; refuse to recog. Gr. cabinet 
(1916); Gr. fleet & forts turned over 
to: demonstrations against in Athens; 
recog. Venizelos gov't; order ministers 
of Central Powers to leave Gr.; Gr. 
agrees to demands of; demand guaran- 
tees; ultimatum; accepted. llOf; reply 
to Wilson's note (1916). 189b; eco- 
nomic conf. at Paris, 102b; blockade 
Gr.; demand Gr. demob., 34b; battle 
of the Somme, 34c; offensive oa 
Soitime. 28eStf; treaty with Rouma- 
nia. 34b. 114a, 121b. 136f; Constan- 
tine's army threatens. 3 le; capt. 
Thiepval. Pozieres. Longucval. & 
Combles; threaten P6ronne. 28f; rec- 
ognize Crete; control Gr, navy; send 
troops to Athens, 34b; recog. Hejaz, 
112e; promise Russ. Constantinople 
& Dardanelles, 142d; recog. Husein, 
king of Hejaz; reply to Central Pow- 
ers, 34c; joint reply to Ger. peace pro- 
posal (1916). 108b; in Mesopotamia. 
29f; reply to Wilson (1917), 35b: de- 
mand abdication of Constantine, 35c; 
approve U. S. reply to Pope, 35c; air 
raids on Ger.. 36b; U. S. loans to. I90b; 
lines (end of 1917). 32b final views 
on peace, 36d: recognize Georgia, 102f; 
Ukraine, 139d; condemn Treaty of 
Brest-Litovsk. 143b; air raids, 37d; 
counter offensive (1918). 36c&;f; in 
Siberia, 37c; in Murman region; war 
with Rus.. 138c; trade wtih Rus.. 
138d; at Lake Doiran; Strumnitza; 
Koprili, 37b; in Flanders. 36f; in 
France; reach Dutch bound., 37a; 
advance into Ger.. 37b; armistice. 
30f; protect Arabia. 112e; armistice 
with Hung , lUa; in Russia (1918), 
143d; U S. credit to. 192e; blockade 
Balticports; conference at Omsk,I43e: 
sign Treaty of Versailles, 193a: raise 
blockade, 38a; Treaty of Neuilly. 79a: 
demand suit, ot Kaiser. 3Sb, 130d: 



demand e-xtradition of war criminals. 
38b; but accept trial at Leipzig. 38e; 
San Remo Conference (1920). 11 la; 
treaty with Turk.. 1 1 lb; U. S. loans 
to.38d.l90b;costofWorldWar,38c&d. 
Se-? also World War and each of Allied 
countries. 

Allies (of Grand Alliance), defeat 
French. I46f. 

All-India Moslem League. 64f, 6Sa. 

Allison. Sen. W. B.. 204d. 

Allouez. Claude J.. Fr. explorer. 71a. 

All-Russian Central Executive Com- 
mittee. 139a. 

— Congress of Soviets, 138f. 139a. 

— Govrnment (Siberia), I43c. 
Alma, battle of the. 140c. 
Almagro. Diego de, (1475-1538). 82f; 

in Peru. 133c; in Chile, 83c: assas.; 
followers assas. Pizarro. 133c. 

Almansa. battle of, 146f. 

Al-Mansur, 12b. 

Almeida. Antonio Jos6 de, premier; 
pres. of Port.. 136b. 

Almohade ascendancy in Spain, 13f. 

"All-Red" cable Line. 72d. 

"All-Red Line". 70a. 

Almonte. Juan N., 127a. 

Alp-Arslan, I3a. 

Alphabet, devised. 7a. 

Alps. Napoleon builds roads over, 150c. 

Alsace, passes to France (1648). 19c, 
42c. 97e; confirmed; Louis XIV. re- 
tains, 97e; ceded to Ger., lOOd, I07a; 
invaded (1914). 3 If; Amer. troops in. 
191b. See also Alsace-Lorraine. 

Alsace-Lorraine, area & pop.. 95f; 
Ger. gets. 25e. 94c; attempts to Ger- 
manize, 107b: in Ger. Federation, 
107e; Ger, declares cession impossi- 
ble, lOSc; Charles of .■\uslria acknowl- 
edges Fr.claim to, 46a; restored to Fr., 
31a. 95a. 

Altgeld, Gov. J. P.. 163e. 

Althing, of Iceland. 114c. 

Althorp, Lord. 55b. 

Altranstadt. Peace of. 20d. 

Alva, Duke of, readies Neth.; Blood 
Council. 17f. 

— . Duke of (1590), ISc. 

Alvarado, Pedro de. 79c. 80b; conq. 
Guatemala & Salvador, 80c. 

Alvarez. Juan, acting pres. of Mex.; 
surr, office. 126f. 

Alves, Rodriguez. pres. Brazil, 49f&50a. 

Amacuro nver, in Venez. boundary, 
I55d. 

Amadeus, Prince, king; abdicates, 
145e. 147d. 

Amador Guerrero. See Guerrero. 

AmanuUah Khan, Ameer of Afghan* 
istan. 39d&e. 

Amara. Unt. capture. 33f. 

Amasis, r'lgns. 7e. 

Amazon River, disc. 167a: Guahariba 
huts along, illust., 128. See Brazil. 

Ambassadors, U. S., Congress au- 
thoriies title. 179d. 

— , Council of. 38b. 

Amb<>ise, Pacification of. 17f. 

Ambrose, St., bp.; excom. Theodo- 
sius; bap. St. Augustine. lOe. 

Amendment, Clarke, lS8e. 

Amendments to U. S. Constitution, 
lat ten. 16'Jb. 169e; 5lh interpreted. 
I33f; llth, lO'Jf. 170a. I71c. 20; 12th. 
170b; Uth&12th, 159b; 13th, 25c. 
leieSd. 162a, 176a&b,215f:13th,Supr. 
Court decisions under, 183c; 14th. 
162b&c.l63b&c, 172b. 176b&e; 14lh, 
Supr. Court decisions under, 177b(2), 
177c, 177d(2). 178a, b&c, I78e(2). 
179c,180b.c&e. 18ie, 182d, 190c:14th. 
Amnesty Act (1898) removes disabili- 
ties. 180c; 15th. 162c. 176e&f; 15th. 
Supreme Court decisions under, 177d. 
181c; 16th, 165c, 182f. 184d; 17th, 
184a&f; 18th (prohibition— see also 
prohibition), 165d. 190d. 192c&d, 
194c; 19th (suffrage — see also suf- 
frage & woman suffrage) , I65e. 

Amenemhat I. -III.. 6e. 

Amenophis I. -IV.. 6f. 

— IV.j Solar monotheism. 6f. 
America, disc. 16c, 157a; origin of 

name. 157c. 167a; colonization. I57d. 
See also United States, Nortk Amer. 
& South Amer., below, & Central 
America, under Central, 

^, Central. See Central America. 

— . North, coast sighted (986); Ericson 
disc. (1000). 12e; Norsemen reach, 
lo7a; disc, of, 157a&b; Cabot reaches, 
16d: Sp. claim in; Eng. claim in. 167a; 
1st European to cross; Fr. claim in, 
167b; way for Eng. settlement opened. 
167c; Du. claim in, 16Td; 1st settle- 
ment. SOc; colonization & early hist., 
157 et seq.; Map. 64. 

^, South, coast disc, 16d&e; disc, 
157c; Span, colonies in, see Argen- 
tina, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Vene- 
zuela; Spanish American empire. 
145b; Sp. colonies revolt; subdued. 
22e; Span, colonies lost. 14t>c. Map. 64. 

American Academy of Arts and Let- 
ters. 184d. 

American Accessory Transit Co^ 80f. 

— Antislavery Society, 172b. 

— Army of Occupation, leaves Ger., 
193b. 

— Board of Commissioners, for For. 
Missions, centennial of "Haystack 
Meeting." 18Ja. 

— Colonization Society, 123e&f. 

— Expeditionary Force, property pur- 
chased, 193b. 

^ Federation of Labor. & injunction; 

officers sentenced (1908), lS2e. 
^ fleet, cruise. See Battleship fleet. 
— • history, 157a: chronology. 167a. 

— Institute of International law, 187e. 

— Insurance Co. v. Canter, Supr. Court 
decision, 171e. 

^ Interoceanic Canal Commission, 81a. 

■™ Legion, act of Congress to incorpor- 
ate. 193c: parade tired on by I. W. W. 
193e. 

^ party. 177e. 

— Railway Union. 179e. 

^ Relief Administration, Hoover ap- 
pointed to direct, I92c. 
— • Tobacco Company. 183d. 
^ Tobacco Trust, dissolved, 16Sa. 

— War Commission, 190c. 
Americans. See United States. Thus. 

for "Americans in World War," Bee 



United States, Chronology (1917-18). 
See also under World War, and under 
names of particular places, engage- 
ments, etc. 

Amerigo, suggested name of new world. 
167a. 

Amerigo Vespucci. 157c. 

Amherst, Ld.Jeffrey. 85c; takes Louis- 
burg, 16Sc; Montreal. 16Sd. 

— , William Pitt (Lord), gov.-gen. of 
India, 64b. 

Amidas. explores coast of N.C..167c. 

Amiens, Ger. take: teoccupied, 32a: 
Gers. advance on, 36d; battle of. 36e. 

— . Peace of ( 1S02). 22b, 54c&d. 64a, 66f, 
99b. 130b. 147b. 

Amnesty .Act (1898). 180c. 

Amon, 7d. 

Amorites, invasion, 5d. 

Amos, prophet, 7b. 

Amoy, Treaty port. 84a; Brit, open 
trade in. S5c; Brit, occupy; Chinese 
retake; Taiping rebels, 85d: Japan es- 
tab. police stations in. 87c. 

Amphlctyonic general (Philip). 8d. 

Amphion Brit, cruiser, sunk. 32d. 

Amphipolis, fnd., Sa; Philip H.. 
takes, 8c. 

Amritsar. riot (1919). 65a. 

Amsterdam, e.\p03ition (IS95): In- 
ternational Suffrage Congress (1908). 
130c; food riots (1916). 130d. 

Amundsen, Roald. discovers S.Pole. 
26f, 58d, 131b. 

Amur, the, ceded to Rus., 84a; Rus. 
settles on. Rus. withdraws. 85c; ceded 
to Rus., 85d. 

— basin, acquired by Russia. 137d, 140f. 
Amyntas II.. in Macedonia, Sc. 
Amyot. Jacques. 16e. 
Anabaptists, 17b. 

Anacletus II.. antipope, 13c. 

Anam. See Annam. 

Anarchists, in Switz.. 150d; sup- 
pressed. 150e; in Chicago (1886). 
17Sc: in Barcelona, 147e; in Breslau. 
107c; in Portugal. 136a; in Madrid. 
147e; in Petrograd (1917). 142e; de- 
ported from U. S. (1919), 193f. 

Anatolian railu.'ay. 1253. 

Ancient Period of World History,5-10. 

Ancients, Council of, 9Sf. 

Anc6n. ship, 1st through Canal. lS5e. 

Ancona. Fr. in, 116b; noting, 117b. 

Ancona. ship. sunk. 33a, lS7d; U. S. 
note on. 33b. lS7e. 

Andalusia, revolution (1S73). 147d. 

Andaman Islands, area & pop.; deacr,, 
65b; occupation. 56a. 

Anderson, J. W.. sec. of com., 193f. 

— . Major Robt., 161b. 

Andes Mountains, in Bolivia, 4SdS: 
e: ascent, illust.. 116. 

Andorra, history i cfironology, 40c. 

Andrade, Gen. Ignacio, pres., 156c. 

Andrassy. Gyula (Julius). Count.Au3- 
tro-Hung. min. for for. affairs; pre- 
mier, 44f: Berlin Memorandum. 153b: 
resigns; dies (1S90). 43a. 

— . Gyula (Julius). Count (b. 1860). 
Austro-Hung. min. for for. affairs; 
asks U.S. to conclude armistice, 46b; 
premier of Hungary, 114a. 

Andrfe. Major. 169b. 

— . Gen. L. J, Nicolas, War Minister of 
Fr., resigns, 101c. 

Andrew II., of Hungary. 5th crusade. 
Ha; Golden Bull, 14a. 112f. 

Andres, Sir E.. 158c, 168a: gov. of 
N.w ling,, 196c&i; overthrown. 168a. 

Andrusovo, Truce of. 134c. 139e. 

Angeles, l-.:lipe. executed. 12Sc. 

Angevin=Plantagenet dynasty, 13c. 

Anglican Church (see Anglican 
i'ommunion. in Diet.). 51e. 66b. 

Anglo- Egyptian Sudan. 6Sc. 

—Franco- American Treaty of Alliance. 
signed; not ratified, 189a: 38a. 102e. 

—Franco- talian agreement. 117e. 

—French agreements. 26c; (.\sia Mi- 
nor). 34b; (Syria). 38b: (Siam), 144f; 
exped. against China, 100c; replies to 
Amer. protest on mail seizures, 34b. 

—German treaty (1890), 26a. 

^-Japanese, alliance. 6c; treaty 
signed. 120d. 

■^-Persian agreement, 3Sb: denounced. 
I32f. 

—Russian treaty (1907). 26e, 132e. 

^-Saxons. Augustine among, 12a; 
Heptarchy; Egbert. 12c. 

Scottish war (1296-1329), 14d. 

—Siamese treaty, 144f, 145a. 

Turkish alliance (187S), 25f. 4U. 

Angola. 67a. 135d. 

Anguilla. 74c. 

Anhalt. republic estab.. lOSf. 

Anjou. John loses, 13f; Louis XI. 
seizes. 15e. 

— . House of. 13c. 112f. 

Anna Ivanovna. of Russia, 20f. 140a; 
dies. 140a. 

Annam. descrip.. 97a; treaty with Fr., 
S5e; Fr. protectorate, 94f, lOOe; gets 
lower Cochin China. 100c; "Black 
Flags," lOOe. Native bouse, illust., 
128. 

Annapolis, Nova Scotia, 70f. 71a. 
I68b. See also Port Royal. 

— Convention. 169c. 

Anno of Aust.. marries, 18e; regent, 19c. 

— of Brittany, 15f. 
^ of Cleves. 17c. 

^of Eng., Queen, becomes Queen, 20c. 
53b; reign. 53b&c; creates peers. 53c; 
dies. 53c. 20e. 

— of France (dame de Beaujeu), 15f. 

Annenberg. Rus. defeated at, 27e. 

Anniversary. 100th of Amer. inde- 
pendence. 171d; oOthof Belgian inde- 
pend., 47c; 400th of disc of Amer. 
(Chicago Exposition) . 179d; Greek 
independence, 110c; millenary of Al- 
fred the Great. 57d: bicentennial of 
Franklin's birth. ISlf; Hudson-Ful- 
ton celebration. 182f , 50th of battle of 
Gettysburg, i84f. See also Centennial 
Expositions, Millenary, Tercentcnr 
ary. Tercentennial. 

Annunzio, d'. Gabriele, occupies Fi- 
umc, ll7f. 12 Id; seizes Zata, 12 Id. 

Ansbach. Fr. gets, 99c; goes to Bava- 
ria. I06c. 

Ansgar. St.. 148b. 

Anson. Commodore, cruise of, 53d. 

Antalcidas. Peace of. 8b. 



Anthracite coal, first used, 24c: Com- 
mission. ISlc 

Anti-Corn-Law League, 55d. 

Antietam. battle of. I61d,l75b.l97d. 

Antifederalist party. 159c&d. 2l2e. 

Antigonus. kmg; peace; slain. 8e. 

^ (Doson), reigns. 9a. 

^ (Gonatas), reigns; P>Trhus defeats; 
recovers crown; conquers Athens. 8f. 

Antigua. 74c: ceded to Eng., 52c. 

Antilles. Greater. 74b; Lesser. 74c&d. 

Anti-Nebraska party. 173f. 

Antiocb. fnd.. Se: crusaders take, 13b; 
Bibars takers. 14c. 

AntiochUB I. (Soter). reigns, 8f. 

— II. (Theos). 8f. 

— Ill, (the Great), reigns. 9a; Ptolemy 
IV. defeats; conspires with Philip of 
Macedon; defeats Egyptians, 9b; 
treaty with Egypt; enters Greece: de- 
feat at Thermopylae; defeat near Mag- 
nesia; gives up Asia Minor, 9c. 

— IV. (Epiphanes), rules; visits Jeru- 
salem; persecutes Jews; Jews revolt; 
kilted, 9c. 

^ VII. (Sidetes), reigns; destroys walls 
of Jerusalem; invades Parthia; killed. 
9d. 

— VIH. (Grypus). reigns. 9d. 

— IX, (Cyzicenus). reigns, 9e. 
^ X. (Eusebes). reigns. 9e. 

^ XIII. (Asiaticus).reign9;dethroned, 
9f. 

Antioquia, in Granadine Conf ed. ,88a. 

Antipater. ruler of Macedonia. 8d; 
defeats Greeks; regent; dies, 8e. 

Antipolygamy Act (1882), 178b: 
(1887). irSe. 

"Anti-Semitic War," Ger. (1893). 
107c 

Anti-Semitism. See Jews. 

Antislavery movement begins, 168a. 
See also .-itniltlion and Slavery. 

Antitrust cases, to have precedence 
in courts. ISlc 

^ legislation. See Clayton Antitrust 
Bill. Sherman Antitrust Act. 

Antivari, Aust. takes. 34e. 

Antoninus Pius, 10c. 

Antonio, Don, forced to resign claim 
to Span, throne. 145d. 

Antony, in 2nd triumvira'e; Cicero's 
Philippics against: defeats Brutus & 
Casstus; Cleopatra before;follows Cle- 
opatra; Octavianus defeats; suicide, 
10a. See also Cleopatra. 

Antwerp. Duke of Parma besieges 
(1584); takes, ISb; French besiege 
(1832); surrenders. 47c: temporary 
seat of Belgium govt. (1914). 47e; 
Belgians retire to. 31f; Germans at- 
tack (1914). 32a: falls. 32a. 27d.47f. 

Anzacs (st-e Anzac. in Diet., Adden- 
da), at Suez Canal. 68f: at Gallipoli, 
28c. 33d; at San-Bahr. 33e. 

Aoki. \'iscount Aoki Shuzo, Jap. Am- 
bas., I82a. 

Aosta. Duke of . See Amadeus. Prince. 

Apaches, surrender in Ariz., 178d. 

Apamea, fnd., 8e. 

Apia, vil. & harbor. Samoa ials., 210b; 
British occupy, 27f. 

Apollinarian controversy. lOe. 

Appam. ship. cap. by Ger., 188a; sent 
to U. S.; reld to owners, 35a. 189d; 
Supr. Court decision. lS9d. 

Appian Way, begun. 8e. 

Appius Claudius. See Claudius. 

Appomattox, eurr.of Lee. 161f. 176a. 

Apponyi, Count Albert, Hungarian 
pn-mier, 46b. 

Apries (Hophra), reigns. 7d. 

Aquae Sextise, battle of, 9e. 

Aquidaban. battle of. 13Ie&f. 

Aquinas, St. Thomas. 14c. 

Aquitania. llf. 

Arab-Bedouins. 12Se. See Arabs. 

Arabia, historical outline; relig. :chro- 
nology, 11 2b; map. 64; habitation, il- 
lust.. 128. — Other rcfs.: commerce 
(2500 B. C), 6c; Harun-al-Rashid 
caliph. 12c; Arabic power in Sp,, 12d; 
Seljukian empire, 12f ; Ali Bey in con- 
trol of, 6Sd; revolts: fnds. kingdom of 
Hejaz, 152b; Brit, recognize inde- 
pend.. 151a. See also j4ra()9: i/e/as. 

Arabic, liner, sunk. 33a. 187b: Ger. 
disavows sinking; suggests arbitra- 
tion. lS7c 

Arabi Pasha, revolts. 68e: defeated, 
eSb&e; exiled to Ceylon. 68c. 62d. 

Arabs, 1st siege of Constantinople 
(668 A. D.); 2nd siege (717), 12b; 
war with Belgians in Congo (1891), 
4Sc; outbreaks in Tripoli (1913). 
117b: Hueein king, 34b; aid Allenby, 
36a, 37c, 151a; revolt. 151b. See also 
Arabia; Hciaz. 

Aragon. state of siege (1866). 147d. 

Arakan, ceded to Eng., 64b. 

Aramaans. culture of. 5d. 

Aranda. Count of, Sp. premier. 147a. 

Aranjuez. insurrection in, 147d. 

Aratus, frees Sicyon. 8f; gen. of Acha?- 
ans; asks aid of Macedonians, 9a; 
dies. 9b. 

Araujo. pres. of Salvador. Sld&e. 

Arausio, Rom. armies destroyed, 9e. 

Arbela. battle near, 8d. 

Arbitration. G. Br. & U. S. (boun- 
dary. 1831). I72a; G. Br. St U. S. 
(boundary. 1872); Alabama claims, 
177b; It. & Switz.. 150d; G. Br. & 
U.S. (Bering Sea). 179c&e; Brazil & 
Arg.. 41b. 49f; Mex. &: Guat.. Sic; 
G. Br. & Venez.. 156c; Venezuela 
bound, dispute. 155e, 156c; Arg. & 
Chile. 41b; Costa R. & Colom., Sic; 
Ger. & Venez.. 155e: Nicar. & Hond.. 
Sic See also Hague (The), Peace 
Congress, etc. 

— Congress (Wash.. 1896), 180a; (N. 
Y.. 1907). 182c. 

— of R. R. labor disputes (Erdman 
Act). 180c. 

^ treaties, Paraguay & Arg.. 132a; 
Venez. S: Colom.. I56a: Eng. & Ven- 
ez.; Eng. & U. S. (1896). 180a; Eng. 
& U. S. (1906), 58a; Fr. & U. S.. 
U. S. & other nations (proposed;) 
182d. 183f. 

Arcadia, 8c. 

ArcadiUS, reigns. lOf. 

Arce, Manuel Jos€, pres. Cen. Amer , 
80d 

Archangel, port closed. 142c; Amer. 
troops at; Allied advance from. liSc 



&d: Amer. troops leave; Allied troops 
prepare to retire, 143d: held against 
Bolsheviki. 138d: Bolsheviki reoccu- 
py (1920). 143e. 

Archbald, Judge R. W.. 184d. 

Archelaus. reigns in Macedonia; kills 
Perdiccas. 8a; assass.. 8b. 

Archilocbus, 7c. 

Archimedes. 9b. 

Archons, 6b&c: lO-yr. term. 7b; term 
reduced, 7c; election by lot. 7f. 

Arcoie. battle of. 99a. 

Arcot. defense of by Clive. 21b. 

Ardahan. Russia receives(1878), 141a. 
i53c; Turks retreat from (1915) , 32d; 
Turks occupy (1918), 143b. 

Ardshir I., king. 10c. 

Areopagus, 7f. 

Argall. Sir Samuel, destroys Fr. settle- 
ments. 70f. 

Argaon, battle of (1803). 64a. 

Argentina, historical outline, 40c; or- 
ganization; gov't.; religion & educ; 
industry & products, 40c; defense; fi- 
nance; pop.. 40f: area. 40f. 221; re- 
cent statistics. 222; map. 64. Chro- 
nology, 401. — Other refs.: Bolivia 
separates from. 48f; aids Uruguay m 
civil war, 155b: at war with Braz.. 
49b&f; Braz. & Uruguay in alliance 
with; bound, dispute with Braz., 49f: 
recognized Independ. of Uruguay, 
155a; treaty with Paraguay, 132a; ar- 
bitration with Brazil. 41b; with Chile, 
4lb; treaty with Brazil & Chile, 41b. 
50a, See also ABC powers, etc 

Argentine Confederation, Argentine 
K'-;[JuhJH.,formernamcs ul Argentina. 

Argmusae Islands. Sb. 

Argives (s.^e Aroxve. in Diet.), 8a. 

Argon, discovered. 26b. 

Argonne Forest & Region, operations 
in; Americans in. 36f. 

Argos, 6b; allied with Athens. 8a; 
unites with Athens. Thebes. & Cor- 
inth, 8b: joins Achaean League, 9a. 

Argus, Pelican defeats. 170f. 

Argyle. ship & crew, 85c. 

Argyle (Argill). 8th Earl of, executed. 
52c; 9th Earl of, condemned; flees, 52e; 
returns to Scot.; executed, 52f. 

Arian controversy, lOe. 

Arica (former province). !33b; (port), 
desired by Bolivia. 48f. See Tacna. 

Arlnori, assass.. I19f 

Ariosto, {Orlando Furioso), 15e. 

Arista, Mariano, pres. of Mex.; re- 
signs. 126e. 

Aristarchus of Samos. Sf. 

Aristophanes. 8a. 

Aristotle, Alexander's tutor. ScStd; 
Politics. Sd: dies. 8e. 

Arizona, hist, outline. 208e: statistics, 
220; area. 221. Chronology, 208f.— 
Other refg.: explored. 167b; ter. cre- 
ated, 175c; Gcroni mo captured. 178d: 
enabling act for adm. with New Mex.; 
rrfused. 182a; act for separate State, 
l33a; admitted. 183f; prohibits own- 
ership of land by aliens .lS4e; prohibi- 
tion. 186a&b; Mexicans harass, 187c: 
antialien law declared unconstitu- 
tional. 187d; I. W. VV. driven out, 
I90a: engagement at Nogales. I91e. 

Arkansas, hist.oulline. 203b; statistics. 
220; area, 221. Chronology, 203b. 
—Other refs. ras Territory, authorized. 
1 71b: asState, admitted. 172c;secedes. 
Ifilc. 174d; constitutionabol. slavery; 
asks readmisaion, 175e; readmitted. 
176d; Democrats control. 177c: gov. 
pardons convicts, 184c; prohibition, 
186b; race war, 193d. 

— Post, Ark., settled, 168a. 203b, 220; 
captured. 175b. 

Arkwright. spinning frame. 21c. 

Aries, kdm. esub., I2e; added to Ger., 
12f. 

Arlington, Earl of. in Cabal. 52d. 

^, Md., wireless messageto Paris. 184e. 

Armada. Spanish. destroyed. 18c. 167c: 
ship of. illust.. 144. 

Armaments, Swedes demand in- 
crease. 149b; reduction of. one of "14 
points," 190e. 

ArmedNeutralily (1780). formed. 21d. 
54a. 140b; Den. joins. 91c: 2nd (1801) 
54d; Den. joins. 90f. 91c; (Turko- 
Bulg,. 1915). 7Sf. 

Armenia (.\rmenians) . historical out- 
line, 41c; inhabitants, religion. 41c.e, 
&f; in World War. 41d&42a; Turkish 
raids; geog.. 41d; massacres. 41dSJ, 
42a; climate; products; industry; pop. 
41e: recent statistics. 222; map, 38. 
Chronology. 41e. — Other references; 
Phraortes conquers (650 B.C.), 7d; 
Tigranes the Great leigns, 9e; Ti- 
granes defeated. 9l; Sapor 1. occupies; 
Tiridates restored. lOd; Persia an- 
nexes; Persia & Rome divide,,10e; Per- 
sia gets, lOf; Persian Armenia goes to 
Rus. (1828). 140d;Rus. invades. 153b; 
Rus. gets. 153c; Turkish Armenia 
goes to Rus.. 141a; insurrection (1883); 
nationality agitated: Turkey repress- 
es; Turkish outrages; reign of terror, 
153d: massacres (1900). 15lf; Rus. 
invades (1914). 32d: Russians take 
Van.33f:massacres(1915); U.S. makes 
appeal for relief of. 154e: Ld. Bryce 
intercedes for. 187c; Rus. winter cam- 
paign in (1916). 34f; U. S. protests 
atrocities, 188a; Rus. control in. 35a: 
Russians retire from. 37c; Rus. Arme- 
nia & Azerbaijan. 46d. 139c; refuse 
Brest-Litovsk treaty; Rus, Armenia 
joins Transcaucasia, 143b; massacres 
(1920), 151a. 152b: independence. 
152d. I54f: Wilson to assign bounda- 
ries, 154f. See also Ar7«CTtian Church, 

Armenian, steamer, sunk, 33a. 167a. 

— Catholics, in Turkey. I52c 

^ Church (Armenians. .Armenian 
Gregorians), 41eS:f. 62d; in Persia, 
t32d; in Rus,. 139b; in Turk.. 152c 

— question. 41f. 42b. 
Armentieres. battle of, 30a; Germans 

take, .36d. evacuated. 36f. 
Arminianism, at Dort, t8e&:f 
Arminius (Hermann), defeats Varus. 

10a, 
Armistice, Austria & Allies. 36c. 46b; 
Bulgaria & Allies. 36c, 79a. Germany 
Sc Allies. Nov 11, 1918 (the armi- 
stice). 36d. 37a, 102d. lOSf. 191f; 
Litbuaaia Sc Ger.. 124c; Roumania St 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



225 



Central Powers. SSd&f: Russia (Bol- 
sheviki) St Central Powers. 35<1, 143a; 
Turkey & Allies. 36c. I54f. 
Armstrong Commission, life insur- 
ance, IS If. 
Army. See art. on Defense under Or- 
ganization of various countries, in- 
dexed under namt'S of countries. Sec 
also Defense 5t Nafl Guard, in In- 
dex. — Other refs.: standing armies in- 
trod. in Ger., 105e; Ger.. under Wm. 
II.. I03f; bill (1913). 107f; It., under 
Napoleon, 99a; Eng.. reform, 57f; U. 
S. number in service (1917). 190a: 
U.S.. frauds (191S), 191d. 

^ Appropriation Acts. U. S. (1912). 
184b; (1916). 18Se; (1918), 191d. 

^Bill (France, 1913), opposed; adopt- 
ed, lOlf; (Ger.. 1892), rejected; 
passed. 107c. 

^ of maneuver, Foch'a, 36d. 

^ of the James. 175e, 

^of the Potomac. 175d&e. 

— Reorganization Acts, U. S. (1901). 
180f; (1916). lS8c. 

Arnold, Benedict, at Ticonderoga. 
166f : at Quebec, 69c, 71c; plan to sur- 
render West Point; escapes. 169b: in- 
vades Virginia. 198d: burns Rich- 
mond: Cornwallis joins. I69b. 

^ of Brescia. 13d. 

Arnulf, king; at Louvain. 12d. 

Arosemena, Pablo, pros. Panama, 
82e. 

Arp&d. Prince. 12d, 112e; dyn. ends, 
Hd. 112i. 

Arran. Earl of, 17c. 

Arras, battle. 35d; attack, 36d. 

^, League of, 47b. 

— . Treaty of. 15e. 

Arrears for Rent Act, 56e. 

^ of Pensions Act, 178a. 

Arrhidseus. Sec Philip III. of Mace- 
donia. 

Arriaga. Manoel, pres. of Port., 135f. 
136a; nsigns, lj6a. 

Arrow War, in China, 85d. 

Arsaces. n-volis, 9a. 

ArsacidfB, era of the, 9a. 

Arsiero, It. recovers, 34e. 

Artabanus, 7f. 

Artaxerxes I. (Longimanus), 7f, 8a. 

— II. (Mni.mon), reigns, 8b. 

— III. (Othus), reigns. 8c. 

— =Ardshir I., lOc. 
Arteveld, Jacob van, Hf. 

— , Philip van. governor; alain. 15b. 

Arthur. Chester A., life, 216f; chro- 
noloBi-. 2l6l; portrait. 212. — Other 
rets.: V. pres. vote, 178a; pres-. 17Sa, 
lG3c; Civil Service, 178b; treaty with 
Nicaragua, 81b. 

— , Prince of Wales, 15f. 

Articles, Six, passed, He. 

— , Forty-two, of religion, estab.; re- 
duced to thirty-nine. 17d. 

— ■, Thirty-nine. 17d. 

^ of Confederation. See Confederation. 
Articles of. 

— of War. 188e. 

Artlgas, Josfe. dicutor, 155b. 
Artois. Fr. gains (1659). 146d. 
— , battle of (1915), 33b. 
Aryans, 6e. 62e, 63b. 
Asa. king of Judah. 7a. 
Ascalon. luittleat. 13b. 
Ascension !i.land, 65d. 54f. 
Asculum, bjttle of, 8f. 
Ashanti, country, 67f; Eng. protecto- 
rate. 57e. 

— War (1873), 56d; 2nd (1S96), 57c. 
Ashbourne, Baron. I-and Purchase 

Act. 56f. 
Ashburton Treaty. 160c, 172e, 205c, 

214e. 
Ashley, Lord (1st Earl of Shaftsbury), 

see Cooper, Ashley. 
^, Lord (7th Earl of Shaftesbury). 

Factory Act (1833). 55c: mine labor. 

55d; Factory Act (1844); 10-hi.day. 

55e. 
— , W. H., explores Great Plains, 171d. 

— River, settlement. 107f, 198a, 219. 
Ashur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), 

reigns, 7c, 

Ashur-dan II., reigns, 7a. 

Ashur-dan III., reigns. 7b. 

Ashur-nasir-pal, reigns, 7a. 

Ashur-nirarl V., reigns, 7b. 

Asia, map, 64; Brit, possess, in, 62b; 
Fr. possess, in, 9tif; Port, possess, in, 
135d. 

Asiago, Aust takes; It. recovers, 34e; 
Aust. takes. 35f. 

Asia Minor, under Greek control; 
Rome conq.. 6a; Cyrus takes Gr. cit- 
ies, 7e; yieldedtoRome, 9c; invaded, 
9e: Persia conq., 12a; Seljuks overrun, 
13a; Turk, empire estab., 14c,d,&e, 

Asirs (of Yemen), insurr.. 153d. 

Asis, Francisco de, Isabella II. marries, 
147c, 

Asoka. 63b. 

Aspern. battle of, 44c, 99d. 

Asptnwall (Colon), fnd.. 82b. 

Aspromonte, Garibaldi taken at, 116d. 

Asquith, Herbert H., in ministry. 57l; 
mobbed; prime minister, 58a; Home 
Rule Bill. 58f; head of coalition cabi- 
net (1915), 59c; announces War Com- 
mittee; as prime minister, becomes 
member of it, 59d; resigns. 60a; re- 
turns to Pari., 61e. 

Assana. Bhutan loses passes in, 4Sc; 
ceded to Eng., 64b: part of new prov- 
ince. 64f. 

Assaye. battle of, 64a. 

Asaiento, 53c. 

Assignats. it-sued, 9Sd. 

Assiniboia. dist of Canada. 69d. 

Association (Amer. Congress. 1774). 
15Se. 168f. 

Association of nations, one of "14 
points," I'.'Of. 

Associations, Act of (Fr.). 101b. 

Assuan Dam, begun. 26b; opened,68f. 

Assyria, hr&t heard of. 6e: Semitic set- 
tlements; Sennacherib reigns; Nine- 
veh founded; conquered by Chaldeans. 
5d; method of reckoning years. 6b; in- 
dependence of Babylon, 6f; Ashur- 
dan 11 , 7a: Tiglath pileser I.; Tukul- 
ti-Ninibll,; Adad-nirari III.; Ashur- 
nasir-pal; boundaries extended; cities 
beautified, 7a: Ashur-dan III , 7b; 
Adad-nirari IV ; Hazael defeated; 
Shamsbi-Adad reigns: declines; Shal- 



maneser III.. 7b; Sargon II.; solar 
eclipse: Shalmaneser II.; bat. Kar- 
kar , Hadadezer & Ahab defeated : 
Ashur-nirari; TigJath-pileser III.; era 
of conquest. 7b; Sennacherib reigns; 
defeats Merodach-baladan; Esarhad- 
don: era of widest domain; Shalmane- 
ser IV.; Ashur-bani-pal reigns. 7c; 
domination over Egypt ends; Nabopa- 
lassar, viceroy of Babylon; estab. in- 
dependent empire. 7d. 
Astapova, 142a. 
Astor, John Jacob, fnds. Astoria. 170c. 

205d. 
— , Lady, first woman member of Pari., 

1919. 61d. 
Astoria, fnd., 170e. 205d, 219; Brit. 

occupy, 159d. 
Astrakhan, Ivan conquers. 17d. 
Asturias, Alfonso king,12d; Prince of, 
115d. see Ferdinand VII.. of Spain. 
Astyages, reigns; dethroned. 7e. 
Asuncion, fnd.,40c,40f, 131eS:f; capi- 
tal. 13le; revolt at (1908). 132a. 
Atahualpa, in Peru, 133a, 133c; mur- 
dered, 133c. 
Athabaska, dist. of Canada, 69d. 
^ Basin. 71c. 
Athaliah, 7b. 

Athelstan. victory at Brunanburh,12e. 
Athens (032 B. C.-82 B, C), Cylon 
tries to seize tyranny; Draco codifies 
laws; Solon archon. 7d; Pisistratus ty- 
rant; dies; Hipparchusassas.; Hippias 
tyrant; expelled; Cleisthenes; tragedy 
at best, 7e; Themistocles. 7e&f; ostra- 
cism introduced; archonships; contest 
of comedies; Delian Confederacy (478 
B. C); Areopagus; Thasos; Cimon 
ostracized, 7f; Pericles: classical cul- 
ture, 6a. 7f; democracy estab.; exped. 
to Egypt; Tanagra; conq. Bteotia; 
conq. .^gina; catastrophe in Egypt; 
treasury trans, to; against Cyprus; 
Thermopylae; Salamis;.hosti I ities with 
Sparta renewed; peace with Persia; 
Thebans defeat ; power in Bceotia ends; 
Herodotus at. 7f; 30 yrs. peace with 
Sparta. Thurii fnd.: Parthenon; Prop- 
ylaea; Amphipolis fnd.; Potidasa re- 
volts; plague; Potidaea subdued; Aris- 
tophanes. 1st comedy; Delium; Thu- 
cydides banished: alliance with Spar- 
ta; alliance with Argos; exped. against 
Syracuse; exped. destroyed; Alcibia- 
des goes to Sparta; Nicias; revolt of 
allies: the 400; fall of the 400, 8a: de- 
mocracy; Oyzicus; destroys Spartan 
fleet; Alcibiades returns; is exiled; 
Sophocles &: Euripides die; Arginuss 
islands; end of Peloponnesian War; 
peace with Sparta; walls destroyed; 
ThirtyTyrants; constitution restored; 
Socrates; in league against Sparta; 
Conon off Cnidus: Conoo rebuilds 
Long Walls; Demosthenes born: 2nd 
Delian Confederacy (378 B. C). Sb; 
Naxos victory; peace with Sparta; war 
with Philip; 2nd empire dissolved; 
Eubulus: Demosthenes: IstPhihppic; 
Plato dies; peace with Philip, 8c;Aris- 
totle. 8c. d.&e; opposes Philip: Ch^- 
Tonea, 8d; Demetrius Phalereus rules; 
Demetrius (I.) Poliorcctes liberates; 
Salamis; Antigonus king; Demetrius 
1. takes. 8e; Achaean League formed; 
treaty with Sparta & Ptolemy; .^ntig- 
onus conquers. 8f; Aratus, 8f. 9a; 
freed fr. Macedonian garrisons; neu- 
trality; Spartans defeat at Laodicea. 
9a; gets Delos. 9c: Ach.-ean League 
ends. 9d: Sulla storms (S2 B. C), 9c. 
(From 267 A. D.). Goths take (267 
A. D.); Turks capture (1456). 15d; 
Venetians take. I52e; people rise. 
llOb; Olympian games revived, 26b. 
llOd; Allies in. 34b&:c. 
Athos, steamer, torpedoed, lS9c. 
Atiu. island. 77b- 

Atlanta. Ga., statistics, 220; Sherman 
advances on, 175e; Sherman reaches, 
161f; battle of; captured, 175f; Ex- 
position(1895), 179f;raceriots, 182a. 
Atlantic & Pacific R. R.. 176c. 
Atlantic cable. See under Cables. 
Attalus I. (Soter). 9a. 

— II.. 9c. 

•^III., 9d: bequeaths Pergamum to 

Rome, 9d. 
Attica, Sa; slaves revolt, 9e. 
Attila. invades Thrace; Gaul, lOf. 
Attorney- General, office. I69e. 
Attu. island. 209a. 
Aubers. Brit, assault at, 33b. 
Auckland, N. Z., fnd., 77c. 
^, Earl of (George Eden), 64b. 

— Islands. 77b. 

Audacious, dreadnought, sunk, 32e. 
Auer, Bavarian minister, killed. 109b. 
Auerstadt. battle of. 22d. 
AuSenburg, Field Marshal von, 45e. 
Augbrlm, battle of, 53a. 
Augsburg. Bavaria gets, 99c. 
^Confession. Diet, 17b; Interim. 17c& 

d; Peace. 17d; settlement overthrown, 

ISe; League of. 20a. 
Augustan Age. of Latin Lit., 10a. 
Auguste, pres. of Haiti, lllf. 
Augustine, St., bap., lOe; madebp.of 

Hippo; champions orthodox faith; De 

Cioitate Dei. lOf. 

— or Austin, St.. .Apostle of Eng., 12a. 
— , St. See Sainl Augustine. 
Augustulus, Romulus, 6a. lOf. 
Augustus, Emperor of Rome (Caius 

Octavius; later, Caius Julius Caesar 
Octavianus), 6a; in 2nd triumvirate; 
defeats Brutus S: Cassius; crushes Sex- 
tus Pompeius & Lepidus; defeats An- 
tony & Cleopatra; occupies Egypt; re- 
ceives title "Augustus:" rearranges 
provinces; abandons consulship; tri- 
bunicial power; reforms; dies, 10a 

— II. of Poland (Frederick Augustus 
I., of Saxony), reigns, 20b, 139f; 
routed at Pultusk. deposed, 20d. 148f, 
restored, 139f; dies. 20C. 105f, 140a. 

^ III. (Frederick Augustus II.. of 
Saxony), war of Polish Succession; 
king. 20f , 98a; disputes .A.u9trian Suc- 
cession, 43f; dies, 140b. 

Aulic Council (1501), 16d. 

Aurangzeb. emperor. I9d; reign, 63d. 

Auraria, Colo., settled, 220. 

Aurelian, emp.; abandons Dacia; re- 
established in Egypt; Zenobia. lOd 

Ausgleich(aeeinDic£.) estab, (1867), 



113b, 122f: struggle over, 45b; re- 
newed. 45c. 
Austerlitz. battle of. 22c, 42d, 44c, 

99c. 1 03b. 
Australasia. Brit, empire in, 74c. 
Australasian Naval Defense Act 

(18SS), 76a. 
Australia. Commonwealth of. hist, 
outline; organiiation. 74f; govt.; re- 
ligion; industiy & labor; educ; de- 
fense. 75a: area. 221; map. 64; area 
& pop.; Provinces: New South Wales: 
Victoria, 75b; Queensland; South 
Australia; Western Australia: Tasma- 
nia, 75c; New Guinea or Papua, 75d; 
recent statistics, 222. Chronology, 
75d.— Other refs.: Disc, by Dutch. 
ISd; gold disc. 24f; European emi- 
gration to, 24c; troops occupy Bis- 
marck Archipelago, Solomon Isls.. S: 
Ger, New Guinea. 32d. 105c; not rep- 
resented at 1st Imperial War Cabinet. 
60b; at 2nd session. 60f ; cost of World 
War. 3Sc; mandate for Ger. Colonies, 
37f.l05c:airplaneflightto,fr.Eng..6Ie. 
^. cruiser, launched, 76d. 
^ Industries Preservation Act, 76c. 
Austria (Austrians), hist, outline. 42b; 
inhabitants. 42f; organization; gov- 
ernment, 43b; industry & labor; reli- 
gion & educ, 43c: defense, 43d; area, 
43e, 221; pop., 43e: recent statistics, 
222; map, 38, 134. Chronology, 43c. 
—Other refs.: Before 1648; see Me- 
dieval Period 6l Early Modern Pe- 
riod, chronoloou: also, Rudolph of 
Hapsbura: Albert; Frederick; Albert 
1 1.; Maximilian: Charles V.-.Ferdi- 
nand I.; Rudolph II.; Matthias; 
Anne; Ferdinand II. &■ III. From 
1648: leader in Ger. affairs. 105e:aid3 
Poland. 139e; takes Buda, 20a; Joseph 
I. crowned kg. of Hungary, 20a: gets 
Span. Neth., 20d; gets Austrian 
Neth.. 46e&47b: Barrier Treaty, 20e; 
war with Turkey (1716), 152e; in 
Quadruple Alliance, 14Gf: alliance 
with Sp., 1461; War of Austrian Suc- 
cession. 21a&b, 42d, 43f. 105f. 98a, 
44a. 106a, 147a: Peace of Breslau & 
Berlin. 21a: in alliance against Prus.. 
21a; 2d Silesian War ends, 21a; alli- 
ance with Rus. (1747). I40a; cedes 
Parma & Piacenza to Sp., 147a; Seven 
Years" War. 21b, 106a; treaties with 
Russia &: Fr- (1757); defeated at 
Liegnitz & Torgau. lOOa; Joseph II.. 
21c; in 1st partition of Poland. 21c, 
140b; aids Rus. against Turks (1787), 
21e, 140b; peace with Turkey, 2Ie: 
joins Prus- against Fr-, 21f; in coali- 
tion against Fr. (1793); gets Venice 5c 
lllyria, 22a; Napoleon in, 22c; Peace 
of Pressburg; ter. ceded to Bavaria 
(1805), 22cS:d; 5th coalition, 22e; 
Napoleonic wars, 99d; defeated at 
Wagram, 22c: Peace of Vienna, or 
SchOnbrunn (1S09), 22c, 122f; gets 
Lombardy & \cnetia, 116b; in Holy 
Alliance, 24b; incorporates Repub. of 
Cracow. 24f. in It. wars (184S-9). 
116c; Russia aids against Hungary. 
24f; intervenes bet- Schleswig-Hol- 
stein & Den., 91c; replaces Rus. in 
Danubian Principalities, I40e; Mex. 
relations {see Maximilian), 127a&c; 
protests new const- (1863) of Den. & 
Schleswig. 91d: in war against Den- 
mark, 106f; with Prus. crushes Danes, 
91d; they get Schleswig- Ho Iste in, 
25c, 91d. Prus3i5-Ital. alliance against. 
25c: Austro-Prussian War (Seven 
Weeks' War), 25c, 103e, 106f: orders 
officers out of Turkish service, 153f: 
anne.xes Bosnia & Herzegovina, 26e, 
12If, 122c. 123c; jealousy of Serbia, 
31c, 121f: denounces Serbia, 27a; 
Archduke Francis Ferdinand assas.. 
27a, 122a; plans attack on Serbia. 3Ic; 
ultimatum to Serbia. 27a, 31c. 122a. 
142b; Ger. supports. 27b; rejects Ser- 
bian reply, 31c; mobilizes. 31c; de- 
clares war on Serbia, 27b. 31d, 122c; 
severs dipl. relations with Rus., 142b: 
declares war on Rus., 31e; Montene- 
gro declares war on, 3le; invades Po- 
land, 32b; Eng. declares war on, 59a; 
defeats Rus. at Krasnik; defeated at 
Lemberg. 32b; 2nd invasion of Serbia, 
32c;retreats fr. Poland, 32b; 3rd inva- 
sionofSerbia.32c;inGalicia; Przemysl 
Bukowina; Czernowitz, 33b; on Rus. 
front (1915), 28b; It- declares ^varon, 
28c, 33a, 117d: protests U. S. sale of 
munitions, 187a; recaptures Stanis- 
lau; occupies Warsaw. 33c; recall of 
amb. to U. S. demanded, 33a; on It. 
front (1915), 33d: Amer. note to on 
Ancona; occupies Cetinje & Scutari, 
29a; takes .^ntivari, 34e: launches 
Trentino offensive, 34e; Roumania de- 
clares war on, 34b; China declares war 
on. 35c; severs dipl- relations with 
U- S., 35c. 189e: Greece breaks rela- 
tions with, 35c; routed by It., 30c; 
U.S. declares war on, 35d, 190d; Pan- 
ama & Cuba decl. war on, 35d: -laval 
&air operations (1918), 37d; alliance 
with Ger. revised. lOSd; It. front 
(1918), 30b; It. & Balkan fronts 
(1918), 37b; naval base at Durazzo 
destroyed, 37d: peace note U. S., 36c; 
armistice (Nov. 3, 1918) . 30cie, 36c, 
37c: Hungary separates, 113c; fleet 
SUIT., 37e; receives peace treaty, 37f; 
signs, 31b, 3Sb: World Warstatistics, 
38. See also .4 us(ria-//un(7ari/, Triple 
Alliance. Central Powers. World 
War. 
Austria- Hungary (Austro- Hunga- 
rian Monarchy), described, 42e; revo- 
lution (1848), 24f; alliance with Ger. 
(1S79); in Triple Alliance (1882). 
107b; loan to Turk., 154a; recall of 
amb. to U. S.. 33a, lS7c; empire col- 
lapses & disintegrates, SOcie. See 
Austria & Hungary. 
Austrian Nationalities, oppressed. 

Congress of, 121c. 
^ Succession, War of. begins, 21a, 42d, 
43f. lOof; France in, 98a; in Amer. 
colonies. 168b; ends. 21b, 42d, 44a. 
106a. 1 4 7a 
Austro-Italian alliance, Italy aban- 
dons. 45'' 
Austro-Prussian war oa Deomark, 
25c, 9ld. 



Automobile, comes into use, 179f; 
exports (1915), 187a; illust.. 116. 

Avarescu, Roumanian commander id 
chief; abandons Bucharest, 34f. 

— mini-ilry. 137a. 

Avaric March, 12c. 

Avars (se.- in Diet.), kingdom of. 42e; 
d'.struv GepidiB. 12a: subjugated. 12c. 

Avellaneda. Nicolas, pres,. 4la. 

Ave Maria, early name of Cuba. 88d. 

Avguatovo, battle of, 27e, 32c. 

Aviation, Wright brothers demonstrate 
succe^soi flying machine(190S) 182c; 
section of SignalCorps (U. S. A.) cre- 
ated. 185e; Air Board (Eng.). 59e; 
replaced. 60c: Air Force (Eng.), 60c, 
61b; appropriation for (U. S.), 190a: 
air service separated from Signal 
Corps (U.S.). 191c; flights across At- 
lantic. 61c. 192f; 1st England-Aus- 
tralia flight, 61e; types of airplanes, 
illust., 160- See also .4trpioao. 

Avignon, papal court at. 14e: court 
leaves, 14e, 15a: part of Fr., 98d. 

Avila. Gil Gonzalez de, 79f, 80c. 

— . Pedrarias de, 80c. 

Aviz. House of. 134f. 

Aviona, It. occupy (1914). 117c: ("15), 
33e. 

— , Bay of. It. to have. 121b. 

Avon. the. sinks the Wasp. 170f. 

Ax (or Dax), France, tunnel. 14Sb. 

Ayacucho. battle of, 133b&d. 

Ayllon, Lucas Vasquez de. exped. to 
At Coast in.\mer.; attempts colony, 
107b. 

Aymaras, kingdom of. 48d. 

Ayolas, fnds. Asuncion, 131c. 

Ayubites, dyn. estab., 13d. . 

Ayutla. Plan of, Mexico, 126e&f. 

Azariah = Uzziah, 7b. 

Azerbaijan, hist, outline; area S: 
pop., 46d: recent statistics. 222; map, 
38. — Other refs.- joins Repub. of 
Transcaucasia, 143b, 132f; repub, 
govt in, 143d; republic fnd.. 41d. 
I32f. I39c: joins Georgia against Bol- 
sheviki, 143e: recognized, 38b. 143e 

Azov, town, capt. by Peter the Great; 
recovered by Turks, 139f; awarded to 
Russia. 151c; capt.. 140a: Turks re- 
cover; awarded to Russia. 152e. 

— . Sea of. 139c. 

Aztecs, empire, 125b; overthrown. 125f . 

Azulejos, 135c. 



Baasha. 7a. 

Bab el Mandeb, Strait, 62b. 

Baber (see in Biog.), invades.' 
63d; estab- Mogul dynasty. 63d: adds 
part of Afghanistan to domain, 39c. 

Babington, Anthony, conspiracy. 18b- 

Babylon. See Babylonia. 

Babylonia (& Babylon), old Babylo- 
nian Empire emerges, Sb; supremacy 
of Babylon esub.; civilization in; 
overthrown. 5d; dates determined. 6b 
Sid; rise of city kingdoms; Sumcnan 
ascendancy: Semitic ascendancy; Sar- 
gon I.; Naram-Sin; 1st dyn. of Ur; 
Dungi, 6d; S. Babylonia; Gudea; civ- 
ilization; commerce: Larsa dyn,; 1st 
Babylonian dyn.; Nisin dyn : rise of 
Babylon; Hammurabi; Bab. language 
in diplomacy; Hittites raid; 3rd (Kas- 
site) dyn., 6e; Assyria independ.; 
Tel-el-Amarna letters; 4th (Pashe) 
dyn.; rises to importance; Nebuchad- 
nezzar; war with Assyria; peace, 7a: 
Merodach-baladan: revolts against 
Assyria: Sargon 11.; Esarhaddon, 7c; 
Shamash-Shumukin, 7cS;d; Nabopa- 
lassar; Nebucliadnezzar 11.; captivity 
of Jews, 7d; in league with Media & 
Lydia; Cyrus of Persia conq., 7e, 124e 
if; Nabonidus; Cyrus decrees ret. of 
Jews; revolt against Darius I., 7e; 
.•\lexander the Great at. 8d; Seleucus 
I.; again independ.. 8e; Parthians 
conq., 9d. 

"Babylonian Captivity" of popes, 
14e. 15a- 

Bacchylides. 7c. 

Bachelors, tax on. 107f. 

Bacon, Francis, l$f. 

— , Nathaniel, Virginia leader, 158b; 
rebellion. I67f. 

— . Roger, "Opus Majus;'* writings he- 
retical; imprisoned. 14c. 

Bacon's Rebellion, 167f. 

Bacs-Bodrog, 122f. 

Bactria. old empire, 132b: .A.lexander 
invades, 8d; Tatars conq., 9d. 

Badajoz, Fr. Uke, 99e; Wellington 
storms, 99e, 147b. 

Baden, Peace of, 20d; confirmed in 
possess, of Heidelberg & Mannheim, 
106c: insur, in, 106e; sides with .\ust, 
against Prus., 106f; republic estab. 
(1918). lOSf. 

Badeni, ICasimierz (Casimir), 45b. 

Badger State. 204d. 

Bad Lands, 207b. 

Baduila= Totila. 

Baez,, Buenaventura, pres.; fall9,'92b. 

^, Dr. Ram6n, prov, pres-, 92c. 

Baffin. Wm., visits Greenland, 91f- 

Bagdad. fnd.. 12b. 124f; capital. 112c; 
Seljuks gov., 12f: Mongols capt- (Hu- 
laku Khan). 14b, 124l; railway, 125a 
(see also below); not incl. in recog. 
of Arabia, 15la; Brit, exped. against, 
33f; Brit. take (1917), 29f. 36a, 152b. 

Bagdad (or Egyptian) caliphate, 112c. 

— Railway (see also "Bcrlin-lo-Bag- 
dad"). beginning of plan; sections 
completed: Ger. control, i25a con- 
vention signed. 26c. 107d: Ger. & Rus. 
agree on, 142a; cut (1913), 151a; It. 
control. 111b. 

Bahadur Shah I., family, rulers of 
India, 62e. 

Bahamas, 74a&c; Brit, settlement be- 
gins, 52c 

Bahia. fnd.. 49a: Du. at. 49a&e. 

Bahram (Varanes) V., Icing, lOf. 

Bahrein Islands. 62c. 

Baikal. Lake, 141c. 

Baikov, Rus. amb. to China, 85b. 

Bailen, Fr. capitulation at. 99d. 

Bailey v. Alabama, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 183c. 

Bainsizza plateau. 35f. 

Bait Act, Newfoundland, 73f. 



Baker. Newton Diehl. Sec. of War, 
Wilson defends; defends War Dept., 
I91a; sails for France, 19Ib. 

— island, to U. S., 2l9d. 
Bakhchisaray, Treaty of. 139f. 
Baku (region), ceded to Rus., 140d; 

land sales in. 142a; oil fields, 139a; in 
Azerbaijan; Brit, forces occupy. 143d. 

— (seaport), strike (1903), 14Id: cap- 
lUl of Azerbaijan. 46d. 

Balaklava. battle of. 140e. 

Balance of power, 20b. 

Balboa. Vasco NfiHez de, in Panama, 
81f; crosses Isthmus. 82a; disc. Paci- 
fic, 82a. 16f. 157c. 167a. " 

Baldwin of Flanders (1058-1118), 
Baldwin I., prince of Edessa& king of 
Jerusalem. 13b. 

— of Flanders (1171-1205), leads 4tli 
crusade. 13e: emp. of Constantinople 
(Baldwin 1.): Bulgarians defeat, 13f. 

BaltOUr. leads Covenanters. 52e. 

^. A. J., in Brit, ministry. 57a&c; 
prime min.. 57e: resigns, 57f: retires, 
58c; m coalition cabinet (1915). 59c: 
1st Lord of Admiralty, 59d; for. sec, 
60a: heads mission to U. S.. 189f; in 
new coalition ministry (1919). 61a. 

Baliol. Edward. & David Bruce. 14e. 

— . John, against David Bruce 5: Ed- 
u'ard I.; renounces Edward, 14d.' 

Balize. See British Honduras. 

Balkan Alliance. See SaiAanLeaoue. 

— allies, s.-.' .4//ie3. 

— front. World War (1914), 32c: 
(1915), 33d: (1916), 34e; (1917), 35f; 
(1918). 37b- 

— League. 26f. 78e&f. 109e, 121f. 

•^ Peninsula, in hands of Turks, 151c: ia 
Turkish Empire; racial elements, 78c. 

— question (see in Diet.), 45b. j 
Balkans, conq. by Turks, 14f. 15a. 
Balkan States (States of the Balkan 

Peninsula), racial elements, 78c&d: 
agitations in. 78eS:f, 45a; relations 
with Rus . I37e, 138a; alliance of four 
against Turkey iboundaries readjusted, 
26f.SeealsoBuijjaria, Greece. .Monte- 
negro, Roumania, Serbia, tfc Tur- 
key. Allies (Balkan) <& BalkanWars. 

— Wars (1912-13). 40a, 121f, 136c. 
I52a: 1st begins (Oct. 17. 1912). 45d, 
78a, 154b: armistice, I54b; resumed, 
154c: ends (May 30. 1913). 26f, 154d; 
2nd (1913), begins, 26f, 78bM; ends, 
78bS:f; results, I09f. 

Balkh, Tamerlane captures, 15a. 

Ball, John, peasants' revolt, 15a. 

Ballard, John, conspiracy, 18b. 

Ballaret District. Victoria, revolt of 
miners, 75f. 

Ballinahinch, battle of, 54c. 

Ballinamuck. battle of, 54d- 

Ballmger, k. a., sec. of interior, con- 
troversy wall Pinchot. 182i&183a&d: 
exonerated by Cong, committee. 183c. 

Ballot, adopted in Eng.. 56d: secret, in 
Argentina. 41c: in Fr., lOld. 

Balls Bluer, battle of, 174e. 

Balmaceda, Jo^& Manuel, pres.; 
defeated: commits suicide, 83a&d. 

Balmat, ascends Mont Blanc. 150b. 

Balta, Jos6. revolts: pres. of Peru; im- 
prisoned; assass.. 133d. 

Baltic fleet. (Eng.) sails: (Fr.) sails, 
140e; (Rus.)3ails: inlndianOc .120b, 

— Mining Co. v. Mass-. Supr- Court 
decision, lS5b. 

^ Provinces, hist, outline. 143f: area & 
pop.; chronology, 144a. — Other refa.: 
124b. 137b&c: rioting in (1906). 141e; 
Allies blockade ports (1919). 143e. 

^ Sea, convention of powers to pre- 
serve status quo, 141f. 

— Ship Canal (Kaiser Wilhelm Ca- 
nal. Kiel Canal), begun, 107b: com- 
pleted; formal opening. 26b, 107c; re- 
constructed: opened, 107f; Ger. naval 
base, 32d: Ger. fleet bottled up in.27f. 

— • States. Ger. troops in. 124c. 
Baltimore. Lord (Cecil Calvert) .197c. 
— . Lord (Geo. Calvert), 167e: 197cS:d. 
— . Md.. fnd.. 168b; f^rst blood of Civil 

War shed at. I74d: riots (1877), 177f; 

great fire (1904), ISld: statistics, 220. 
— , S.S-, sailors attacked, S3a. 

— & Ohio R.R.. 172a. 

Baits, 124c, 144b. 

Baluchistan, area & pop., 65b: chro- 
nology, 6.5c: Eng. treaty with (1854), 
64c; (1876). 64d. Map 64- 

Balz, prov. pres. Paraguay, 132a. 
Banat. the, races in (1648), 122f; Tur- 
key loses, 152e: occupied (1918), 
113c: promised to Roum. 121b; Jugo- 
slavia claims. I21d; Roumania gets 
most; Jugo-SIavia south port, 121e. 
Banda Oriental, ter. now incl. ia 

Uruguay. 155b. 
Bangkok, cap. of Siam. 144e: Anglo- 
Siamese treaty; Fr. blockade, 144f. 
Bank of England, fnd.. 20b; chartered, 
53a; suspends specie payments. 54c; 
resumes. 55a; notes made legal tender, 
55c: issue dept., 55e. 

^, U. S., act to incorporate 1st (1791); 
169e; recharter refused (1811). 170e: 
2nd chartered (1816), 17la: in finan- 
cial crisis of 1819; Supr. Court up- 
holds; right of Congress to charter, 
171b; right of U. S. to protect. 171d; 
Jackson vetoes bill to recharter, I60b, 
172a; orders Federal deposits re* 
moved: "Bank War," 172b; over* 
thrown, 214b; reestab. prevented. I72«, 

Banka, restored to HolL. 54f. 

Bankruptcy Act, Federal. 172e. 

Banks, Fed.ral Reserve, National; 
State, See Federal, etc. 

Banks, Geti. Naih'l P., I73f: assault 
on Port Hudson. 175c; defeated. 175e, 

Bannockburn, battle of. I4e. 

Bapaume. Brit.bef..35d.falls.30a,3€e* 

Baptista ministry, in Port,, 136b. 

Bar, Confederation of, 140b. 

Baracoa, Cuba, settled. 88d, 89a. 

Baranof Island, 21a. 

Baranya. 122f. 

Barbados, 74a. 

Barbarian ascendancy in Europe, lie* 

— • invasions, 6a. 

Barbary pirates, 128e&f. 

^ powers, renounce tribute, 171a. 

Barbosa ministry, resigns, 136b. 

Barbuda. 74c. 

Barcelona, captured; loses liberties, 
146f; riots (1S66), 147d; anarchists ia 



226 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



u 



V 



(1893): trcKips quell dis'-jrljiticos. 
147e; rioting (1909): Ferrer executed: 
general strike (1913). H7f: labor dis- 
turbances (1917). 14Sa; radical move- 
ments m (1919): anarchy. 14Sb. 

Bar-cocheba. Ukeg Jerusalem. 10c. 

Barebone's Parliament (See in Diet.), 
62a. 

Barillas, Gen.,prov.pre9. Guatemala; 
invades Guatemala, Sic. 

Baring, Evelyn, See Cr/ymer, Lord. 

Barlow, Arthur, explorer, 167c. 

^, Sir George, gov.-gen. of India, 64a. 

"Barnburners," 173b. 

Barnes, G-N.-Laborrepresentativ-^ in 
war cabinet, 60c: m war cabinet ol new 
coalition ministry (1919), 61a; reiires. 
61e. 

— . William. Jr., libel suit against 
Roosevelt. 18Cf. 

Barnet, battle of, 15e. 

Barometer, invented, 19c. 

Barquero, F. A., provisional prea. 
Costa.Rica, 81f. 

Barragan. Miguel, pres. of Mex., 

Barreto. Gen. Antonio, pres. Rep. ol 
N. Port.. 136a. 

Barrier Treaty, 20e. 130a. 

Barrios, Jos^, assass.. Sit. 

— , Rufino, pres.. 79d, Sla; plana for re- 
union, Sla; proclaims consolidation; 
invades Salv.: defeated & slain. 81b. 

Barron v. Baltimore. Supr. Court de- 
cision, 172b. 

Barrundia, Jose Francisco. pres., altd. 

— incident (1S90). Sib. 
Bartemeyer v. Iowa, Supr. Court de- 
cision, \71c. 

Earth. Richard, in Ebert cabinet; re- 
signs, loya. 

Bartholdi. Fr^dfiric A., Statue of 
Liberty," 17Sd. 

Barthou ministri'; resigns, lOii. 

Barton, Sir Edmund, 1st premier of 
Australia, 7tib. 

Basel, Peace of (Fr. & Ger. stales), 
22a. 9Sf: (Fr. & Sp.), 22a. 92a. 9Sf, 
Ule 14;a. ,,^^ 

Bashi-bazouks, massacres by. lo3b. 

Basil II.. Byzantine emperor, adds 
Bulgaria to empire, 12i. 

— IV., of Russia, 18d. 
Basque fishermen. 73e. 
Bass, Capt. George, 75c. 
Bassein, Ir^aly of, 64a. 
Bass Strait, 75c. 
Bastille, destroyed. 98d. 

^ Day. pfict celebration. 102e. 
Basutoli.nd, description; area & pop., 

Oua: LjsuI^s defeat Boers, 66f; an- 
nexed by Gr. Brit., 66f, 56c; inS. Afr. 

customs union, Ijia. 
Batangas. under military law, ISla. 
Batavian Republic, estab.. 21f. 129c. 

1.30b: in Peace of Amiens, 99b, 147b. 
Bathori, Stephen, king of Pol.. ISa. 
"Bathtub trust.'" dissolved, 184c. 
Batllt;, Lorenzo, pres., lo5b. 
^ y Ordoflez, Jose, pres.; second 

term, looc. 
Patman, John, 75e. 
Battenberg.familygivenEng.title,60c. 
— , Prince Louis of, resigns as First bea 

L.:>rd. oya. 
Battery Wagner (fort), attacked; 

evacuated, 173d, 
"Battli of the Three Emperors'"— 

AusterlUz. 
Battleship fleet of U. S., cruise,182c; 

reviewed on return, 182e; visits Eng. 

&: Fr.. ISJb. 
BattsSiFailam, cross Alleghenies.l6a. 
BatU K.han. subdues Kus-. 14p. 
Batum, Kuss.a gets {ISli^). 141a, 

153c: Rus. gives upd'-US), 36c, 13Sb. 

143b; Turks occupy, UJb. 
Bauer, Gusiav, premier, 109c; resigns. 

109d. 

— V. 0"Donnell, Supr. Court decision, 
\6ii. 

Bautzen, battle of, 09e. 
Bavaria. Charlemagne takes, 12c: 
granted to House of Wittelsbach, 13d; 
Hussites ravage, 15c; by Peace of 
Westphalia gels Upper Palatinate, 19c 
(lor map in 1648, see p. 18); claims 
to Sp. throne; alliance with Fr., 146e; 
Louis XIV. loses. 97f; Joseph II. 
claims ter. in (Bavarian Succession), 
unites with Palatinate, 21d; Aust. in- 
vades, 99c; receives Aust. ter. (Peace 
of Pressburg). 22d; deserts iNapoleon. 
22f : Congress of Vienna: gets Ansbach 
& bayreuth *i WUrzburg: Lower Pala- 
tinate reunites, lOBc: sides with Aust. 
against Prus.. 106f; King Otto re- 
placed; Ludwig in. king. lOif; Lud- 
wig deposed: repub- proclaimed, 108e; 
extreme Socialists defeated: Premier 
Eisner assas.; ministers killed; Spar- 
tacides; soviet govt, proclaimed, 109b. 
Bavarian Succession, War of the 

(1778-79), 21d. 44a, 9^a, 108a. 
Bayard, Chevalier, falls, lia. 
Bay Islands, 80f; ceded to Hond., Sla. 
Bayonne, Fr., conference at (1808), 

99d, 145d. 
— , N. J., statistics. 220 
Bayou State. 201e. 
Bayreuth, ceded to Fr., 99c: Bavaria 

gets. 106c. 
Bay State, 196e. 

Bazaine. Marshal, at Mara-la-Tour; 
al Gravelotte, 100c; surrenders; trea- 
son. lOOd. 
Bazancourt, taken, 37a. 
Bazarjik (fortress), taken. 34e. 
Beacny Head, battle of, 53a. 
Bear State, 203b. 
Beaton, Card., burns Wishart; assass., 

lie. 
Beatty. David, Sir, Dogger Bank. 33f; 

commands Grand Fleet, 60a. 
Beaufort, S. C, taken. I97f. 
Beauharnais, Eugene de, made vice- 
roy of Italy. 114c. 116b; defeated, 99f. 
Beauregard. Gen. P. G. T.. at Bull 
Run. 174e: Shiloh, 174f; stops But- 
ler's advance; repulses Grant, 175e. 
Bechuanaland, descnp.: area: pop., 
66a: Brit, protectorate. 56f, 67a; in S. 
Afr. customs union; Brit. S. Africa 
Co.; sphere defined, 67a. 
Becker, Chas.. N. Y. police lieut., 

184b. 
Becket, Thomas 4, assassinated, 13d. 



Bsdouina, flOa, 112b; in Palestine. 

131c 
"Beef trust" illegal. Supr. Court de- 
cision, ISle. 
Beersheba. Allenby captures, 36a. 
Beggars, league of (cS.Gueux). 17f. 
Behncke, .Admiral, becomes min. of 

marine, 108d. 
BeJliss, Mendel, accused of ritual mur- 
der, 142b. 
Beira. railway, 67b&c. 
Beirao ministry in Port., 135f. 
Beirut, Syrians executed at, 154e; Al- 
lies occupy (1918). 37c. 
Bekenrenf, reigns, 7c. 
BelalV. . of Hungary, loses Styria, 14b. 
Bela Kun, Hung, soviet govt, under, 
113c; Karolyi turns over control to; 
Supreme Council negotiates with; 
moves against Roum.; leaves Hun- 
gary, 114a. 
Belfast, Queen's College dissolved: 
Queen's University fnd. (1908), 58b. 
Belfort, not incl. in cession of Alsace 

(IS71). 107a. 
Belgian Commiss'n for Relief, 46f. 
^ Congo, addition to. 48b: descrip- 
tion, 48b: area & pop., 48c: recent 
statistics. 222; r.:ap. 64; chronology, 
48c; bound. determined. 67b: atrocities 
in, 48f: .-Mbert promises reforms in, 
47e. See also Conao ^ree State. 
Belgium, hist, outline, 46e; organiza- 
tion; govt.; relig. & educ; indus. 8: 
products, 47a: defense. 47b: area, 47b, 
221; pop., 47b; recent statistics, 222; 
map, 38, 64. Chronology. 47b. — 
Other refs.: insur. in (1790), 44b: Fr. 
occupy (1792), 98e; Fr. lose, 98e: 
Aust. loses posses, in, 99a; former 
Aust. possessions in added to S. Ger. 
states, 44c; Belgium incl. with Hoi., 
I2()c; revolts fr. HoL, 24e, 130b; de- 
clares independence, 23b, 129d; neu- 
trality guaranteed by the powers 
(1S31). 23b. 24e; further guar, of 
neutrality (1839), 24e; with Neth. 
guarantees neutrality of Luxemburg 
(1867), 25d: trade relations with 
Can., 72c: neutrality of & Eng. in 
World War, 51a; powers discuss ques- 
tion of preceding war, 31d: Ger. de- 
mands passage through; passage re- 
fused, 31d: Ger. invades, 27c&d, 31d 
Stf; Belg. troops withdraw fr. Liege; 
Anglo- Fr. troops enter Belg.; Fr. 
troops cross border; Belg. troops re- 
tire to Antwerp, 3 If; Aust. declares 
war on. 45e: U. S. protests transporta- 
tion of Belgians to Ger., lS9a; sends 
mission to U. S., 189f: Germans evac- 
uate, 30d; friction with Hoi. over 
Limburg, 130d: ratifies peace treaty, 
38b; U. S. mission raised to rank of 
embassy, 193d: cost of World War to. 
3Sc&f; loans in U. S., 38d. See also 
Albert /., Antwerp, Litge, etc. 
Belgrade, John Hunyadi defeats Turks 
at (1456), 112f; Solyman takes fr. 
Hungarians, ITa; Aust. defeats Turks 
at; Aust. regains. 43e, 152e; ceded to 
Austria, lolc. 152e; Turks regain, 
151d, 152e; Joseph 11. attempts to 
seize, 44b; Aust. again takes, 152e; 
Turks bombard, 122b; Turks S: Serbi- 
ans wage war in, 153a: Turk. represen- 
tatives recalled (1908). 153f; Austri- 
ans bombard (1914), 27b, 32c: Aust. 
occupies, 27e, 32c: Serbians reoccupy, 
32c: Central Powers take, 33e;Serbi3n 
army reoccupies, 37c, 122d. See 
also Serbia. 
— , Treaty of (1739) , 43f . 140a, 152e. 
— , University of, 122b. 
Belgrano, Gen., 131e. 
Belisarius, leads army against Van- 
dals S: Ostrogoths: regains Sicily; en- 
ters Rome in triumph; Vitiges be- 
sieges: takes Ravenna; war in Syria; 
Chosroes, llf. 
Belize. Sr:t British Honduras. 
Belknap, Wm. W., sec. of war, re- 
signs, 177d. 
Bell, Alan, assassinated, 61f. 
^, ."Alexander Graham, telephone, 25e, 

162e. 177d. 
^, John, nominated. 161a; vote, 174b. 
Belleau Wood, 30b, 36e, 19Id. 
Belle-ile-en-Mer, battle of; Brit. 

take, 98b. 
Belle-Isle. Duke of. 98a. 
Bellevue, Nebr., settled, 220. 
Belmont, Mo., battle. i74e. 
Below, von, at Caporetto, 35f. 
Bern, Gen. Joa., routs Russians, 44d. 
Bemis Heights. See .Sara^oaa. battle 

of. 
Benavides, Col. Oscar, revolts; pro- 
visional pres.. 133e. 
Benedict XIII.,antipope, 15b. 
— , Pope, 20f. 

— XV., Pope. U7c; peace note. 35c: 
proposes bases of peace, 117e; & It. 
elections (1919). U7f. 
Benedictines, leave Fr., 101b. 
Beneventum, battle of, 8f. 
Bengal, 62f, 63a; Eng. factory in, 63d; 
Eng. establishments in; conquests; 
Eng. become masters in, 63e: Clive 
defeats Nawab of. 21b; Warren Has- 
tings gov., 21c: passes in incorporated 
in Brit. India, 48c: province; divided; 
reunited; adm. changes in, 64f. 
Beng^zi, Turks take, 117b. 
Benhadad III., ravages Israel, 7b. 
Beni ■ assan monuments. 62. 
Bennington, battle of. 169a, 200b. 
Bentall, convicted of violating Espi- 
onage .^ct, 191b. 
Bentinck, Count von. Kaiser guest of, 

108f. 
^. Ld. W, M., gov.-gen. of India, 64b. 
Benton, Thomas H.. 202f, 203a. 
Bcntonville, battle of. 176a. 
Berar, 64a; ceded to Brit. East India 

Co., 64c. 
Berber, town. Sudan, occupied, GSe. 
Berbers, 128e. 

Berchtold, Count Leopold von, un- 
derstanding with cmp. regarding Ser- 
bia, 45d, 3lc; receives information on 
assas.; suppresses report. 31c: decides 
on war. 3ld; resigns. 45e. 
Bdrenger II. , dethroned: restored; 

reigns under suzerainty, 12e. 
Beresford, Gen. Wm., takes Buenos 
Aires. 40d. 



Berezina (river), crossing, 22f, 95e. 
Bergen op Zoom, taken by Fr., t3f. 
Berger, Victor, found guilty under 

Espionage Act. 192c; refused seat in 

Congress, 192f: House unseats, 193e; 

reelected, 193f: again unseated. 194c. 
Bergerac. Treaty of, ISa. 
Bering, Vitus, disc, strait, 20f: Alaska, 

21a, 168b; explores Alaska, 2093. 

— Sea controversy. 179c: award, 179e. 
Berkeley, Sir Wm., N, J. granted to. 

167f, 195f; Bacon's Rebellion, 167f. 

^ County, W. Va,, 1st settlement, 206a. 

Berkersdorf, battle of. 106a. 

Berkman, Alex., deported, 193f. 

Berlin, Rus.& Aust. occupy. 44a, 106a. 
140a: Napoleon in, 22d. 99c: anarchy 
(1848), I06d; Prus. troops enter, 106e; 
Ist electric train, 25f: (Congo) Con- 
ference, 47d. 4Sc; workingmen's con- 
ference, 107c; socialists demand uni- 
versal suffrage; suppressed, 107d: un- 
employed parade, 107e: Turk, repre- 
sentatives recalled from. 153f: Great- 
er, 107e; passenger service with Con- 
stant inople'resumed( 1915) :food short- 
age, 108a; strike in (1918). 108c; 
army deserters march in, banks stop 
payment, 108e; Workmen '3 & Sol- 
diers" Council. 108e, 1093; general 
strikes (1918-20), 108e, 109b, c. &d; 
Socialist govt, in, lOSf : Spartacide re- 
volt, 109a, b, &c; chief of police de- 
posed, 109a; in state of siege, 109b; 
Soviet congress meets at, 109c: Fr. 
flags burned, 37f, 109c: Royalist dem- 
onstration; Nat. Assembly at; mob 
attacks; counter-revolutionists take 
possess. of, 109c: revoltcoUapses.lOOd. 

^, Conference (1889), Samoao question, 
21 Ob. 

^, congress of princes at (1850), 106e. 

—,CongTessof (1878), 78a&d, 107b, UOc. 
I21f, 122c, 123a. 136b&f, 137d, 141a, 
151e; 2nd congress 11880), 1.53c. 

— Decree. 22d. 99d. 170c; pretended 
withdrawal, 170d^ 

^ Memorandum, I53b. 

— , peace of (1742), 21a. 

— , Treaty of (1878), 25f, 41dS:f, 44f, 
78d. 107b, I22f, 123b,c&d, 141a. 151e, 
153c: Turks repudiate (1917). 154e. 

^, L^niv. of, 22d. 

Berlin-to-Bagdad railroad, 124f. 
125a- SfG a\so Bagdad. 

Bermondt, Gen. .attack on Riga,124c. 

Bermudas, descrip., area & pop., 73f. 

BermQdez, pres. of Peru; dies, 133e. 

Bern, hist., I49d: Intern. Social Sci- 
ence Cong.; Intern. Law;Intern. Peace 
& Arbitration; Universal Copyright, 
loOd; Intern. Peace Congress, 150e. 

Bernadotte, crown prince of Sw., 22e, 
14Sc, 149a; against Napoleon, 99c; 
king. liSd, 149a. See also Charles 
A'/V.J"o,'i-., of Sweden. 

Bernard of .\scania, 13d. 

— of Weimar, at Rhcinfelden, 19b. 

— , St., persecutes Abelard; reconciled; 

2nd crusade, 13c. 
Bernstorff , Count Johann, prime min- 
ister, dismissed, 91c. 
^, von, Johann Heinrich A., charges 
U. S. with violating neutrality, 32f, 
lS6e; Ger. declaration on liners, lS7c: 
receives passports, 189c: secret mes- 
sage disclosed. 190b; dispatches inter- 
cepted. 102d. 
Berry, Duke de, assassinated, 100a. 
Bertrand, Francisco, pres. Honduras, 
Sid; aga.n pres., Sle; revolt against; 
leaves country, 81f. 
Berwick, Duke of, attacks Sp., 98a. 
^, treaty of, 17e. 

Bcaant, Mrs. Annie, pres. Hindu Na- 
tional Congress, 65a. 
Besika Bay, 140e. 
Bessarabia, Rus. gets part, 22f, 152f: 
part added to Moldavia, 1401; Roum. 
cedes part to Russia, i36c&f, 14la, 
151e, 153c; proclaims itself as Molda- 
vian Republic, 143a; Rus. demands 
evacuation, 136f; unites with Roum., 
36c,143b; Ukraine-Roum. agreement 
over, 137a; fighting in, 143d; civil 
govt, estab.; annexed to Roum.; So- 
viet govt, recognizes Roum- in, 137a. 
Bessemer process patented, 25a. 
Bessus, slays Darius, 8d. 
Bethel. Fr. take. 37a. 
B6thencourt. Jean de. 146c. 
Bethlen. Gabor, 1.8f. 
Bethmann-HoUweg, Theobald von, 
chancellor, 107e; supports Austria, 
31c; resigns, lOSb. 
Better-Terms Act, Canada, 72a. 
Beust, Count von, min. for. affairs; 

premier; resigns, 44f. 
Beyers, Christian, revolts against Brit.; 

killed. 67c. 
BSziers, massacre of, 13f. 
Bhutan, descrip.; chronology, 4Sc; 
Eng. trcatieswith (1365, 1910), 64dM. 
Bialystok, massacre of Jews, 141e. 
Biarritz, Nap. III. St Bismarck at, 25c. 
Bibars, subdues Antioch, 14c. 
Bible, Wycliffe. 15b; Mazarin. 15c; 
Luther. 17b; King James, ISe; revis- 
ion, 26a: of the French Revolution, 
21c; Chinese (Morrison's transL). 
80c. See also Vulgate. 
Bicols, 21la. 
Biaberstein, von. 107c. 
Bienville. Celeron de. on Ohio R..16Sb. 
Biernerth. Baron von, premier, 4oc. 
Big Beth3l. battle of, l*ld. 
— Black River, battle of, 175c. 
Bigelow, E. B., carpet loom, 172d. 
Billinghurst, Guillenno, pros, of Pe- 
ru; deposed; exiled, 133e. 
Bill 01" Rights, Eng., 52f; U. S.. 169e. 
Biloxi, Miss., fnd.. 97e, I68a, 201f .220. 
BioDio River, 82;*. 
Birmingham. Ala., statistics. 220. 
Birney. J. G.. vote for pres.. I72d&f. 
Biron, E. J., regent for Ivan VI.. 140a. 
Birrell, Augustine, in ministry. 57f; 
in coalition cabinet, 59c; aec. for Ire- 
land; resigns, 59e. 
Birth rate in Fr. (1911), lowest on 

record, lUle. 
Bisbee, .\nz., strikers deponed, 190a. 
Bismarck, Otto von, St problem of 
German unity, 25b; prea- of Prus. 
ministry. 103c, 106f; war on Den.; 
meeting with Nap. III.. 25c; war with 
Aust., 25c. 103c, 106f; ciiancellor, 



106f; discloses Nap.'s demands; alli- 
ance of Ger. states, 25d: foments 
Franco-Prus. War, 107a: Ems dis- 
patch, 25d, 94c, lOOc; supports Rus- 
sia, 25e: influence on Ger. Emp.: pol- 
icy toward Catholics, 103d: Coward 
Socialists, 103d8:e: protective duties: 
foreignalliaiices,103e: colonial policy, 
103e&f: Berlin Memorandum. 153b: 
pres. Congress of Berlin, 107b; disa- 
grees with emp.. 107c; dismissed. 
103f , 107c; aids Ger. Army bill: recon- 
ciled with emp., 107c, 

Bismarck Archipelago, described, 
105c: occupied by Australia, 32c, 
76e, 105c; assigned to, 105c. 

Biasing, von, gov.-gen. of Belg., 47e. 

Bissolati, Leonida. protests It. peace 
policy; resigns, 117e. 

Bithynia, Nicomedes I. reigns, 8f; 
Prusias I.: Prusias U.. 9aStc; killed, 
9c: Nicomedes II.. 9c: Nicomedes III. 
reigns; restored: bequeathed to Rome, 
9e: younger Pliny proconsul, 10b. 

Bitlis, taken. .4f, 42a. 

Black, Jeremiah, 215c. 

Black Code, 160e, 176b. 

— Death, 14f, 114c. 

^ Eagl9, Cuban polit. society, 88e. 
^ Flags, Fr. undertakes to conq,; de- 
feat Fr-, lOOe. 
^ Friday (see in Did.). 176e. 

— Hawk Purchase, 204c; War, 172a. 

— Hills, S. D., 207a. 

— Hole of Calcutta (see in Diet.) , 63e. 
^ Sea, Turks control, 15e; Rus. gains 

ter. on, 2ld; free to navigation, 152f; 
Russia gets N. E. coast, 140d: Eng. St 
Fr. fleets enter, 140e, 153a; neutrality 
of. 140f. 151d: conf. at London over, 
140f: neutralityVnds,25e,140f; Roum. 
loses control of, 136i; Turk, war ves- 
sels in (1914), 31e. 

— Soil, 139d. 

— Warrior affair, 89c. 173e. 
Blacklist, Gr. Brit, places U. S. firms 

on; U.S. protests. 59i, ISSd: Gr. Brit. 
upholds. IsSf. 

Blackstone"s Commentaries, 21c. 

Blackwater State, 206b. 

Bladensburg„\merg.deteatedat,170f. 

Blaine, James G.. 202i; candid, for 
pres., 163cStd, 175c, 217a; s?c. of 
state, 178f; Bond-Elaine reciprocity 
treaty between Newf. Sc U. S,, 73e. 

Blair, F. P., vote for vice pres,, 176e. 

Blak2,Adm.,&Tromp; attacks Algiers, 
Tunis, Si Tripoli, 52a; ail Santa Cruz; 
dies, 52b. 

Blanc, Louis, 100b. 

Blancarte, leads revolt, 126e. 

Blancae of Castile, regent, 14a. 

Blanco, Antonio Guzman- See Gus- 
mdn Blanco, Antonio, 

Blanco party, Uruguay, 155b&c. 

Bland-Allison Act (Silver Law), 183f, 
1771. 

Blease, Gov. of S. C, lS4c. 

Blenheim, battle of, 20d, 43e, I46e. 

Bleriot, Louis, 1st monoplane fligtrt 
over Eng. Channel, lOle. 

Blindheim ^Blenheim. 

Bliss, Gen. Tasker H., U. S. com, to 

Paris Peace Conference, 192a. 
-Blizzard State, 206f. 

Block, Adrian, disc. Conn. River, 195c 

Blockade, ministry of, in Eng. cabinet, 
59e, 60a; of Brit. Isles, declared by 
Ger., 2Sd, 29b, 32f, 36a: of Confeder- 
ate ports, 16lc, 174d: of Cuban ports, 
ISO;; of Germany, by Allies. 27f. 28a, 
32d, 59e: ditiiculties with neutrals 
over, 28a, 29b, 32f , 33a; raised (1919) 
3Sa, 109c; of Gr. ports, llOe; of Ven- 
ezuela, 156c. See also Contraband, 
Continuous Voyage. 

Blood, circulation of, disc. ISe. 

Blood Council, instituted, 17f. 

Bloody Assizes, 52f. 

— Sunday. Russia. 137f. 
Bliicher. G.L. von. crosses Rhine; in Fr. 

ter. .221; atLaon;Ligny: Waterloo, 99f. 
^. Ger. cruiser, lost, 33f. 
Blueflelda, Nicar. forces occupy:Brit. 

& Ain..-r. forces landed, 80a, 81c. 
Blue Grass State, 200b. 
Blue Hen State, 195a. 

— Law State. 196c. 

— Sky cases, 189c. 

Bluff. Utah, conflict with Piutes, 186d. 

Blunt, Gen. James G.. takes Fort 
Smith. Ark.. 175d. 

Boadicea. contest with Rome, 10b. 

Board of Trade & Plantations. 16Sa. 

Bobrikov, Gen., assassinated, 141d. 

Boccaccio, Giovanni, I4c. 

Bocchori3=BcAenr(?n/. 7c. 

Bceotia, Athens conquers: end of Athe- 
nian power in, 7f. 

BiBOtian League, dissolved, 9c. 

Boers, in Cape Colony: trek, 66f; trek, 
illust.. 116: colonize Transvaal, 66d: 
settlements beyond Orange R.; in Na- 
tal, conq. by Brit.; found So. African 
Repub,; Orange River ter. independ- 
dent, 66f: St "Uitlanders," OTa; S: 
Jameson Raid; ultimatum to Brit, 
troops. 67b: war with Gt. Brit. (1S99- 
liJ02), 67bStc: demand responsible 
govt.; granted in Transvaal S: Orange 
Free State, OTc; revolt in World War, 
32d, 07e; suppressed by Botha, 33e, 
67e. See South Africa. Union of (Prov- 
inces & Chronology). 

Boethius, the philosopher, llf. 

Bogdanovich, assass., 141c. 

Bogolyepov. assass., 141c. 

Bogomilian heresy, 123d. 

Bogota, Univ. of, 8Sb. 

Bogran, Dr.Fra-.icIsco, prov.pres., 81f. 

Boguc forts, Brit, capture, 85d. 

Bohemia, now part of Czecho-Slova- 
kia; sec C-':ccho-Slovakia, Hist. Out' 
line i Chronol. —Other rcis.: Gt. 
Moravia a part, 12d; Sigismund king; 
Luxemburg dyn. ends, 15c; religious 
toleration granted to; begins Tnirty 
Yrs." War. 18e; Fred. V. king, ISf; 
allies overrun, 43f, 98a; Fred. II. in- 
vades. 43f; Prus. invade (1757), 106a; 
(1866), 106f; Leopold II. king, 22c; 
home rule denied, 45a: use of Boh. 
language in, 45b; provincial constitu- 
tion suspended, 45d; bread riots in, 
45e; munition workers strike in, 45f. 

Bohemond of Tarentum. in 1st Cru- 
sade; prince of Antioch, 13b. 



Bokhara, descrip'., l39e; Mongols Sufc. 

due. I4a: vassal state of Ru9., 140f. 
Boleslaus I., king of Poland, 133f. 
Boleyn, .\nne, queen, 17b; death, 17c. 
Bolingbroke, m Tory ministry; im- 
peached; escapes. 53c. 
Bolivar, Simon, leader in Venez., 22f. 
I56a, leads rebellion in Colom,; Boy- 
aca. 87f : forms Repub. of Colom. ,88c: 
supports revol. in i-xuador. 92d: pres. 
of Venez.; wins battle of Carabobo, 
155d; drives Sp. from Bolivia. 48d: in 
Peru, liib. dictator, 133d: Bolivia 
named for, 48dS(f: frames Boliv. con- 
stitution, 4Sf; returns to Colom., 133d. 
Bolivia, historical outline: govt.. 48d: 
religion Si educ: production & indu.=- 
try: defense: area & pop.. 48e: map. 
64; recent statistics. 222. Chronol- 
ogy. 4Sf.~0ther refs.: part of Peru 
(see Peru. 133aS;b): joins Peru in war 
with Chile (1S36): (1879). 83aStc; 
truce with Chile: peace treaty enas 
truce, 83d: bound, dispute w.th Bra- 
zil, 49f: severs diplom. intercourse 
with Arg., 41b; treaty with Paraguay. 
132a; severs diplom. relations witti 
Ger., 35c, 3bf; treaty with China, 87f. 
Bologna, insurr., 116b; Austrians oc- 
cupy. 44d:univ. of. U5d. 
Bolo Pasha, arrested, I02c; convicted; 

sentenced to death, 102d. 
Bolsheviki, general account, 29d, 31b. 
13Sb, cStd; propaganda causes deser- 
tions in Rus. army, 35e. 142e: failure 
in munic elections, 142f; overthrow 
Kerenski govt.: declare final author, 
rests in Soviet; make Lenin premier St 
Trotski for. min., 138b, 142f: negoti- 
ate for armistice with Central Powers, 
143a; make public secret treaty ot 
Lond., Uic; sign armist:ce, 138b, 
143a: begin peace negotiations, 143a; 
recognize indep. of F inland, 93e,138c, 
143b: call Const. Assembly. 13Sb; 
dissolve it, 138b, 143a: break oif rela- 
tions with Roum., 143a: separate 
church St state: repudiate national 
debt, 143a: withdraw from Brest- 
Litovsk peace conference, 36b; return, 
36c: jdopt Greg, calendar. 143a: de- 
feat Kaledin & Kornilov, 143b: sign 
Brcst-Litovsk treaty (sec Brest-Li- 
tovsk), 13Sb, 143b: recognize mdep. 
of Ukraine, 138c, 143c; suppress 
counter-revolution in Moscow, i43c; 
control Russia, 138c; war with .Mlies, 
138c, 143c: make 3 treaties with Ger.; 
sack Brit, embassy at Petrograd; S.s- 
son documents, 143c: condition i.i 
eastern Rus. under; capture Riga, 93b, 
143d: fight on four fronts (1919), 
13Sci:d, 143d; driven out of Lith.j 
124c; invade Eslhonia, 93b: St Rou- 
manians in Bessarabia, 137a. 143d: 
retreat before Vudenicb; capt- Pskov; 
drive Kolchak, but yield t>efore Den - 
km; overcome Yudenicii St Den.iiin. 
143e; Esthonian armistice; Peace ^i 
Vurev, 93b; opposed by GeorgiaStAzc- 
faaijaa, 46d. 143e; in Siberia, 139a. 
143d, cM; occupy Archangel, Hie; 
refuse to permit trade; dr.ve on Po- 
land but ar.; repulsed, 143i; estab. tw3 
naiversities, 139b; parties & propa- 
ganda in Austria, 46bStc: in Bali.c 
Provinces, 144a; Bavaria, 109b; Fin- 
land, 93e; Germany. lOSe&f, 109a, b, 
ciid: Hn-ngary. li3c, I14a; Korea, 
UOt; SilL-s.a, 109a- See also Russia, 
(.■?:5. ''^hronaloav. \m-Wm. Soviet, 
Boi^havism , -vists. See Bolakeviki, 
BomarsUilJ. surr.. HOe. 
Bj.nua.7, part at dowry of Catherine, 
52c; cwied to Eng.. 19e, 63d; seat oE 
Eog. Company's gort.. 63d; presi- 
dency. 621", 64a; add..tion3 to, 64b: 
province-. 63a. 
Bomba,. piailed to prominent Ameri- 
cans, I92c-, outrages ia, 8 cities, 192f. 
— , depth, 30b. 
BonapartCrEriza, duciicssof Toscarry. 

U6b. 
— . Jerome, of Westphalia. 22d. 99d. 
^, Joseph., king of Naples. 22d, LI4e, 
1 ICb; kinffof Sp-r 22^. 99d, I45d. I47b- 
^, LouiSr king of Holland, 22d, 129c. 

nOb: abdicates, 22e. I29c. 
"— , Louis Napoleon, reign, 94b&c; in 
Switz... 149e; attempts revolution,- 2nd 
rising; prisoner at Hajn. lOOb- gets 
concession, for Mic. Canal, SOe; pn^s.. 
100b; couv d' Stat, 24f,. lOOb: dicta- 
tor: pres. for 10 yrs., lOOb; emp. Mi- 
poleon nr.,. 2M.. lOOb;. marries Euge- 
nic de Montijo,. lOOb'. Orsini attempts' 
to assass.,. 100c; Nic canal conces- 
sion, Sla: me£C9 Cavour,. 25a, 116c; 
war with Aust.;. & Dtaly,. 25b; in-- 
creases privileges,, lOOte:- supDcrts 
Max. in Mex., lOOt.. I'l'c IS-ki; 
meeting with BiBmarek,. 25c;. orders 
Fr. troops out of Mzx^,. l2-7a: neutral 
in war bet. Pruss. & Aust., i-jd; nego- 
tiates for purchase of Lu.ieniburg.J.'id,. 
124d: grants Libenila diimjjuls;- suJj- 
mitg new laws, lOOc; ai eaust: ui Fr.- 
Prus. War. 107a; at: Sedan.. lOOr: 
pr.soner, 100c, I07a. 
^, Napoleon, his career,. 94a'Sdjr ac 
Toulon, 98i; protects convcntnon.. 22a, 
98i; campaign m It., 22ai,90a: defeats 
Austrians. 4Ib, 99a: se;2es papal terr.„ 
22a, 99a: Peace of Campoform!do,22a,. 
99a. 116b; respects ind.'pend. 01" SaiK 
Marino, 144c: return.s to Paris, 99a;' 
republics in It., ll'Vo; cxped. tO> 
Egypt, 68a, 99a: Kniglits of St. John,. 
99a: Malta, 22a, 62a, 99a: Mama- 
lukes, 22a, 08d; battle of Pyramids! 
battle of Nile, 22a, 99a; campaign- in: 
Syria. 22a, OSaStd, 99a; returns to Fr., 
22a, 6Sd, 99a; recog. Toussaint L" 
Ouverturc, Ule; coup d' itat, 99b;; 
Consulate estab.; 1st Consul, 22b, 99h:; 
Great St. Bernard, 99b: Man.-.ngo,22av 
44b, 99b, 116b; acquires La- 901n, 
Ule. 147a: Lun^ville, 22b, 99b, 106b;, 
concordat with Pius VII., 22bi 99b„ 
exped. against Toussaint I'Ouverture, 
99b, Ule: Legion of Honor, 99b; pres.. 
It. repub.; Consul for life, 22c, 99h; 
ttireatens war on Gr. Brit.; Swiss coH" 
fed.; Eng. declares war. 99b; cedfeS' 
Louisiana to U, S., 22c, 99c; army at 
Boulogne, 22c, 54d, 99c; conspiracy 
disc, 22c, 99c; Code, 99c; duk& of 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



227 



e;nghien: emp.. 22c. 99c; Pius VII. 
crowns, 99c; king of It., 22c. 99c; set- 
tles It. affairs. 114e, 116b; Gen. Mack 
aurr. at Ulm. 22c, 99c; Austerlitz; 
Peace of Pressburg, 2'2c, 44c. 99c; 
creates kdm. of Holland, 130b; Con- 
fed, of Rhine; Holy Roman Empire. 
?2d. 99c. 106c; war on Prus.. 99c; 
Jena: occupies Prus.; enters Berlin, 
22(1, 99c; Berlin decree; Eylau, 22d, 
99d; Fricdland, 22d. 99d, 140c; Ale.\. 
of Rus., 99d. 140c; Treaty of Tilsit. 
22d. 99d, 140c; duchy of Warsaw,22d, 
99d. 134c, 140c; kdm. of Westphalia. 
22d. 99d. 106c; Sw. possess, in Ger., 
99d, 149a; alliance with Den.. 91c: 
Etrur;a, 99d. 116b; Milan decree,22d. 
99d; Papal States added to It. Kdm., 
99d; & Spain. 145d; Ferd. Vll. & 
Charles IV., 22e, 99d. 147b; defeated 
in Port.; at Erfurt. 22e, 99d; & Alex.I. 
9yd, U7d; & Stein, 22e, 106c; war 
with Aust.. 22e, 44c, 99d: enters Vi 
enna, 22e, 99d- Aspem, 44c, 99d, 
Wacram, 22e, 44c, 99e: Peace of 
SctiOiibrunn (Vienna). 22e, 99e, 122d; 
Papil States annexed to Fr.; excom- 
municated; pope imprisoned; divorces 
Josephine, 99d; marries Marie Lou 'se, 
22e. il9e; annexes Hoi.. 22?, 99e, I29c. 
130o: birth of son, 22e; war with Rus.. 
23e, 99p. 140c; invades Rus., 22f, 99a, 
140c; Smolensk, 99e, 140c: Borodin.-; 
Moscow; retreat, 22f. 99e. 140c; r*^ 
turns to Paris. 99e; Europe against. 
22f. 44c. 99e; Bernadotte aaainst. 99e. 
H8c. 149a: LUtzen: Baiitzcn, 99c; 
Congress of Prague. 22f ; Dresden. 22f, 
44c; Leipzig, 22i, 44c. 99f; Bavaria 
deserts, 22f; retreats from Rhine, 22f. 
44c, 99i; withdraws from Hoi.. 99f; 
defeated in Fr.; abdicates, 22f, 44c. 
99i; at Elba. 22f, 99f: escapes: m Fr.; 
Marshal Ney; enters Pars: alliance 
a^a nst. Murat; Ligny; Waterloo. 99f : 
aaam abdicates; sent to St, Helena, 
lOi.U. tx;le in, 6of; dies, 100a; re- 
iTMins brought to Paris. 100b. 

Bonapartes, the, exiled, lOOe. 

Bonapartist ministry. 100b. 

Bond, Sir Robert, reciprocity treaty 
with U. S.. "3e; premier of Newf.; 
rec.fr (Bnpd-Hay) convention. 73f. 

Bond ISSU'. Vet, U.S., 1st, 189f; 2od. 
I'JOb. 

Bona issu-s, U. S., 1SG2 (■■.'i-20E"), 
1741; 1S63. 175c; 1st of 1S94. 179e; 2nd 
oi I.S9-»; 1S9.5. 179f; 1S96. 180a. See 
also Loans. Li'yerly Bonds. 

Bonhomma Richard, 169b. 

Bonifaca ol Montferrat, 13e. 

— Vm., Pope, disputes with Philip 
I\'.: imprisoned: rescued; dies, 14d. 

Bonilla, Manuel, pres. of Hond.. 79e; 

aaam pres. (1912). Sid; dies. Sie. 
Book of ComiziDii Prayer, adopted, 

o2c. 
Book of the Law, found, 7d. 
Boone. Danii.l. explores Ky., 16Se, 

200c; Tefin., .'OOJ. 
Boone3borou~h, Ky.. fnd.. 200c, 220. 
Boonvilie, Mo., battle of, 174e. 
Booth, John Wilkes. 176a. 
Bopp, Franz, lfc9b. 
Borda. Idiarte, prcs Uruguay, 155c. 
Bordeaux, Nat. Assemb. begins sessions 

at (1>;71), lOOd; Fr. gjvt. trans- to, 

32a. 102a. 
Borden. Sir Robert L., premier, 72e; 

forms Union min,, 73b. 
Borgia, Cesare. duke of Romagna, 

gams Fa-nza. Rimini & Pesaro. 16e. 
Bor^lum, aircraft charges. 191c. 
Bor^o, occupied. 33d. 
Boriiiquan, native name of Cuba, 

21 Id, 
Boris, Princ?. of Bulgaria, converted 

to Orthodox Greek faith. 78a&e. 

— III., becomes king; abdicates, 78c. 
Borneo, Bnt sh North. S2c. See Brit- 
ish Norti Borneo. 

— , Dutch, 129[. 

Borodino, battle of, 22f, 99e, 140c. 
Borrero. pres., Ecuador, 92f- 
Boscawen. Adm., defeats French. 53e. 
Boselli, Paolo, coalition ministry, 

ll7d; resigns, 117e. 
Bosnia, early hist-, 123c: Turkey loses 

pirt. 20e, 152e; insurrec. (1850). 153a; 

(1S75), lo3b; Archd. Francs assass. 

in, 27a, 122a; Serbs invade, 2i'e. 32c; 

joins Serbia, 121c; in Jugo-Slavia, 

121d. S^s 3.\50 Bosnia & HtTzeoovina, 

Bosnia & Herzegovina, historical 
outline, 123c. 42t; cnronology. 123c. 
People of. 121a; under Turk. rule, but 
with Austro-Hung. mandate, 122t; 
occupied St subdued by Aust., 44i; re- 
forms in, 151e; mil. service in, 45a; 
annexation to Austria. 26e. 45c. 121f. 
122c, 151f; Turk, accepts indemnity 
for. 153f; uprisings among South 
Slavs (1915) , 45e. See Bosnia; 
Ht-rzejovina; Jugo-Slapia. 

Boso. rules Burgundy, 12d. 

Bosporus, opening of, 137c; closed to 
lor. warships (1S41), 24e; Allies gain 
control of. 30e. 152b. 

Bossuet. & liberttes of the Gallican 
church, 97e. 

Boston, Mass., fnd., 157e, 167e; News 
Letter est^b.. 168aS;b; Brit, troops at. 
168e, 196i; Massacre, 168e. 196f, 212d: 
Lrit. troops withdraw, 168e; "Tea 
i^arty," 15Se. 168e, 196f; Port Act. 
loic: port closed, 158e. 196f: Brit. 
troops again garrison, ISSeStf, I68e; 
s ege of, 16Sf: evacuated, 158f, 168f. 
i96i; great fire (1872), 177b; garment 
workers "strike, lS4d: Wilson's speech 
at, 192d; parade of 26th Division. 
!'32e. police strike, 193c; statistics. 
220; Old South Church, illust.; Fan- 
euil Hall, illust.. 212. 

Bosworth Field, battle of. 15e. 

Botany Bay. Capt. Cook at, 75d: set- 
tlement. 74f. 75d. 

Botha, Louis, Boer general. 67c; prime 
minister, 67d; suppresses Boer revolt. 
fl/e; conquers Ger. S.W. .Africa, 28d, 
SSe&f, 67e. lOob; sustained in elec- 
tion; at Peace Conf .; dies, 67e. 

Bothwell. Earl of. wedt Marj-. 17f. 

Bothwell Bridge, battle of. 52e. 

Bougainville, Louis de, 210b. 



Boulanger, Gen., disturbances under, 
94d. lOOf; nees from Fr-. lOOf. 

Boule, Gr. legislative body, 109f; Cre- 
tan chamber. UOd. 

Boulogne, Napoleon's army at, 22c, 
54d, 99c. 

Bounties Act, .Australia, 76c. 

Bounty, ship, mutineers on Pitcairn 



Isl.. 



■7f. 



Bourbon, Constable, cap. Rome, 17a, 

^, Duke of, prime minister, 98a. 

— , House of, in Fr. (1589-1792, 1815- 
1848) begins, 18c: restored, 22f, 94b. 
99f; overthrov;-n, 23a, 100a; efforts to 
restore (1872-75), lOOd; in Naples, 
withdraws to Sicily. 22d: in Sp, (1713- 
1308. 1814-1868. 1875- ), begins. 

146f; downfall. 211d; restored. 22f. 
147b; driven out; restored, 147d; alli- 
ance between B- princes, 98b, 145d. 

Bourbon, l3l.= Reunion. 96f. 

Bouresches. battle of. 36e. 

Bourgeois, Rad.ministry;ret ires, lOIa. 

Bourmont, Gen., takes Algiers. 100a, 

Bouvines, battle of. 14a. 

Bowell, S:r Mackenzie, premier, 72c. 

Bowman f. Chicago & N.W. R.R. Co.. 
Supr. Court decision, 17Se. 

Bowring, Sir John, 144e. 

Boxer, cap. by the Enterprise. 170f. 

Boxers, 84b&c, 86b&c; indemnity, S5b, 
lS2d. Other refs.: 26c, 76b, llSe,164d. 
217d. 

Boyaca, battle of, 87f. 

Boycott. Napoleon's Continental sys- 
tem for, 99d; by labor organizations 
(Danbury Hatt-?rs' Case), lS2d. 183a: 
by China against Japan, 87b, 120/; by 
China a^inst U. S., 86c. 

Boy-Ed, Capt. Karl, recall de-nanded, 
33aS:b, lS7c; leaves U. S., 29d. 

Boyer, succeeds Potion, 111c: controls 
Fr. colony; conq. Sp. colony, Ule. 

Boyne, battle of th-?, 53a, 97e. 

Bozzaris, Markos, Gr- patriot; attacks 
Turks at Karpenis', 110b. 

Braddock, Gen., defeated, 15Sb. 16Sc, 
212a. 

Braddon clause, Australia, 76b&d. 

Bradlaush, CharKs, atheist, 57a. 

Bradstreet, John, takes Fort Fronte- 
Tiac. 16Sc. 

Bradwell v. Illinois. Supr. Court de- 
cision, 177c. 

Braga, T.. prov. pres. of Port.. 135f; 
pres.; resigns. 136a. 

Era5anza,Dukeof=JohnlV.. of Port. 

^, House of; forfeits throne; flees to 
Brazil, 135a, See also Catherine of 
Braganza. 

Bragg, G?n. Braxton, invades Ky.; at 
battle of Perr>-ville; at Murfreesboro, 
175b; at Chjckamauga; besieges Chat- 
tanringa, 175d- 

Brahmanism in India. 5d. 62e. 63b. 

Braila. captured. 35f. 

Brandais. Louis D., 18Sc. 

Brandenburg. Fred. Wm. rules, 19b: 
a'ds Poland in war with Sweden. 19d, 
139e; getssuzeramtyover Prussia, I9d, 
105e, 139e: peace with Sw., USe; aids 
Hoi.. 97d; Swedes invade. 19f, USf; 
I estab, as European power, 19f; Peace 
of Saint-Germain. 19f. 14Sf: map 
(1648), IS; (town) Prussian Nat. As- 
sembly in, 106e- 

Brandywine, battle of. 169a, 195c. 

Branting. Hjalmar. min. of finance; 
forms ministr>'^ 149c. 

Bratiano, premier of Roum.. 136f. 

Brattleboro, Vt..sHtled, 200a. 220. 

Bravo, Nicolas, Mex. general. 126a: 
revolts: vice pres.. 126b&d. 

Braz, Wenceslao, pres. of Brazil, 50a. 

Brazil, hist, outline, 49a; govt., 49c; 
production & industry; inhabitants; 
religion & educ-; defense, 49d; area & 
pop., 49e, 221; recent statistics, 222; 
map. 64; Kamayura house, illust.: 
Sambioa hut. illust-, 128. Chronol- 
ogy, ■lie. — Other refs.: coast devel- 
oped. lG7a; gold disc. 135e; cap. 
I\Iontevid;o, 155b; becomes inde- 
pend.. 135e; n-ar with Uruguay; recog- 
nizes independ. of Uru.. 155aS:b; in- 
tervenes in Uru., 155b; bound, ques. 
with Venez., 156a; P? aguay, 131f; 
Arg.. 41b; Fr., lOla; Peru. 133e; Bo- 
liv.. 48f; offers mediation in Boliv.- 
Peru-Chile dispute. 4Sf; Roosevelt 
explores. lS5d; treaty with .Arg, S: 
Chile, 41b: severs dplomatic relations 
with Ger.; se.z'S Ger. sh:ps. 35c: de- 
clari^s w^T on G?r., 33d; enters World 
War, 3Se. See .1 D C. PortuQal. 

—. Prince MigUL-1 of, regent, 135aS:e. 

Breasted, J. H., Egyptologist. 6c. 

Breckinridge. J.C, 200c; clectedvice 
pres.,173l;candid.forprPS..161a,li4b. 

Breda, declaration of. 52b: Treaty of, 
19e, 52c, 91b. 129c. 130a. 

Breitenfeld, battle of, 19a. 

Bremen, ceded to Sw., 148cS:e: ceded 
to George I . of Hanover. 14Sf ; Fr. an- 
nex, 99e; regains autonomy, 106c: in 
Ger. Soviet repub.. lOSf; Spartacides 
control. 109b. 

Brennus. invades Macedonia, 8f. 

Breshkovskaya, Ekaierina. tried 

for conspiracy'; sent to Siberia. 142a. 

Breslau. Treaty of. 21a, 43f; added to 
So. German states, 44c: riots, 107c. 

^ & Goeben, Ger. warships, episode, 
31e, 32d; in Black Sea; bombard 
Odessa, 152b, 154d; engage Brit. fleet; 
Bres/au sinks, 37d. 

Brest- Litovsk, Mackensen in, 33c: 
armistice of, 143a: negotiations at, 
35d , 46a , 1 43a : peace treaty bet . 
Ukraine & Central Powers, 36b. 143a: 
Rus. withdraw, 36b: Treaty of, 13Sb 
&c, 29d,36c:&Czecho-Slovak3,90d;& 
Esthonia, 93b; & Finland. 93e: & Lat- 
via, 123e; & Lithuania, 124c; & Po- 
land, 134e; & Turk. Armenia, 42a; 
condemned by Allies: not recognized 
by .Arm. & Georgia, 143b; void, 37b. 
See also Bolsheviki, Central Powers. 

Brethren of the Sword, German, in 
Baltic Provinces; & Teutonic Knights, 
144a; purchase Dan. conquests; Kur- 
land & Livonia. 144b. 

Breweries, ordered closed. 191e. 

Briand. Aristide, premier; calls strik- 
ers as army reserves; r^^igns. lOle; 
forms new cabinet (1913): resigns 
IGlf: min. of justice, I02a; new cabi- 



net (1915): ministry upheld, 102b: 
prem.of smaller ministry :ret ires, 102c- 

Bridgeport, Conn., 196d: munition 
workers return, 191e: Statistics, 220. 

Bridger, James, 20Sb. 

Bridgewater, Duke of, canal, 21c- 

Brlght, John, Anti-Corn Law League. 
55d; in Gladstone's 1st ministry. 56c; 
in 2nd, 56e. 

Brlncken, von, l'?9b. 

Brisbane, made penal colony, 75e. 

—.Sir Thomas, gov. of N. S. W.. 74f. 

Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky. Supreme 
Court decision. 172c. 

Brisson, E. H.. premier; resigns, lOOe. 

Bristol, Rupert takes, 19b. 

Britain, Ca;sar invades; again, 9f; 
Aulus Plautius, 10b: subdued by Ro- 
mans. 6a. lOb; Caractacus overcome: 
in chains to Rome; Agricola conq.. 
10b: south ■wall (121): norlh wall 
(139): Severus defeats Albinus; South, 
two Roman provinces; Severus, 10c: 
Carausius: Allectus; Constantius re- 
covers. lOd; Scots & Picts invade. lOe; 
Hon.inus renounces; Vortigcra. lOi. 

Britain. NoTth=ScoCland. 

Britannic, Bnt. ship, sunk. 37e. 

British African States, 65d-69a. 

^ Central Africa, 65f. 

— Columbia, df^cr., area. & pop.. 
70b; becomes a province; united with 
Vancouver Island, 71f; admitted to 
confed.; controv. w.th Dom., 72a; de- 
sires exclusion of Chinese, 72b; pro- 
hibition, 73b: repr. in Commons, 69e. 

^-dominions, colonies, protectorates, 
possessions, and dependencies, 61i 
77f: statistics, 222. 

— East Africa, descr., area & pop.. 
65e, 57ai\:b. 

^ East Africa Company (Imp.).-J7a. 

— East India Company, 62i. 

— Empire. 50a to 77f: Or. Britain 
& Ireland: historical outline. 50a; 
organization, 51 b; chronolog>'. olf; 
Brit, dominions, colonies, protecto- 
rates, possessions, & dependencies. 
Olf; Europ. dependencies, 62a: Brit, 
poss. in Asia. 62b; India: historicil 
outline, 62e; organization, 62f: chro- 
nology. G3d; depend, upon India. 65b; 
Baluchistan, chronology, 65c: other 
Bnt. poss. in Asia (Nlalay States. 
Straits Sett.. Weihaiwei), 65c; Brit, 
poss. in Africa. G5d: Union of So. 
Africa; historical outline & organi- 
zation. 66b; provinces, 66c: chronol- 
ogy, 66f; Bnt. West Africa, 67f: 
Egypt: historical outline, 6Sa; or- 
ganization, 68c; Anglo-Egyptian Su- 
dan. 68c: chronology, 6Sd: Bnt. colo- 
nies & poss. in America, 69a; Can- 
ada: historical outline. 69a: organi- 
zation. 69e: provinces. 70b; chronol- 
ogy'. 70f; Newfoundland, descrip., 
73d; chronology. 73e; Bermudas, 73f: 
Brit. West Indies. 74a; other Brit, 
poss. in Amer., 74d: Brit, colonies & 
poss. in the Pacific. 74f; Common- 
wealth of Australia: historical out- 
line, 74f; organization. 74f; provinces, 
75b: chronology. 75d: New Zealand: 
historical outline. 76f: organization. 
77a; chronology, 77b; Fi)i Islands, 
77d: other islands in Pacific, 77e. 
Area and pop., filf; recent statistics, 
222; map, 64, For historj-. see also un- 
der England, Canada, Australia, 
India. Sout.'i Africa, rgypt, &c. 

^ Guiana, descrip., 74d: reoccupied 
by Eng., 54d; part retained. 54f; 
bound., with Brazil. 155d: in Venez. 
bound, dispute, 155e, 156a, 179f: ar- 
bit. treaty, 156c. ISOa; bound, with 
Brazil, 50a. 

^ Honduras, descrip.. 74e: begin- 
nings of. 80c: suzerainty; bound., Sla. 

^ India. See India. 

— Museum, fnd.. 53d: closed, 5Sd. 
^ Nationality & Status of Aliens Act, 

60f. 
^ New Guinea. See New Guinea, 
British, 

— North America Act, 69dS:e. 71f. 

— North Borneo, descnp.. 62c: map, 
61; Br^olce in, 55d: protectorate. 56e, 

— North Borneo Co.-npany, otie. 62c. 
^ Somaliland, descnp., 66a: Brit. 

protectorate bi_-gins, 56f: treaty with 
It.. 57c: war in, 57e: "Mad Mullah" 
in, 5Sb; finally defeated, 61e. 
^ South Africa. See South Africa. 

— South Africa Company, charter, 
57a, 66a, 67a: field extended, 67aScb; 
in Jameson Raid, 67b. 

— West Africa, 67f. 

— West Indies. See T7es( Indies. 
British. 

Brittany, Edw. III. invades, 14f; Fr. 
gams, lol; disturbs, on closing of re- 
lig. institutions, lOlb. 

Brody, captured, 2Sf. 

Brooke. Chas- V., of Sarawak. 62c. 

^, Sir James, in Borneo. 55d: obtains 
Sarawak, 62c. 

Brook lsland=jV tdmay Island. 

Brooklyn bndge opened.- 17Sb; com- 
pleted, 25f. 

"Brother Jonathan," 196c- 

Brougham, Lord, in ministry, 55b. 
Brown, A. W.. Atlantic flight, 61c. 
^, B. G.. vote for vice pres., 177b. 
— , Jacob, commands Amer. forces, 170f. 
^, John, agent of Mass. Prov. Congress 

to Canada, 7lc- 
— , John, in Kans., 173f: raid at Har- 
pers Ferry: hanged- 161a. 174b. 
^, Moses, 1st cotton factory, 160a- 
Browne, Maximilian U.. Count von, 

defeated at Lobositz: at Prague. 44a. 
Brownsville affair, 182a. 
Brown University, 200a. 
Brown u. Maryland, Supreme Court 

decision, 171e. 
Bruce, David, Edw. Baliol against. 

He: invades Eng.; cap., 14f; dies, 15a. 
^, James, visits .■\byssinia, 39b. 
^, Robert, begins war with John Baliul. 

14d; rebels against Eng.; king; Ean- 

nockburn, He- 
Bruges, Ger. evacuate, 30d, 37a. 
Brum, Baltasar. pres., 155c. 
Brunanburh. battle of, 12e. 
Brunei, 62c. 

Bruno, Giordano, burned. 18d. 
Brunswick, independ. state, 106c: 



revolution in. 106d; rioting: electoral 
reform demanded. 107e; Ernst August 
gets throne, 107f: repub. estab.. lOSe; 
soviet govt, overthrown. 109c. 

— . Duke of, manifesto, 2If, 98e. 

Brusa.seat of govt, transferred to. 154e. 

Brush. Charles F.. arc light. 177f. 

Brushaber d. Union Pacific R.R. Co.. 
Supreme Court decision, lS8a. 

Brusilov. .Meksyey A., advances in 
Ukraine. 34d, 13Sa: succeeded by 
Kornilov. 142e. 

Brussels, Geographical Cong.. 47c; 
Convention, 26a: internat- Socialist 
Labor Cong. at. 47d: anticlerical riots 
in, 47e; Ger. occupy, 27d, 3lf: King 
Albert enters, 48a. 

Brutus, Marcus J., at Philtppi. 10a. 

Bryan, W. J., 206b; nominated(1896), 
164b, ISOa, 217b; (1900), 180f. 217d: 
(1905). 182e,21Sc; sec, of state, 165b: 
plan for world peace. 184e. 185a: re- 
signs. 186f- 

Bryoe. James, ministry. 57bS:f; com- 
mittee reports on Ger. atrocities, 59b; 
intercedes for Armenians. 187c. 

Bubastite dynasty, 7a. 

Bubonic plague in India. 64e. 

Buccaneers, at Haiti, Hid. 

Buchanan, James, life, 215c: chro- 
nology, 2I5d. portrait. 212. Other 
r-^fs.: elected, 173f: inaug.. 174a: pres.. 
161aS:b, 195c; denies right of seces- 
sion, 174b. 

— ti. Warlcy, Supr. Court decision, 190c. 
Bucharest, abandoned, 29a, 34f,I36d- 

— ,Treatyof (1812). 22f, 121f, 140c. 
151d, 152f; (1S86). 78e: (1913). 26f. 
73b5cf. 109f. 122b, 136e; (1918). 36c. 
136f. void. 37b. 

^-Constan^a railroad, 34e&f. 
Buckeye State, 200e. 
Buckingham, Duke of, in Cabal, 52d. 
Bucks Stove Co.. boycott against, 182e. 
Suda, Solyman occupies. 17b, 113a: 

retaken from Turks, 20a, 43e. 152e. 
Budapest, evacuated. 44d; general 
st_rike, 45d: panic (1915), 45e; (1918), 
43b: revolution, 43a, IHa; counter- 
revolt. IHa: Roum. occupies. 114b. 
136d; retires, IHb; Univ. of, 113e. 
Buddhism, in China. 85a; India. 5d. 
62e, 63b: Japan, He. 118a. Il9b; 
Slam, 144e. 
Buell, Gen. D. C, at Shiloh. 161d. 
174i: in race for Ohio R.; at Perry- 
ville: Rosecrans succeeds. 175b. 
Buena Vista, battle of. 125c. 173b: 

Taylor at, 214f. 215a. 
Buenos Aires, fnd.; separate prov. 
govt., 40c&f; capital of viceroyalty. 
40d&f: separated from Peru, 133d: 
Charcas joined to, 4SdStf; Paraguay, 
131f; Eng. seize: 2nd attempt, 40d&f: 
revolt against Sp.. 22e. 40d. 155b; 
seat of govt. (1816) ; blockade by Fr. 
(1835), 40d; war with Uru., 155a; 
blockade by Eng. & Fr. (1845), 40d, 
41a: independent; reenters confed.; 
becomes capital; in W3.z with Para- 
guay, 41a; all-rail connection with 
Valparaiso, 41b. S3d: 4th Pan-Amer, 
Congress. 2GaS:e. 41b. lS3b: anti- 
German riots in; von Luxburg dis- 
missed ("spur/os versenkt"): general 
strike in. 41c. See also j4roenit7ia. 
Buenz. indicted, 186d. 
Buffalo, of India, illust., 116. 
Buffalo, N.V., Pan-.A.mer. Expos-, 26c. 

ISOi, 217d: statistics, 220. 
Buford ("Soviet Ark"). 193f. 
Bu^. region of the. 137c. 
Buildings, high. inU. S.. illust.. 161; 

historic, in U. S.. illust-, 212. 
Bukowina, Turkey cedes to Austria. 
44a; Brusilov clears of Aust.. 34d: 
Roum. to receive. lS6f; Rus- retreat 
from. 35e; part of. Roum., 137a. 
Bulawayo, 67b- 

Bulgaria. hist, outline, 77f: organiza- 
tion, government. 7Sb: indus. & la- 
bor; relig,; educ; defense: area & pop., 
7Sc; recent statistics. 222; maps, 38. 
64. Chronology. 78c- — Other refs.: 
in Byzantine Emp.. 12f: crusaders in. 
13b: -efeats Baldwin. 13f: & Magyars. 
112e: Kamenski in. HOc; massacres 
in. 153b: Russo-Turkish War (1877- 
78); greater Bulgaria created. 121f. 
133c: Eastern Roumelia united with. 
26a; war with Serbia (1885), 25a,121i. 
122c; rebellion threatened, UOc; cus- 
toms union with Serbia, 122c; inde- 
pend. proclaimed. 26e. 122c; recog- 
nized, 15Ia: in Balkan League, 109c, 
12lf, 152a, I54b; 1st Balkan War. 
121f. 154b. c&d; 2nd Balkan War. 26f. 
121f: Treaty of Bucharest. 26f; Serbia 
resumes diplomatic relations with, 
122c: irreg. troops raid Serbia. 122c; 
secret treaty with Central Powers: Al- 
lied offer to, 33a; joins Central Pow- 
ers. 28cS:d. 33a; declares war. 28d, 
33a. 38e: It. declares war, H7d; oc- 
cupies Vranja; cap. Prilep; Monaatir. 
33e; turns over Serbian copper mines 
to Germany. 108a; Bulgarians, enter 
Greek ter., llOe; losi-5 Lerin, 34e; 
Greece declares war on, 34b. llOf; 
army split, 30c; seeks armistice, 37b; 
armistice. 36c: line collapses; uncon- 
ditional surrender. 30c: receives peace 
treaty: signs. 3Sb: Roum. signs treaty. 
137a: cost of \var, 38c; cost in men, 
38f. Seealso Cfrtfra? Pouters. Balkan 
Wars. Bucharest. (Treaty of 1913). 
Bulgarian Cathol.cs, in Turkey, 152c. 
— Church, 73c. 
^ language, first books in. 77f. 
Bulgars. first hist, appearance, 77f 
Bullecourt, taken. 35d. 
Bullion State, 202f. 
Bull Run, battle of, Ist, 161c, 174e. 

19Sd. 2nd, 161d, i;5b, 198d. 
Bulaes, Manu-I, pres. of Chile, 83c- 
Billow, Prince Bcrnhard vim, chancel- 
lor, lO'd: tender? res. gnat ion; refused; 
Bcthmann-Holiweg succeeds. 107e. 
Bund (G. Confederal, on). See Con- 
federati-yn of German States i North 
German Confederation. 
Bundesrath. G^.. 104b. 106f. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, 158f. 168f: 

monument, illust., 212. 
Bunting c. Oregon, Supr. Court de- 
cision. lS9e. 
Bunzelwitz, battle of, IQda 



Buol-Schauenstein, Karl Ferd., 
Count, becomes premier, 44e. 

Bureoyne,Gen, John, surr ,158f,169a. 

Burgundy, cisjurane (upper), inde- 
pend., 12d: two parts united as king- 
dom of Aries, 12e; Philip the Bold, 
15b; Louis XI. conq., 15e: controls 
Neth. & Belgium, 46e, 47b. 

Burian von Rajescz. Baron Stephan, 
for. minister, 45e; Czernin succeeds, 
45f;succeed9Czernin,46a; resigns, 46b. 

Burke, Edmund, bill for economic re- 
form of gou,, 53f; in ministry (1782); 
resigns: India Bill, 54a. 

Burlingame, Anson, Chinese diplo- 
matic mission, 25d, 85e. 

— treaty. U. S, & China, 85e, 176e. 
Burma. Buddhism in. 63b: map, 64; 

Brit- war, Ist, 55a, 64b; 2nd, 55f, 64c: 
3rd, 56f, 64d: annexed, 64d: bound. 
with Siam, I41f; with Tibet, 64e. 
Bums, John, in minislr>', 57f. 

— fugitive-slave incident, 173e. 
Burnside, Gen. .Ambrose E., captures 

Roanoke Island: occupies Newbem. 
I74f: at Fredericksburg, I61d, 175b: 
Hooker succeeds, 175c; in siege of 
Knoxville, 175d. 

Burr, Aaron, tied in vote for pres.. 
159d, I70b; vice pres ; kills Hamilton, 
170b: conspiracy; acquitted, 170c. jJ 

Busaco, battle of. 99e. 

Busby, res. magistrate in N. Z.. 77c. 

Busrah. Turks defeated by Abbas, 18d: 
railway to Bagdad. 125a: occupied by 
Brit,. 27f. 32d: province of, 125a: 
outside of Arab state, 151a. 

Bussy. C. J. P.. 63e. 

Bustamante, .\na3Uci0, vice pres-, 
leads revolt: assumes control of govt., 
126b: retires: pres., 126c; exiled. 126d. 

Bustillos. Dr. V. Marquez, provis. 
pres. Venez.. 156e. 

Bute, Earl of, in ministry: prime min- 
ister. 53e. 

Butler, Gen. Benj. F., defeated. 174d: 
declares slaves "contraband of vrar." 
n4e: advances toward Richmond; 
Beauregard checks. 175e. 

^. W. O., vote for vice pres., 173b. 

Butt, Isaac, & Home Rule, 56d. 

Butte,Montana, Frank Little lynched, 
190a. 

Button, Thomas, seeks N. W. passage, 

Buturlin, Gen. Alex. B.. leads Rus- 
sians against Frederick, HOa. 

Buxar, battle of, 63e. 

Buxton. Sydney (Lord), gov. -gen. of 
So. Africa, 67e. 

Byng, Sir Julian H.G, .at Cambrai.35e. 

Byron, Lord. dies. UOb. 

Bytown = Or(auja. Canada, 7Ie. 

Byzantine Empire. Sff B i/2antium. 

Byzantium, fnd.. 7d; Philip. So; Se- 
verus takes. lOc; Justinian. llf:Chos- 
roes II.; Heraclius. 12a; loses Syria, 
15Ia. loses Egypt, 12a; Saracens cam- 
paign against. I2c; Nicephorus Pho- 
cas: John Zimisces, 12e- Basil ll.,12f; 
Bulgaria. 12f, 77f; Normans take 
Apuha; Isaac Comnenus, 12f; Roma- 
nus Diogenes captured; Constanti- 
nople captured; Alexius Comnenus, 
13a; Manuel Comnenus, 13c; divided; 
Latin Emp. supplants Gr., 13f: Mi- 
chael Paljeologus.llb; war with Geno- 
ese, 14i; Greece a part of. 109d. 



Caaba, shelled. 112d. 

Caamafio. pres-. 92f. 

Cabal ministry, formed. 52d. 

CabezadeVaca, crosses continent, 167b. 

Cabinet, U. S.. 166d: members of 1st. 
169o: members added: sec. of navy, 
170a; pnstmaster-general, l"lf;sec.of 
int , 17.Jc: sec. of agric, 175a, 178f; 
sec. of commerce & labor, 181c; sec. 
of labor, 178c, lS4e. 

Cabinet. British, 50c, 51c: beginning 
of, 53a: new ministries in World War, 
GOa, 60c. 

Cabinet, Fr. approves naval progmni, 
lOld; of 1914, 102a. 

Cables. Atlantic, 1st, 25a, 56a: com- 
munication estab., 174a: final success, 
25a, 176c; all-British, completed, 57e: 
Brit. Pacific, 72d: Hawaiian, I81c: 
Japan & U. S., 182a; U. S. to Phil. 
Is., 18lc; govt, assumes control of, 
i91f; returned to owners. 192f. 

Cabot, John. disc. Newfoundland. 73d, 
157b, 167a: mainland of N. A.. 16d, 
157c, 167a. 

Cabot, Sebastian, traces coast. 16e, 
157c; expl, Rio de la PlaU. 40f, 131f. 

Cabral, Jose Maria, revolts, 92b. 

— , Pedro Alvarez de, 49a&e, 63d: 167a. 

Cabrera, Manuel Estrada, pres. of 
Guatemala, 79d. 81c: in civil wax. 
Sic; overthrown; captured, Slf. 

Cabrillo. Juan R., explores Pacific 
coast, 125f, 167b. 205a. 

Caceres. A. A. .pres.. 133e:revolt3. 133f. 

Caceres. Ramon, pres.; assass., 92c. 

Cadesia. battle of. 12a. 

Cadillac, fnds. Detroit, 203c. 

Cadiz, Sp. treasure ships taken. 52b; 
Sp. Cortes at, 22e. 147c. 

Cadorna. Gen. Luigi, begins It. cam- 
paign; Karst attack, 33d: Diaz dis- 
places. 35f; in Supr -War Council, 117e. 

Cfflre, 8c. 

Ctesar. Cams, grandson of Aug.. dies, 10a. 

— , Caius (Caligula), emp.. 10b. 

^, Caius Julius, ortices held: proprietor 
of Spain; 1st triumvirate: consulship; 
conq. Gaul: triumvirate renewed; in- 
vades Bnt.; again invades Brit.; at- 
tacked by Pompe>*; Rubicon; civil 
war: defeats Pompey. conq, Ptolemy 
XIV.: defeats Pharnaces at Zela; 
"veni, vidi, vici;" calendar; Munda; 
conq. sons of Pompey; fnds. colonies 
at Connth & Carthage; assass., 9f. 

Cagayan Sulu, purchased. 181a. 

Cahokia, 111., settled, 16Sa, 202b: 
capt. by Clark, i69a. 

Caicos Islands. 74c. 

CaiUauz, Joseph.forms ministry, lOle; 
accused of tri-oson, 26f, 102c: arrested. 
102d: trial: convicted, 102cStd. 

— , Mme., kills Calmette; acquitted. 
lOU. 



228 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



U 



Cairo, Napoleon takes. 22a; R.R. con« 
neclion with Pales,; revolt at, 69a. 

Cairoli ministry, falls, 116d. 

Gaisse de la Dette, instituted in 
Egypt. 68e; abolished, 68(, 

Calabria, earthquak'^'s. 1 17a. 

Calais, Eng. capturt'. i4f; after 100 
yrs. war. I5d; EnR. lose, 17e. 

Calcutta. Eng. st-'ttk-ment at, 20a. 63e; 
Nawab of Benual capt.; Black Hole 
of: Clive recaptures. 63e. 

Calder v. Bull, Supr. Court decision, 
170a. 

Caledonians, Agricola defeats, 10b. 

Calendar (see Calendar, n., in the 
Dici.); invention of. 5b; Julian introd.. 
9f; Gregory XIII. reforms. 18b. 

—, Gregorian introd. into Eng., 21b, 
53d; adopted injapan,119e; in China, 
86f: by Turks. 154e; in Jugo-Slavia. 
121b: in Russia, 143b. 

— , revolutionary, in Fr., 22a, 98f. 

Calhoun, J. C, 214e; sec. of war, 

171b: vice prea. (1824). I71d; pub. 

his Exposition,171e; vice pre3.( 1828). 

, 171f; debate on nullification. 160b, 

172b. 197e; compromise tariff. 160b. 

Calicut, 63d. 

California, hist, outline. 204f; statis- 
tics. 220; area, 221. Chronology, 205a. 
—Other refs.: Cabrillo. 167b: Drake, 
157c: 1st settlement. 126a, 168e: mis- 
sions in. !81b; Mex.hostility to Amer- 
icans, 126d; mission to purchase: mil. 
govt, over, 173a: ceded to U. S.. 125c. 
126e, 160c&e. lT3b; gold disc, 24f. 
160e. 173b: slavery prohib. in. 160f: 
seeks admission. 173c: admitted. 160f. 
173d; controv, over Japanese, 182a&b: 
bill segregating A9iaticchildren,lS2c; 
adopts woman suffrage amend,; also 
adoptaamends. for init.,ref.,& recall. 
183e; antialien land ownership act. 
184e; rejects prohib.. I'JU: Mooney 
case. 191b&f, I92a&c: universities, 
205a. 

California, Lower, disc. 125f. 

Caligula^ Catua Carsar. 10b. 

Caliphates (si.e caltph n iheDict.), 
Armenia under, 41e. Seeialso Baodod. 
Cdrdoba.Mohammedan Ascendancy. 

CalixtusII., Pope. 13b. 

Callao, Sp. evacuate, 133b: Sp. naval 
defeat. 133b&d; surr. to Chileans. 83c; 
strike at. 133e. 

Calmette. Gaston, murdered, lOlf. 

Calonne, Charles Ale.x. dc, 9Sc. 

Calumet, Mich,, miners" strike, 184f. 

Calvert. Cecil. See fia^imore.Lord. 

— . Sir G'-o.. See Baltimore, Lord. 

Calvin, John, 16e: Institutes: in Gen- 
eva; expelled, 17c. 

Calvinist Church, in Fr., 95e: of Prus- 
sia, in United Evan. Church. 106d. 

CalvinistS. Heidelberg Catechism. 17f. 

Canibac6r6s, Ji'an, consul of Fr.,99b. 

Cambodia, 96f, 144d: descrip.. 97.T,; 
Siamrecog.Fr. protectorate over, H4f. 

Cambral, League of, 16e; Treaty of, 
17a&b; battle of (1917), 29e. 35e; 
taken, 30d. 36f. 

Cambridge, Duke of. Viceroy of Han- 
over, 106d. 

^. Mass., Harvard fnd., 107c; statis- 
tics, 220. 

— • University, religious test aboL, 56c. 

Cambysea, reigns;conq. Egypt. 5d. 7e. 

Camden, N. J., statistics, 220. 

— . S. C. battle of. 169b. 197e. 

Camel with Atatich. illust., 116. 

Cameronians, persecuted. 52e. 

Camillufl. takes Veii. 8b. 

Camisards. war of. 97f. 

Camoens, Luiz de, 18a. 135a. 

Camorra, trial, 117a; 26 convicted. 
117b. 

Campanile of St. Marks, Venice.falls; 
restored, llOf. 

Campbell. Sir Colin. Bubjugates 
Oudh. 64c 

Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry, 
in ministry. 57b; prime minister, 57f; 
resigns, 58a. 

Camperdown. battle off. 54c. 

CampoEormido (Campoformio). Tr. 
of, 22a. 42d, 44b. 99a. 116a. 122f. 

Campos. Gen. .^rsenJo M, dc, 89c. 

Canaan, Hebrews threaten. 6£. 

Canaanites, occupy Palestine and 
Phccnicia. fid. 

Canada, hist, outline. 69a; govt.. 69e; 
production & industry. 691'; educ: de- 
fense, 70a; provinces, 70b-70f; area 8t 
pop.. G9b, 70b. 221; recent statistics. 
222; map. 04: House of Pari., illust., 
213. Chronology. 70f. — Other refs.: 
discovered. 157c; Fr. settlement in. 
97d. 157c&d: Wolfe invades, 98b. 
168d: conq. completed by Brit., 98b: 
ceded to Eng.. 21c. 53c. 9Sb, lOSd. 
205c. 206f; evacuated by Americans 
(1776). 16Sf; Amer. campaigns in 
(1812-14). irOcScf: retire from. 170f: 
European emigration to (1820-60), 
24c; U.S. treaty of reciprocity (1854). 
173e; ended. 176b; Newf. does not 
join Dominion, 73e; Alaskan boun- 
dary, ISlcSid; bound, treaties betw. 
Eng. 8: U. S.. lS2d. 183a. 206f, 207b; 
reciprocity with U. S. fails (1911). 
183d: in World War, at Yprts. 33b: 
recap. V'imy Ridge, 29o: in Imperial 
War Cabinets. 60b&f; cost of World 
War, 3Sc: loans in U. S.. 38d. 

— Company, formed (1822). 71d. 
Canadian Northern Railway. 73a&b. 

— Pacific Railway, first charter; scan- 
dal, 72a: constructed; opened; trans- 
pacific steamships. 70a, 72b. 

Canal, Balticship. 26b, 27f . 32d, 107b. 
cSif: Cape Cod, 185d; Chicago drain- 
age, 180e; Corinth, llOc; Darien pro- 
posed, 82b; Duke of Bridgewater's. 
21c; Erie. 24b. 171e. 199a; Isthmian. 
81c, 172c. 181a&b; Kiel, see Baltic 
Ship Canal; Manchester ship, 57a; 
Merwede. !30b; Nicaragua, 80a&e. 
81a,h&:e. 82d; Panama. 8U. 82b-82e. 
88a. 164d. 210d&c; Tehuantepec. 82b, 
126e. i27a&d: Wclland, 71e. 187e. See 
also under lialtic Ship Canal. Isth- 
mian, Niciiragua. Panama, Suez.. 

— Commission. Amer. Interoceanic Ca- 
nal, 81a. 82c; Isthmian Canal. 81c. 

— Company. Interoceanic. 81b. 

— du Nord. 36f. 

Canalejas, Jos6, premier: lesigns; 



withdraws resignation; cabinet re- 
Bigns: new cabinet; assasa.. 147f. 

Canals. Canadian. 70a. 

Canal Zone, descrip., 210d: statis- 
tics. 210d&e. 222: map. 194. Chro- 
nology, 210e. — Other refs.: estab.; 
U. S. act for govt, of, ISld: U. S. 
treaty with Panama (1904). 82a: 
Roosevelt visits, 82d; permanent govt, 
in, 185c; change in boundaries, etc., 
82e, I85f: wirelesa estab. with Arling- 
ton. Va.. 186e. See also Panama. 
Panama Canal. 

Act, I81d. 

Canary Islands, 146c. 

Canberra, capital of Australia. 76d. 
See also Y ass- Canberra. 

Canby, Gen. E. R. S., Ukes Mobile: 
Taylor aurr. to, 176a. 

Candamo, pres. of Peru: dies. 133e. 

Candia. Turks get, 152d. See Crete. 

Caney. See El Caney. 

Cannae, battle of, 9b. 

Cannibalism, in Fiji Isls., 77e. 

Canning, C. J. (Viscount), gov.-gen. 
of India; becomes 1st viceroy, G4c. 

— , George, for. sec; sends army to 
Portugal; resigns, 54e; So. Amer. 
policy, 24c; prime minister; dies, 55a. 

Cannon, J. G., Speaker, 165a, 183a. 

Canossa. Henry IV. at. 13a: Bis- 
marck's allusidn to, 103d. 

Canovas del Castillo. Antonio, pre- 
mier: resigns. 147d: again premier 
(1884); premier (1890). H7e. 

Canrobert, Marshal, in the Crimea, 
I40./; siicc-.dfd, 140f. 

Canterbury Tales, written, 15b. 

Cantigny. Amer. troops at, 3Ce. 191c. 

Canto e Castro, pres. of Port., 136b. 

Canton. China, Fr. & Eng. traders in. 
19e; Enc- open trade. 85c: open to 
European trade, 84a; Morrison in, 
84a, 85c: in Opium War, 85c&d: 
treaty port. 84a. 85d; Taipings be- 
siege: Arrow incident; Brit, attack; 
Eng. & Fr. at, 85d; riots. 85f; boycott 
of Amer. goods, 86e: '■Emergency 
Parliament." 87d; mi., govt.. 87d&f; 
conference with Peking govt., 87e; 
mil. govt, declares peace, 87f. 

— . Ohio, statistics. 220. 

Cantons, Fr., 95c, Switz.. U9f. 150c 

Canuleian law. 8a. 

Canute, Edmund Ironside. 12c; king 
of Eng.; invades Norway, 12f. 

Caparra=i'u(;6io Viejo, 2 1 Id. 

Cape Breton, 21a; made separate 
province, ilc, 

— Cod. named. lG7c: canal, 185d. 

— Colony. Eng. first in. 66f: additions 
to. 56f. 66f; responsible govt, in, 66f. 
See also under Cape of Good Hope 
Province, South Africa. 

— Coronel. battle off. 32e. 

— oE Good Hope Province, hist.; 
Eovt..6rjc: productions: industry. 66d. 

— Passaro, bjtile off. 98a. 

— Verde Islands, 135d. 
Capelle, Adm. von, mm. of marine. 

108a; succeeded, lOSd. 
Caperton, Adm. Wm. B.. in Domin. 

Repub.. 92c: at Port-au-Prince. lUd. 

U2a; at Cap-Haitien. 112a. 
Capet, Hugh, estab. CapetiaQdyn..l2e, 
Capetian dyn., estab., 12e: ends. 14e. 
Cwe-to-Cairo Railway. 6Ga, 67b,c, 

rf&e. 68f. 
Capetown, Dutch settle. 66f, 129f; 

Gr. Brit. reUins. 130b; Pari. House, 

illust., 213 
Cap-Haitien, Amer.marinesat(1914). 

lUf; Fr. marines at, 112a; held by 

Amer. marines (1915). Hid, U2a. 
Capital, U. S.. estab. at Washington, 

169c. 170b. 209c. 

— Issues Committee of F'^d. Reserve 
Board. U.S. (1918). 102b. 

^punishment, repealed inS. Dak.. 
186b; in Ore.; N. Dak.; Alaska, 186b. 

Capitol, U. S., corner stone. 169f; 
burned. 159d, 170f; corner stone of ex- 
tension. 173d; Sen, reception room 
bombed, 1873; illust.. 212. 

Capitulation, in Turkey, 152b; Sul- 
tan abrogates, 154d. 

Capo d 'Istria. Count Giovanni, UOb. 

Caporetto, 35f. 

Cappadocia, lOf. 

Capps, Adm. W. L.. on U. S. Shipping 
Board. 190a: resigns. 190c 

Caprera, Garibaldi at. 116d. 

Caprivi. Georg Leo, Count von, chan- 
cellor; breaks with emp.;resign3, 107c. 

"Caps, " Sw. party of nobility. 148c&f. 

CapTrafalgar.Ger. cruiser. 3unk.32e. 

Capua, taken from Etruscans. 8a;Han- 
nibal in. 9b. 

Carabinieri, 115e. 

Carabobo, battle of , 155d. 156a. 

Caracalla, emp.; Edict of; massacres 
in Alexandria. 10c. 

Caracas, fnd.. 155d. 155f; captaincy 
general of, 155f ; rising against Franco- 
Spanish rule, 156a. 22f; destroyed by 
earthquake. 155d. 156a; univ., 155f. 

Caractacus, overcome by Ostorlus; 
carried to Rome, 10b. 

Caras, in Ecuador. 92d. 

Carausius, Roman emp. in Britain: 
slain, lOd. 

Carbajal, F., pres. of Mcx., I27f. 

Carbonari, 100c. 

Carchemish, battle of. 7d. 

Cardinals, College of, estab.. 12f. 

Carey .Act. irrigation, 179e. 

Cargados Inlands. 65f. 

Caria. Mausolus reigns. 8c 

Carinthia, Austria cedes part, I22f. 

Carlists, insurrection (1833), U5e. 
147c: claims condemned; defeated 
(183G); convention with Espartero; 
attempt a rising (1859), 147c; rising 
(1872); defeated (1876). I47d. 

Carloman. rules Franks; dies, 12b. 

Carlos, Don(1807), & Napoleon. 145d. 

— , Don (1833). declares himself king. 
I47c; insurrec. under. 145e, 147c: 
power broken; flees to Fr.. 147c. 

^. Don (1872). proclaimed king: flees 
toFr.. 147d. 

— I., king of Port., 135a&f; dissolves 
Cortes. 135r; attacked by Republi- 
cans. I3.ib; assas., 135bSJ. 

Carlovingian = Carolingian. 
Carmania (Brit, cruiser), sinks Cap 
Trafalgar (Ger. cruiser), 32e. 



Carmen Sjlva.= Elizabeth, queen of 
Roumania, 136f. 

Carnatic. joined to Madras. 64a. 

Carnegie, Andrew, Carnegie Institu- 
tion, ISla; Hero Fund, 181d: profes- 
sors' pension fund, ISIe; additional 
gift to Carnegie Inst.. 183c: Carnegie 
Corporation for Promotion of Educ. 
lS3e; pensions ex-presidents, 184c; 
gives Hague Palace of Peace, 26f, 130c. 

^ Corporation for Promotion of Edu- 
cation, estab.. 183e; pensions e.x-pres- 
idents, IS4c. 

^Institution, incorp.. 18la; receives 
additional gift. 183c. 

Carnic Alps, it. retreat from, 35f. 

Carniola, Austria cedes. 122f. 

Carnot,Sadi, pres.. 100f;as3as., 101a. 

Carol, Crown Prince (Roumania). re- 
nounces throne. 137a. 

—I., of Roumania. See Charles I. oi 
Roumania. I36c&f. 

Carolina, granted to conrtiers. 167f; 
charter includes Tenn., 200e: settled. 
157e. I67f. See also North & South 
Cnrnlxna. 

Caroline. Queen,divorcetrial:dies, 55a. 

— affair. 71c. 

^ Islands, descrip.. 105d; Japan cap- 
tures: assigned to Japan. 105c. 

Carolingian dyn., estab., 12b; extinct 
in Gcr.. 12d. 

Carpentaria, disc. 18d. 

Carpetbaggers. 17Ge; control return- 
ing boards; overthrown io Fla., 177e. 

Carrse, battle of, 9f. 

Carranza. Gen. Venustiano. chief of 
Constitutionalist forces. 125d. 127e; 
refuses to treat with U. S.. 127i: con- 
flict with Villa. 125d, 127f: provis. 
pres.. 127f: finally gains control of 
Mexico City. 128a, 164e; recognized 
by U. S., 125e. 128a, 187d; 5c Amer. 
punitive exped., 125e. 128a&b. ISSaS; 
b: refuses to sign protocol, 128b, I88f; 
chosen pres. (1917), 125e. 128b; fur- 
ther controv. with U. S., 12Rc. 

Carrera, Rafael, rules; makes war on 
Salvador & Morazan; leads revolt; in- 
vades Salvador. SOe: made pres. for 
life. 79c. 80f: dies, Sla. 

Carrier, the noyades. 98f. 

Carri6n, pres., Ecuador. 92f. 

Carrlzal, Mex. attack on Americans. 
128b. 188c. 

Carroll. Charles, 197d; delegate from 
U. S. Cong, to Canada. 71c. 

— *, John, delegate from U. S. Cong, to 
Canada. 71c 

Carso= Karat. 

Carson, Sir Edward, organizes Ulster. 
58d&e: in coalition cabinet (1915); 
resigns. 59c; 1st Lord of Admiralty in 
national min.(1916). 60a: in war cab- 
inet, GOb: resigns, 60d, 

Carson City, Nev.. settled, 220. 

Cartagena, Adm. Vernon attacks. 53d. 

Carteret, Sir George (& Berkeley). 
New Jersey granted, 167f, 195f. 

^, John (Earl Granville), for. min.; 
retires. 53d. 

Carthage, fnd.. "b: allied with Etrus- 
cans; treaty with Rome, 7e; defeated 
by Gelo. 7f; sends Hannibal into Sic- 
ily; takes Agrigentum. 8b; commer- 
cial treaty with Rome; defeated at 
Crimisus. 8c; war in Africa with 
Agathocles, 8e; allian(je with Rome; 
1st Punic war; defeat off Mylse; off 
Ecnomus. 8f; Hamilcar holds Eryx; 
1st Punic War ends; loses most of Sic- 
ily; loses Sardinia, 9a; power in Sp.; 
2nd Punic War begins; Hannibal's 
campaign in It.: driven from Sicily: 
defeated at Zama; peace with Rome. 
9b: destroyed. 9d; C^sar fnds. Rom. 
colony at, 9f; Vandals capt., lOf. 

Carthage, Mo., battle of, 174e. 

Carthusian monks, refused permis. 
to remain in France, 101b. 

Cartier. Jacques, explores St. Law- 
rence, 17c, 157c. 167b; disc. Prince 
Edward I., 70d. 

Cartwright, Edmund, loom, 21c, 50d. 

Carus. invades Pers. & Ctesiphon, lOd. 

Casablanca, tribesmen raid; Fr.&Sp, 
bLimbard. lOld. l2Se, 129a: arrest of 
Ger. deserters, lOld. 128e. 129a. 

Casas, in Gulf of Honduras. 80c. 

— , Luis de las, 8Se. 

Casement, Sir Roger, capt., convicted 
of treason, & executed. 50e. 

Caslmir, John, of Pol. , abdicates. 139e. 

— the r,reat, dies. 15a. 
Casimir-Perier, pres.; resigns, lOIa. 
Cass. Lewis, 203d; U. S. min. to Fr., 

21e: pres. vote. 173b. 

Cassander, rules Macedonia; peace 
with other generals: kills Koxana St 
Alexander IV.; dies. 8e. 

Cassano, battle of, 140c. 

Cassation. Court of, 101b. 

Cassini Convention, 141b. 

Cassius, Cams, vanquished. 10a. 

Castelar, Emilio, mm. of for. affairs: 
pr'"i. of the executive; resigns. 147d. 

Castella de Oro, 88b. 

Castellon. Diego, settles Nueva Tole- 
do. I5!.f. 

Castiglionedelle Stiviere, battle, 99a. 

Castile, kingdom, 12f. 13c&;f. 15e, 16e. 

Castilla. pres. of Peru; again; revolts; 
dies. 133d. 

Castillon, battle of , 15d. 

Castine. Brit, take, 159d. 202e. 

Castlereagh, Lord, sec of war; re- 
signs; for. sec, 54e: kills himself. 55a. 

Castro. A. X. de, min. in Port.. 136b. 

— C ipnano, defeats Andrade, 156c: pres. 
of Venezuela.. 155e, 156c: dictator; 
irritates various foreign nations; goes 
to Europe; popular feeling against; 
cabinet dismissed. 156c: suspended 
from presidency, looe, 156e: neighbor- 
ing countries refuse to receive him: re- 
nounces claim to presidency; attempts 
insurr., I56e; defeated, 155e. 156e. 

— , Gen. Pimenta. nonpartisan cabinet; 

revol. against: ministry; resigns. 136a. 
Catalans, war against Genoese, 14f. 
Catalonia, revolts, 19b; Archduke 

Charles in, I46e; siege (1866), 147d. 
"Cat-and-Mouse" Act. 58e. 
Cateau, Le, taken. 36f. 
Cateau-Cambrgsis, peace of. 17e. 
Catherine I.. Russia, marries Peter, 

139f; reigns. 20f, liOa; dies. 110a. 



^H.. usurps throne. 140a; reign of, 21c. 
137c: aids Stanislas II.; calls Legis. 
Assembly; war with Turks, 21e, 137c. 
140b; promises Armenian independ- 
ence, 4le: 1st & 2nd partitions of 
Poland. 137c. UOb; dies. 140c 

■— of Aragon. to marry Prince Arthur. 
15f: marries Henry VIll., 16e; mar- 
riage void. 17b. 

— of Braganza (Bragan^a), -weds 
Charles 11.. 19e. 52c. 135e. 

Catholic EmancipatioQAct.Eng.,55b. 
^ League of Fr., formed, ISa; alliance 

with Philip II.: against Henry III.; 

Treaty of Nemours. 18b; defeated at 

Ivry; dissolved, 18c, 

— —of Ger.. formed, ISe; supports Fer- 
dinand II., 18f. 

— party. B'l,.47c&:e,4fia&b:Ger. ,103d. 

— Relief Bill. Enit.. 50e. 
Catholicism. Catholics. SeefioTrwin 

Catholic Cliiirch, Jesuits. 

Catiline, conspiracy of. 9f. 

Cato, Marcus, commits suicide. 9f. 

— . the Censor, dies. 9d. 

Caucasia, proclaims indepcnd., 143c. 

Caucasus, part annexed to Russia. 
140a; Turkey renounces. I40d; under 
Schamyl. surr. to Rus., 140f; serfdom 
abolished, 142b; Denikin's Cossacks 
in. I43d: cotton cultivation. 139a; il- 
literacy in. 139b. 

Caudine Porks, the. battle of, Se. 

Cavaignac, Gen. .chief executive. 100b. 

Cavaliers (see cavalier, n., 3, in 
Diet.), in Va.. I98c&d. 

Cave, 5irGeo.,sec. for home affairs. 60a. 

Cavell, Edith, executed, 4Sa; body in- 
terred at Norwich. 61c, 

Cavendish. Lord Fred., assass.. 56e. 

Cavour, Count C. B.. minister, 116c: 
prime minister, 114f, 116c; at Con- 
gress of Paris, ll4f, IlGc: Napoleon 
III.. 25a. Il4f, 116c: war with Aus- 
tria. 23d, 25b, ll4f, 116c; dies. 116d. 

Cawnpore. siege & surr.; massacre.64c. 

Caxton. Wm., prints 1st book in Eng.. 
15e. 

Cayman Islands, 74c. 

Ceballos, Juan B.. pres.ofMex., I26e. 

Cebu, 2lOf: settled, 220. 

Cecil. Lord Robert. Min. of Blockades, 

59e, 60a. 
Cedar Mountain, battle of. 175a. 
Celebes. 129f. 
Celibacy of clergy, 13a. 

Cellini, Benvenuto. IGe. 

Celman, Miguel J., pres.; resigns, 41a. 

Celtiberian War. 9c. 

Censorship, estab. at Rome. 8a. 

^ of press, in Eng., 52a; in Fr.. ended, 
102e: in Ger.. 106d. 

Census, Australia (1810), (1829) ,7ae: 
(1851), 75f: (1871), (1881). (1891). 
76a: (1901). 76b; (1911). 76d. 

-.Canada, (1851). (1861), 71f; (1871), 
72a; (I8S1), (1891), 72b; (1901), 
72c; (1911). 72e. 

— . Eng-.lst (IR01),54d:2nd,54e: 3rd, 
55a; 4th. 55b; 5th. 55d: 6th. 55f; 7th, 
56b: Sth. 56c; 9th. 56e; 10th. 57b: 
llth. 57d; 12th. 58c 

— . Fr.,(1902). 101b. 

— . It., (1901), I16f. 

— , New Zealand. (1858). (1864). 
(1S7S), (1886). 77c; (1896), (1906). 
(1916), 77d. 

—,So. Africa. (1911), 67d: (1918). 67e. 

— , U.S., 1st. 169e; 2nd, 170a;3rd. 170d; 
4th, 17lc: 5th. 172a; 6th. 172d; 7t!i. 
173c; Sth, 174b; 9th, 176f; 10th, 178a: 
llth. 179a; 12th. ISOe; 13th. 183a; 
14th. 194c See also Tables. 220. 222. 

^Bureau, becomes permanent, 181b. 

Centenary of War of Liberation. 107f . 

Centennial. Cotton Exhibition. 178c; 
Exposition (Philadelphia). 177d; of 
Brit, evacuation of N. Y.. 178b; 
founding of Chicago. 181c; framing 
Fed. Constitution, 178e; Fulton's in- 
vention of steamboat. 182f: "Hay- 
staok meeting." 182a; independence 
of Paraguay. 132a: Lewis & Clark ex- 
pedition. ISle; Lincoln's birth. lS2e: 
Louisiana Purchase, ISld; Mex. inde- 
pendence. 127d; peace betw, Gr. Brit. 
& U. S.. 58f; Perry's victory, 185a; 
U. S. Supreme Court. 179a: War of 
Liberation (Germany), 107f; Wash- 
ington's inaug., 178f: West Point. 
181b. See also Expositions. 

Centennial State. 206c 

Center, the, in Ger. (= Catholic par- 
ty). 103d. 

Central America, common charac- 
teristics. 79a; hist, outline of each 
state. 79b-80c, 81f: map. 64. Chro- 
nologry, 80c, 82a. — Other refs.: ex- 
plored, 125f. 167a: in captaincy gen. 
of Guatemala, 80c; union with Mex.. 
80d. 126b: withdraws. 126b: Congress 
(1823) meets, 80d; United Provinces 
(States) of (1823-39). 79b,c,e&f. 80b 
S:d: dissolution decreed, 80e: Greater 
Republic of. 79b. 81c: gen. treaty of 
peace & amity (1907), 81d: high 
court for estab., 79e, 81d: Bureau, es- 
tab.; Congress (1909). 81d; Court of 
Justice, dissolved, SOaStb, 81e. See 
z}so British Honduras, 74e. 

^Powers (see in ihe Diet., Addenda) 
& Russia (1914-1916), 138a; Turkey 
joins. 27e, 152b, 154d: secret treaty 
with Bulg.. 33a: overrun Poland. 
134b&d; Bulgaria joins, 33a. 78b: 
move against Serbia. 78b; overrun 
Serbia, 122d: Mont.. 123b; Albania. 
40b: commercial treaty with Roum. 
(1916), 108a; defeat Roum.. 136d; 
proclaim "Polish State." 134b&d: oc- 
cupy Wallachia, 34f; propose peace 
negotiations (1916). 34c. lOSb; reply 
to Wilson's peace note. 34c, 189a: re- 
ply of Allies to peace note. 34c. 108b; 
resumesubmarinewarfare.SGa: Greece 
breaks off relations with. UOf; drop 
project for "Polish State." 134b&d: 
control Rus. Poland, 134e; armistice 
with Roum., 35d&f; armistice of 
Brest-Litovsk, 35d&f. 143a: peace ne- 
gotiations with Bolshevik! , 35d, 143a; 
Brest-Litovsk treaty with Ukraine, 
36b. 134e, 143a: Brest-Litovsk treaty 
with Russia, 36c, I34e, 138b, 143b; 
prelim, peace with Roum., 136f: 
Treaty of Bucharest. 36c. 136d8:f: 
not in League of Nations, 37f ; World- 



War debts. 38c&d: dates of entry into 
World War, 38e; cost of War in men. 
38f. SeealsoGermanv.Ai(sl!/-i(i, J"ur- 
key., Bulgaria, World-fVar Period. 

— Provinces (India), formed, 64b&c. 
Centralia, Wash., Armistice parade 

fir.-d on by I. W. W., 193e. 

Centralist party in Mexico, !26b. 

Centralists, in Bohemia. 90c 

Cerdafia (Cerdagne), Fr. gains, 146d. 

Cerna, Vicente, Gen., governs Guate- 
mala; guvl, overthrown, bla. 

— river. 37b. 

Cerna-Vod&. Mackenscn controls. 
34e&f. 

Ceron, Saavedra, 82b. 

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 173b. 

Certificates of Indebtedness, U. S.. 38e. 

Cervantes, Saavedra. Miguel de, 17c 

Cervera, Adm. Pascual. blockaded at 
Santiago. 180c: fleet destr.. I64c. 180d. 

CSspedes, Carlos Manuel de. heads in- 
siirr'Cti'>Q in Cuba. 89c. 

Cetewayo, difeated & capt., 67a. 

Cetinje, Aust. occupy. 29a. 123a. 

C^vennes, Prot. insurr.. 97f. 

Ceylon, descrip., 62d: map, 64; Dutch 
take. 63e. 129f; trade with Siam.l44d: 
Eng. take from Dutch; made crown 
colony. 54c. 64a: Eng. retain. 22b, 
54d. 130b: Arabi Pasha in. 6Se. 

Chacabuco. battle of, 82f, 83c. 

Chaeronea, battle of, 8d. 

Chagas, JoSo. premier of Port.. 135f; 
resigns; forms new cabinet; shot & 
w<iunded: again resigns, 136a. 

Chagos Islandi, 65f. 

Chalcedon. 4th ecumen. council, lOf. 

Chalcidians. fnd. Rhegium. 7b. 

Chaldeans, conquer Assyria. 5d. 

Chalons, battle of. lOf. 

Chamberlain. Austen, cabinet (1915). 
59c; sec for India (1916), 60a: re- 
signs, 60b; replaces Milner in war 
cabinet. 60e: Chan, of Exchequer 
(1919). 61a: budget statement (1919). 
61c: supplementary, 61d. 

^, Sen. George E. .criticizes War Dept., 
191a. 

^. Joseph, in Gladstone's cabinets. 
56e8:f; opposes Home Rule Bill. 56f: 
sec. for colonial affairs. 57e; favors 
preferential tariff; resigns from Bal- 
four's cabinet, 57e; in So. Africa, 67c. 

Chamber of Deputies, Braz.. 49c: 
Chile, 83b: France. 95b: created, lOOd: 
Haiti. Hid; Italy. 115b; Prussia. 107e: 
Roum.. 136d. 

Chambfiry. Fr. take, 98e. 

Chambord. Count de. lOOd. 

Chamorro, Emiliano. pres., 81e. 

Champagne, Joffre attacks, 33b: 
Amer. troops in. I91b; Ludendorff at- 
tacks, 36d. 

Champion Hills, battle of. 175c. 

Champlain. Samuel de. explorer, 
I57c&d; Canadian coast. 70f; fnds. 
Quebec. ISd, 70f. 157c, 167c; enters 
Vt.. 200a; invades Iroquois country; 
ascends Ottawa River & crosses to 
Lake Huron. 70f; tercentenary. 184a. 

Chancellorsville. battle of. 161e, 
175.~. I98d. 

Chandernagore. Fr. settlement. 63e. 

Chang Chih-tung, dies. 86d. 

Changchowfu, Gordon takes, 85e. 

Chang Hsun, Gen., sets up mil. govt. 
at Tientsin. 87c: proclaims restora- 
tion of empire; suppressed. 87d. 

Channel Isla., 62a; area & pop.. 51f. 

Chantabon. Fr. occupy. 144f. 

Chantilly, Va.. battle of, 175b. 

Chapultepec, captured, 173b. 

Charcas, former name of Bolivia, 133a: 
organized. 48d: Buenos Aires absorbs, 
4SdS;f; uprisings io. 4Sd. See Peru, 
Bolivia. 

Charlemagne, joint ruler; sole ruler; 
king of Lombards,' 1 2b: invades Spain; 
annexes "Sp. March;" annexes Bava- 
ria. 12c: sub). Avars. 12c. 42c; an- 
nexes "Avaric March," 12c: assists 
Pope Leo 111.; crowned Holy Roman 
Emp.. 12c. 103a; subj. Saxons. 12c: 
empire of. lie. I03a; dies. I2c: em- 
pire disintegrates. 103a: reunited,12d. 

^, .^ge of, 12b, 

Charles of Anjou (1282). revolt against 
in Sicily, 14c, 

— of Aust. (1703), Archduke, in Sp. 
Succession war, 20c: enters Catalonia, 
146e; proclaimed king of Sp. (as 
Charles III.). 97f, 146e; beaten at 
Almansa. 146f; VendSme defeats. 97f. 
See Charles VI. of Ger. 

— of Aust. (1796), Archduke, drives 
French to Rhine, 99a; wins at Aspern 
& Essling. 99d. 

^ I. of Austria (1916). succeeds Fran- 
cis Joseph. 45; letter to Prince Sixtus 
de Bourbon; summons Reichsrath. 
46a; manifesto to Slav states. 121c; 
manifesto for confed. state, 46b;abdi- 
cates,43a,46c. 113c;goe9 toSwitz..46c. 

— of Brunswick, Duke, expelled, 106d. 
^ nf Burgundy (the Bold), defeated at 

Granson; slain, 15e. 

— of Den., Prince, elected king (Haa- 
kon VII.) of Norway, 13la. 

— I. of Eng., Petition of Rights, 19a: 
and John Hampden; war with Pari.. 
19b, 50a; goes to Scots; Scots deliver 
to Pari,; imprisoned. 19c; tried & be- 
headed. 50b. 51f. 

— II. of Eng.. refugee in Holland. 19c: 
proclaimed king; Irish support; 
reaches Scot.. 51f; subscribes to Cove- 
nant: crowned at Scone; enters Eng.: 
at Worcester; flees to Fr.; Fr. agrees 
to banish. 52a; grants pardon; reli- 
gious toleration: announced as king; 
enters London. 52b; crowned, 50b, 
52b: reign. 50b; weds Catherine of 
Braganza, 52c, 135e: favors tolera- 
tion, 52c: grants Carolina. I97e; 
grants N, V, to James. 195e; treaty 
with Louis XIV., 19f, 52d, 97d: closes . 
Exchequer, causing panic; issues Decl. 
of Indulgences. 52d: dissolves Pari. 
(1679) ; forms new privy council; again 
dissolves Pari.. 52e; dies, 20c, 52e. 

— I. of France = Charlemagne. 

^ II, of Fr, (the Bald), claims succes- 
sion; defeats Lothaire; takes Fr.. 12c. 

— III. of Fr. (the Simple), grants 
Neustria to Rollo, 12d. 

— IV. of Fr.. dies. 14e. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



229 



Gba.rteB V.of Fr., begins reign, I5a. 

— VI. of Fr.. dies. I5c. 

^ VII. of Fr., people support, 15c. 

~ VIII. of Fr., weds Anne of Brittany; 
gains Brittany; Henry VII. wars with; 
peace, 15f; treaty with Maximilian; 
claims Naples; conq. Naples; with- 
draws, 16d. 

— IX. of Fr.. king: dies, 18a. 

— X. of Fr., king. 94b. 100a; unconsti. 
ordinances, etc.. lOOa; abdicates. 23b, 
100a: escapes. 100a. 

— I. of Ger.= Charlemao'ie. 

— II. of Ger.= CharUs II- of Fr. 

— III. of Ger. (the Fat), reunites emp. 
of Charlemagne; deposed. 12d. 

^ IV- of Ger. (Chas. of Luxemburg). 
elected emp.; accepted, 14f- 

^V. of Ger. (I. of Sp.). elected emp.. 
16f. 42c. 103b. 145b: wars with Fran- 
cis I.; at La Bicocca: treaty with Fran- 
cis I.. Henry VI 1 1 .& Francis I .against. 
17a; treaty of Cambrai. 17a&b: king 
of Lombards & emp. of Romans; 
grants Malta: subjugates Tunis; 
seizes Milan. 17b; 10 yrs.* truce with 
Francis I.; joins Henry VIII. against 
Fr.; war with Schmalkaldic League; 
victory at MUhlberg. 17c; attacked by 
Maurice of Saxony: freedom of wor- 
ship. 17d: abdicates crown of Sp., 
17d. 145c; succeeded by Ferd. I.. 17d. 

— VI. of Ger. (see also Charles. Arch- 
duke of Aust.), becomes emp.. 20d. 
lOSf, 146f: Pragmatic Sanction. 20e; 
proclaimed. 105f; war with Turks. 
20e: Peace of Passarowitz, 20e. 152e: 
gets the Banat,152e: Treaty of Vienna. 
105f: dies, 20f. 42d. 43f. 105f- 

^ VII. of Ger. {see also Charles Al- 
bert. Elector of Bavaria), becomes 
emp.. 20f, 43f, lOSf; dies. 43f, 105f. 

— of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Prince. 
See Charle-a I. of Roumania. 

— of Lorraine (1683). defeats Turks at 
N'ienna. 20a. 152d; at Mohacs. 152e; 
(1746), defeated at Rocourt, 43f; at 
Prague. 44a. 

^ofLuxemburg= C/ias. /V.of Ger. ,14f. 

— I. of Monaco. 129d. 

— III. of Naples (111. of Sp.), receives 
Parma & Piacenza: king of Two Sici- 
lies 146f; war on Austria. 43f. See 
CAarZes///. of Spain. 

^ I. (Carol) of Roumania. as prince. 

elected domn; tries to abdicate, 136e; 

proclaimed king.l36c&f: dies,136dSrf. 
^ I. of Sp,, emp. of Ger.. 16f. See 

Charles V. of Ger. 

— II. of Sp.. king: assumes govt.; Don 
John, 146d: weds Maria Louisa, 146e; 
names heir: Philip of Anjou, 97e. 145c. 
146e: dies, 20c. 97e, 145c. 146e. 

— III. of Sp.. claimant to throne. See 
Ckarlesoi Aust. (1703). Archd.. 146e. 

— Ill.of Sp. (see Charles III. oi Na- 
ples), becomes king. 145d. 147a; ban- 
ishes Jesuits: dies, 147a. 

— IV. of Sp,. becomes king, 147a: 
forced to abdicate, 99d. 147b; confer- 
ence with Nap.. 22e. Q9d. 147b: re- 
nounces crown. 99d, l47b: reign. U5d. 

^ X. of Sw. (Gustavus) . becomes king. 
19d. 148e; invades PoL. 19d. 134c, 
139e. 148c: crosses Belt & attacks 
Den.. 148c; besieges Copenhagen; 
r.iuted by Fred. Wm.; dies, 148e. 

— XI. of Sw.. king. HSc&e; dies. 148f. 

— XII. of Sweden, king. 20b, 148f: & 
Denmark. 90e; war with Russia. 20b. 
137b. 139f; at Narva. 20c. 139f: de- 
feats Poles & Saxons. 148f; takes War- 
saw & Cracow; dethrones Augustus. 
139f. 148f; secures election of Lesz- 
czynski. 148f; invades Russia. 139f, 
1481; at Poltava. 20d. 139f, 148f: flees 
to Turkey, 20d. 148fi Turks favor. 
I52e: returns to Sw.. 20d. 148f; in- 
vades Nor.; dies. 20e. 118f-, reign. 
148c. 

^ XIII. of Sweden, king. 149a; procl. 
king^of Norvray, 130e, I31a: new con- 
stitution, 149a: appoints Bernadotte 
as heir. 14Sc, 149a: dies, 131a. I49a. 

— XIV. John of Sw. (Bemadotte), 
king, I31a, 14Sd, 149a; king of Nor- 
way: dies. 131a, 149a. 

— XV. of Sw.. regent, U9a: king; dies & 
succeeded, 131a, 14Sd- 

— Albert, elector of Bavaria, Austrian 
Succession. 43f; Sp. & Fr. support. 
43f, 146f. See Charles VII. of Ger. 

— Albert of Piedmont = Charles Al- 
bert of Sardinia. 

— Albert of Sardinia (S: Piedmont), 
grants charter, 1 lob; war against 
Aust,, 44d, 116c: defeated at Novara, 
44f. 116c: abdicates. 114f, 116c. 

— Augustus.gr.dukeof Weimar.l06d. 

— Edward. Pretender, sent by France 
to bcot,; defeated at CuIIoden; flees 
to France. 53d. 

— Emmanuel III. of Sardinia, king; 
sides with House of Hapsburg-Lor- 
raine: Fr. & Sp. defeat, 116a. 

^ ^ IV. of Sardinia. & Ferdinand of 
"I uscany. 116a; resigns. 116b. 

— Felix, king of Sardinia. 116b. 

— Gustavus = Charles X. of Sw. 

— Louis, gets Lucca. 147b. 

— Martel, overthrows Saracens, 12b. 

— Tneodore of Bavaria, claims Bava- 
rian throne. 44a; War of Bav. Succes- 
sion. 106a. 

— the Ba!d= Charles II. of Fr. 

■^ the BoId= Charles of Burgundy, loe, 

— the Fat= Charles III. of Ger. 

— the Great = Charlemagne, I2b. 

— the Simp!e= Charles III. of Fr. 
Charles River Bridge i>. Warren 

Bridge. Supr. Court decision, 172c. 

Charleston, U. S. cruiser, seizes 
Guam. 180c. 210a. 

— . S.C.first settlement near, 167f,198a: 
founded. 167f. 197e, 19Sa: surr. to 
Brit.. 169b. 197e: evacuated (1782). 
169c; Ft. Sumter. 174c&d: battles 
near, 197f; attempts to capture 
fail. 175d: evacuated (1865), 176a; 
earthquake. 178d: Expos,, 26c. 181a. 

Charlotte Adelgonde. Grand Duch- 
ess. 124e. 

Charte Octroyfie, 99f. 

Charter. People's. 53c. 

— Oak. 196c. 

— Oath of Jap.. 119d. 
^ of Privileges. 195e. 



Chartists, program of, 55c; petition 
of, 55d: revival by. 55e. 

Chartres. iSc. 

Chase. Salmon P.. sec, of treas., I74d; 
chief justice. I75f. 

— . Samuel, delegate to Can., 71c: im- 
peached, 170c, 

Chatalja. lines of, 152c: Turks defend, 
lo4b; Bulgarians attack, I54b5tc. 

Chateau-Thierry, Ludendorff reach- 
es, 36d: Americans at, 30b. 36d5:e. 
191d: Foch attacks, 30b; retaken, 36e. 

Chatham, Earl of. See Wm. Pttt, the 
Elder. 

— Islands, 77b. 

Chatillon, congress at. 22f. 44c. 99f . 

Chattanooga, Tenn., besieged, 175d: 
battle of. 175d. 200d. 216c. 

Chaucer, born; "Father of English 
Poetry," 14f: knight of the shire; 
Canterburu Tales. 15b. 

Chaulnes.AIl es attack; captured. 36e- 

Chavez. George, flightover Alps. 117a. 

Chaykov.ski. Nikolay. tried for con- 
spiracy, 142a. 

Chazaro, F, Lagos, pres. Mex., 128a. 

Ch foo. convention with Brit.. 85e. 

Chelmsford. Lord, viceroy of India; 
scheme for go\-t,. 65a. 

Chemin des Dames (Fr. for "La- 
dies Way"). Fr. reach; gain possess. 
of. 3.5e; Amer, troops near, 191b: 
Gi-rmans take, 36d;Ger. evacuate. 37a. 

Chemulpo, naval engagement, I20b. 

Chemung, battle of the. 169b. 

— . U, S. 5t.;amer. sunk. 34b, 189a. 

Cheops, era of. 6d. 

Chernaya. battle of the. 140f. 

Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Supr. 
Court decis., 172a. 

Cherokees, in Georgia, 172a. 196a: 
forced to cede lands & remove to In- 
dian Ti-rr.. 172a. 

Chesapeake. U. S.S.. fired on, 170c 
surr. to .S/ianTion, 170f. 

Chiapas, m captaincy gen. of Guate- 
mala. 80c; joins Me\.. 80d. 126a&b. 

Chicago. 111., statistics, 162e, 202a. 
220; laid out. 171f; railroad connec. 
with N. Y. & Boston. I73e; great fire. 
177a. 202a: rioU (1877). 177f; strike 
&riot (1886). 178c: Exposition. 179d; 
drainage canal opened, 180e; centen- 
nial. ISlc; sewage 5: St. Louis water 
supply, Supr. Court decision, ISlf; 
race riots. 193a; new Nat. Labor party 
organized at. 193f; Masonic Temple, 
illust.. 161. univ. of. 202b. 

— , Burlington, &QuincyR.R-Co.. 
V. McGuire. Supr. Court decis.. l83d. 

Chickamauga, battle, 161e. 175d. 
iy6a. 

Chickasaw Blufls, Sherman's defeat 
at. 175b. 

Chickasaws, in Indian Ter.. 172a. 

ChienNung-3hun,prem.;resigns.87e. 

Chiesa. Giacomo della. H7c. Seeflen- 
cdicl XV.. Pope. 

Childebert, llf. 

Childeric III., dethroned. 12b. 

Child labor, in Switz.. 150d. 

— Labor Act. U. S.. 188e. 
^ marriage, in India. 64e. 

Chile, hist, outline, 82f; physical char- 
acter; organization; govt.; relig. 8t ed- 
uc; indus. & labor: defense. 83b: area 
& pop.. 83c: map. 64; recent statis- 
tics. 222. Chronology. 83c. — Other 
refs.: revolt against Sp.. 22e: San 
Martin frees, 40d: bound, treaty with 
Bolivia, 48f; war with Bolivia & Peru. 
48d&d. 133b; trouble with U. S..179c; 
bound, dispute with Arg.; rail con- 
nection with Buenos Aires. 41b; tri- 
partite treaty with Arg. & Brazil. 4 lb. 
50a: Chile- Bolivia-Peruvian question. 
48f.SeeAB C (powers, alliances. etc.) . 

China, hist, outline; geog.; aborigines. 
83e; organization: govt.. 841; industry 
& resources; relig.; educ, 85a; de- 
fense; area & pop.. 83e. 85b. 221; re- 
cent sUtistics. 222; map, 64; modes 
of travel, illust., 116; ships, illust.. 
96, 144. Chronology, S5b. — Other 
refs.; early civilization. 5d&f: influ- 
ence on early Japan, lie, USe; Sui 
dyn.. He; Genghis Khan invades. 13f; 
Kublai Khan estab. Vuen dyn.; seat 
of govt, transferred to Peking; Mon- 
golian power supreme. 14c; Jesuits in, 
18b; Manchu dyn.. 19c: war with 
Rus.. 19e; trades with U. S.. 21e: Ist 
Brit, embassy to, 21f: Opium War, 
24e:Treaty of Aigun with Rus.;Treaty 
of Peking with Rus., 140f: Burlin- 
game mission & treaty, 25d, 176e: 
Jap. treaty with, 119d: convention 
with Japan over Formosa; difficulty 
over Okinawa Isls.. 119e: exclusion 
treaty with U. S.. 178a: treaty with 
Rus., 141a; war with Fr.; peace, lOOe; 
treaty with Japan, 119i; Sikkim 
bound., 64e. 65b; trade convention 
with Eng,; Burmese- Tibetan bound. 
agreements (1894. 1S97), 64e: & 
Korea, 118d. 119f: war with Japan. 
:iSd, 120a; treaty of peace with Ja- 
pan, 26b, USd&e, 120a: & Russia 
(1895-1904) , 137e: ter. seized in, 26b; 
Eng. & Fr. convention over, 57c; Cas- 
sini Convention with Rus.; leases 
Liaotung penin, & Pt. .Arthur to Rus,. 
141b: "Open-dooi" polic>- of U. S., 
26b. I64d, 180d: Boxer Rebellion (see 
also under Boxers), llSe; Ger. influ- 
ence in, 104a: Rus, aggression in, 
118e; sovereignty in Manchuria, 120 
b&c; commer. treaty with U. S. ,181c: 
in Russo-Jap. War, IS Id; ratifies 
treaty on Tibet. 64e; Rus. & Japan in 
(1907). 141f;ra(su-3/aru affair, I20c: 
U. S. remits Boxer indemnity, 182d; 
Root-Takahira notes on "open door," 
USf, 120d, 182e: agreement with Eng. 
on opium trathc, 64f; republic. 24a: 
U. S. withdraws from Joint Powers 
Loan. 184e; Japan's ultimatum to. 
120d; agreement with Rus. on Mon- 
golia. 142b: Japan occupies Kiaochow. 
27f, 31e. 32d. 119a. 120e; Japan's 21 
demands. U8f. 120e: U. S. loans to. 
ISSb: severs diplom, relations with 
Ger.. 35c; enters World War. 35c,38e: 
Lansing-Ishii notes. 118f. 120e. 190c: 
Japan secures privileges in. 120f ;land3 
troops at Vladivostok. 143c: Shantung 
question (see also under Shaniuno) . 



38b, 119a, 120f: anti-Jap. movement. 
i20f. See also Opium, Opium War. 

Chincha Islands, seized by Sp.; re- 
stored, 133bS:d. 

Chinese-American Bank, estab.. 87b. 

—Exclusion Bill, U. S.. vetoed by 
Hayes; Treaty, signed. 178a; Ist Act 
(1882). I78b: 2nd Act (1888), 178f; 
Supr. Court decision. 180c: Act 
(1902). applies to territories, 181b; 
causes boycott by China, 86c. 

^ immigration to Aust., restricted; 
head tax increased, 76a; to Canada, 
72b; to Phil. Is.. 211a. 

— labor problem. See Chinese Exclu- 
sion Bill, Coolies. 

Ching. Prince. Chinese premier; suc- 
ceeded by Yuan Shih-kai. 86e. 

Chinkiang. Bnt.take, 85d. 

"Chinook. ' ' winds (seeinDic(.) ,207b. 

Chinwangtao, U. S. infantry at. 86f. 

Chin Yun-pung, premier, 87f. 

Chioggia. Genoese surr. at, 15a. 

Chios, see Scio. 

Chippewa, battle of, 170f. 

Chirikov. disc. Alaska. 21a. 

Chisholm v. Georgia, Supr. Court de- 
cision. I69f. 

Chitral. campaign In, 64e. 

Chiodwig= Clovis. 

Chlopicki. Jozef. dictator of Poland; 
resigns, 140d. 

Chmielnicki, Cossack leader, 139e, 

Choctaws. in Indian Ter.. 172a. 

Choiseul, Due. de, alliance of Bour- 
bons; Jesuits. 9Sb. 

Cholera, epidemic^ (1832-36). 24e; in 
Balkan Slates, 154b: Ger.. 107c; It., 
U6d. Jamaica, 74c; Pans. lOOf; Rus- 
sia (1892-94), 141b; (1908, '10), 142a. 

Chosen. 120d- SeeiCorea. 

Choshi, daimio of. 119d- 

Chosroes I., rules; in Syria, llf. 

— II.. Byzantine war & conq. Egypt, 
Syria, & Asia Minor; defeated, 12a. 

Chotusitz, battle of, 43f. 

Chovevi Zion Society. 131d. 

Chowaresmians, Genghis Khan sub- 
dues. 13f. 

Chow dynasty, 83e. 

Christ, Jesus. See Jesus Christ. 

Christian II. of Den., invades Sw.; 
becomes king; overtlirown, 16f; de- 
posed; imprisoned, 17b- 

— III., gains ascendancy in Den.; pro- 
scribes Cath. Church, 17c. 

^ IV. , supports Ger. Protestants; Tilly 
defeats, 19a: attacks Sw 19c. 

^VII.. BernstortI, dismissed; under 
regent, 91c; his reign. 90e. 

— VIII., king: dies. 9Ic. 

— IX., (Christii|n of Sonderburg- 
GlUcksburg), king: claim as Duke ol 
Schleswig-Holstein opposed. 91«; new 
constitution for Den. & Schleswig. 
9Ic&:d: renounces Schleswig-Holstein 
& Lauenburg: dies, 91d: his reign. 90i. 

— X., king. 90f.91d; meets with kings 
Gustavus & Haakon (1914). 91e.l3ib. 
149b: at Chnstiama (1917), 131b; 
dismisses Zahle ministrj-, 91e. 

— of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, 91c; after- 
wards Christian IX. of Denmark. 

^ William, of Sonderburg-Gliicks- 
burg, becomes king of Greece (George 
I.); 109e, lOb&c. 

Christian Church, Armenian Church 
earliest, 41e, 1st council, Nicene 
Creed, Arian controversy. lOd&e; 2nd 
council (ApolUnariancont.). lOe; 3rd 
(Nestorian cont.); 4th (Eutychian 
cont.), iOf; in Medieval Period. He; 
Gr. & Latin Schism, 12d; complete. 
12f; simony & celibacy, 13a: Gr. S: 
Lat. union decreed; not efTecied, 15c. 

^ Era. lOa. in chronology. 6c. 

Christiania. kings of Norw-ay.Sw.,S: 
Den. meet at. 131b. 

Christianity. See under Christians. 

Christians (also Ctiristianity). perse- j 
cuted by Nero: by Domitian, 10b: by 
Trajan: throughout Rom. Emp.. 10c; 
by Decius, lOd; in Armenia, 41e: per- 
secuted by Diocletian; ConsLantine 
tolerates, lOd; persecuted in Persia; 
Julian abjures: Jovian restores, lOe; 
religious freedom in Pers.. lOf; in 
Abyssinia, 39a; Saxons become. 12c; 
in Eng., I2d: Swedes converted, 148b: 
in Iceland. 114c; in Norway. 130e; in 
Crusades. 13a-14c; massacred at Edes- 
sa. 13c; in Baltic Provinces. 143£; 
power ends in Holy Land, 14d; perse- 
cuted in Japan; massacre at Nagasaki; 
exterminated in Japan; prohibited in 
Japan. I19c: Chinese edict against, 
85c; Rus. protects in Constantinople, 
152e: allowed in China, S4a. S5d; 
massacre at Mt. Lebanon, 131d, 151a, 
153a;at Damascus, 153a; edict against 
in Japan withdrawn, 119e; in Bosnia 
& Herzegovina. 123c: fugitives from 
Crete to Greece, 110c: riots against, in 
China; mission sacked at Kiangyin, 
86a: Ger. missionaries killed in China, 
86c; outrages in China. S4c, 86b; re- 
vival in Japan, I20b; in Crete attack 
Mohammedans, 154a. See also Greek 
Catholic Church, Homan Catholic 
Church, and the subject. Religion. 
under Organization for the following 
countries:. 4 usfria,C/ii/ia.£^DI/p(, /"* 
dia, Japan. Turkeu. 

Christian Science, church. 166e; 
Science and Health, 25e: Mrs. Eddy. 
25e, lS3c. 

Christina, queen of Sw.. 19a, 148c; 
plants colony on Delaware. 148c: abdi- 
cates. 14Sc&e: succeeded I4Se. 

^.regent of Spain (1885). Se^ Maria 
Christina (wife of Alfonso XII.) 

Christmas Island, Indian Ocean, de- 
scrip-. 65d; annexed. 57a. 

^ Island, Pacific Ocean, belongs to 
U.S.; occupied by Brit., 210d. 

— Ship (U. S. S. Jason), 186a. 
Christophe, of Haiti. Illc. 
Chronology, basis of ancient, 6a&b; 

uncertainty, 5b, 6d. 
Chrysippus, 9a. 
Chrysis, priestess at Argos, 6b. 
Chrysopolis, battle of, lOd. 
Chrysostom. St . exiled. IOf. 
Chuena,ten.= A meTior his IV.. 6f. 
Chulalongkom I. of Siam, becomes 

king. Hle&f: dies. 14oa. 



Chun. Prince, regent of China. 84d. 

86d; retires. 86f. 
Church & State, in Fr. separated. lOIc; 

in It., antagonistic, 116e. 

— of England, Henry VIII., 17b; in 
civil strife, 50a; attempt to reform, 
20f: description, 51d. 

— of Ireland, disestablished. 51d, 56c, 
^ of Scotland, establ.. 18c. 61d. 

— of Wales. 5 Id. 

■^ party. See Clerical party. 

^ property, Fr.. confiscated. 98d. 

Churchill, Randolph. 56f. 

^, Winston, in ministry, 58a: in coali- 
tion cab. (1915). 59c: resigns. 59d; 
Min. of munitions. 60b; in new coali- 
tion min. (1919), 61a. 

— River, 71c. 

Churubusco, battle of. I73b. 
Cicero, Catiline's conspiracy, 9f; Phil- 
ippics; slain, 10a. 

Cilicia, Fred. I. drowned in. 13e; 
Ger.R.R.concessionsin, 125a:claimed 
by Armenia. 4Ie. 

Cimbri. war with Romans, 9e; invade 
It.. 6a; Marius annihilates, 9e. 

Ciminian forest, Romans cross, 8e. 

Cimon. 7f. 

Cincinnati, Ohio, settled, 169d; sU- 
tistics, 220. 

Cinna. 9e. 

Circassian Mamelukes, in Egypt. 68a. 

Circassians subjugated, 140i. 

Circuit Courts of Appeal, U. S., cre- 
ated. 179b. 

— judges. Congress authorizes. 176e. 
Circumference of earth computed. 8f. 
Circumnavigation of the globe. 1st, 

16f. 157c. 167b. 210e; 2nd. 18a, 167c. 

Cisalpine Republic, esub.. 116b; re- 
constructed, 99b; combined with Li- 
gunan, 116b. 

Cisneros, Salvador, pres. Cuba, 89d. 

Cisplatine region, 155b. 

"Citadel of Europe," 90a. 

Cities, 100 largest in U. S.. 220. 

City of Athens. Brit, liner, sunk, 36b. 

— of Memphis, steamer, sunk, 189e. 
City-states, Italian, founded, 6a. 
Ciudad Juarez, capt., 127d; Villistas 

defeated at, 128c. 

Ciudad-Rodrigo . Wellington be- 
sieges. 9ye, 147b. 

Civilization, earliest traces of, 5b. 

Civilized Tribes, Amer. Indians,172a, 

Civil Marriage Bill, in Austria. 45a. 

— Rights Act. U. S. (1866). 176b; 
(1875) . 177c: declared unconstitu- 
tional (Civil Rights Cases), 178b. 

•— service reform. Eng,. 56a. 56c. 

— Service Reform Act. U. S.^^ 178b; 
supported by Cleveland. 2I7a; ex- 
tended, 184c. 

— War. U. S.. 161c-f, 174c; first blood; 
earliest engagements, 174d&e; & Eu- 
rope, 25b: battles & events. I74b. 175. 
I76aS;b; ends, 176a; parade commem- 
orating. 187c. For particular battles 
St events, see specific name of each. 

Civitavecchia. lOOc. 
Clam-Martiniz, Count, premier; re- 



sign 



. 451, 



Clan-na-Gaet. 56e. 

Clarence, Duke of. executed, 15e. 

Clarendon. Earl of, chancellor (1660) . 
52b; dismissed: impeached; flees. 52c. 

Clark. Champ, vote at Dem. Nat- 
Convention (1912). 184a: speaker of 
the House. lS9e; opposes selective 
draft. 189f. 

^, George Rogers. Amer, explorer, & 
Kentucky, 200c; conq. III. region, 
169a, 202aSib. See also Lewis and 
Clark E:rpedition. 

Claudius, emp: census; banishes Jews; 
camp on site of London. 10b. 

^11. (Gothicus). conq. Goths. lOd. 

^. .'^ppius. censor. 8e, 

Claverhouse. at Drumclog, 52e. See 
Dundee. 

Clay. Henry. 200c: spokesman for 
Westerners. 1591; candid, for pres. 
(1S24). 171d.213f: sec. of state. 171d: 
defeated by Jackson, 160c. 172b;Com- 
promise Tariff Act. 160b, 172b; opp. 
Tyler. 2I4e; candid, for pres. (1844), 
172f. 214f: Compr. of 1850. 160f. 

Clayton Antitrust Bill, 165c:.'\ct. I85L 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty ,term3 of,80f. 
164d. 173c: & Brit. Hond.. 74e; U. S. 
desires to abrogate. 81a, 82c, 81b; 
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty supersedes, 
82d. 181a. 

Cleisthenes, reforms of. 7e. 

Clemenceau. Georges. premier (1906). 
lOld; ministry defeated; resigns, lOle; 
forms Radical -Social ist cabinet, 102c; 
in World War, S5a: "balance of pow- 
er," 102d; Chairman, Peace Confer- 
ence. 102e: Council of Four. 37e. I92d; 
BJiarchist attacks: defeated for pres.. 
102e: retires. 102f. 

Clement II., pope, 12f. 

^III.. antipope= Guibert, 13a. 

^ V, . pope, goes to Avignon. 14e. 

^ VI., pope, Charles of Luxemburg. 
emp. of Ger., 14f. 

^ VII., antipope, 15a. 

^ VII,, pope, crov/ns Charles V.; & 
Henry VIII., 17b. 

— IX., pope, 19e. 
^ X., pope, 19f, 

— XI., pope, 20c. 

— XII., pope. 20f. 

^ XIII. . pope, 21b: abolishes order of 
Jesuits. 21c. 

Cleomenes III. , reigns:defeats Achse- 
ans; Aralus &: .'\ntigonus: Sellasia, 9a, 

Cleon, defeats Spartans, 8a. 

Cleopatra I. (193 B. C). 9c. 

Cleopatra VI. (69 B. C), born; 
reigns with Ptolemy XIV; reigns 
with Ptolemy XV., 9f: before Antony: 
.■\ctium; commits suicide. 10a. 

Clerical party in Fr.. 94d&e; in Ger.. 
I07c&e: in Switz.. 150e. Seealso Cen- 
ter varty. Catholic party. 

Clermont, Council of, 13a. 

— . Ist steamboat, 22d. 170c; illust., 96. 

Cleveland. Grover. life. 216f. 217a: 
chronology, 217b; portrait. 212. — 
Other refs.: 199b; votefor pres. (1884); 
inaug,, 178c; 1st term. 163d:withdraws 
Nicar. Canal treaty from Senate. 81b: 
special message; vetoes pension bills, 
178d; annual message (1887). I78e: 
settles Nicar .-Costa Rica bound, dis- 



pute. 81b: vote for pres. (1888), 163d, 
178f;vote(1892).179c; 2nd term, 163e, 
179d; withdraws Hawaiian Treaty. 
179d. 209f. 210a; vetoes bill to coin 
silver; employs troops to stop strike 
riots (1894). 179e: arbitrates bound. 
dispute bet. Arg. & Brazil. 4Ib. 49f; 
Venez. bound, dispute. 155e. 164c, 
179f: in 1896 campaign. 164a. 

Cleveland, Ohio, statistics. 201a. 220; 
street railway franchise, 183a. 

Cleves. ceded to Fr,, 99c. 

Cliflord, Tho.,in Cabal: resigns. 52d. 

Clinton, De Witt, 170e, 199a. 

— . George, 199b; vice pres. (1804), 
170b: (1808), !70c. 

^, Sir Henry, takes Charleston. 169b. 

Clipper, Amer. ship, illust., 96. 

Clive. Lord Robert, defends .A,rcot,21b: 
takes Calcutta, 63e; Plassey, 21b. 63e. 
98b; gov. of Bengal; defeats Dutch 
fleet. 63e: destroys Fr. power in India, 
98b: treaty with Nawab; govt., 63e. 

Clodomir, son of Clovis. llf. 

Closed shop (see in Diet.). Conn. 
Supr. Court decision on, 184e. 

Closure (see in Z»ic(.). applied inU.S. 
Senate. 189e. 

Clotaire I., son of Clovis, llf; unites 
Franks; death. 12a. 

■^ II.. unites Franks. 12a. 

"Cloudy Water" (Minn.), 205b. 

Clovis (Chlodwig). He; invades Gaul; 
defeats Syagrius, He; destroys Ro- 
man ascendancy; converted to Chris- 
tianity; war with Visigoths: Poitiers; 
Aquitania; dies. llf. 

Cnidus, Spartan defeat off. 8b. 

Coahuila. sUte of. 204b. 

Coal, Ist use of. 24c; disc, in Australia, 
75e; Wilson fixes price, t90a; allows 
increase in price, 190c; shortage in 
U. S.; restrictions on use, 191a; de- 
posits, in .Alaska, 209b: in China. 85a; 
in Ger.. 104e; in U. S., 166e. 

— Commission, Eng., reports. 61b8ic: 
anthracite. U. S.. reports. 181c. 

^ lands, surface location allowed. 183a. 

— miners. Belg.. strikes & riots. 47d; 
Eng., vote for strike & direct action 
(1920). 61f: U.S. .strikein Pa. (1902), 
I81b: (1906), 18If: in Colo.. 185c&d. 

— mines, Eng. govt, assumes control of, 
60a; Trade-L'nion Cong, for national- 
ization of, 6ld. 

Coalition against Fr. (Sp. & Aust., 
1672). 146d; 1st (1792). 44b. 98e: 
grand (1793). 21f. 106b: 2nd (1798), 

— 44b. 99a. I40c; defeated by Fr.; ac- 
cepts peace. 22a: 3rd (1805), 22c. 44c. 
54e. 99c: 4lh (1806). 22d, 99d. 140c: 
5th (-09), 22e. 44c. 99d;6th('13).22f, 
44c.99e.140d. 149a. See also Frarice. 

^, ministry, Eng., A9quith(1915), 59b 
&c; Lloyd George, 1st (1916), see 
7\7a(ionaiA/mts(rj/,60a; wins election 
(1918), 61a: 2nd (1919), 51d. 61a, 

Cobalt, Ont.. silver, disc. at. 72d. 

Cobbett. William, 54f. 

Cobden, Richard. Anti-Com-Law 
League. 55d: treaty with Fr., 56a. 

Coburg. Prince of. at Focsani, 44b. 

Cochin, in India, Portuguese at, 63d; 
exchanged for Banka by Eng., 54f. 

Cochin China, descrip.. 96f. 97a; 
buffalo wagon, illust.. 116; part of 
Chinese Emp., 85c; Lower ceded to 
Fr-. 94e. 100c; Fr. extend domin.. 
100c. 

Cochrane, Lord. 133b. 

Cocoa Islands, descrip. .65d: uken. 56a. 

Cod. Cape, named. 167c: canal. 185d. 

Code Napolfion. published. 99c; in 
Louisiana. 201c. 

— of Hammurabi. 6e. 
Coele-Syria. See Syria. 

Coeur d' Alene. Idaho, settled. 220. 

Cognac, balloon, crosses Alps. 150e. 

— . League of. 17a. 

Cohens v. Virginia. Supr. Court de- 
cision. 171c. 

Coinage Act (U. S.. 1873). 177b. 

Colbert. JeanB.,contr.-gen.. 93f,97d. 

Colby, Bainbridge, sec. of State. I94e. 

Cold Harbor, Va.. battle. 175e,198d. 

Coleman, executed. 52d. 

Colenso. battle of. 67b. 

Colfax, Schuyler, votefor. 176e. 

Coligny, Gaspard de. 1st colony. 167b: 
defeated at Dreux. 17e; 2nd colony, 
167b: Moncontour, 17f; slain. 18a. 

Coliseum. See Colosseum. 

Collector 0. Day. Supr. Ct. decision, 
177a. 

Collins. Col. David, fnds. Hobart 
Town. 75e. 

Cologne, food riots. 109a; Allies in, 
37b. 

Colombia, hist, outline, 87f: organi- 
zation: govt-; relig. Si educ: industry; 
defense: area & pop.. 8Sb; recent sta- 
tistics. 222; map, 64: ascent in Andes, 
illust.. 116. Chronology. 88b. — 
Other refs.; Republic of. formed. 88c. 
156a: Venez. in, I55d; Ecuador joins, 
92e: Venez. secedes, I55d; union dis- 
solved, 156a: Panama secedes from 
(1841) ; canal treaty with U. S.{1846), 
82b: United States of. 88c, 92d; draft 
treaty with U. S. (1869), 82c: grants 
Fr. Panama Canal concession, 82c, 
177f: treaty with Venez. on bound.; 
award, 156a: bound, dispute with 
Costa Rica, 81c; strife with Venez., 
I56c: Panama part of (see Panama) , 
8If; right of way for Panama Canal. 
82d: Hay-Herran Treaty, 82d, 18Ic; 
rejects, 82d, 164d, 181c; Panama de- 
clares independ.. S2d. ISld: treaties 
on Panama Canal, 82e: Peru bound. 
treaty, I33e: Venez. bound., 156e; 
Treaty with U. S. over Panaraa(1914), 
82e, lS5c: recognizes Panama, I85c; 
Ecuador bound.; celebration, 93a. See 
New Granada, Panama Canal. 

Coldn, fnd., 82b: not in Canal Zone, 
210e; U. S. has control of sanitatioa 
& policing, 181d. 210e. 

Colonial assembly, 1st Amer., 167d. 
^changes in world (1814-54). 24b. 
^ growth in Amer., 157e8cf, 
^ possessions, of various countries, 
maps, bet. 64 Si 65. 

— Society. Ger., 103f. 

— States, in Dutch Guiana, 129e. 

— Trade Conference, Ottawa. 72c. 

— Wars, U.S.. 158a3£b, 



230 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



O 



u 



w 



Colonias de la Plata (Buenos Aires), 

40c. 

Colonies, Ist in America, 157d: types 
of Brit.. 61f; Eng.. in America, 157d, 
eSd: govt, of, 157f, 158a,c&d; wars, 
ISSa&b; movement toward union, 
158b&c. 

Colorado, hist, outline, 206c: statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221; chronology, 206d. 
— Other refs.: Rocky Mts. explored, 
170c; ter. created, I74c; admitted. 
177d; woman suffrage. 179e: indus- 
trial war in mining districts, 185c: 
prohibits liquor traffic. ISea&b; 
Rocky Mt. Nat. Park estab.. 186b. 

^ party in Uruguay, 155b&c. 

— RLver. 208bS;f. 
Colosseum, begun, 10b. 
Colossus of Rhodes, illust.. 96. 

Colt, Sani'l, invents revolver. 172b. 
Columbia. Dist. of. See District of 

Columbia. 
^, S. C, burned, 176a. 
^River.disc 169e.205d: descended by 

Lewis & Clark; expl. by Thompson; 

Hudson's Bay Co. fnds. post on, 71d. 
^ University (King's College). 168c, 

199b; Pulitzer gift, ISlc. 
Columbian, steamer, sunk, 34b, 188f. 

— Exposition, World. 179d. 
Columbus, Bartholomew, 92a. 

^, Christopher, life and voyages of, 
157b, 16d-. 1st voyage, 16d.l57b. 167a; 
ship, illust., 96; reaches San Salvador 
(Guanahani), V4a. 157b. 167a; disc. 
Cuba, 16d, 89a. 157b. 167a; Haiti, 
16d, 92a, lllb. 157b, 167a: 2nd voy- 
age, I6d, 167a: disc. Virgin Isls., 
2llf; Porto Rico, 16d. 211d; Jamaica, 
74b; 3rd voyage, 16d, 167a; Trinidad. 
16d. 74d; sights Venez. at Orinoco. 
155d&/, 167a; sent to Sp. in chains; 
liberty, 16d; 4th voyage, 16d, 167a; 
Central Amer., 80c, 157b: first lands 
on Amer. continent, 79e: Nicar., 79f; 
Costa Rica. 79b; Panama, 82a: visits 
Veragua & Porto Bello, 87f ; dies, 16d; 
ashes deposited in Seville cath.. 147e. 

^, Diego, 89a. 

^, Ky., occupied, 174f. 

^,N.M.,Villaattack9.125e,128a,18Ba. 

—I Ohio, statistics, 220; Wilson speaks 
at. 193b. ^ 

Combes, Justin Louis Emile. premier 
of Fr,. 101b; resigns. 101c. 

"Combing out," withdrawing ex- 
emptions (Eng.), 60d. 

Combles, Ger. evacuate, 34d: Allies 
capture, 36e. 

Commerce, restrictions removed, Wba. 
See "Industry & Labor'' under each 
country; also Imports. Exports. 

— and Labor Dept., authorized, 181c. 

— Court, act abol.. 185b. 

— Plan. U.S., 169c. ^ ,,, « c 
Commission, joint High (u. b. &. 

Can,). ISOd. 

— form of govt, in Iowa, 204c: in Utah. 

208*=- . ,,, 

— for Relief in Belgium, organiz.. 4/r. 

— of 181 4, north, bound. of Minn.. 205c. 
Commissioners. U. S.. sent to Fr., 

— . Brit,, peace with U. S., 169a. 
Commissions, purchase of abolished 

(Eng). 56c. 
Committee for Fighting Poverty.Rus- 

aia, 163d. 
^ of 48. conf . at St. Louis, 19Jt. 

— of Protection (Belg.), 4:d. 

— of Public Safety (Fr.) , 98c. 
^ of Union & Progress, 153l. 

— on Public lnformation(U.S.), created, 
189e: (1918). 192c. ^ , ^„ 

Com.mitteea of Correspond., lose. 
16Se. 

"Commodities clause decision, 

182f. 

CommoduB, cmp., 10c. 

Common Praytr. Bouk of, adopted. 
17d, 52c. 

Commons. Eng. House of. composi- 
tion, etc.. 51bStc; representation in, 
60d; illust., 213; Canada, 69e. 

Commonwealth. Eng.. 19d,50b,5U, 
52a. ^ ^ 

— Bill, Australia, adopted by Conven- 
tion' Constitution Act (1900). 76b. 

Commune, inFr,, 95c; in Paris(1792), 
98e; war of (1871), 94c, lOOd; ended. 
lOOd; amnesty, lOOe. 

Communion, illegal to refu3e(Eng.), 

58d. .,,0,. 

Communism, in Hungary, 114a&b; 

in Russia, 138c. See also Bolshevtki, 
' Socialists. , 

Comneni, dyn. of, begins, l.ia; ends, 

13d; secondary. 13f. 
Comnenus, Alexius. SeeAIexius. 
— , Isaac, 12i, 
Comonfort, Ignacio, efforts for re- 

furm; pres. of Mex.; surr. office; goes 

into exile, 126f. 
Comoro Islands, 96f. 
Compafiia de Transito de Nicaragua. 

80e. 
Company of New France, 70f. 

— of the Hundred Associates. 70f: char- 
ter surr,. Tla. 

Compifegne, German offensive at 

(I'JIS). 36e. 
Compromise of 1860, 160f, 161a. 173c 

&d. 204c. 
Compton, Bishop, suspended. 52f. 
Compulsory Military Service Act. 

fur various countries. See *l/tii(ory. 
Comstocklode (see in Dic(.), 174b. 
Concha, revolts, in Ecuador; capt.,92f. 
^, Jose Vicente, pres. of Colom., 88d. 
Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 

Australia, 76c. 
Concord, battle of. 158f, 168f. 
Concordat, of Worms, 13b; Leo X. & 

Francis 1., 16E; Pius VI. & Bonaparte. 

22b, I14e; Piua IX. & Francis Joseph 

I. (1855). 44e; abrogated. 44f; of 1801 

abrogated. 94d. 
Cond6, Duke of (1562). at Dreux, 17e; 

prisoner; shot, 17f. 
^, Duke of (1650) . Mazarin imprisons; 

in service of Sp.. 97d; defeats Monte- 

cuccoli, 105e. 
Cond6-en-Brie, Ger. cross Marne,36e. 
"'Condition, not a theory, a," 178e. 
Conemaugh Dam, breaks, 178f. 
Confederacy. Southern. See Confed- 

erale Slalte oj America. 



Confederate States of America. 
formed. 161b. 174c; chronol. begins, 
174c: pres. & vice pres., 161b, 174c: 
constitution, 174c: begin Civil War; 
16lb, 174d: States join; blockade, 
161c, I74d: 2nd provis. Congress, 174d; 
capital; Gt. Brit, recognizes belliger- 
ency, 161c. 174d; attitude of Gt. Brit, 
toward. 56b; Fr. recognizes, l"4d; at- 
tempt to get Mo., 161c, 174e:_3rd 
provis. Cong-; pres. election, 174e; 
commissioners seized, 161c, 174e: pri- 
vateers, 161d; 1st reg. Cong.; Davis in- 
aug., 174f; Cong, (taxes, etc.), 175b; 
Laird rams seized; Cong, (exports & 
imports, paper money, taxes, etc.). 
175d: 2nd Cong., 175e; final session of 
Cong., 175f; slavery abol.; Lee surren- 
ders; Davis captured; amnesty pro- 
claimed, 176a: reconstruction, 161f, 
162a&b, 176b: represenUtion in Con- 
gress restored, 162c. For other details 
of the war, see 161c-161f, 174c-176c. 

Confederation, Articles of, framed & 
adopted by Cong., 159a, 169airatihed 
by SUtes, 21d, 159a, 169b. 

^, North German, formed. 25d, 103c, 
106f: first Diet of; const ituti 011^, 106f; 
treaties with So. Germany, 107a. 

^, Swiss League of, 14e; ends, 22a. 

— (Bund) of German states, 24b, 44c. 
103b, 106c; Liechtenstein in,124a;con- 
stitution.l06d; and Den., 90f; comes to 
aid of duchies, .91c ; restored. 106e; 
Prussia secedes, 106f: dissolved, 25d, 
44d&f, 103c, 106f. 

— of the Rhine, formed, 22d, 42d, 99c, 
103b, I06c. 124a; alliance with Fr.. 
103b; abolished. 99l, 106c. 

Confiscation Act, U.S. (1862), 175a. 

Confucianism, 5f. S3e, 85a; estab. as 
state religion. 87a; in Japan, 119b. 

Confucius, 83e. 

Congo, International Assoc, of the, 
formed, 47c&4Sc; recognized by U. S. 
& others. 47d&48c. 

— . Conf erenceat Berlin. 26a, 47d8!e. 48c. 

^Free State, Independent State of. 
47d; convention with. 47d; atrocities 
in. 47d&e; & Gt. Britain. 47e, 58a: 
annexed by Belg,, 47e&.4Sc. For events 
after 1908, see under ficieian Cohoo. 
See also French Congo. 

— River, expl.. 48b&c; source disc, 25e. 
CongregationalChurch.Mass., 196e. 
Congress, Albany, 158c, 168c; Stamp- 
Act, 158e, 168d. 

— , 1st Continental, 158e&f. 168f. I95c. 
212b; 2nd Continental ,|21d,15SE, 159a, 
168f,l95c;adopts Arts .of Confed. ,159a. 

— , 1st, U. S., 169d: meets in Wash, for 
1st time, 170b; 12th, 170e; 25th; 26th; 
27th, 172d: 28th. 172e; 29th, 172f; 
30th, 173b; 31st. 173c; 32nd, 173d: 
33rd. 173e: 34th, 173f; 35th, 174a; 
36th, 174b; 37th. 174e; 3Sth, 175d; 
39th, 176b; 40th, 176d; 41st, 176e; 
42nd. 177a; 43rd, 177c; 44th, 177d; 
45th. 177f: 46th; 47th, 178a: 48th. 
178b; 49th, 178c; 50th, 178e; 51st. 
178f;52nd, 179c; 53rd, 179d:54th,179f; 
55th. 180b: 56th. ISOe; 57th, 181a; 
68th, 181d: 59th, ISlf; 60th, 182c; 
61st.l82f;62nd.lS3d;|63rd,184e;64th, 
187e: 65th, 189e; 66th, 192f. 

— , U.S.. powers, 159a&b, 166c. For 
legislative assembly in several coun- 
tries, see subheading "Government" 
of each country. 

^, Confederate, 1st meeting of^ provis., 
174c; 2nd session, provis., 174d; 3rd 
session, provis., 174e; 1st session, reg- 
ular, 174f; 2d session, reg., 175a;_3rd 
session, reg., 175b; 1864 session, 17od; 
final(1864-65) session. I75f. 

— , Internal. Arbitration, ISOa. 

— , Pan-American. S^(:Pan-American. 

— , Peace. See under place name, as 
Versailles, 

^, Women's. 1st in It., 117a. 

^, of any place, as Vienna, see under 
the place name. 

— of International Patent Union, 149b. 
^ of Oppressed Austrian Nationali- 
ties, 90u. 

— ofSp.Employers,votes lockout, 148b. 
CongresSj Union ship, destroyed. 161e. 
Congressional Library, illust., 212. 
Coni= Cunco. 43f. 
Connaught, Duke of, opens 1st So. 

African pari., 67d; gov.-gen. of Can- 
ada, 72e. 

Connecticut, hist, outline, 196c: sta- 
tistics, 220; area, 221. Chronology, 
196d. — Other refs.: Ist settled: New 
Haven colony; towns adopt Funda- 
mental Orders; in New Eng. Conied.; 
1st written constitution in Amer.; 
royal charter, 167e; charter includes 
part of 111., 202b; Ind., 201e; Mich., 
203d; Ohio, 201a; adopts gradual 
emancip.. 169c; cedes Western claims. 
169c. 201a&e, 202c, 203d; ratifies Con- 
stitution, 169d; cedes Reserve. 201a. 

^ Reserve. See Wealern Reserve. 

•^ River, disc, 196c; settlements, 196d. 

■^ Supreme Court of Errors, decision on 
closed shop, 184e. 

Conon, rebuilds Long Walls of Athens; 
defeats Spartans, 8b. 

Conrad I. , of Ger. = Conrad. Duke of 
Franconia (911), king; dies, 12d. 

^ II. , becomes king; yields Schleswig; 
adds Aries: succeeded, 12f. 

^III. (of Hohenstaufen), comes to 
throne; Henry the Proud; Albert the 
Bear; defeats Guelph VI.; Henry the 
Lion; 2nd crusade; dies, 13c. 

^ IV., becomes king; William II. op- 
poses; dies, 14b. 

^of Franconia, Duke (911)= Conrad 
1. of Ger., 12d; (1128). of Lombards; 
war with Lothaire; defeated, 13c. 

Conscription, Australia, referenda, 
76e&f; U.S., 165e, 166f. SeeDefense, 
Draft. Man Power Act, Mililarjj. 

Conservation. U |S., beginnings, 177b; 
Govs, conference; national commis- 
sion. 182d; Nat. Cong, at Seattle, 182f. 

Conservative party. Den,. 91e; Eng., 
501; name first used, 55b; Finland, 
93c; Sp-, U7e, 148b: Switz., 150d. 

"Consolation of Philosophy." llf. 

Constance, Peace of, 13d: Council of, 
15b. 

Constanta, naval port built, 136f . 

Constantlne I. (the Great), rules: 



tolerates Christians; conv. to Chris- 
tianity; defeats Licinius; rules alone, 
lOd; convokes Council of Nicsea, lOd 
&e: Constantinople; dies, lOe. 

— XIII. .of Eastern Emp., killed, 15d 
^ I. of Greece, crown prince; king, 

llOd: relation to Kaiser, 109f: refuses 
to aid Serbia, llOe, 122a; disagrees 
with Venizelos on for. policy, 33a, 
109f, llOe; refuses to support pro-Ally 
policy, 34e, l09f. UOe, lUa: dissolves 
pari.: protests action of Allies to U.S., 
UOe; abdicates, 35e, 109f, llOf. 

Constantinople (see also Buzan- 
tium), foundation; 2nd ecumenical 
council, lOe: St. Sophia, llf; Yesid 
(Arabs) besieges; again, 12b; Rus- 
sians attack (860); again (941), 12d: 
Alexius Comnenus takes, 13a; Conrad 
in.& Louis VII. march on, 13c; Com- 
neni dyn. ends, 13d; crusaders take, 
13e; revolution: crusaders retake; 
Baldwin defeated, 13f: naval battle, 
14f: exodus of Gr. scholars from, 15d: 
Mohammed II. takes, lib, 15d, 151c, 
I57a; extinction of Eastern Emp., 
15d; Rus. allowed embassy church. 
152e; revolution, 153b; conference of 
powers, 25e, 153b: Rus. move on, 
153c: conference (1885), 153d; Suez 
Canal convention at, 26a; riots in,41f; 
Fr. withdraws ambassador, 153e; rev- 
olution (1908); boycott of Ger. & 
Aust. goods; mutinv at; 3rd Army 
Corps marches on, 153f; Turko-Bulg. 
agreement at, 154a; mutiny sup- 
pressed, 153f, I54a; executions in, 
154a; martial law, 154b; Treaty of, 
154d: Allies plan to capture; 1st at- 
tempt to capture (1915), 28b: pas- 
senger service with Berlin resumed. 
108a: Allies promise to Rua., 142d; 
Turks protest expulsion from Europe: 
cleared of old regime; Turks permitted 
to remain in. 154f: Allies occupy, 152b, 
154f: internal, force in. 154f. 

— , Univ. of, organized, lOf- 

Constantius I. .associated with emp.; 
recovers Britain; dies, lOd. 

— II., rules, lOe. 

Constituent Assembly, Fr., 21e. 

Constitution. See "Government" un- 
der each country. — Other refs.: Ar- 
gentina, adopted, 41a. Australia, 
colonies adopt; referendum on; Bnt. 
pari, approves. 76b. Canada, Brit. 
No. America Act. 69e, 71f. Brazil, 
adopted, 49f. Cuba, framed. 89d. 
Czecho-Slovakia, drafted, 90d. 
Denmark, new, granted. 91c: in 
effect (1864). 9ld; new (1915). 91e. 
England, growth of. 50c: described, 
51b; 1st of Protectorate formed, 52a; 
amended. 52b. France, of 1791,com- 
pleted, 98d; of Year III. (1795) 
adopted. 98f; of Year VIII. (1799), 
22a: of Louis XVIII., 99f: made more 
liberal (1831). 100a: of 2nd Rcpub., 
lOOb; republican (1875). lOOe; re- 
vised. lOOe. Germany, of Confed- 
eration; in Hesse-Casscl; in Hanover, 
106d; of German Empire, assembly for 
preparing: completed (1849) ; of Prus- 
sia (1S50), lOoc; North Ger. Confed. 
adopted (1867). lOtif; Reichstag rec- 
ommends changes in, lOSb; republi- 
can constitution proclaimed (1919). 
109c. Greece, Otto I. promises. 
UOb; granted, llOc; King George de- 
crees revision; revis. completed; 
adopted. llOd. Japan, new imperial 
promised, 119d: promulgated, 118c, 
119f . Mexico, revised, promulgated, 
128b. Norway, liberal. 131a. Per- 
sia, issued by rulers, 132e. Peru, 
new, 133d, 133f. Poland, granted, 
134d, Serbia, 1st. 122b; proclaimed 
(1869); new (1889). (1901), 122c. 
Russia, of Soviet Republic, adopted, 
143a; published, 138f . Spain, liberal, 
promulgated;annulled; restored, I47b. 
Svreden, new (1720), 148[; (1772) 
(1809), 149a. Switz., new federal 
(1815). 150c; of 1^48. 149e. 150c; re- 
vised (1874). 149e, 150d. Turkey, 
Abdul-Hamid II. proclaims, 151e. 
153b- United States, 1st popular 
in Amer., 196c; 1st written in Amer.. 
167e; 1st written for a State (N. H.), 
16Sf; 1st State antislavery (Vt.),200a; 
Federal, framing of, 198d; drafted by 
convention, 21e. 159a. 169d; outline 
of. 159a&b; ratified by II states, 159b, 
169d;byNo.Car.& R.I., 159b. 169e 
(for ratification, see also under -sepa- 
rate States. 195a-200a); & slavery. 
160d; centenary, 178e. For Amend- 
ments, see ATnendments; for data on 
State constitutions, see each State, 
under .S'(a(eao/(/te Union, 195etseq. 
Uruguay, amended. 15.^.^ 

Constitution and Guerriere. 159d, 
170e; illust., 144; destroys Jaoa, I59e. 
170e;cap.theLeuan(and Cj/a«e, 17 la. 

Constitutional Act. Canada, 71c. 

Constitutionalists, in Mexico. 125d. 
I27e&f, 12Sc. 

Constitutional Union party (Union- 
ists). 161a, 174b&c. 

Constitutions of Clarendon, l3d. 

Consulate. Fr.. proclaimed, 22a, 99b. 

Conti, Mazann imprisons, 97d. 

Continental Congress, 1st, 158e&f, 
16Sf, 195c. 212b! 2nd, 21d,158f, 159a, 
168f, 195c. 

— ■ currency, 169a. 

^ system. Napoleon's (see in Diet.), 
22d, 54e. 99d, 137d, 148c. 149a. See 
Berlin decree, Milan decree. 

Continho ministry, resigns, 136a. 

Continuous voyage, doct. of. 29b, 59e. 

Contraband, foodstuffs to Ger., 186c: 
Bnt. warning on, 59b: Brit, seize 
meat products, 187c; & continuous 
voyage. 59e. 

Contract laborers, immigration for- 
bidden, 178c. 

Contreras, battle of , 173b. 

Contributions, political, U. S., act 
prohibiting. lS2b; act requiring pub- 
licity, 183b; amendatory act on, 183e. 

Conventicle Act, 52c. 

Convention, Constitutional, U. S., 
159a. 

^, National (France, U. S.). See A'^u- 
tional Convention. 

— of Sept. 30, ISOO, 22b. 



— Parliament, Eng., approver Decl. of 
Breda, 52b; declares James has abdi- 
cated; offers joint sovereignty to Wm. 
& Mary, 52f. 

Convicts, pardoned by gov. of Ark., 
184c; by gov. of So. Car., 184c, 197f. 

Conway, Gen., sec. of state, 53f. 

Cook, Capt. James, voyages in Pacific, 
21c: visits Society Isls., 79c; explores 
N. Z., 75d, 76f, 77b; lands on Aus- 
tralia, 74f; reaches Botany Bay;»ex- 
plores east coast of Australia, 75d&e: 
Tasmania, 75c; Pacific Coast, 71c, 
169a. 205d; Brit. Columbia, 70b: 
Alaska, 209a: disc. Hawaiian Isls., 
209c, 210a: killed, 209e. 

^, Joseph H., premier of Australia,76e; 
at Peace Coriference, 76f. 

— Islands. 77b. 

Cooke, Jay, & Co., fail. 177c. 

Cooley V. Port Wardens, Supr. Court 
decision, 173d. 

Coolidge, Calvin, on Boston Police 
strike. 193c. 

Coolies, Chinese, in Australia, 75f. 
76a; in Canada, 72b: in Fr. & Eng., 
in World War, 87c; in So. Africa. 67c; 
in U. S., 178a&b. 

Cooper, A.Ashley (1st Earl of Shaftes- 
bury). Cabal; Lord Chancellor; dis- 
missed, 52d: pres. of new privy coun- 
cil: again dismissed; heads opposition 
in favor of Monmouth; treason; flees 
to Neth.; dies, 52e. 

^, Peter, nomin. for pres., 163f; loco- 
motive, 172a. 

Copenhagen, Charles X. takes, H8e; 
Peace of. i9e, 91b: Nelson bombards. 
54d, 91c; Brit, again bombard, 91c. 
99d; surr.. 54e; revolution. 91c: free 
port opened. 91d; 8th Scan. Peace 
Cong.: Conf. at. 91e; Univ. of- 91b. 

Copernicus, 17c. 

Coppage V. Kansas. Supr. Court de- 
cision. 186b. 

"Copperheads," 175c. 

Coppermine River, Canada, 71b. 

Copts, in modern Egypt. 68c. 

Copyright, International Conference 
in Switz. (1885-7), 150d. 

— Act, Eng. (1912), 56d; Law. U. S., 
179b. 

Corcyra, fnd., 7c; against Corinth, 7d; 
irtaty with Rome. 9a, 

Corday, Charlotte, kills Marat. 98f. 

Cordero, pres. Ecuador; e,xiled, 92f. 

"Cordillera Oriental, " Bolivia, 48e. 

Cordoba, F. Fernandez de, explores 
Yucatan, 125f. 

— , Sp., Ommiad caliphate fnd., 12b; 
Abderrahman 111. ,12d;caliphate ends, 
12f. 

Corfu, anti-Semitic riots, 110c; Ser- 
bian troops taken to, 34e, 122a&d; 
go\'t. estab. at, 122d; Decl. of. 121b. 

Corilham, in Abyssinia, 39b. 

Corinth. Gr., Connth. War, Sb; synod 
at, 8d; Aciiaian League, 9a; Rom. de- 
stroy, 9d; Rom. col. fnd.. 9l: canal 
opened, 110c. 

— , Miss., Halleck occupies, 175a; bat- 
tle of, 175b, 201e. 

Corinthians, fnd.Syracuse & Corcyra. 
7c; against Corcyra. 7d, 8a. 

Corinthian War, Sb. 

Corinto, Brit, occupy, 80a, 

Cork, Ire., college fnd. at. 58b: martial 
law in, 61b; Lord Mayor MacCurtin 
assass., 6 If. 

Corn crop, U.S. (1912), 185b; (1915), 
187e. 

— Islands, ceded to U. S.. 209b, 81e, 
lS5e, 188a. 

^ laws, 54f; repealed, 51c, 55e. 

^ Production Act. Eng.. 60c. 

Cornish, Eng. officer in Phil. I.. 210f. 

Cornwall, Duke of (later George V.), 
opens 1st pari, of Australia, 76b; & 
Duchess of. in Canada, 72c, See 
Georae V. of Eng. 

Cornwallis, Lord, leaves No, Caro- 
lina, 169b; at Yorktown. I58f; surr.. 
158f, 169c, 198d; (as Earl), gov.-gen. 
of India. 63f; 2nd time; dies. 64a. 

^, Bnt. battleship, sunk, 36a. 

Coronado, Vasquez de. exploresS. W. 
U. S., 125f. 157c. 167b; in Kans., 
205e; sends out explorers. 208b. 

Coronea, battle of (447 B. C). 7f; 
(394 B. C), 8b. 

Coronel, Cape, battle off (1914), 32e. 

Corporation Act, Eng., passed, 52c: 
repealed, 55c. 

Corporations, Bureau of, work taken 
over, lS3f. 

Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 6c. 

— Juris Canonici, 13c. 

Corral, Ramon, vice pres. 127c&d. 

Corro, Jos^ J., acting pres.. 126c. 

Corrupt Practices Prevention Act. 
Eng.. 56e. 

Corsica, Greeks expelled. 7e: ceded to 
Fr,. 98c; revolt, 98e. 

Cortenuova, battle of, 14b. 

Cortereals, explore Labrador & North- 
ern U. S., 167a. 
t Cortes, Hernando, sent to Mexico: en- 
ters Mexico City; retreats, 125a&f: 
completely overcomes Aztecs, 17a, 
I25aSd:gov., 125f;in Hondur.,79e,80c. 

Cortes, Port., last meeting for cen- 
tury, 135e: dissolved, 135f. 

^, Span, legislature, 146a; constitu- 
tion, 22e. 147b; meets at Cadiz (1810), 
22e; (1823), 147c. See also Spain. 

"Corwin Amendment." 174c. 

Cosa, Juan de la, reaches Amer.. 167a. 

Cossacks. 137b. 139b; conq. Siberia. 
18b; revolt from Pol.. 134c. 139e: re- 
new allegiance to Pol,, 139e: great 
rising, 139f: revolt under Maieppa, 
20d; suppress student riots, 141c; at- 
tack workmen. 137f; form Repub. of 
Don. 143a; defeated, 143b; under 
Denikin, 143d&e. 

Cossack Territory, 142f. 

Costa, Affonso, cabinet in Port., new 
cabinet, 136a; succeeds Almeida:Paes 
overthrows, 136b. 

^Cabral, minister, dismissed. 135f. 

Costa Rica, hist, outline. 79b; organi- 
zation; govt.; industry & producti^on; 
relig.&educ.:defense;area& pop., 79c; 
recent statistics, 222: map, 64. Chro- 
nology, 80c, — Other refs.: relig. re- 
lations with Guat., 79d; gets judg- 
ment against Nicar., 80a, 81e; severs 



diplom. relations with Ger., 35c: de- 
rlares war on Ger., 36c, 38f; not is 
League of Nations, 37f. 

Cotinga river, in Venez. bound., 155d. 

Cotton, cultivation begun in Va., 18f: 
in South, 159f. 160a; gin, invented, 
21f, 160a, 169f; manufacturing: 1st 
factory, 160a; & slavery, 160a&d: pro- 
duction, in Ala., 202c: in Ga., I96b. 
See also Contraband. 

— Centennial Exhibition, 178c. 

— E.xchanges, N. Y. & New Orleans, re- 
sume trade, 186a. 

— Futures Act. U. S., 185f, 188e. 

— State, 202c. 

^ States & Intemat. Exposition. 179f. 
Council of Florence, Nicaea, etc. See 

under Florence, Nictsa, etc. 
^, gen. (or ecumenical) of Christian 

Ch.. 1st. lOd; 2nd, lOe; 3rd; 4th. lOf ; 

(1870), 25d. U6d. 
^, Lateran, 1st, 13b. 

— for Colonies, 52d. 

— for National Defense. U. S.. 192b. 

— for New England, succeeds Plymouth 
Company. 167d. 

^ of Blood. See Blood Council. 
^ of Four= Supreme Council. 

— of State, Eng., Cromwell dismisses, 
52a: of Norway, 130f: women eligible 
to. 131b. 

— of the Empire, Russia, instituted, 
137f ; check on Duma, 138a: powers & 
composition, 138d&e, abolition de- 
manded, 141e: votes bill rejected by 
Duma, 142a: & cabinet, 142c; abol- 
ished, 142e. 

^ of Workmen's and Soldiers' Dele- 
gates. See Soviet. 

Courcelles, battle of , 100c. 

Court-martial, abolished by Russ. 
provis. govt., 142e- 

Court of High Commission, abol., 19b. 

^ of Industrial Relations, estab., 194c. 

Courtrai, battle of, 14d. 

Courts. See Supreme Court, Federal 
Courts. 

Coutraa, battle of, 18b. 

Couza, Col. = AicsrandfT Joan J. of 

Roum., 13Cc&e. 
Covenant, Nat'l, publ. in Scot.; de- 
fended, 19b: Charles 11. subscribes to, 
52a; abolished, 52c. 
^ of League of Nations. See Leasrue of 

Nations. 
Covenanters, at Tippermuir, 19c; de- 
feated by Dalyeli, 52c; Lauderdale 
persecutes: deftat Claverhouse; over- 
come by Monmouth; persecuted, 52e. 
Cowpens, battle of the. 169b, 197e. 
Coxey's Army, at Wash., 163e. 179e. 
Cracker State, 195f. 
Cracow, cap. by Charles X.. 139e; 
Charles XII. occupies, 139f, 148f: 
Aust. annexes. 24f, 44d. 134d, UOd. 
^ University, students strike, 45c. 
Craig O.Missouri, Supr. Court decision. 

171f. 
Craigavad, Ulstermen at. 58e. 
Craiova, Falkenhayn enters. 34f. 
Cranmer, Abp., voids Henry VIII. '9 

marriage, 17b: burned. 17d, 
Crannon, battle near, 8e. 
Crassus, M. Licimus, crushes revolt: 
consul, 9e; 1st triumvirate; Parthians 
kill. 9f. 
Crater, battle of the, 175f. 
Crawford, W. H.. see, of treas.. 171b. 
Cr6cy. battle of, 14f. 
Credit Mobilier, exposure, 177b. 
Credito Mobiliare, suspends, I lui . 
Creeks, massacre; defeated at Hors-- 
shoe Bend, 170f; final cession of lands. 
I71e; in Georgia, 172a, 196a: in ind. 
Ter.. 172a. 
Crema. Frederick I. takes. 13d. 
Creoles. 125b; in Mexico, 126a. 
Creole State. 20Ib. 
Crescentius, Otto III. slays, 12e. 
Crespo, Joaquin, drives Palacios into 

exile; becomes pres., 155d, 156a. 
Cressy, Bnt. cruiser, sunk, 28a. 
Crete (Candia), Early Minoan Age,6d; 
Middle Minoan; contact with Egypt; 
age of Knossos, 6e; Late Minoan, 6f; 
Turks take, 19e. UOd, 115f, 152d: 
Ibrahim gives up, 152f; insurrection 
(1866). 153a: Greeks aid Cretans, 
UOc; revolution (1889-90), 109e, 110c, 
151e; causes crisis in Gr., llOc; revolt 
(1896), 26b, 153e:Greek3aid Cretans. 
llOd, loll; powers give auton. govt, 
to, 26b. llOd; Prince George of Gr. 
high commissioner, 109e, UOd; Greece 
proposes to annex; powers refuse;pow- 
ers withdraw troops; union with 
Greece, UOd; powers order to resume 
former status, llOd. 154a; Venizelos, 
Cretan leader, 109e. UOd: Gt. Brit., 
Fr, & Rus. send warships to; Assemb. 
elects delegates to Gr. Assemb., 154d; 
handed over to Gr., UOd; ceded to 
Balkan allies, 154d: annexed to Gr., 
UOd; provis. govt., 34b. 
Crimea, the, Turks subdue, 15e: Rua. 
gain possess, of. 140b; Turkey yielda 
by treaty. 21d, 137c, UOb. 151d,152e: 
annexed to Rus., 21e, UOb. 
Crimean Republic, proclaimed, 1433. 
— War. UOeSa"; also, 137d, 151d, 153a: 
begins. 25a, lOOb; Sard. in. 25a, 116c.- 
ends, 25a. 
"Crime of 1873," I77b. 
Crimisus, defeat at, 8c. 
Crlspi, F., strengthens govt.; govt, 
indorsed; reaction; overthrown, 116e; 
recalled; bank scandals; final over- 
throw. 116f. 
Crittenden, John J., 200c; compro- 
mise, 174c. 
Crnagora ("Black Mountain"), 122a. 
Croatia (see especially Croatia and 
Slavonia), Turkey occupies, 151c; 
wars on Hungary, 44d; Hung, policy 
in. 113b. 
^ & Slavonia (see also Croatia; 
Slavonia), historical outline, 122d: 
area Si pop., i22e. Chronology, 122e. 
Emp. Charles's intention toward, 
I2lc; join Jugo-Slavia, 121d. See also 
Serbia and Montenegro. 
Croatians. See Croats. 
Croats (Croatians), 122d, e&f; kings 
in Bosnia, 123d; conq. by Turks, U2e: 
language question, 45c; in Jugo-Sla- 
via, 12la&b: number of in Hungary. 
42f, 113b&e. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



231 



Croesus, reigns: Cynig dcthroneg, 7e. 

Cromer, Lord (Evelyn Baring) , Eng. 

agL-ni in Egypt, 56e. 68e; reorganizes 

nation, 6Se; resigns, 6Sf. 

Crompton, Samuel, spinning mule, 

21c, 50d. 
Cromwell, Oliver, at Naseby; defeats 
Eng, Royalists & Scots, 19c; in power. 
50b. 5 If; purges Long Pari., 19c. 51f; 
in Ireland; takes Drogheda; retiirna 
toEnB.,51f: inScot.; Dunbar; Worces- 
ter; dismisses Rump Pari. & Council 
of State; assembles "Barebone's" 
Pari.; Lord Protector; excludes mem- 
bers of Pari,; dissolves Pari.; against 
Catholicism & Episcopacy, 52a; ex- 
cludes opp. from pari, of 1656; plot 
against: refuses kingship: dissolves 
pari.; dies. 52b; body exhumed, 52c. 

— , Richard, Lord Protector; dissolves 
new pari.; abdicates. 52b. 

^, Thomas, put to death. 17c. 

Cronje, Piet \.. surr. to Roberts. 67b. 

Crops, U.S.,%'aIuc {19I5),IS7e:(1916), 
lS9a; (19IS),l92d: wheat, guaranty 
of price, I92e. 

Cross Keys, battle of. 175a. 
"Cross of Gold" speech. Bryan's, 
164b. 

Cross p. Harrison, Supr. Court deci- 
sion, 173e, 

Crowder, Gen. E. H., Cuban electoral 
reform law, 89f. 

Crown Land Sales Act, Australia 
(1842). 75f. 

^ Point, French hold: Montcalm 
abandons, 16Sc; Americans take. Tic, 
168f; tercentenary of Champlain:IS4a. 

^ Prince, of Germany. See Frederick 
William. 

Crozat's patent, ISSb. 

Cruising Convention. Joint (U. S. & 
Eng). 24b. 

Crusades, the, lid, 131c&;d; 1st Epoch 
(1095). 13a; Urban II. proclaims 1st 
Crusade; Peter the Hermit; Walter 
the Penniless; undisciplined army 
starts: in Hung. & Bulg.; reaches 
Turkey Si. destroyed; main army 
Etacts; cap. Nicaea & Antioch; opens 
way to Jerusalem; takes Jerusalem, 
13b: St Bernard preaches 2nd Cru- 
sade; cause; Conrad III.& Louia VII. 
support: armies march to Constanti- 
nople; Manuel Comnenus opposes; 
attempt to storm Damascus; defeated; 
return to Europe. 13c; Saladin over- 
comes Christian kdm. esiab. in Je- 
rusalem by 1st crusaders: William, 
Abp. of Tyre, preaches 3rd Crusade, 
13d; Frederick Barbarossa begins; de- 
feats infidels at Iconium; drowned in 
Cilicia; Richard Cceur de Lion & 
Philip Augustus of Fr. join crusade; 
capt. Acre; dissensions; Richard tn 
truce with Saladin; starts on ret. to 
Europe; imprisoned in Austria; re- 
gains liberty; ret. to Eng.; dies. 13e; 
lnnocentlll.proclaims4thCrusade; 
Baldwin of Flanders, Simon de Mont- 
fort. & others lead; attack Eastern 
Empire; restore Isaac Angelus. 13e; 
again take Constantinople; Latin Em- 
pire in the East estab.. 13f; Innocent 
IlI.proclaimsCrusadeagainstAl- 
bigenseaS: they are massacred ; tliou- 
sandsof Fr.St Ger. boys start for Holy 
Land onChildren 's Crusade: many 
die; many sold into slavery. 13f; An- 
drewll.of Hungary and others under- 
take 6th Crusade; Damietta conq.; 
crusaders defeated in Eg>'pt; Freder- 
ick H, leads, 14a; French &. Eng. un- 
dertake new crusade; fails; Louis IX. 
(Saint Louis) undertakes new cru- 
sade; Damietta taken; Eg^'ptians de- 
feat, 14b; Louis IX. leads new cru- 
sade against Mamelukes; Louis dies; 
crusade abandoned; attempt to regain 
Holy Land given up, 14c. 

Crystal Palace (Lond.), 55f. 

Ctestphon, Carus conq. (2S3 A. D,), 
lOd; battle of (1915), 28c, 33f. 

Cuba, hist, outline, 88d; organization; 
govt, industry & labor, 88f ; religion; 
educ; defense; area & pop., 89a. 221; 
recent statistics, 222; map, 64. Chro- 
nology, 89a. — Other refs.; disc. 16d. 
167a; Brit. cap. Havana; Brit, ex- 
change for Fla., 147a: restored toSp., 
63e; faithful to Bourbons, 2Ild; fili- 
bustering e.xpedition3 against, 173c; 
I'res. Pierce advocates annexation; 
Black Warrior incident; South at- 
tempts to get fr, Sp., I73e; Ostend 
Manifesto, 173e, 25a; efforts toward 
annex, to U. S., 174a; revolt, 145e; 
abolition of slavery decreed, 147d; 
revolution (1895), 145e, 164c. ISOa; 
U.S.& neutrality ;Sp.crueltie3:>l/ain« 
disaster, 164c; belligerency recognized 
by U. S., I80b; U. S. to intervene in. 
164c, ISObSic; independence recog- 
niied, 164c; ports blockaded, ISOc; 
U. S. invades; Sp. yields sovereignty, 
I64c. 180d; U. S. control in, 164e; in- 
dependent, 74a; republic, 145f; U. S. 
prottctorate, 2l7d. 180f; Wood mil. 
gov,, 180e; mil. occupation cnd3,I81b; 
recip. with U.S., 181c: leases Guanta- 
namotoU.S.,209d; treaty with U. S. 
(1903), 181cStd; Taft provis. gov., 
218c; U. S. mil. control resumed 
(1906), 182a; 2nd mil. occupationends, 
182e: declares war on Ger., 35c, 3&e; 
declares war on Aust., 35d; Mex, sev- 
ers dipl. relations with, 128c; U. S. 
loans to. 3Sd. 

Cuestas, Juan, pres. Uruguay, 155c. 

Culebra Cut, S2e, 185f. 

CuUoden, battle of, 53d. 

Cumse, battle of, 7f; Uken, 8a. 

Cumani, colony; natives destroy. 155d. 
155i- 

Cumberland, Duke of (1771-1851), 
king of Hanover, 65c. 

—, Duke of (1721-65), at;Cul!oden, 53d. 

— House, Canada, estab.. 71b. 

^(national) Road, opened. 24b,171b&d. 

— , ship, destroyed, 161e. 

Cunard Steamship Co.. subsidy, 57e. 

Cunasa, battle of. Sb. 

Cuneo (Com). Fr. & Span, victory 
(1744). 43f. 

Cunningham coal-land claims io 
Alaska, declared invalid. 183d. 

Curasao, 129f; capt.; restored, 54e. 



"Curfew order," Eng.. GOe. 

Curies, disc, radium & polonium. 26b. 

Currency, U. S., act for flexible, 182d. 

Curtis. Samuel R.. 174f. 

Curzon of Kedleston, Lord, viceroy of 
India. 64e. 132c; resigns. 64f ; in coali- 
tion cabinet (1915). 59c; pres. Air 
Board. 59e: on War Committee, 59d; 
leader of Lords; in war cabinet (1916), 
60a: in war cabinet (1919). 61a. 

Cusack Co. r. Chicago, Supreme Court 
dfcisum, 189b. 

Cuscatlan, 80b. 

Cushing, steamer. atucked. 32f. 186e. 

— . CiUb. treaty with China, Sod. 

Custer massacre. 177d. 

Custine. Count de. triumphant ad- 
vance into Germany. 98e, 

Custis. Mrs. Martha. 212a. 

Customs. See Tariff. 

— frauds (1909), U. S.. 182f. 

— Tariff Act, Australia. 76c. 
^Union.Aust,.l24a;German.I24d.See 

al^oZoltoerein: So. Africa. 67a, C&d. 

Custozza, battle of (lS4S),44d. 116c; 
(1806). 44f, llCd. 

Cutler. Manasseh. 200f. 

Cuttyhunk, attempted settlement, 
167c. 

Cuxhaven, Brit, seaplanes bomb, 32f. 

Cuzco, early conditions. 133a. 

Cyane (I'.S.S.), bombards Greytown, 
80i: captured. 171a. 

Cyaxares, reigns in Media. 7d. 

Cyclone, on Atlantic coast (U. S.), 
179e. See also Tornadoes. 

Cylon. 7d. 

Cynoscephalae. Pelopidas slain, 8c; 
Philip V. defeated, 9b. 

Cyprus, 62d; under Brit, adniinistra- 
tion, 56d, 151e; annexed, 27f, 59a, 
1 53c; Greece declines as price of enter- 
ing war, llOe. 

Cyrenaica, 115f; Turkey renounces. 
Il7b. 

Cyrene. fnd., 7d. 

Cyrillic alphabet, 122e. 

Cyrus(the Great), king of Persia; conq. 
Media, 5d. 7c: dethrones Astj-ages; 
conq. Lydia; dethrones Crcesus; conq. 
Gr. cities in Asia Minor; conq. Baby- 
Ion; takes Sardis; edict for return of 
Jews; killed, 7e. 

^, the Younger, in Asia Minor; revolts; 
killed, Sb. 

Cyzicus, Spartan fleet off. Sb. 

Czarniecki. polish leader, 139e. 

Czartoryski. A. J., 140d. 

Czech, language. 90c. See Czechs. 

Czecho-Slovakia. hist, outline. 90a; 
organization; govt.; industry & labor; 
rehg., 90b: area & pop., 90c, 221; re- 
cent statistics. 222; map. 38. Chro- 
nology. 90c.— Other refs.: U. S. 
loans to, 30e; independent state. 31a, 
36b, 43a: troops in Siberia, 138c, 143c; 
withdraws forces fr. Siberia. 143f. 
See also Czecho-Slovaks. 

Czecho-SlovakNat'lCommittee,90d. 

Czecho-Slovaks, 90b; number in 
Aust., 42f: rights of recognized by 
Aust.; revolt, 46b. 

Czechs (see Czech, in the Diet.). 23c. 
90a; demand nat'lautonomy, 44f. Sec 
Czecho-iilovakia, Czechoslovaks. 

Czernin, for. minister, 45f, 46a. 

Czernowitz, Aust. take, 33b: Rus- 
sians take, 34d. 

Czerny Djordje, leads Serbians.l21e, 
122b. 152f; assass.. 122b. 



D. 

D', de, du. etc. for many names (esp. 
foreign) with thiseleiiient.eee thespe- 
cific family name. &s, J can ^e B&lhen- 
court, see under Bilhencourt. 

Dacia, prov. created, lOc; aband.. lOd. 

^, steamer, Fr. seize, 32f, 186d. 

Dagestan, ceded to Russia, 140d. 

Daguerre. Louis J. M., inventor, 24e. 

Daguerreotype, invented, 24e. 

Dahomey, geog.; area & pop,, 96d; 
French in, lOOf. 

Daimio nobility. 1 iSb; abolished. I Idd. 

Dairen, leased to Japan. 87b. Seealso 
Tahcn. 

Dajaukku, fnds. Median emp.. 7c. 

Dakota Territory.orgamzed, 174c, 206f, 
20Ta. See also A'orf/t i>cA;o(a. ,Sou(/i 
Dakota. 

Dalai Lama (SeeZ-amai^m, in Diet.), 
86e. 

Dalhousie, Earl of' (James A. B. Ram- 
say), gov.-gen. of India, 64b. 

Dallas, G. M., vote. 172f. 

— , Ga., battle. I75e. 

— , Texas, statistics. 220. 

Dalmatia, c«ast under Venice. 122e; 
ceded to Venice, 151c; cession con- 
firmed (Peace of Passarowitz), 20e, 
I52e; ceded to Austria; Napoleon gets 
coast, I22d&f; insurrections in (1869), 
44f. (1881). 45a; coast promised to 
It., 12la&b; It. claims coast; coast to 
be neutralized, 121b: It, occupies; 
Jugo-Slavia claims. 12Ic; It. to give 
up: in Jugo-Slavia, 121d. 

^, Duke of, 12e. 

^, Slovenia, Fiume,[SL Croatia, king- 
dom of. 12Ic. 

Dalny. Sec Talien. 

Dalyell, Thomas, overcomes Cove- 
nanttre. 52c. 

Dam, power, world's largest, 185a. 

Damad Ferid Pasha, cabinet; suc- 
ceeded, I54f. 

Daman, 63d. 135d. 

Damascus. Hadadezer defeated; Ha- 
zael defeated; Benhadad reigns. 7b: 
Tiglath-pileser takes, 7c; Mdawiyah's 
capital, 12b: capital of Caliphate. 
112c; in 2ad crusade, 13c; Christians 
massacred at, 153a: railroad to Me- 
dina, il2d; Syrians executed. 154e; 
operations of Allies toward; Allies en- 
ter. 37c. 112e, 152b. 

Damietta, uken (1219). 14a; (1249), 
14b. 

Dankpier, William, on coast of New 
Guinea, 75d; sacks Leon, 79f, 

Danbury Hatters* Case. 182d: verdict 
against boycotting union. 183a; Supr. 
Court decis-. 186b. 

Danby, Earl of, 52e. 

Danes, Alfred defeats, 12(1; AthdsUa 



defeats. 12e: underSweyn conq. Eng., 
12e: get Schleswig; invade Norway, 
ascendancy in Eng. ends. 12[: conq. 
Esths & fnd. Revel, 144a: sell con- 
quests to Brethren ot the Sword, 
144b: invade Iceland, 114c; overcome 
Sw. fieet. 14Se: invade Sw.; expelled; 
in alliance with Russians S: Saxons, 
14Sf. See Denmark. 

"Daniel Ball," Supreme Court de- 
cision, 177a. 

Daniels, Josephus. sec. of navy, cre- 
ates staff. lS7a; controversy with 
Sims, 193t. 

Danilo, Prince, of Montenegro, 123b. 

Danish West India & Guinea Co. ,21 If. 

^ West Indies, U. S. rejects 1st pur- 
chase treaty. 9ld. I7Gd; Denmark re- 
jects 2nd U. S. treaty, 91d; sold to 
U.S., yie. See Vtrgin Islands. 

D' Annunzio. See Annun:io, d'. 

Dante Alighieri. born, 14c; prior of 
Florence: m politics, 14d: Divioa 
Commedia; at Ravenna; dies. 14e, 

Danton. Reign of Terror, 9Se: exe- 
cuted, 98f. 

^, battleship, torpedoed, 36b. 

Danube nver. Roman frontier ad- 
vanced to, lOa; improved, 43c: Turks 
reach, 15lc; freenavig.. (1S50), 151d. 

Danubian Principalities (seeinGa::.). 
crusaders in region, 13b; Rus. gains 
privileges in, 137c; Rus, protectorate 
over,140d; Russians enter, 140e: Kus. 
e\'acuaies. 44e, l40e: Aust. occupies. 
44e, 140e; Rus. renounces protecto- 
rate over; Danubian commission, 140f, 
151d. See also M oldavia, Wallachia, 
Roumania. 

Danzig, left to Poland. 140b; annexed 
by Prussia, 140b, 106b: Fr. Uke, 99d: 
restored to Prussia; made a free city 
by Treaty of Versailles (1019), 31a, 
38a, U4b.\:e. 

Darboy. Archbp. hostage; shot, lOOd. 

Dardanelles, Turks cap. (1355), Hf: 
opened to Rus. vessels. 137c' closed to 
for. warships. 24e, 153a; Eng. & Fr. 
fleets pass through, 140e; It . fleet bom- 
bards forts at entrance (1912), 117b; 
Balkan allies attempt to reopen, 154c; 
Ger. warships in. 31e: closed to mer- 
chantmen (1914), 31e. 142b; Allied 
fleet attacks forts. 2Sb. 33d. 152b: Al- 
lies agree to give to Rus., 142d; Allies 
gain control of. 30e. 

Daressalam, Brit, raid, 32e; surren- 
ders; occupied, 35a, 07e. 

Darien, Span, colony (1510). 1st per- 
manent settlement, 80c, S2a, 167a; 
Paterson settlement (1698) :fails. 20b. 

^, Isthmus of. Balboa crosses, I57c; 
canal proposed, S2b. See Panama. 

^Scheme (see in Diet.), 82b. 

Darius I., of Persia, od, 6a, 7e;dies.7f. 

^ II., reigns. Sa. 

^ III. (Codomannus) reigns; Alexan- 
der defeats; slain. Sd. 

Dark Ages. See Middle Aijea. 

Darkow. M.. editor, sentenced. I92a. 

Darling, Sir Ralph, gov.ofN.S.W'.,74f. 

^ Downs. e\plorations, 75e. 

Darmstadt. French occupy. 109d. 

Damley, Lord, marries Mary Stuart; 
assas., 17f. 

Dartiguenave, Gen., provisional pres. 
of Haiti. 112a. 

Dartmouth College, 16Se. 19Sb. 

— College case. 17Ib. 

Darwin, Oriain of Species. 25b. 

Datis. at Marathon. 7f. 

Dato, Eduardo. forms ministry, I47f; 
ministry resigns; resignation with- 
drawn; resigns; premier (1917); cabi- 
net resigns, 14Sa. 

Daun, Count Leopold Joseph von, wins 
at Hochkirch, 44a; defeated at Tor- 
gau. 44a. 106a. 

David, king of Israel, reign, 7a. 

Davila, Miguel R., pres.; resigns. 81d. 

Davis, H. G.. vice pres. vote, 181e. 

^, Jefferson, 160f, 201f: sec. of war. 
215b: pres. C. S. A.. 16lb&c, 174c&e; 
cap., tried, released. 176a. 

^, John, seeks X.W. passage, ISb; vis- 
its Greenland, 91f. 

Davy, Sir Humphry (see in Biog.t & 
see aaffty lamp in Diet.), 25e. 

Dawes Commission, 179d. 20Sd. 

Daylight saving (see in Diet.. Adden- 
da) inEng..59f: (Fr.), 102b; (Ger.), 
108a: (U.S.), 19Ib. 193b. 

Dayton, O. floods, lS4e:statistica,220. 

— , W. L., vote, 173f. 

De, seed'. 

Deak. Francis, Hung. leader, 44f, I13a. 

Deakin, Alfred, premier of Australia; 
resigns: 2nd ministry, 76c; Srdminis- 
try. 76d. 

Dearborn, Henry, campaign against 
Montreal, 170e. 

Death penalty. Eng,. 55c: Rus., 142e 
Sii; Switz.. 150d. See also Capital 
punishment. 

Debs, Eugene v., injunction against in 
Pullman strike, 163e; arrested, 179e; 
sentenced, 191e, 

^, in re. Supr. Court decision, I79f. 

Debt, imprisonment for, abolished, 56c. 

— , Eng. national (1914), 58f: (1915), 
59b; (1916), 59e; (1917). 60b; Eng. 
gross (1918), 60e: (1919), 61b. 

^, Russian national, repudiated, 143a. 

— , U, S. national, end of Revolution. 
I69e; (1791). 169e: (1795). 169f; 
(ISOO). 170a: (1805), I70c: (ISIO). 
170d: (1815), 171a; (1816). largest 
bef. 1862, 171a: (1820). 171c; (1825). 
171d; (1830). I71f; extinguished 
(1835), i72b; surplus distributed, 
172cS;d; new debt started (1837). 
172d: (1840), 172d; (1845). 172f; 
(1850), 173c; (1855). 173f; (1S60). 
174b: (1861). 174e: (1862), I75a; 
(1863), 175c; (1864). 175e: (1865), 
largest bef. 1917, 176b: (1870). 176f; 
(1875). 177d; (1880). 17Sa: (1885), 
178c: (ISSO), 179a; (1895), 179f: 
(1900), ISOe; (1905). 181f; (1910- 
1917). 183b. I83d. 184a. lS4f. 185e, 
I87a. lS8d, 189f: (1919), 193a&:b; 
World War debt, 38e, 192d. 

Debts, of So. States, repudiated, 176b. 

^, of various nations, 222. See also 
Loans & World War Statistics. 

Decatur, Stephen, punishes Algerine 



pirates (see Algerine War. in Diet.), 
96a, 171a;d«'stroysS.S. Philadelphia, 
170b. 

Decazes, Elie, Duke, ministry; dis- 
missed, 100a. 

Deccan, battles in, 64a. 

Deceased wife's sister bill, passed.58a; 
decision of law lords on, 58d. 

Decelea, Spartans occupy, 8a. 

"December revolution," Russia. 
HOd. 

Decemviri, at Rome. 7f. 

Decius, pcTsecutes Christians. lOd. 

De Civitate Dei, publ.. lOi. 

Declaration of Independence, 2Id. 
158f, lfi8f. 212d&f, 2!3a. 

— of Indulgence (Charles II.), 52d: 
(James II.). 52f. 

— of Rights (Eng.), 52f: (Eng. colo- 
nies. 1765 & 1774). 158e. 

^ of the Rights of Man (Fr.) , adopted. 
98d. 

Decretum, wTJtten. 13c. 

Defense, national, of any country, see 
under Organization following His- 
torical Outline of that country. See 
Defense acts, below; also, see under 
Armu.CottseriptioK.Draft^Military, 
Militia, National Guard, Naval. 
Navu. TToi/ (Chinese, etc.). 

— , Council of National, 188e; recon- 
structed. 194a. 

— Act, Australia (1903). 75a: (1910). 
76d; So. Afr., 67d. See also Naval De- 
fense Act. 

— of the Realm Act ("Dora"). 59a; 
amended (1915); again amended, to 
control liquor trade, 59b; prevents 
strikes. 61b. 

Deioces= Dajaukku, 7c. 

Delacroix, L., premier, 48b. 

Delaware, hist, outline. 195a: statis- 
tics. 220; area, 221. Chronology, I95b. 
— Other refs.: granted to Penn., I67f; 
separate col., 168a; ratifies Constitu- 
tion, 169d: remains in Union, I61c. 

— River, Swedes settle on. 167e. 195b. 
De La Warr, Lord, 198c. 
Delcass6, Theophile. Fr. for. min., 

101c, 102a; resigns, 102b. 

De Lesseps, SeeLesseps. 

Delhi, Moguls estab. in. 62e: Shah Ja- 
han fnds. modern, 19a; sacked, 20f: 
surrendered, 63e; Brit, capt,, 64a: 
Sepoys capt.; Brit, retake. 64c: dur- 
bar, 64e&:f: becomes capital, 64f. 

Delian Confederacy. 7f; 2nd, fnd.. 8b. 

Delium. .Athenians at. 8a. 

Delos, given to Athens. 9c. 

Delphi, Pythian games instituted. 7e; 
Phocians attack, 7f; Philip at. 8c; 
Gauls pillage, 8f. 

Delyannis, Theodores, premier; min- 
istry overthrown; again wins, 110c; 
assas., HOd. 

Demetrius I. (Poliorcetes), of Mace- 
donia, frees Athens; takes Athens; 
kills Alexander (V.); seizes Macedo- 
nian throne. 8e; dies, 8f, 

^11., of Macedonia, reigns, 9a. 

^I. (Soter), of Syria, reigns; kills An- 
tiochus: dethroned. 9c. 

^ Nicator, reigns; recognizes Jewish in- 
dcpend.; captive; restored. Sd. 

^ Phalereus, rules Athens, 8e. 

— , Pseudo (Ist), dethrones Feodor 11.; 
slain, 18d. 

^, Pseudo (2nd), gains Rus. throoe; as- 
sass.. 18e. 

Demlr-Hissar, Greece gains, 109f: 
Bulgarians occupy forts north of, llOe. 

Democratic Nat'I Convention. See 
Nat'l Co7ivenlions. 

— party (see in Diet.), "Jackson men," 
171f; origin of name "Democratic," 
212f; 1st nat'l convention, 172d:split3 
on slavery (I860). 174b; recovers 
power. 163c, 177c; in 1896 campaign. 
164a&b; (1912). 184b; (1916), 18Sf. 
Seealso Contrreas (U.S.). elections 
(presidential). Political parlies. 

^ Republican party, 159d, 

De MontS. settlement in Am.. 167c. 

Demosthenes, born. 8b: 1st pub. ap- 
pearance: 1st "Philippic." 8c;dies,8d. 

Denikin,Gen. Anton.campaign against 
Bolsheviki, 138c&d; aided by Fr. & 
Greeks; capt. Kharkov, 143d; ad- 
vances against Bolsheviki: takes 
Odessa & Kiev; approaches Moscow; 
hindered by Ukrainians; loses Khar- 
kov & Kiev, 143e. 

Denman, Lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 
76d. 

— , Wm., Chairman Shipping Board, 
resigns. 190a. 

Denmark, hist, outline, 90f; organiza- 
tion; guvt.; indus. & labor; relig.,91a: 
cduc, 9Ia&b: defense; area. 91b, 221; 
pop.. 91b; recent statistics, 221; map, 
18. 38. 64. Chronology, 91b.— 
Other refs.: Before 1648: under Ca- 
nute. 12e; united with Sw. & Nor.. 
15b; Christian II., I6f: Christian II. 
& Frederick II.. 17b; Christian III.. 
17c; Cath. Church proscribed, 17c: 
peace with Ger. (I62y), 19a: attacks 
Sw., 19c. Prom 1648;in West Indies. 
74a; war with Sw., 19d, 148e; surr.,to 
Sw. part of Scand. pen.. 19e. I48e; 
w-ar with Sw. (1675), 148c; treaty 
with Sw.; in war against Sw. (1700), 
I48f; alliance with Peter the Great. 
137b; in Armed Neutrality. 54a&;d; 
cedes Norway to Sw.. 131a. 149a; gets 
Sw. Pomerania. 149a; possess, in In- 
dia ceded to Brit. E. Ind. Co.. 64b; 
war with Ger.. 106e; Austro-Prussian 
War, 25c; .\ust. & Prus. crush. 91d; 
renounces Schleswig-Holstei n&Lauen- 
burg,106f;sells Danish W.Indics,211e; 
Schleswig (N.Zone) votesunionwith. 
109c. See also £)anc3, Danish West 
Indies. 

Dentatus, Curius. def. Pyrrhus. 8f. 

Denver, Colo.. 206d: statistics, 220. 

Denys, Jt-an, 157c. 

Deportation of Belgians to Ger. .48a. 

Derby, 14th Earl of, Ist ministry, 55f: 
2ndmin.:resigH3,56a;3rdmin.(l866), 
56b; resigns, 56c. 

— . 16th Earl of. See Stanley of Pres- 
ton. Lord. 

— , 17th Earl of, director-general of re- 
cruiting, 59d; sec. for war (1916). 60a: 
amb. to Fr., 60e. 

Dema>, Turk, attack It. at. 117b. 



Derwent River, colony on. 75d. 

Descartes. 19b. 

Deschanel. Paul. pres. of France,102e; 
inaugurated. 102f. 

Deseret, provisional state, 208b. 

Desert Land .Act, 177e. 

Desiderius, 12b. 

D6sirade island. 97b. 

Des Moines, Lnva, statistics, 220. 

Desmoulins. Camillc, 98f. 

De Soto. Hernand'i. in Cuba. 88d: 
disc. Miss, riv., I57c. 167b: explores 
souihe.istern U. S., 167b, 202c. 

Dessalines, Jean Jacques, lllc; re- 
news war in Haiti; gov. of Haiti: 
proclaims himself emp.; assas.. llle. 

d'Estaing. Sec Eslaina. d'. 

Detroit. Mich., settled. If.Ha, COSo't-d: 
surr. to Bnt.. 170e; statistics. 220. 

Dettingen. battle of , 21a. 9Sa. 

Deuteronomy, book of. found. 7d. 

Deutschland, merchant submarine, 
1st trip to U. S.; 2nd trip, 35b. ISSd. 

De Valera. Eamonn. pres. of Irish Re- 
public: goes to America. 61a. 

Devonshire, 4th Duke of (William 
Cavendish), prime minister, 5Je. 

^, 8th Duke of. See Hartinglon, Mar- 
quis of. 

— . 9th Duke of (Victor C. W. Caven- 
dish), gov.-gen. of Canada, 73a. 

De__Wet, Christian R.. Boer general, 
67c: revolts against British; capt. Se 
convicted of treason; releas'jd, 67e. 

Dewey, Adm. Geo., at Manila. 164c. 
180c. 210f, 211a&c; surr. of Manila, 
lfi4c. ISOd; at New York, ISOd. 

De Witt brothers, killed, I9f. 

Diamonds, disc, in So. Africa, 66f. 

Diamond State, 195a. 

Dias, Bartholomeu. disc. Cape of Good 
Hope. 15f. 66f, 157b. 

Diaz , Adolfo, pres., 80a, 81d; reelected. 
81d. 

^, Gen. Armando, succeeds Cadorna; 
commands It. army. 35f, 117e. 

^, Felix, rebels against Madero; surr.; 
sentenced; freed, I27d: resigns from, 
army, 127e; against govt., 128c. 

^, Porfirio. pres. of Mex.; issues mani- 
festo: defeats Lerdistas; elected pres. 
(1877), 1 25c. 127b; 2nd term as pres. 
(IS84); 3rd (1888): 4ih (1892); Sth 
(1896): 6th (1900); 7th (1904). 127c: 
8th (1910); resigns S: goes into exile, 
I27d, I64e. 

Dickinson, John. 195c. 

Dickinson-Ayon Treaty. 81a. 

Dick Militia Law. ISlc. 

Dictionary, Johnson's. 21b: Web- 
ster's, 17le. 

Diedenhofen, Ger. gets. 107a. 

Diego. U S.S.. sunk. 37d. 

Diego Garcia, 65f. 

Diet of Augsburg. See Augsburg. 

Dillon, J. .leader IrishNationalists.60e. 

^, Thomas P., Land League, 56d. 

Dinant-Mons line, 31f. 

Dingley Tariff, 164e; Act, 180b. 

Dinwiddie. Gov.. 168c, 2I2a. 

Diocletian, emp.; makes Maximiao 
colleague; Caesar: persecutes Chris- 
tians; Per. makes peace;abdicates.lOd, 

Dion, tyrant. 8c. 

Dionysius, tyrant, Sb. 

— , the Younger, tyrant. 8c. 

Diospolite dynastv (Isl ) ; (2nd) ; (3rd) ; 
(ISth), (I9th), (20th), 6f. 

Direct nomination, instates (U.S.). 
I83e. 184c. 

Director- OeneralofRaiIroad5(U.S.). 
192b; orders increase in rates, 191c; 
turns back certain roads to private 
management. 19ld. 

Directory, the (see in Diet.), estab.. 
22a, 98f; majority's coup d'ilat, 99a; 
Napoleon's coup d'ttal against. 99b; 
falls, 22a. 

Direct primary, in U. S., 165a: in 
Ohio. 200f. 

Dirigible. See Airship. Iliust.. 160. 

Disabling .■\ct. 52e. 

Disasters. SefCyclones. Earthquakes, 
Eruptions (volcanoes). Explosions, 
Fires, Floods. Gales, Hurricanes, 
Storms. Tidal waves, etc. 

Discoveries, scient. in 19th cent.. 23b. 

Discovery, Age of, 16a. 

Disraeli, Benj.. opposes Peel. 55e; 
chancellor of exchequer. 55f: again 
chancellor. 66a; again chancellor 
(1866); Reform Act, 56b; prime 
minister; resigns. 56c; 2nd ministry'; 
Suez Canal ;(Ld.Beaconsfield) resigns, 
56d. 

Dissenters, 52f. 

District of Columbia, hist, outline, 
209c; area. 209c; statistics, 220&221; 
chronology, 209c.— Other refs.: slav- 
ery in, I60d&e; slavery prohibited, 
16le. 173d; abolition in, 174f; prohibi- 
tion in. 189d. 

Dittmann. William, in Ebert cabi- 
net; resigns. 109a. 

Diu. island (Pg.). 63d. 135d. 

Divina Commedia. completed. 14e. 

"Divine right," (see in Diet.) Ger. 
emperor's Konigsberg speech, I07e. 

Division of labor (see in Diet.), 24b. 

Divorce Act (Brit. 1857), 56a. 

Dixmude, Ger. take. 32b: Allies take. 
36f. 

Djemal, leads Turks against Suez C^- 
nal. 68f; sentenced to death, 154f. 

Dnieper river, Poland cedes ter. on 
left (east) bank to Rus., I34c. 137b. 
139e; Rus, gets ter. on upper, 140b. 

Dniester river, Rus. empire extended 
to, 137c, 140b. 

Dobbins p. Commissioners. Supr. 
Court decision. 172e. 

Dobrogea = Doi'rtija. 

Dobruja (Dobrogea), ceded to Rus. 
(Treaty of San Stefano),ll5Ie; Rou- 
mania get9 (Congress of Berlin), 136b, 
cSif; Roum. gets Lower, 136f; Central 
Powers invade, 34e.. 136d; Roumani- 
ans evacuate, 34f: Rus. compensates 
Roum. for. 36c: Roum. surr. to Cen- 
tral Powers, 136f. 

Dedecanese (Gr. for "12 islands;" 
group in /Egean lying off southwest 
coast of Asia Minor). It. conquers, 
154a; It. occupies. llOd, 115a, 152a; 
It. to retain. 111b. 117f; It. turns over 
toGr. (1920), Ulb. 



232 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



Ooffper Bank affair. 57f. 120fa. Hid; 

N battle of, 33f. 

Dolran (town), Greece gaJna, 109f; 

BulEanan raid on, llOe. 
— , Lake, Allies attack at, 37b. 
Dolgoruki, gams the Crimea, 140b, 
Dollar diplomacy (see in Cic(.), 81d. 
Dollier de Casson, Fr. explorer, 71a, 
Domesday Book, 13a. 
Dommic, St, (Domingo de Guzmdn). 

13e. 
Dominica, 74c: ceded toEng,,53e,9Sb. 
Dominican Republic (Santo Do- 

Omingo). hist, outline. 91f & 92a: or- 
ganization; govt.; indus.; relig.; ed- 
uca.: defense: area & pop., 92a; recent 
statistics, 222. Chronology, 92a. — 
Other refs.: established (1844). 111c: 
treaty for annex, to U. S. A. (1S69). 
176e; becomes virtually a protecto- 
rate of U. S. A,, 164e; convention 
signed with U. S., 182b: not incl. in 
League of Nations, 37f, 

Dominicans, Order of, 13e. 

Dominion Franchise Act, passed 

P(1S85). 72b; repealed. 72c. 
Dominions, British, 61f; Union of 
South Africa, 66b; Canada, 69a: New- 
foundland. 73d; Australia, 74f; New 
Zealand. 76f: to be consulted on in- 
ternal, affairs. 58c: offer men & war- 
ships, 59a; 1st Imperial War Cabinet. 
60a: 2nd session, 60f: World War sta- 
tistics. 38c, 60f. 
Domitian, emp.; persecutions; assas., 
10b. 

QDonaghey, Gov., pardona convicts, 
lS4c. 
Donatists, lOf. 
Don Carlos. See Carlos. Don. 
^ Paciflco claims, 110b. 

— Quixote. 17c. 

— Republic. 139c; proclaimed. 143a. 

— River. 139c. 

Donskoi, Dimitri, defeats "Golden 

Horde." 137b. 
"Dora'* (Defense of the Realm Act), 

59a, 61b. 

R Dorian migration, 7a, 

Dorpat. See Yurev. 

Dorr, Thomas W.. rebellion; convicted 
of treason, 172e, 173b. 199f, 

Dort. Synod of, ISf, 

DorylEBum. battle of. 13b, 

Dost Mohammed, ameer of Afghan- 
istan. 39c. 

Douai, occupied. 37a. 

Douglas, Arch., Ed W.I II. defeats, 14f. 

^, Stephen A., 202b, 2l5d&e: frames 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 160f, 161a, 

S173e; debates with Lincoln, 174a&b. 
Doumergue, Gaston, forms ministr>', 

lOlf; colonial minister; resigns, 102a; 

colonial min. (1915), 102b. 
Dover, Ger. seaplanes attack, 32f; Ger. 

destroyers raid, 36b. 
— . Treaty of. 52d. 
Downs, the. battle in (1639). 19b. 
Draco, codifies laws. 7d, 
Draft, selective (U. S.). in World 

W^ar (May. 1917), I89f; changes in, 

190c; quotas of States. 191d; Man- 

Tpmver Act. I91d&e. 
— Act (1$63). 175c. 

— Act. Conled.. 174f, 175a. 

— Law Cases.seeSe/pcrir«Dr(i/(Z,(i«'. 

— Riots, in N. Y. (1863), 175d; in 
Quebec (1918), 73c, 

Draga, Queen, of Serbia, assass,, 121f, 

122c. 
Dragonnades, the, 97e, 
Dragoumis, Stephen, premier. llOd, 
Drake, Sir Francis, circumnavigates 

U globe, ISa: explores Pacif. coast, 157c, 

167c: raids Sp. commerce, 157d: visits 
Calif, coast, 204f; explores Alaska. 
209a; exped. against Sp. Am. colo- 
nies, ISb; attacks Sp. Armada. 18c. 
Drama (town), Greece gains, 109f. 
— , Elizabethan. 17e. 
— . Fr., classic. 19b. 
— . Italian, 20£. 
— , Span.. ISf. 

"Drangnach Osten." 41f. 
Draper. Eng. officer in Phil. I., 210f. 

VDred Scott Case (see in Diet.), 161a, 
174a&b; decision ignored by Congress, 
161e: decision reversed, 162b, 

Dreibund= Triple Alliance (Aus- 
tria. Ger- & It). 

Dreikaiserbund (League of the Three 
Emperors), formed. 25e, 140f; iaoper- 
ation. 103e: rupture of. 25l; revived. 
25f,45a. 107b. 137e. 141b: expires. 26a. 

Dresden, city, cap. of Saxony, Fred, 
takes.imperialarmy recaptures, 106a: 
occupied ( 1866) , 106f: in stateof aiege 

W(1919), 109c. 
— . battle of, 22f, 44c. 

— , Treaty of, 21a. 106a. 

^. Ger. warship, 32f: attacked, 83d; 
sunk. 33f. 

Dreuz, battle of, 17e. 

Dreyfus, Capl. Alfred, 94d&e. 101a: 
transported, 97b; scandal revived; re- 
tried; pardoned. 101a, b&c. 

Drocourt-Qufiant line, broken, 30c. 

Drogheda. Cromwell takes. 51f, 

Drugs, act to prevent false labeling, 

XlS4b. 
Drumclog. battle of. 52e. 
Drury's Blufl, battle of. 175e. 
Druaea (see Druse, in Diet,). massa- 
cre Maronites (1S41), 153a: (1860), 
131d. 151a. 153a: campaign for subju- 
gation, 153d: 800 massacred. 154a. 
Drusus, M . Livius. reforms; as5as..9e. 
Du. See d". 

DualMonarcliy = Aua(ria-.ffuTioary. 
Sc^ Austria. Formed. 42e, 122e: his- 
tory. 42f: treatment of Slavs in. 90c. 
YDuane, Wm. John. sec. of treas., re- 
signs. 172b- 
Dublin, Royal University dissolved: 
Nat" 1 Univ, fnd.. 58b; transport work- 
ers strike. 58e; tighting over rifles. 
(1914). 58f: rebellion (1916), 59e: 
Tcbtrlliiin prisoners released. 60b;AlaQ 



;l-11 i 



61f. 



Dubno. captured. 28f. 

Dubuque. Iow3, settled, 220. 

— , Julien. 204c. 

Duclerc. Charles Theodore, premier; 

resigns, lOOe. 
Dudley, Earl of, gov.-gen. of Australia, 

76d. 
Duflerin, Earl of (late Marquia of 



Dufferin & Ava), gov.-gen. of Can,, 
72a; viceroy of India, 64d. 

Dufour. near Lucerne. 150c. 
"Duke's Laws," 199a. 

Dukbonin, Gen., killed. 143a. 

Du Lhut, Daniel G.. Fr. explorer, "la. 

Duluth, Minn., 205b: statistics. 220. 

Duma, 1st Russian, manifesto. 141d; 
czar announces he will summon: 1st 
meets. 137f: powerarestricted; makes 
demands, 141e: dissolved: 2nd meets, 
137f; 1411; dissolved; 3rd meets; re- 
ceivedlby czar. 138a, 14If: estab. in- 
dividual ownership of land. 138a: 
membersarrested; attacks govt.; dis- 
solved, I42a; 4th meets; right to 
choose members of ministry; refuses to 
dissolve; demands reforms, 138a, 
142b, c&d; appoints provis. cabinet. 
138b; diSHolved.l42f; abolished, 138b; 
powers of. ISSdSie; composition of, 
138e&f: municipal Dumaa, 13SeSrf, 

— , Siberian, 139d. 

Dumba, Dr. Konstantin,recalled,29d, 
lS7c. 

Dumouriez. Charles Francois. Fr, 
general, defeats Aust. at Jemappes; 
Austrians defeat; deserts, 98e. 

Dunbar, battle of. 52a. 

Duncan, Macbeth slays. 12f, 

^. Adm.. defeats French S: Du.. 54c. 

Dundee, Viscount (Claverhouse), 53a. 

Dundonald, Lord, dismissed by Can. 
govt.. 72d. 

Dunes, battle of the. 52b. 

Dungi, Babylonian king. 6d. 

Dunkirk, surr. to Eng.St Fr..52b.97d: 
sold to Fr., 52c; harbor closed (1713), 
97f: Germans checked before (1914), 
27d: Ger- airplane raid, 32f; Ger. de- 
stroyers raid. 37d, 

Duns Scotus, 14d. 

Du Pont powder plant, explosions. 187f. 

^, Adm. Sam'l F., takea Port Royal, 
S. C-, 174e. 

Diippel, Prus. at, 91d. 

Dupuy, Charles Alexandre, ministry; 
resigns. 101a. 

Duquesne.Fort. ScfiFort DuQuesne. 

— . Marquis, defeats Dutch & Sp.,97e. 

Durani dynasty, in Afghanistan, 39e. 

Durazzo, Serbians occupy. 12If, 154c: 
It. evacuates, 123a: It. sets up govt. 
in, 115a: Aust. naval base destroyed, 
37d: It, captures, 37b. 

Durban, first settled, 66f. 

Durbar, at Delhi. 64e&:f. 

Durham, Earl of (J. G. Lambton), 
gov.-gen. of Brit. No. American pro- 
vinces: report, 71e. 

Durham Cathedral, nonconformist 
clergyman preaches in (1920), 61e. 

Durham University, religious test 
abolished. 56c. 

Dushan, Stephen. See Stephen VII- 
(Dushan). 

DUsseldorf , 1st air raid, 32e. 

Dutch (see also Netherlands), 1st 
vny. to E. Indies via C, of Good H., 
18c: disc. Australia. ISd; trade with 
Japan. 118b, 119c; embassy in China, 
85b: seize Bahia & Pernambuco, 49aS: 
e: visit Siam. 144d: in Amer,. I8e. 
157f. 167d, 19Sf: bring Negro slaves 
to Va.. 167d, conquer New Sweden, 
conquered by Eng., 195bS:d: in So. 
Africa, 67d&e. See also Boers. 

— East India Co., 18d. 66f, I29f, 198f. 
^ Guiana, outline; area & pop,, 129e; 

capt.,54c; restored; reoccupied, 54d. 
■^ Republic. See Netherlands. 

— West India Co., 18f, 49e, 167d. 198f. 
199c. 

Duties. See Tariff. 

Duval, editor; trial for treason;' sen- 
tenced, 102d. 

Duyfken, ship in Aust. disc, 74f, 75d. 

Dvina. ter. on taken by Rus.. 140b. 

Dvinsk, Ger. attack, 33d. 

Dynamite outrages in U. S., convic- 
tions for, lS4c. 



Bads, James B., Amer. engineer, 127d. 

Eagle Islands. 65f. 

Early, Gen. Jubal, I61f; before Wash- 
ington; Sheridan defeats. 175f. 

Earthquakes (great), Jamaica, 74c: 
Caracas. 155d, 156a: Ecuador. 92f: 
Atlantic coast (U. S.), 178d; Japan, 
119f; San Francisco, 18If, 204f: Cala- 
bria & Sicily, 117a: S. & central It., 
I17c: Turkey & Gallipoli, I54b; Tus- 
cany (1919), 117f. 

East Africa, British. SceBritiakEast 
Africa. 

— Africa, German, See GerTnan East 
Africa. 

— Africa Protectorate. Brit., 65e. 
East & West Texas Ry. Co, v. U. S., 

Supr. Court decision, 185d. 
Eastern Empire, See ByzantiuTn, 

Constajilinople. Rome. 
^ Bengal and Assam, province, 64f. 

— front. World War (1914). 32b;(i915). 
33b;(l91G),34d;C17),35e;C18),37b, 

— Karelia, Republic of. 139c, 
^ Roumelia, See ffoumc/ia. 

East India Company, Du., lSd,66f. 
129f. 

— India Company, Eng., 18d. 62f, 
63d; estab. factories in India, 63d; re- 
ceives Bombay, 19e: seat of govt, ea- 
tab. at Bombay; supreme in Bengal; 
reformed by Clive, 63e; treaty with 
Bhutan. 4Sc; cessions to. 54b: treaty 
with Nepal. 129b; treats with Sultan 
of Oman, 112c: new charter, 64b: mo- 
nopoly ceases. 85c: occupies ."^den, 
62b: new charter for: rights trans- 
ferred to crown. 64c: abolished. 56a. 

»- India Company, French, 97d. 

— Indians. See Hindus. 

— Indies, Dutch. 129f. 129e. 
Eastman' Kodak Co.. ordered dis- 
solved, 187b. 

East Mark iOestreich), estab.. 42c. 

— Prussia. 140a: Rus. invades (1914), 
27e, 31b; Rus. driven from, 27e; Rus. 
attempts new invasion, 28b, 13Sa; 
Hindenburg in, 33b&c. 

— River. N. Y,, 1st crossing of, 25f; 
tunnel under. lS2c. 

^t. Louis. III., race riots, lS9f. 



Ebert, Friedrich, chancellor; states 
plans, 108e; appeals to Wilson for 
food; refuses to yield to Spartacides: 
Spartacidea in cabinet, 108f; rauical 
attacks on; moderates added to cabi- 
net; announces program, I09a;elected 
pres., 109b, I04b; inaugurated, 109c: 
proclaims general strike, 109d. 

Eboracum. Severus court at. 10c. 

Ecclesiastical Titles .\ct. 55f. 

Ecbenique, Jose Rufino; driven fr. 
power. 133d. 

Eckmiihl. See EsQmuhl. 

Eclipse, Archilochus mentions, 7d. 

^, battle of the, 7d. 

Ecnomus, Roman victory. 8f. 

Ecuador, hist, outline. 92d&:e; organi- 
zation; govt.: relig. & educa.: indus. 
& labor; area & pop., 92e; recent sta- 
tistics. 222; map, 64. Chronology, 
92e. Other refs.: in New Granada, 
88c:in Repub, of Colombia, 88c, 156a: 
secedes, 88c: treaty with Peru, 133e; 
severs dipl. relations with Ger.. 35d, 
38f: boundary with Colombia, 88d. 

Ecumenical council. S^e Council. 

Eddy. Mary Baker Glover. 25e, 183c. 

Ed6n, Nils, forms cabinet. 149c. 

Edessa. principality of. 13b: Fatimites 
captur--. 13c. 

Edge Hill, battle of, 19b. 

Edinburgh, Cromwell takes. S2a; 
Charl.^3 II. proc. king in (1649), 61f. 

— . Treaty of, 17e. 

Edington. battle of, 12d. 

Edison, Thomas A., electric light,|25e: 
phonograph, 25e. 177e; incandescent 
light. 177f: kinetoscope, 179d. 

Edmund Ironside, 12e. 

Edom. revolts, 7b. 

Education, in any country, see art. on 
Education, under Organization, fol- 
lowing historical outline of that coun- 
try, or see in the h st. outline. — Other 
refs.: Belg.. 47d&e; Eng., 56c; Ger., 
104a, 106c: India. 64e. 

— Act (Eng.. 1891), 57b; National 
(Eng.. 1899): Eng. & Wales (1902). 
57e: Eng. (1906). 5Sa;Eng.-('lS).60f. 

Edward I., of Eng., crusade; king; 
subdues Wales. 14c: & John Baliol 
(1290 & 1296); war with Fr.; "Model 
Parliament; "Anglo-Scotchwariconq. 
Scot.. 14d. ^ 

— II., king; deposed; assas.. 14e. 

— III., king; Scot, independ.. 14e; in- 
vades Scot,; defeats Archibald Doug- 
las; Fr. war; kg. of Fr.; & John of 
Montfort; in Brittany: at Cr&::y, 14f. 

— IV., king; invades Eng.; Fr. war; 
putstodeathDu.of Clarence;dies,15e. 

— VI., king, 17c; dies, 17d. 

— VII., as Prince of Wales, visits Can- 
ada, and U. S.. 56a. 71f; visits India, 
64d, 56d; becomes king: Royal Titles 
Act.57d: award onPatagonian bound., 
41b; emperor of India. 64e: visits Fr,, 
lOlb; & queen visit Ireland. 57e; & 
Entente Cordiale, 94f; visits czar. 
142a; dies, 5Sc. 

— •, the Black Prince, & John the Good, 

15a. 
^, the Confessor: king: succeeded, 12f. 
— , the Elder, 12d. 

— Albert. See Wales, Prince of. 
Egbert, king of Wessex, 12c. 
Eger, Wallenstein murdered at, 19a. 
Eggleston, Edward. 201d. 
EggmUhl. battle of. 99d. 
Egtnont, Count of. e.xecuted, 17f, 
Egremont, in ministry, 53e. 
Egypt, hist, outline, 68a; production & 

indu^tr>'; educ. & religion; defense; 
area & pop.: Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 
6Sc: anr. boat, illust., 96. 144; map. 
64. Chronology, 6Sd. — Other refs. 
(4S0OB. C. to 1517 A. D.): early 
civilization; calendar. 5b;predynastic 
kingdoms; Upper & Lower; 1st 8c 2nd 
dynasty; 3rd (Memphite) dyn.; 4th 
(Memphite) dyn.; Era of Sneferu; 
pyramids! 5th dynasty: 6th (Mem- 
phite) dyn., 6d: 1st invasion of Pales- 
tine, 6d; contact with Crete; 7thS:8tb 
(Memphite) dyns.; 9th & 10th(Hera- 
cleopolite)dyns.; llth(Theban)dyn.; 
civil wars & invasions; rise of Thebea; 
Middle Kingdom; 12th dyn.; Lake 
McEris: monuments; Karnak; 13th 
(Theban) dyn.; 14th (Xoite) dyn.- 
15th (Hyksos) dyn.; 16th (Hyksos) 
dyn.; i7th (Theban) dyn.; Hyksos, or 
Shepherd kings; Children of Israel. 6e; 
ISth (Diospolite) dyn.; "New Em- 
pire" begins: Ahmes I.: Amenophis I. 
-IV.: Queen Hatasu; Hyksos expelled; 
Thotmea III.; greatest extent of em- 
pire; solar monotheism; Tel-el-Amar- 
na letters: 19th (Diospolite) dyn.: 
Setil.&II.; Ramses II.; Meneptah; 
20th (Diospolite) dyn.; Ramses III.; 
end of New Empire; beginning of de- 
cline; Exodus of Children of Israel, 6f; 
2Ist (Tanitic) dyn.; 22nd (Bubastite) 
dyn,; era of Shishak & Osorkon, 7a; 
era of Greek colonization; 23rd (Ta- 
nitic) dyn. ; disintegration; conquered, 
7b; Shabaka; Sargon defeats; 24th 
(Saite) dyn.; Bekenrenf (Bocchons); 
25th (Ethiopian) dyn.: Shabaka;Sha- 
bataka; Tarkaka; coalitions with Is- 
rael; Assvrian invasions; Tarkaka de- 
feated. 7c: Esarhaddon annexes. 7c; 
era of Psammetichus, Necho. Hophra; 
renaissance; 26 (Saite) dyn.; .'Assyrian 
domin. ends; Josiah defeated by Ne- 
cho; Apries. 7d: Amasis reigns; Cam- 
bysesconq.; 27th (Persian) dyn.. 7e; 
revolts fr. Persia. 7f: Alexander occu- 
pies: Ptolemy I., 8d; Ptolemy 11.; 
Ale.<candria museum. 8e; treaty with 
Rome, Sf; destruction of fleet; Ptol- 
emy III.; Ptolemy IV., 9a: Ptolemy 
v.; defeated at Panium, 9b: treaty 
with Anliochusof Syria; PtolemyVlI. 
iPhilometor). 9c; Ptolemy IX., 9d; 
Ptolemy IX. dies; Ptolemy X.; Ptol. 
XI.; Ptol. XIII., 9e; Cleopatra & 
Ptol. XIV.: Ptol. XV. & Cleopatra. 9f: 
Octavianus occupies, 10a; Zenobia 
conq.; .\urelian, lOd; Serapis (god); 
Chosroes II. conq.. 12a; Omar I., ca- 
liph, conq.; Arabian dominion 
estab. (641 A. D.), I2a: Fatimites 
in, 12e; crusaders defeated (1221), I4a: 
Mamelukes conquer (1250). Prom 
1617 ;uDderTurk.rule, 1 5lc; Bonaparte 



in, 54d. 99a.l52f,22a; Fr. withdraw, 
99b; aids Turks: at Navarino. IlOb; 
revolts, 15Id, 152f: Turk, renews war, 
152f; Gt. Brit, occupies. 25d; com- 
missioners appointed. 153d; Asauan 
Dam begun, 26b; Eog. in, S7f; be- 
comes Brit, col., 27f; Brit, protecto- 
rate, 31a, 3 If, 59a; Turk, campaign in, 
32d; Senussi invade west Egypt, 33f: 
Turk, renounces claim, 154f ; trans, to 
Gt. Brit, (suzerainty), 152d. 

Eichhorn. Berlin chief of police, de- 
posed; defies authorities, 109a. 

Eidsvold, National Assembly at. 131a. 

Eiffel Tower, lOOf, 184e; wireless tele- 
phone, 187c. 

Eight-hour day, for Federal laborers 
(1868), 176e; State regulation (Supr, 
Court decis.), ISOb; Roosevelt applies 
to govt, work, 182a; act for. in govt, 
contract work. 184a: granted miners 
in anthracite coal field (1916), 188b; 
railroad strike to force, 188e; law en- 
acted in Fr..l02e: law inUruguay, 1 55c. 

Eight Hours Demonstration Day, 
Mi-lbourne, 75f. 

"Eight Old Places." 14f. 149d. 

Eisner, Kurt, astass., I09b. 

Ekaterinburg, ex-czar Nicholas & 
family executed. 143c. 

Elamites, Nebuchadnezzar I. defeats. 
7a. 

El Araish, Sp. occupy, 129a. 

Elatea, Philip of Macedon seizes. 8d. 

Elba. Napoleon exiled to. 22f , 94b: Na- 
poleon at. 99f; Napoleonescapes. 99f. 

Elbasan, 37b. 

El Caney, battle of. 180d. 

El Chaco, controversy to be arbitrated; 
Pres. Hayes decides. 132a. 

"El Dorado." 204f, 

Electoral Commission (Hayes). 162c. 
216d. 

— Count Act. 177e. 178d, 

— reform, Socialists in Brunswick 
demand. 107e. 

^Reform Act (France) , 102e: (Hung) .. 
113f; (Neth), 130d. 

— Reform Bill (Belg.. 1848). 47c: 
(Belg., 1919). 47a, 48a; (Ger.). 108b 
S:d; (Neth), 130c. 

Election, Federal, Law of 1871, 177a; 
repealed, 179e. 

^, primary, law, Minn, adopts, 205b. 

—.Act (Canada), 72a, 

Elections, presidential, U, S., 1st 
(1789). 169d; (1792), 169e: (1796), 
170a: (1800), 170a: (1804), 170b: 
(1808). 170c: (1812). 170e: (1816). 
171a: (1820), 17Ic: (1824). 171d; 
(1828), 171f; (1832), 172b; (1836); 
172c: (1840), 172c; (1844), I72f, 
(1848), 173b: (1852), I73d; (1856), 
173f: (I860). 174b; (1864), 175f; 
(1868), 176e; (1872), 177b; (1876), 
177d; (1880), 178a; (1884), I78c; 
(1888). 178f; (1892), 179c: (1896), 
180a; (1900), 180f; (1904), ISIe; 
(1908), 182e:('12), 184b;('16). 188f. 

—.State (1905). ISlf; (1910), 183b&c. 

Elector, the Great. See Frederick Wil- 
liam, of Brandenburg. 

^ of Bavaria. ack. pragmaticsanc, 21a. 

^ of Brandenburg. See Frederick Will- 
iam, of Brandenburg. 

Electors ofHoly Roman Empire, 103a. 

Electrical industry. 25e. 

Electric arc light. 177f, 

— cars. See electric trolleu cars; street 
cars: trolley cars. 

Electricity, disc, 21b. 

Electric light, applied, 25e: arc light: 

incandescent light, I77f. 
^ trolley cars. I78c. 

— welding, 25e. 

Electro magnetism, disc. 24b. 

Elementary Education Act. 56c. 

Elena, Princess, of Montenegro, 123b. 

Elephant Butte Dam.completed, 188b. 

Elgin, Earl of. gov.-gen. of Canada, 
71e: insulted in Montreal, 71f. 

— . 8th Earl of (James Bruce), destroys 
Chinese Summer Palace, 85e; viceroy 
of India, 64d. 

^, 9th Earl of (Victor A. Bruce), vice- 
roy of India, 64e. 

El Hiba, overthrown. lOle. 

Eli, judge of Israel. 7a. 

Elijah, prophet of Israel, 7a. 

Eliot, John, 158a. 

Elis, .Achican League, 9c. 

Elisha, era of. 7b. 

Elizabeth, Amelie Eugenia, of Aus- 
tria, assas., 45b. 

^, Queen of Eng., ascends throne; 
Treaty of Edinburgh, 17e; & Mary 
Stuart. 17f: dies. 18d. 

— of Valois, marries Philip II.. 17e. 
^ Petrovna, empress of Rus., 21a, 140a; 

surr. Finland. 2la; alliance with Ma- 
ria Theresa. 140a: dies, 21b, 44a. 
140a. 
^ of York, marries Henry VII., 15f. 

— Tudor = Elizabeth. Queen of Eng. 
^ (Carmen Sylva), Queen of Roum., 

dies, I36f. 

— Isl;. ids, Mass.. 196e. 

^, N. J., settled; statistics, 220. 
Elizabethan Age. I7e, 18a, 157d. 

— lit. -Future, ISc. 

Elizabethville, Belgian Congo, 67d. 
Elizavetpol, Rus, province, 46d, 132f. 
Elkins Art. ISlc 

Ellauri. Jos^. pres.. 155c. 

Ellenborough, Lord (Edward Law), 
gov.-gen. of India, 64b. 

Ellet, Charles, defeats Confederate 
fleet, 175a. 

Ellice Islands, 57b. 

Ellis, missionary in Hawaii, 209e. 

El Obeid. railway to, 68f. 

El Paso, Texas, statistics. 220; railroad 
to Mex. City opened, 127c; conference 
at, I2Sa; Amer. troops cross border 
at. I92f. 

Elphinstone, Adm. John, defeats 
Turks. 140b. 

Eltekeh, Tarkaka defeated at, 7c 

Emancipation, northern States adopt 
gradual(1777), I69a; gradual, inN.J. 
(1804), 170b; gradual, suggested to 
loyal slave States (1862), 174f; in W, 
Va., 206a. See Emancipation Procla- 
mation; slavery. 

^ Proclamation, preliminary, I75b; fi- 
nal, 25c, 16le. 2l5f. 

Em,anuel (the Great or Happy), I34f. 



Embargo. Embargo Act. U.S. (1807), 
22d. 159d, I70c. 213a; Act repealed, 
22d. 170d: on arms to Mex.. 185c&d, 
i37d; on traie with Hoi. & Scand. 
countries, 190c. 

Emden, German commerce destroyer, 
75b; raids Allies; shells Madras:sinks 
Rus. cruiser, 32e: destroyed. 32e, 79e. 

Emergency Fleet Corporation(U.S.), 
191b, 192b. 

"Emergency Parliament" (Chi- 
na), 87d. 

— Revenue Act. 188e. 

— Ship Act (1914). 185e. 
Emigrants, the (^migrgs), 98d. 

— , alien, from (T.s. (1910). 182f:(1911), 

183c; (1912), lS3e: (1913). 184c; 

(1914), 185b; (1915), 186b; (1916), 

187f: (1917), I89b: (1918), 190e. 

Emigration. See Immigration. 

Emigres (see imigr&.in Diet.), in- 
demnity. 100a. 

Emma, Queen of Holland. 130b. 

Emmet, Robert, 54c. 

Empire, First, in Fr. (1804-15), 22e. 

— , Holy Roman. See Holy Roman Em- 
pire. 

— . Second, in Fr. (1852-1870). 23c: 
falls. I07a. 

— State. I98f, 199c. 

— State of the South. 195f. 
Employers' Liability Act (Eng.).56c: 

(U. S.). I81f. 

— Liability Cases, amended act upheld 
by Supr. Court. lS3f. 

Empress ( S. S.), arrives in China. 2le. 

"Empress of Ireland," steamer. 
sinks in St. Lawrence, 72f. 

Ems dispatch. 25d, 94c. 100c. 

Enabling Act. Oklahoma. ISlf; joiu*- 
State for Ariz. & New Mex.. 182a. 

Encumbered Estates Act, 55f. 

Encyclopedia Britannica, lst.ed..2Ic. 

Encyclopedists, the (see in Diet.). 
21b, 04d. IKm- 

Endurance, Sh.ickleton's ship, 59f. 

Enforcement Act (1870). 176f.l77d. 

Enghein, Duke d" (1643). at Rocroi, 
19c. 

— . Duke d' (1804), 22c, 99c. 

England (Great Britain), hist, out- 
line, 50a; organization; govt.. 51b:in- 
dustry & labor, 51c; religion, 51d; ed- 
uc: defense. Sle; area & pop.. 51f. 
221; dominions, colonies, &c, 61f; re- 
cent statistics, 222- Map. 18, 38; ship 
(1514). illust. Chronology, 5If.— 
Other refs.: Before 449 A.D. See 
Bri(am.Prom449:Hengist&Horsa; 
Saxons & Jutes; heptarchy, 10f;North- 
men 1st invade, 12c; Alfred the Great 
(871-901); law St learning develop; 
Edw. the Elder. 12d; Athelstan;Dane3 
(1013), 12e: Canute, 12f; Hardeca- 
nute dies; Danish ascendancy ceases; 
Edw. the Confessor, 12f: Harold II., 
i2f; Norman Conquest (1066); Wm. I.; 
Wm. I, completes survey; Domesday 
Book: Wm. 11. (Rufus), 13a; Nor- 
mandy regained. 13b; Stephen & Ma- 
tilda. I3c; Stephen dies. 13c; Richard 
I. (Cceur de Lion); John Lackland, 
13e: Pope Innocent III . interdicts. 13f: 
Fr. threatens: Kg. John yields to pope; 
fief of papacy, 13f; Magna Charta 
(1215); Henry HI., I4a; baron rebel 
parliament (1st), 14b: Edward I.; 
Wales subdued, 14c: war with Fr. 
(1290): "Model Parliament;" Anglo- 
Scot, war (1296); Scot, conquered. 
14d; Edward 11. & III.; Edw. III. in- 
vades Scot., I4e; Hundred Years'War; 
Renaissance epoch; David Bruce in. 
llf; Wat Tyler: John Ball, 15a; Duke 
of Gloucester; Henry IV. (Lancas- 
trian line estab.) ; burning of heretics, 
15b: Henry V., 15c: loses Normandy 
& Guienne; defeat at Castillon: Hun- 
dred Years" War ends; Wars of the 
Roses break out. 15d; Yorkist ascend- 
ancy; Edward IV. proclaimed king; 
Edw. invades Eng.; Henry VI. mur- 
dered; EdA-ard IV's war with Fr.; 
Ridiard III. succeeds & is slain. I5e; 
Henry Vll, (Tudor dyn. begins). 151; 
in Holy League; Henry VIII., 16e: 
getsTh6rouanne& Tournai ; James IV. 
invades; Francis I. entertains Henry 
VIII., I6f; renounces papal sovereign- 
ty: "Act of Supremacy," 17b: "Six 
Articles" passed. 17c: peace with Fr. 
&Scot.; Mary the Catholic. I7d: loses 
Calais; Elizabeth (last of Tudora); 
Prot- relig. estab.; Peace of Cateau- 
Cambresis, 17e; Elizabethan era. 16b, 
18a: invades Scot.. 18a: Newfound- 
land ("1st Eng. Colony"), 18b: colo- 
nization in Amer., 16b, 157d, e Stf- 
destroys Sp. Armada; aids Neth.. ISc; 
peace with Sp.; Tudor dyn, ends, 18d; 
Charles I.; Petition of Rights, 19a; 
Scots invade (1640); Charles I. & 
Pari, at war; Solemn League & Cove- 
nant. 19b: Scots invade (1644); Crom- 
well defeats Royalists, 19c. 
After 1648: Commonwealth: war 
with Hoi. (1652). 19d; war with Hoi. 
(1665); gets Bombay: cedes Surinam 
to Du.. 19e; in Triple Alliance(1668). 
19f; 3rd war with Hoi. (1672). 19f, 
97d; "Popish Plot," 19f: Revolution 
(1688); navy develops, 20a; Wm. & 
Mary; war with Fr. (1689); nafl 
debt; Peace of Ryswick; Wm. III. 
recognized by Fr.. 20b: treaty of par- 
titionwith Fr., 20c: relations with col- 
onies in America & Indians; wars with 
Fr. in Amer.; gain of ter. in Amer., 
158b; in Grand Alliance, 146e: defeats 
Fr. at Blenheim, 43e; cap. Gibraltar, 
146e: Great BriUin formed, 20d, 168b: 
gets ter. in Amer. from Fr,, 20d; 
George I.; union with Hanover; Jaco- 
bites; Barrier Treaty (1715): Quadru- 
ple -\lliance (1718), 20e. 146f: in alli- 
ance against Sp. & Aust., 146f; Gi- 
braltar ceded to, 146f; Metbodism in. 
20f; decl. war on Sp.. 146f: war with 
Fr. in Amer. (1744); in alliance 
against Prus., 21a; defeated at Lauf- 
feld. -iSf: war with Fr. in India; Fr. & 
Indian War (1754), 2lb, 44a; gains 
India. 21b; alliance with Prus., 106a; 
Revolution in Amer.. 158c.d,e&f; ca- 
nal building; Peace of Paris; gets Can, 
& Louisiana, 2lc; war with Sp., 147a; 
Armed Neutrality against, 21d; Ist 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



233 



etnbaBsy to China: Jay's Treaty. 21f; 
alliance with Ru9. aRainat Fr.. 140c: 
Peace of Amiens (1802): industry & 
labor; factory system. 22b: renews 
war with Fr.: Napoleon threatens in- 
vasion: Trafalgar. 22c; & Argentina. 
40dSif; Berlin Decree; slave trade for- 
bidden {io07): F.mbargo Act. 22d; de- 
feats Napoleon in t^or*-:5th coalition, 
22e: War of 1812 with U.S.. 159d&e; 
Peace of Kiel, 22f; gets Helgoland. 
91c; expansion (19th cent.) . 23d;cDm- 
mercial treaty with US.. 171a; treaty 
with Argentina (1825). 41a; treaty 
withFr.Sc Rus.. UOb; abol. if slavery 
in colonies. 24b; Afghan Wars. 39e: 
Opium War in China, 84a: claims pro- 
tectorate over Mosquito Coast: occu- 
pie<! Greytown, 80e; Clayton- Bui wer 
Treaty with U. S., 80f; treaties with 
V. S. over Panama Canal, 164d: alli- 
ance with Fr., 25a; Crimean War. 
140eSd; war against China (1354). 
84a;lreatie3withGuatemala&Hond.. 
81a; to enforce claims in Mex.. 127a; 
invades Mex..l25c;recog. belligerency 
in Civil War; Mason & Slidell contro- 
versy. 161c; treaty with Greece. 110c; 
gets Cyprus. ISle; in Samoa, 210b&c; 
& Russia in Asia. 137e; occupies 
Egypt. 25d; cedes Helgoland to 
Ger.; gets concessions in Afr., 26a; 
Venezuela boundary dispute. 164c; 
treaty with Venez.; gen. arbitration 
treaty with U. S.. 180a; ascendancy in 
Persian Gulf. 125a: & Morocco. 128e; 
Dogger Bank incident. 141c; treaty 
with Nicar. (1905). 81c: treaty with 
Russia. 141f; Canadian boundary & 
fisheries (1908). 182d; Anglo-Siamese 
Treaty, 145a; Fisheries Treaty with 
U S . 182e; Internal'l Waterways 
Treaty with U. S.. lS2f; in Mesopota- 
mia (1911). 125a; protests Panama 
tolls. lS4b; Tibet (19125:13). 86f .87a: 
fleet visits Russia. 142b; entered 
World War. 27c. 38e; declares war on 
Germany, 31e; declares war on Aus- 
tria. 3Ie, 45d; takes Busrah; annexes 
Cyprus; takes Egi'pt.27f: refuses Dec!. 
of London, 31e; at Mons. 31f; 1st air 
raid on Ger., 32e; decl. war on Turk., 
31e; Egypt protectorate, 31f; U. S. 
protests interference with neutral 
trade; reply. 186a&b8£C. 33a; Zeppelin 
raids. 33f; '■conditionalcontraband," 
32f; Dardanelles. 33d;occupie8Kunia. 
33f; decl.^varon Bulgaria. 78b;recog. 
Carranza. 128a; warns Mex., 128c; U. 
S. neutral rights. 187d; U. S. mail 
seizures, lS7f; Sweden, import3,H9c; 
doctrine of continuous voyage, 34b; 
Zeppelin raids (1916). 35a; replies to 
U. S. protests. 188b; in Ger. East 
Africa. 34f ; secret agreement with Fr.. 
151a; blacklists U. S. firms, 34b; 
Romani. 35a; effects of submarine 
warfare on. 29f; Sinai penin.. 36a: 
Kut-el-Amara; Bagdad. 125a; requi- 
sitions Du. ships. 35c; Samarra, 36a: 
Messines Ridge. 29e; treaty with U.S. 
for recip. mil. service. 191d; lands 
troops at Vladivostok; on Murman 
coast. 143b; troops adv, fr. -Archangel. 
143c; occupies Baku. U3d; World War 
statistics. 38c; recog. repub. of Fin- 
land. 93c; withdraws fr. N. Rus.. 143e; 
mandate for Nauru island. 37f, rati- 
fies peace treaty. 38b; recognizes .'Azer- 
baijan. 46d; mandate for Mesopota- 
mia. 125b. See also Allies. Anglo-. 
Census.Debts.Entente, Finance Act. 
World War. 

English. See England. 

— , W. H. v. pres. vote. 178a. 

— Act. U. S. Congress. 174a. 

^ Channel. Gt. Brit, commands. 28a. 

Enniscorthy. battle near, 54d. 

Ennius (Roman epic poet), 9c. 

Enos to Midia. Turk, bound.. 154c&d. 

Entente Cordiale. beginning of, 26c. 
51a. 57f; Anglo-Russian agreement. 
39e. 58a. 64f. 94f, 132e. 141f; 10th 
anniv.. 102a. 

Bnterprise, the.cap.theBorer.170f. 

Enver Pasha (Enver Bey) , heads 
Young Turks, 152c, 154c; offensive 
against Rus., 32d; min. of war, lo4e; 
sentenced to death. 154f. 

Epazninondas, Thebanleader, 8b; at 
Leuctra; invades Peloponnesus. 8c. 

Epervier.the.defeatedbyPeococAi.WOf. 

Ephesus. Greek defeat, 7e; 3rd ecu- 
menical council. lOf. 

Epicurus, dies. 8f. 

Epidaurus, Greek independ. pro- 
claimed. 110b. 

Epirus, Pyrrhus rules, 8e; Bulgaria 
conquers. 77f; part annexed by Gr. 
(1881). 110c; (1916). llOe; given to 
Gr.. 40b. 

Episcopacy, abol. in Scot. .19b; Crom- 
well attacks. 52a. 

Equal Rights Congress. lOld. 

Equator, Repub. of the = Ecuador, 92d. 

Era. Ctiristian. 10a; European War,25a; 
French Republican. 9Se; Holy Alli- 
ance, 24a; Mohammedan, 12a; Revo- 
lution (1830-1852). 24d. 

— of American Revolution. 21d; of Bal- 
ance of Powers, 20e; of Decline of 
Spain. 18a: of Fred, the Great. 20f; of 
French Revolution, 21e; of Good Feel- 
ing. 213d; of Grand Alliance. 20a; of 
household inventions, 24d; of Louis 
XIV.. 19d; of Napoleon. 22b; of Re- 
ligious Wars. 17d; of Renaissance & 
Reformation, 16d; of Revolution(lSth 
cent.), 16c; of Seleucids, 6c; of Thirty 
Years' War, 18d. 

Erasmus. New Testament, 16f, 
Eratosthenes, circumference of the 

earth. 8f. 
Erdman Act. 180c; section declared 

unconstitutional, 182d. 
Eretrians, 7e. 
Erfurt, conference at, 22e. 99d: Gtj. 

parliament at, 106e; Univ. of. 15a. 
Eric the Red, disc. Greenland. 9lf.l30e. 

157a. 
Ericson. Leif. disc. N.Am.. 12e. 157a. 
Ericsson, John, designer oi Monitor, 

161e. 
Erie, Pa., statistics, 220. 
— . Lake, battle of . 170f. 

— Caual, 24b, 199a, 202a; completed. 
171e. 



Sntrea, descrlp.: area & pop., 115e; 
It. col. begins, 39b; col. estab.. 115a, 
116e: organized, 116e. 

Erlvan. Rus, gives up, 36c. 13Sb. 143b. 

Ermak-Timofeevich, 18b. 

Ernat August of Cumberland, mar- 
ries; on Brunswick throne. I07f. Vi 

Errazuriz Echaurren, pres. of Chile, 
83d. 

^Za&artu, pres. of Chile. 83c. 

Er Rif. SeeRi/, Er. 

Erskine, Lord, 170d. 

Eryx, Hamilcar holds. 9a. 

Erzberger, Matthias, declares for 
"peace without annexations," lOSb; 
in Ger. cabinet, 108e. 

Erzerum, fnd., 151b; Russians cap- 
ture. 2sr. 34f. 42a. 

Erzingan, .ncupifd by Rus.. 35a. 42a. 

Eaarhaddon. n-ign of. 7c. 

Esch-Cummins Transport.Act,194e. 

Esch Match Act. 184a. 

Escobar, uprising of. 132a. 

Esher Commission. 57f. 

Eskimo dog sled, illust.. 116; hut. il- 
lust.. 128; kayak, illust.. 116. 

Eskimos, in Greenland, 91f. 

Esmeraldas, 92f. 

Espafiola = //ai(i, 92a. 

Espartero. Gen. J. B., in powerCl836- 
56), 145e. 147c. 

Espejo, explores N. Mex.. 167c. 

Espinosa, pres. Ecuador, 92f. 

Espionage Act. U. S., passed, lS9f: 
Berger & other Socialists convicted 
under. 192c: Berger unseated. 193e. 

Eaquimalt. B. C. 72d. 

Essad Pasha, proclaims himself King 
of Albania: ignored. 154d; heads up- 
rising, 40b- 

Essen, strike (1918), 108c: rev. move- 
ment around, 108e; Reds rise in,109d. 

Essex, Earl of (Arthur Capell. in Whig 
conspiracy: commits suicide, 52e. 

— . U, S. ship, captured. 170f. 

Essling, battle of. 99d. 

Estaing, d', Count, in Narragansett 
Bay. 169a: at Savannah, 169b. 

Estenoz, Gen., leads rising in Cuba; 
killed. 89e. 

Esterhazy, Count Moritz. premier; 
resigns. 45f. 

Esthonia (former Baltic province of 
Russia), hist, outline, 143f. 144a: 
area& iop.:people. 144a. Chronology, 
144a. — Ot her ref 3. Tunder Sweden. C3b, 
144b; ceded to Sweden. 139e, 148e; 
ceded to Russia. 20f, 93b, 137c. 140a. 
144b, 148f. For Esthonia, the repub- 
lic, see below. 

^ (republic), hist. outline; govt.; indus. 
& labor; relig. & educa.; area, 93a; 
pop.. 93a&b; recent statistics, 222; 
map. 38. Chronology. 93b. — Other 
refs.:Rus.surr. western half. 36c, 13Sb; 
under Ger. protection. 143b; Rus. re- 
nounces eastern half, 36c; troops 
threaten Petrograd; pushed back, 
13Sc. 143d: loses Pskov, I43e; negotia- 
tions with Soviet govt.. 143e, 124c: in- 
dependence recognized, 138d.See also 
Baltic Provinces. 

Esths. H4a&b. 

Estrada, pres. of Ecuador; dies, 92f. 

^. pres- of Nicaragua; resigns, 81d. 

— Cabrera, ^f. See Cabrera, M. E. 
Estrup. Jakob B. S.. premier; resigns, 
_. 901. 9ld- 

Etaples. treaty of, 15f. 

Ether, first use as anaesthetic, 173a. 

Ethiopia, conquered. 6e; conq. Egypt, 
7b: 1st bishop of; Moslems isolate, 39a. 

Ethiopian dynasty, 7c. 

Etna, Mount, erupts, ll7a. 

Etruria, kingdom under Duke of 
Parma, 99b; Tuscany & Venice be- 
come, 116b; Napoleon possesses. 99d; 
assigned to Eliza Bonaparte, 116b. 

Etruscans, dominate luly, 7d; city- 
states founded, 6a; & Carthaginians 
expel Greeks. 7e; defeated, 7f; lose 
Capua, 8a; Romans defeat; Fabiua 
defeats. 8e. 

Eu. Countess d", 49b. 

Eubulus, 8c. 

Eudoxia, Lopukhina. wife of Peter 
the Great. 139f. 

Eugene, Prince, of Savoy, at Zenta, 
43e, 105e. 152e; in Sp. Succession 
War; leads Grand Alliance, 97f, 146e; 
Fj. check, 97f; invades Italy; moves 
on Ger., 146e; wins at Blenheim, 20d. 
43e, 97f. 146e; at Turin, 20d. 146e; 
drives Fr. out of It.. 115f; at Oude- 
narde & Lille. 97f; at Malplaquet. 
20d, 97f. 146f: at Peterwardein. 20e. 
152e; at Belgrade. I52e. 

Eugfenie de Mantijo. countess. 100b. 

"Eulenberg scandal." 107d. 

Eumenes. General of Asia. 8e. 

— II.. reigns. 9b. 

Eupen, circle of, to vote on future 
status; Belg. sovereignty begins, 48b. 

Euphrates, the valley settled, 5b; 
Tiglath-pilcser I. advances beyond. 7a: 
Nearchus ascends. Sd; and Mesopota- 
mia, 124eS:f; valley conq. by Turks, 
151c; opened from Hindieh to Bagdad, 
154d; in World-War campaigns. 28c. 
29f, 33f, 3ba, 37c. 

Eureka Stockade, stormed, 75f. 

Euripides, dies, 8b, 

Europe, Medieval Period, 11-15; bar- 
barian ascendancy. He; Mohamme- 
dan ascendancy. 12a; age of Charle- 
magne, 12b; establishment of states. 
12c; the Empire & the Pope. 12e; 1st 
epoch of crusades. 13b; 2nd epoch of 
crusades. 13e: irruption of Asiatics. 
14c; Renaissance epoch. 14f; Early 
Modern Period (1492-1814), 16-22; 
in 19th century. 23-26; in World War. 
27-38: maps: in 1648. 18; in 1914, 64; 
showing Peace Conf. boundaries. 38. 

European War Participation Council 
formed (China). 87d. 

Eurycleides. age of. 9a. 

Eurymedon. battle of. 7f. 

Eutaw Springs, S.C. battle of. I69b. 
197e. 

Eutychian controversy. lOf. 

Evangelical Union, formed. ISd. 

Evans. Adm. R. D., commands battle- 
ship fleet, 182c. 

Evansville, Ind.. statistics, 220. 

Evarts. Wm. M.. 177e. 

Everest. Mount, 129b. 



Everett, Edward.candid. for vice pres.. 
I61a. 174b. 

Everglade State, 203e. 

Evergreen State. 207c. 

Evesham, battle of. I4c. 

Excelsior State. 198f. 

Excess-profits tax, U. S., 190b. 

Exchange, foreign, decline in. 61e. 
194d&e. 

Exchequer, Court of, & John Hamp- 
den. I9b- 

Escise Tarifl Act. Australia, 76c. 

— taxes ( I' . S,). See Internal revenue. 
Exclusion Act, U. S. (1S83). 162e. 

See Chinese Exclusion Act. 

— Bill, Eng.. 52e. 
Exhibitions. See Expositions. 
Expeditionary force, Eng. .51e; Amer., 

withdrawn from Fr., 194c. 

Explosions, Du Pont. Wilmington, 
Del,, lS7f: Halifax Harbor, 73b; of 
T. N. T. near Pittsburgh, 191c: pow- 
der factory, Plauen, Ger., 108d; of 
T. N, T. at So. Amboy, N. J.. 191f. 

Export Council (U. S.), 190a. 

Exports, French. 95d: Sw. govt- pro- 
hibition in World War. 149c: from 
U. S.. value of (1790-1905) given at 
end of every 5th year; since 1910, an- 
nually). 169e-I92c. 

Exposition, Calhoun writes & pub.. 
17le. 

Expositions, Amsterdam (1895). 130c: 
Atlanta (1895). Cotton States & In- 
tern.. 179f; Buffalo (1901), Pan- 
Amer., 26c. ISOf, 217d: Charleston 
(1901). So. Car. Interstate & W. I., 
26c, 181a: Chicago (1893), Colum- 
bian, 179d: Geneva (1896), ISOe; 
Jamestown (1907), Tercentennial, 
182c: London (1851). 24f,55f; (1862), 
25c, 56b; Omaha (1898), trans-Mis- 
sissippi. 180c; Panama (1916). Na- 
tional, 82e: Paris (1855), 100c; (1867). 
25d; (1878). 25f. lOOe: (1889), 25f, 
26a, lOOf; (1900). 25f. 26c, 101b; 
Philadelphia (1876), Centennial. 25e. 
177d; Portland, Ore. (1905), Lewis & 
Clark, ISle; Quito (1909). Ecuador 
National. 92f; Richmond. Va.(19l5), 
Negro, 187a: St. Louis (1904). Lou- 
isiana Purchase, 1 S I d ; San D iegft 
(1915), Panama-Calif.. lS6b; San 
Francisco (1915). Panama Pacific 
Intern.. 186c; Seattle (1909), Alaska- 
Yukon-Pacific, 26e,182f: Tokyo (1877), 
U9e; Vienna (1873). 25e, 44f. 

Ex-presidents, Carnegie pension. 184c. 

Express companies, investigated. 183d; 
new schedule of rates. 185a. 

Eylau. battle of. 22d. 99d. 

Eyre. Edward J., gov. of Jamaica, 74c. 

Ezcurra. Juan. pres. Paraguay; re- 
signs. 132a. 

Ezekiel. 7d. 

Ezra, at Jerusalem. 7f. 

Ezra Church, battle of. 175f. 



Fabiua, Roman gen,, wins at Senti- 
num. 8e. 

Factory Act. Eng. (1833). 55c: (1844) 
Lord Ashley's. 55e; (1878), 56d. 

— system. 22b. 23c, 24b. 

Faenza. Cesare Borgia gains. 16e. 

Fairbanks, C. W., elected vice pres. 
(1904), 181e; at Quebec. 72e: nomin. 
for vice pres., 188c; vote (1916), 188f. 

Fairfax, Lord, at Naseby, 19c. 

Fairmont, W. Va.. 1st U. S. postal 
service strike, 187d. 

Fair Oaks, battle of. 175a, 198d. 

Falaba, torpedoed, 32f, 186e. 

Falcdn, Juan C. pres. Venez.; driven 
from power. 156a. 

Falieri, Marino, doge of Venice. 14f. 

Falkenhayn, Gen. Erich von. suc- 
ceeded by Hindenburg, 34d. 108a; at- 
tacks Roumanians. 34e, 136d; cap- 
tures Vulcan Pass; at Turgu-Jiu; en- 
ters Craiova. 34f. 

Falkirk, battle of. 14d. 

Falkland Islands. 74e; settlement be- 
gins, 5Sb. battle of, 27f, 32f. 

Fallam& Batts. cross AUeghenies. 167f . 

Pallifires. premier, lOOe: pres.. lOlc. 

Fall River, Mass., statistics, 220; 
strike of textile workers. 181e; hours 
of labor. 192d. 

Falmouth, Me. (Portland), burned. 
202e. 

Fame, Hall of. See Hall of Fame. 

Family Compact, Fr. & Sp. (1733). 
I46f; (1761). 145d; in Upper Canada 
(1837). 71e. 

Famine, China (1877); continues 
(1878) . 85f ; (1889) , 86a; India(1877) . 
64d; (1897), (1900). 64e; Ireland 
(1845-6), 55e; Japan (1906). 120c; 
Russia (1892. 1898). 14Ib; Siberia 
(1901). 141c. 

Faneuil Hall, illust.. 212. 

Fano, Aust. raid, 34a. 

Fao. Brit--Ind. capture, 32d. 

Farewell Address, Washington's. 
212c. 

Farias, Valentin G., acta as pres. 
(Mex.); driven into exile. 126c: dic- 
tator of Mex.; vice pres., 126d: re- 
signs, 126e. 

Farmer's Alliance party, 164a, 179c. 

Farnese, Ales. gov. of Neth., 18b. 

^, Elizabeth, marries Philip V. of 
Sp.. Il6a, 146f; usurp3authority,145c. 

Farragut, Adm. David G., at New 
Orleans, I61d, 174f; Mobile Bay, 175f. 

Fashoda, Fr. & Eng. dispute over.68e, 
94f. 

Fath AU Shah, 132b. 

Fatimites, subjugate Egypt, 12e; cap- 
ture Edessa. 13c; dyn. ends. 13d. 

Faure. F. Felix, pres. of Fr.; dies.lOla. 

Fawkner, J. P.. fnds. Melbourne, 75e. 

Federal Capital Ter. Australia. 74f. 

^ Child Labor Law. U, S., uncon- 
stitutional. 191c. 

■^ Constitution Act, N. 2.. 77c. 

^ convention. U. S.. 21e, 169d. 

— courts. U. S., jurisdiction, 172b. 

^ Election Law, Hayes resists attempts 
to nullify, 178a. 

— Food and Drug Act. U. S.. 182a. 

— loan banks. U. S.. 188d. 

— (Territorial) Ordinance of 1784,169c. 
212f. 



^ Reserve Bank system. U. S,, estab., 

165c. 186a, 218e; cities named. 186a; 

foreign war loans. lS9a. 
^ Reserve Board, warns Federal Re- 

seire banks. 189a; Capital Issues 

Committee, 192b; supervises foreign 

trade. 193f. 
^ Trade Commission, estab., 165c, 

185f. 218c; reports on meat control, 

I93b. 
Federalist, the. 159b. 199a, 213b. 

— party. Arg., 41a; Mex., 126b; U. S., 
i59c. 169f. 171a; Venez., 156a. 

Federated Malay States. See Malau 

States. Federated. 56d. 
Federation, world. Wilson's terms, 

lS9b, 

— celebration. Fr., 98d. 
Fehrbellin. battle of. I9f, 14Sf. 
Feisal. Prince, commands Arabs, 36a. 

Il2e; & Allenby. capture Damascus, 
15la; renounces prerogative & inde- 
pend. of Syria, 151b- 

Fejfirvary, Baron Giza, premier, 45b. 

Feng Kwo-chang, Gen., pres., 84d. 
87d. 

Fenians, in Ireland, suppressed, 56b; 
invade Canada. 71f; 2nd invasion, 72a. 

Feodor I. of Russia. 137b; dies, 18c. 

— II.. czar. 18d. 

™-III., czar; succeeded by brothers. 

139f. 
Ferdinand H. of ATaeon= Ferdinand 

v., of Spain. 

— of Austria (1619) =Ferdinand II.. 
Ger. emp. 

— I. of Aust., emp. (IS35); flees from 
Vienna: abdicates, 44d. 

— . Archduke Francis, of Austria = 
Francis Ferdinand. 

— of Brunswick (1758). drives Fr. from 
Hanover. 9Sb; at Kjefeld. 98b, 106a; 
at Minden. 98b. 

^ I. of Bulgaria (prince of Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha) elected ruler, 78a&e; 
policy of conciliation toward Rus.. 
78a; proclaims Bulgaria independ. 
kingdom; a,ssumes title of king (later 
czar). 7Sa&e, 151f; joins Central Pow- 
ers, 28d; abdicates. 78c. 79a. 

^ I., Ger. emp. (Hapsburg), king of 
Bohemia. 90c; of Hungary. 90c. H3e; 
Holy Rom. emp., 17d, 42c. 

^ II., Ger, emp., cause of 30 yrs. war, 
18e, 90c; elected emp.: Catholic 
League; peace with Gabor Bethlen, 
18f; Edict of Restitution; Peace of 
Prague, 19a. 

■^ III-, Ger. emp., dies, 105e. 

^ of Hapsburg = i^erdi>ianti /., Ger. 
emp. 

^of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Prince. 
heir to Roum. throne, 136f. See Fer- 
dinand I . of Roumania. 

^ II. of Naples (1495) , regains crown. 
16d. 

— IV., of Naples 8: I. of Two Sicilies, 
147a: peace with Fr.; restored to 
throne, 99a: regains Naples, 116b; 
allied with Aust.. 114e. 

— I. of Roum. succeeds to throne. 136f. 
^ of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha = Ferdinand 

I. of Bulgaria. 

— V. of Spain (Castile), Il.of Aragon, 
marries Isabella, 15e; Treaty of Me- 
dina del Campo; war with Granada. 
15f; aids Columbus, 16d, 157b; aids 
Louis XI 1.; Joan the Mad;^League of 
Cambrai. conq. Sp. Navarre, 16e. 

^VI. of Spain, succeeds to throne, 145d, 
146f, succeeded by Charles III., 147a. 

^ VII. of Spain, king, 147b; confers 
with Napoleon, 99d; forced to re- 
nounce throne, 99d. 145d, 147b; set 
at liberty, 99f; annuls constitution; 
enters Madrid; restores constitution, 
147b; reestablished on throne. 100a; 
his reign. 145e; dies. 145e. 147c, 

— . Duke of Styria = F'erdina7id //., 
Ger, emp- 

— of Tuscany. 116a. 
F6re. La. taken. 37a. 
P6re-en-Tardenois, taken, 36e. 
Ferguson, Gov., impeached. 190b. 
Fernandina, early name of Cuba,88d. 
Fernando Po, 146d. 

Ferreira, in political contest; pres. 

Paraguay; resigns, 132a. 
Ferrer, Bartolome, explores Pacific 

coast, 125f; explores Calif, Sc Oregon, 

167b. 205a&d. 
^, Francisco, executed; controversy 

over. 147f. 
Ferry, Jules, educational bill; premier 

(1880); (1883); ministry falls. lOOe. 
Fertilizing Company V. Hyde Park, 

Supr. Court decis., i77f. 
Festubert, Brit, assault, 33b. 
Feudalism, extinction of. 15a: in 

Japan. 119e, 
Feudal system. He. 
Fez. F'r. occupy; recaptured. lOle; out- 
break at: massacre, 129a. 
Field, Eugene. 20ld. 
— , J. G.. V. pres. vote, 179d. 

— of the Cloth of Gold. 16f. 
Fifth-Monarchy Men, insurrection 

of (1661), 52c. 

Figueras, pres. of ministry. 147d. 

Figueroa, act. pres. of Chile, S3d. 

^, pres, of Salvador, 81d. 

Fiji Islands, descrip., 77d: ceded to Gt. 
Brit.. 56d. 

Fiiali. dyn.. 128f. 

Filipinos. See Philippine IslaJids. 

Fillmore, MUlard, life, 215a: por- 
trait, 212. Chronology, 215a. Other 
refs.: vote for vice pres. (1848), 173b; 
becomes pres., 173c; lays corner stone 
of Capitol extension. 173d; vote for 
pres. (1856), 173f. 

Finance Act, Eng. (1914), 59a; (July. 
1915). 59c; (Dec, 1915), 59d; (Apr., 
1916), 59e; (July, 1916), 59f: (Aug., 
1917), 60c; (July. 1918), 60f; (July. 
1919). 61d. 

Financial crisis, distress, etc., in Arg. 
Rep. (1890). 25c, 41b: Australia. 
(1890). 25c; Fr., general bankruptcy. 
98a; Ger. (1901). 107d; Gr. Brit.. 
South Sea Bubble. 53c;Greece(1883), 
UOc; It. (1890). 116e; Port. (1892). 
135f. See also Panic, commercial. 

Finisterre, Cape, Eng. defeat Fr.,98b. 

Finland, hist, outline. 93b; organiza- 
tion; govt., 93c: indii3.& labor, 93c&d: 
relig.& educa.; def ense, 93d; area, d3d. 



221; pop.. 93d: recent statistics. 222; 
map, 64, 38, Chronology. 93d.— 
Other refs.: part ceded to Rus. (1721). 
20f. 137c. I48c: S.E. part ceded to 
Rus. (1743). 21a. 140a; Rus, conq . 
140c. I49a; ceded to Rus.. 22e. 93c. 
149a: Cong of Vienna confirms pos- 
sess, to Rus . 140d; Kalevala coll. & 
pub,,24e; Russificationof, 137e.l38a, 
142b: autonomy annulled. 141b; nat. 
army abol.; repressive measures, 141c: 
eov,-gen.assas3.. Hid: revolt (1905): 
rights restored: new election law, 14 le: 
Rus. & Finnish Diet, 14lf. 142a; con- 
stitution for (1917), 142d; independ- 
ence, 31b, 138c; Rus. surr. claim to. 
36c, 138b, 143b; contests for Aland 
Isls.. 149c; Finns threaten Petrograd 
(1919), 143d; at Vurev Conf., 124c. 

Fmns.tribe3inBa!t.Prov3.,143f&144a. 

Fire Lands, of Conn., 196c. 

Fires, Baltimore. ISld; Boston. 177b: 
Chicago. 177a, 202a: Jacksonville, 
Fla.. 180f; Salem. Mass.. 185e; Saa 
Francisco, ISlf. 204f. SeealsoForeaC 
firea. 

"Fiscal Bank" Bill. I72e. 

"Fiscal Corporation" Bill. 172e. 

Fish. Hamilton, sec. of state. 176e. 

Fisher. Andrew, premier of Australia; 
2nd ministry. 76d; 3rd ministry; re- 
signs. 76e. 

— . Lord John, First Sea Lord. 59a. 

^ Act (educational), in Eng., 51e. 

Fisheries, of Mass., 197b; of New- 
foundland, frequented. 167b; Fr. Sl 
Amer. rights. 73e&f; of Oregon. 205d; 
disputes (U.S.&Can.), (1871). 177a: 
(1S77J, Halifax .\ward, 177f; (1885), 
178c; (1888), 178e; treaties with Gr. 
Brit. (1818), 171b; (1888), 178e: 
(1909), lS2e. 

Fisher's Hill. Va., battle of, 175f. 

Fitch, John, 169c. 

Fiume.separateroyal Hung, city. 122e: 
Aust. cedes; united with Croatia- 
Slavonia; again a royal free town of 
Hung.. 122f; not promised to It.. 12Ib: 
It. occupies. 115a. 121c;lt.occupatioa 
protested. 121c; controversy. 31b. 121d: 
d'Annunzio occupies, ll7f, 121d; to 
be free city. 121d; plan to make buffer 
state. 121e. 

Five Civilized Tribes, tribal govt.dis- 
solved. i79d. 208d. 

^ Forks, battle of. 176a. 

"Five good emperors." 10b. 

^ Hundred, Council of, 9Sf; dispersed 
99b. 

Five-mile Act, Eng.. o2c. 

Five Nations. 166b; & Eng.. loSb. 

Five-per-cent Scheme, 169b. 

Five Powers, conference at Rome; guar- 
antee neutrality of Belg. (1839). 24e; 
agreement with China. 87a. 

' ' Five-twenties ' ' (' ■ j-20s' ") . bonds. 
174f. 

Flag Day, celebrated. I8Sc. 

Flanders, under French. 47b; rebels: 
defeats Philip's forces. 14d: Count 
Louis; Jacob van Arteveld: Edw. III. 
invades, l4f;Philip the Bold acquires, 
15b; war for Sp. Flanders. 52d; Aust. 
cedes to Fr., 44b: Allies in (1914), 
32a&b: Brit, monitors bombard coast, 
32e; battle of (1918) , 29e. 36d: Allies 
under King Albert advance. 36f; of- 
fensive renewed. 37a. 

Fleming o. Page. Supr. Court decision, 
173c. 

Flensburg, favors union with Ger., 
91e. I09d. 

Fletcher v. Peck. Supr. Court decision, 

:70d. 

Fleurus, battle of. 44b. 
Fleury. Cardinal. 98a. 
Flint. Mich., statistics. 220. 
Flodden Field, battle of, 16f, 
Floods. Johnstown (1889). 178f: Miss. 
River (1882). 178b; (1903), I81c: 
(1912). 184a; in Ohio & Ind. (1913), 
184e; in Te.xa3 (1913). lS5a; in Texas 
&La. (1886). 178d. 

Ploquet, premier, lOOf. 

Florence, besieged (1312), 14e; Med- 
ici expelled (1494); Savonarola, 16d: 
Medici return, 16e; Medici expelled 
(1527). 17a; Cosmo de'Medici. 18a; 
in 1648. 114d: capital of It., 116d; 
Mona Lisa recovered in, 117b. 

— , Council of, 15c. 

Flores, Gen. A, .pres, of Ecuador. 92e&f- 

^, Cinlo. pres. of Uruguay; restored; 
revolt against: assass.,^ 155f . 

^. Gonzdlez. See Gom&lez Flores. 

— , Gen. J. J,, pres. Ecuador. 92d&e; 
retires. 92d. 

Florida, hist, outline, 203e; sutistica, 
220; area, 221; chronology. 203f;map. 
194.— Other refs.: disc, 157c, 167b; 
Huguenot colony, 167b; St. Augus- 
tine fnd.. 167c; contest with Ga.. 53d. 
168b; Sp. cedes to Eng., 53e. 89a. 
147a. 168d, 202d; Brit. W. Fla. pro- 
claimed. 202d; West Fla. in Miss. Ter.. 
170e. 20lf; restored toSp,. 54a. 147a. 
158f. 169c. 201c; U. S. claims Sp. W. 
Fla., 201f: ordered occupied, 170d;W. 
annexed; E. acquired. 160c; Jack- 
son invades. 214a&b; Sp. cedes (sells) 
to U. S., 145e. 147b. 171b. 203f, 204a; 
ter. organized, 203f; Seminole War, 
172a; admitted. 172t: secedes, 174c: 
Reconstruction, 176b; readmitted, 
176d: carpetbaggers; vote (1877), 
disputed. 177e, 191f: prohib. 192a. 

^, Confed. privateer, 16ic. 

^ East Coast R.R.. extended to Kew 
West, 183f. 

Fiorina (Lerin), Greece gains, 109f. 

Flu, the. See Influenza. 

Flying machine, steam, illust., 160. 
See Airplane. 

Foch, Ferdinand, 27d. 95a: succeeds 
P^tain; chief of sUff. 35e, 102d; in 
Supreme War Council. U7e; general- 
issimo. 36d; Amer. forces under. 30a; 
marshal's baton. 102d; Army of Ma- 
neuver, 36d; final stages of campaign, 
30d: orders Ger. troops out of Baltic 
states. 124c. 

Foc^ani, battle of. 44b, 140b. 152e. 

Folkething, Den., described, 91a. 

Fonseca, Deodoro da, pres. of Brazil; 
declares dictatorship; resigns, 49f. 

— , Hermea da, pres. of Brazil, 50a, 



234 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE fflSTORY. 



N 



O 



P 



Q 



R 



S 



U 



w 



X 



Fonseca. Gulf of. U. S. leases navat 

station. 81e, 209b. 

Pontainebleau, Napoleon abdicates 
at. 99f. 

— . Treaty of. 19f. 135e, 148c. 

Fontenailles, battle of, 12c. 

Fontenoy, battle of, 21a. 43f, 98a. 

Foochow. Treaty port, 84a; French at. 
lOOe; Fr. destroy arsenal, 85f; Japa- 
nese fire on students, 87f, 

Food administration (U. S.). Hoover 
admin.. 190a: reduces sugar allow- 
ance. 191d; orders breweries closed, 
191e; activities, 192b; closing of , I92e. 

— control (during World War), 
Australia, 76e. 

Eng.:Finance Act (1915). 59d: (1916). 
59f; exceptional measures for; minis- 
try for; Corn Production Act, 60c; ra- 
tioning, &0e; Finance Act (191S),60f: 
rations reduced, 61a; rationing dis- 
continued. 6lb; food cards. 61c. 
U. S.:Food Control Act(19n), 190a. 
191e; food licenses, 190b; restrictions 
(1918), 191a; Food Stimulation Act, 
192a; dealers convicted of violating 
rules, 191e. See also Food Adminis- 
tration. , , , K. in 

Foote, Andrew H.. takes Island No. 10. 
174f. 

Poraker Act, 211e. 

Forbes. Gen. John, occupies Fort Uu- 
queane, 168c. 

Force Act (1833). n2b. 

—Bill (1890) 179a. 

— Lavrs, 162d. 

Ford, Henry, peace, exped., 33b, i87e. 

^ Motor Co. profit-sharing plan. 185c. 

Forest fires (1894). 179f: m North- 
west (1910), 183b; in Minn. (191S). 
191[- „,, 

Formidable, ship, torpedoed. 33f. 

Formosa. Bnt. open trade in; rebel- 
lion (1820), 85c; Jap. exped. into, 
119e; blockaded, lOOe; Fr. invade; Fr. 
withdraw. S5f; rebellion (1889). 86a; 
Jap. & China dispute over, 118d; 
Japan gets. 8Ca. 118d, USe. 120a. 

Formula of Concord, ISb. 

Forster, W. E.. S6e. 

Fort Caroline, 203e 

— Chartres. fnd., 168a. 

— de Douaumont, falls, 34c; Fr. 
retake, 34d. 

^de Vaux, Gtr. capture, 28e, 34c; reoc- 
cupied. 34d. „ 

— Donelson. capt.. 161d. 174f.2l6b&c. 
^ Dummor, 200a. 

— Duquesne.Fr .build; Forbes occupies, 
168c: expedition against: later capt., 
158b. ,_„ 

^ Erie, Brit, repulsed; blown up. i/W. 

— Fisher, N. C., captured, l-"Ca. 

— Frontenac. built. 71a; taken. 168c. 

— Hrn^'.Tenn., capt. 161d.l74f. 216b. 

— Laramie, \Vy., settled. 220. 

— Leavenworth, ICans., settled, .iiU. 
^ McHenry, 197c: bombarded, 1-Of. 
^ Mims, Indian massacre, 170f. 

— Monroe (Va.). ICld, 174d. 

— Moultrie, atucked, lG8f, 19*e. 

— Nassau. 198f. 

— Necessity, surr.. 168c. 

— Niagara, built, 71a; Eng. take, ICSc. 
^Orange (Albany), built, ISf. 

— Pickens (Fla.), 174d. 

^ Pierre (S. D.), settled, 220. 
^Pillow, occupied, lJ6a. 

— Pulaski, captured, i74f. 
Fortress Momoe. See Fort Monroe. 
Fort St. George (Madras), 63d. 

— Smith (Ark.), occupied, bod. 

— Snelling (Minn.), 20Jc. 21^0. 
^Sumter, Star of the li- est fired on 

near. 174c; fired on, 197f; bombarded 
(1861); surr.. 161b, 174d. attack on 
(1863), 175c6td. 
^ Ticonderoga Abercrombie's dffeat; 

abandoned. 16Sc;capt.,Uc.l08f.200a. 

— Vancouver, fnd.. 71d: superseded aa 
post by Victoria, 71e. 

— Wagner (.S. C.) .seeBaUeryWaoner. 
^ Washington, taken, lC8a. 

— Wayne. Ind., statistics, 220. 

— William, Calcutta, 63e. 

— Worth, Texas, statistics. 220. 
Forth, Firth of, bridge completed, 26a. 
Fortifications. See Defense. 
Fortunatas IqsuIeb, 140c. 
"Forty-Niners," 160c. 173b. 204f, 

205a. 
Foster, negotiates treaty bet. China & 

Jap.. llSd. 120a. 
Four Hundred, at Athens. 8a. 
Four-minute men, 192c, 
Four Powers= Quadruple Alliance. 
"Four-Powers Group." 86f. 
• ' Fourteen points ' 'Wilson's, 30dS:e, 

36b, 190e. 
Fox, Charles James, In ministry (1< 82); 

resigns: coalition; supports reform 

bill; India Bill, 54a. 63f; Libel Act. 

54c; excluded fr. Pitt min.; for. sec; 

dies, 54e, 
^, Geo., Quaker movement, 19c. 
— , Henry, Sec. of State, 53d. 
^, Luke, seeks northwest passage, 70f. 

— River. Wis., 71a. 
Fractional currency, issued, 175c. 
France, hist.outiine, 93f; ISlh-century 

period. 94b; world-war period, 95a; 
organization; govt., 95b; indus. & la- 
bor, 95c; relig.; educa., 95e; defense. 
95f: area, 9of, 221; pop.. 95f; recent 
statistics, 222; colonies & dependen- 
ces, 96a; map, 18, 04, 38. Chronol- 
ogy, 97c. 

Other refs.: Before 1648 (sec also 
Medieval Period & Early Modern 
Period): Charles the Bald: begin, of 
nat'l hist.; Northmen, 12c; Charles 
the Simple & Rollo, 12d; Otto II. 
invades; Capetian dyn. beg;ns, 12e; 
Louis VII., I3c: Philip Augustus 
joinscrusaders; war with Richard, 13e; 
gets Normandy, etc., from John of 
Eng. y.; defeats Otto IV.. Louis 
VIII. dies; Louis IX. succeeds, 14a; 
leads crusade, 14b: new crusadf;; dies; 
Phihp HI. succeeds, I4c: Plul.p IV. 
& Ist Stales-General; disputes with 
papacy. I'' 1; Capetian clyn. ends; 
Valois dyn. begins, I4p; Edward 111. 
wars against; 100 Years' War (liiS- 
1453), 14f, ships used at this time, 
illusts.. 90, 144; Jeanne dePenthievre; 



Cr^cy; Calais. 14f: Poitiers; John the 
Good; peasants (Jacquerie) revolt; 
Charles V., 15a: Louis 11. of Ghent, 
lob; Agincourt; Henry V. of Eng. ac- 
quires succession: Henry VI. pro* 
claimed king; supports Charles VII.; 
Orl&ns; Joan of Arc burned; Henry 
VI. of Eng. crowned. 15c: regains 
Normandy & Guienne: 100 Years' 
War ends, 15d; Louis XI. & feudatory 
princes; Edw. IV. of Eng.; Louis XI. 
conq. Burgundy; seizes Anjou & 
Provence; Maximilian of Aust.. 15e: 
Louis of Orleans defeated; gains Brit- 
tany; Henry VII. of Eng.; peace, 15f; 
Maximilian of Ger.; Franco-It, wars 
with Sp.; Charles VIII. conq. Naples; 
withdraws, 16d; Louis XII. conq. 
Naples: power refistab, in It.; war 
with Sp. in It.; driven from Naples; 
Louis XII. in League of Cambrai; 
Holy League; at Ravenna; withdraws 
from Lombardy; Henry VIII. invades. 
I6e; battle of the Spurs; losea The- 
rouanne & Tournal; peace with Henry 
VIII.; Francis I. king; invades It,; at 
Marignano; peace with Swiss; con- 
cordat with Leo X.; entertains Henry 
VIII., 16f; wars with Charles V.; at 
La Bicocca; withdraws from It.; de- 
feated at Pavia: treaty with Charles 
V.:2nd war with Imperialists; alliance 
with Eng.: treaty of Cambrai, 17a; 
truce of Nice; Henry VIII. joins 
Charles v., 17c; peace with Eng..l7d; 
Philip II. defeats; Calais taken; Fran- 
cis II.; Peace of Cateau-Cambr&is; 
Edict of Saint-Germain; massacres of 
Protestants, 17e; Huguenot wars. 17e 
&f, 18aS:f, 19a; Pacification of Am- 
boise; Peace of Longjumeau, 17f: 
Treaty of Saint-Germain; St . Barthol- 
omew: Henry III, succeeds Charles 
IX.; Catholic League formed; Treaty 
of Eergerac, 18a; Philip 11,, ISb; war 
with Henry 111., ISb&c; Henry of 
Navarre; Valois dyn. ends: Bourbon 
dyn. begins; Edict of Nantes: treaty 
with Sp.. 13c; fnd. Quebec, 18d, 157c 
Eid; Louis XIII.. lSeS:i, 19a; Riche- 
lieu. 19a: Louis XIV. succeeds Louis 
XUI.: defeated at Tuttlingen; Treaty 
of Westphalia, 19c. 
From 1648 (seeaUo Early Modern 
Period & 19t\-Ccntury Period): 
Peace of the Pyrenees, lOd; war with 
Eng. & Neth.; Peace of Breda. 19e, 
52c; Triple Alliance, lOf, 148e; alli- 
ance with Sw., 19f, 143c: Peace of 
Nimwegen, 19f. 105e; explorers on 
Miss., 20a. 157d; invades Sp. Neth.; 
Edict of Nantes revoked; invades 
Palatinate, 20a; Grand Alliance 
against, 20b, 53a; Peace of Ryswick. 
20b; Sp. cedes W. Haiti to, 92a. Hid 
(for French in Haiti in ISth cent., see 
Haiti. 11 Ic); Louis XIV. & Sp. suc- 
ccss:on;2adpartit. on treaty, 20c: 2nd 
Grand Alliance against, 20c, 53b, 
146e8J; battles of War of Sp. Success., 
20d. 43e. 140f; wars with Eng. in 
Amer.. 21a&b, 50c. 53d. 15Sb, 163a. 
b.c&d: Peace of Utrecht, 20d, 63c, 
108b; Louis XV.. 20e: Quadruple Alli- 
ance. 202. UGf: in alliance against 
Sp. Si Aust., U6f; War of Polish Suc- 
cess., 20f. 140a: settlements in India, 
63e; alliance w.thCharli?3 Albert. 43f: 
defeated at Dettingen, 20a; Fontenoy; 
cap. Madras. 21a; \var with Eng. in 
India, 21b, 50c, 63e: Fr. & Indian 
War, 21b, 158b, 108c&d: treaty with 
Aust. (1757), 106a; Peace of Paris, 
(1763), 21c. 53e, 71b. 158b, 16Sd; 
recognizes indcpcnd. of U. S., 158f, 
lS9a; aids Amer. in Revol, War, 21d. 
53f, 15Sf. lC9a; commercial treaty 
with Eng., 54b; with Rus., 140b; war 
with Aust. & Prus.. 2U. 12d; procla- 
mation of repub.. 21f: Ist coalition 
against, 21f, 44b. 106b; Reign of Ter- 
ror; invades Aust. Neth.&Holl.,2l(: 
Peace of Basel; Directory, 22a; alli^ 
ance with Sp., 147a; XYZ episode & 
naval war with U. S.. 22a&b, 159d, 
liOa: Consulate. 22a; 1st Consul Bon- 
aparte, 22a&b! 2nd coalition, 22a, 44b; 
treaty with U.S., 170a; Cath. worship 
rretored. 22b; Peace of Lun^ville 22b. 
46e, lOOb^ Peace of Amiens (1S02), 
22b. 54d, 13flb, 147b: 5th Constitu- 
tion. 22c: ■war with Eng.. 22c. 54d; 
Napoleon 1. emp., 22c; Srd coahtion, 
22c, 44c. 54e; Peace of Pressburg, 
22c&d, 44c: 4th coalition. 22d. 140c: 
Continental system. 22d; Peace of 
Tilsit. 22d, 106c; Peninsular Cam- 
paign, 22eSJ, 54e, 147b: 5th coalition, 
22e, 44c: Holl. annexed. 22e, 130b; 
war with Rus., 22ci:f, 140c; 6th coali- 
tion, 22f, 4&, 140d; allies invade 
Fr.. 22f; Peace of Paris (1814). 22f: 
54f: sends army intoSp. (1S23), 147c; 
treaty with Eng. & Rus. (1827), 1 10b; 
conq. Algeria. 24e, 152f; Pastry War 
with Mex., 126c; & Eng. in Egypt, 
55d, 08d: abol. slave trade, 24b; Rev- 
olution (1348); Napoleon lit . 24f, 
25a-d; Crimean War. 25a, HOeStf; & 
Eng., war with China, 84a. 85dS:e; 
supports Maximilian in Mex., 25c, 
125c. 127a&:b: & Luxemburg. 2.id, 
106f; Franco-Prus. War. 25d, _107a; 
cedes Alsace-Lorraine, 25e. 107a; & 
Eng. in Egypt, 6Sb; relations with 
Eng. (1879-1914), 51a; war with Chi- 
na. 85f: in Entente Cordiale, 20a (see 
under Entente): Faslioda incident, 
C8e- & Morocco, 26c, die. 68f, 107e. 
128e; Ger. ultimatum (1914), 27b, 
31d; declares war, 31d&e, 38e (for 
battles, campaigns, treaties, etc, see 
World War): govt, transferred to 
Bordeaux, 32a; Chinese coolies in. 
87c: Moslem del. to Arabia, U2d; 
sphere in Mesopotamia, 125a; 1st 
Amer. troops in. 35c 189f ; campaigns 
against Bolshevik!, 143cS:d; Anglo- 
Franco-Amer. treaty, 38a, 61c: ratifies 
Treaty of Versailles. 38b: mandates. 
61c, 105a. UOf, 151b; Luxem. pleb. 
for, 124e; World War statistics. 38. See 
E-lso Alliea (Entente); Bonavarte; 
Coalition.Empire, lsl&2ad: Entente 
Cordiale: French Revolution; Re- 
public. 1st, 2nd, & Srd. 
Francbe-Comt6, Mary retains, ISe; 



.Louis XIV. occupies: yielded to Sp.: 
Fr. again occu.,97d;Cp. surr. ,97e.l46e. 

Franchise, electoral. See Suffrage. 

Francia, Gen., dictator. ISleStf. 

Francis, St., of Ass. si. fnd*. Francis- 
can order, 13f; hermit; miracle of the 
stigmata. 14a. 

— I,, of Austria= Francis II., Ger. 
Emp. 

^ I., of Fr,, becomes king; invades It. 
(1515); defeats Swiss; gains Lom- 
bardy; perpetual peace with Swiss: 
concordat v.'ith Leo X.; entertains 
Henry VIII., 16f; claim on empire, 
103a: wars with Charles V.: defeated 
at Pav.a;captured;treatywithCharle9 
v.; set atl.berty;2nd warwith Imperi- 
alists; alliance with Henry Vlll.; 
treaty of Cambrai, 17a: 10 years' 
truce; war with Charles V. &: Henry 
VHI., 17c. 

— II., of Fr.. marries Mary Stuart; 
Treaty of Edinburgh, 17e. 

^ I., Ger.emp..getsTuscany&Medict 
rights, 114e. 116a: becomes emp., 21a, 
43f, 10 Ji; at Piacenza, 116..; dies, 
106a, 116a. 

— II.. Ger. emp. elected. 44b, 106b: 
Peace of LunSville 106b: assumes ti- 
tle "Hcred. Emp. of Austria." 22c, 
42b&e. 44c, 103b. 106c: dissolvesHoly 
RomanEmp're; becomes emp. of Aus. 
only, 22d. 42e. 44c. 99c, 103b, lOJc; 
dies, 44d. 

^ of Lorraine = Francis I., Ger. emp. 

— Ferdinand. Archduke of Aust.. as- 
sass.. 27a. 31c, 42f. 45d, 122a; assas- 
sins found guMty £: sentenced, 45e. 

^ Joseph I., of Aust., becomes emp.. 
44d, 113b; abrogates Hung, autono- 
my; issues constitution, 44d, 113f: 
concordat with Pius IX.; federation 
proclamation; decree for reorganiza- 
tion of Aust.; Schleswig-Holstc.n d.f- 
ficulty. 44e; restores Hung, constitu- 
tion & is crowned king of Hung., 44f , 
113b£ti; meets rulers of Rus. & Ger.; 
meets czar at Kremsier; Bohemian 
home rule: closes D.et, 45a: Magyar 
demands, llSc; 50th anniv., 45b; 60ch 
anniv.; 80th birthday celebrated: 
threatens to abdicate, 45c: Ger. emp. 
visits (1914), 107f: letter to Emp. 
Wm.onSerbia,31c:reign,42e;die3,45e. 

^ Stephen, grand duke of Tuscany, 
elected emp, of Germany as Francis 1.. 
43f, 105f. 

— , Sir Philip, 53f. 

Franciscans, Order of, fnd.: con- 
firmed, 13f; reach Uuh Lake, 208b. 

Franco, Joaa. Premier, dictator of 
Port.. 135bif; resigns, I35f. 

^. Manuel, prcs, Paraguay; dies, 132a. 

Franco-Anglo-American treaty of alli- 
ance, 3Sa, I02e, 189a. 

Chinese War, 85f. 

^—German agreement on Morocco; 
treaty (1911), 26e, 

luhan wars, begin (1494), 16d: 

(1S59) 110c. 

—Prussian War, 25d5ce, 94c. lOOc&d, 
107a. 

— Russian alliance, 26b. 
•—^Spanish agreement on Morocco. 26d; 

treaty (1912), lOif, 129a. U.f. 

Franconia., Hussites ravage, lac: 
Peasants' War, 17a. 

Franconiandyn.,bcgun,I2d;ends,Iob. 

Franbjntiiurm, BaronPaul Gautsch 
von. premier, 45c. 

Frankfurt (am Main), regains au- 
tonomy, 106c; attempted revolution, 
106d: preliminary pari., lOOe; Parl.a- 
ment (Ocr. N'at, Assembly). 23c, 00c, 
106e; incorporated with Prus., lOof; 
railroad ceded to Ger., 124d:Fr. troops 
occupy (liJJOt. 109d. 

— .Peace of. 25e, lOOd, 107a. 

Franklin, d.st. of Canada. 69d&e, 70f . 

"Franklin, State of." estab., 200d. 

^, Benj.. li)5c; electrical e.*:perimcnts, 
2lb: plan for union, 158c. Iti8c; dele- 
gats from Cong, to Canada, i Ic; in 
2ndCont. Cong., 212d; commissioner 
to Europe, 212dSif; bicentennial of 
birth, 181f. 

Franks, invade Gaul, Sp., & Africa. 
lOd: under Clov.s, llco;e: in It.; 
Narses routs; Clotaire I. unites: na- 
tion divided; under Clotaire II.. 12a; 
Charles Martel; Pepin the Short:Car- 
loman & Charlemagne; Charlemagne 
soletuler, 12b; form 1st modern state, 
lO^a; "Avaric March" added; It. & 
<;cnt.Frankiih lands to Lothaire, 12c; 
depose Chanes the Fat, 12d. 

Fraiiz Jostf Land, disc, 44f. 

Fraser, Canadian explorer, 71d. 

Fraser River, 71d. 

Frasier's Farm, battle of. 175a. 

Frederick v., elector pa lat me, king of 
Bohemia. ISf. 90c. 

— of Augustenburg. proclaims himself 
duke of Schleswig-Holstein, 91c. 

^of Austria (Fred. 111. of Ger.), strives 
for Ger. throne; defeated, 14e. 

— of Bo'aemii = Frederick V., elector 
palatine. 

^III-,of Brandenburg,elector = Fre£i- 
erick I., of Prus, 

— II., of Den., imprisons U succeeds 
Christian II., 17b. 

— III., of Den,, proclaims hereditary 
monarchy, 91b. 

— VI., of Den., regent for Chris^'an 
VII.; succeeds to throne; succeeded 
by Christian VIII., 91-. 

— VII., of Den., ascends throne: pro- 
claims annex, of Schleswig-Holstein; 
dies, 9Ic. 

^ VIII., of Den., b'-omes king, 90f. 
Old; visits Faroe Isls. & Iceland, 90i; 
dies, 91d. 

^ I. (Barbarossa), Ger. emp.; exped. 
to It., 13c; restores Pope Adrian IV.; 
forces Poland to yield to h.s suze- 
rainty; besieges Milan; antipope Vic- 
tor IV.: conq. Crema; excommuni- 
cated: razes ^illan: Lombard League; 
League defeats; ditBcuIties adjusted; 
Henry the Lion; grants Bavaria to 
Wittelsbach; Peace of Constance, 13d; 
begins crusade; Iconium; drowns 13e. 

— II., German emperor, of Hohen- 
etaufen. inherits crown, 13e; conflict 
over Two Sicilies; struggle for Ger. 
crown, 13f; gaios it; opposed by 



Lombard League; leads crusaiie: geta 
Jerusalem: Gregory IX. against. Ha; 
war on Lombard League; defeats it; 
advances against Gregory; Innocent 
IV. deposes; succeeded, 14b. 

— III., of Ger, (modern). (Frederick 
William, Crown Prince & King of 
Prus.), conquers at Worth, 100c; be- 
comes emp.; dies, 103f, 107b. 

— of Hesse-Cassel. Sec Frederick of 
Sweden. 

^ of Hohenstaufen. See Frederick I. & 
Frederick II., Ger. emperors. 

^ I., of Prus. (III. of Brandenburg), 
proclaims himself king, 20c, 105f; 
dies. I05f. 

— II. (the Great), of Prus., king, 20f, 
105f; demands Silesia, 43f. 105f; in- 
vades Silesia (War of Aust. Succes- 
sion), 21a, 43f. 105f; defeats Aust. 
at Mollwitz; Chotusitz, 43f; invades 
Bohemia (2nd Silesian War), 2ia,43f: 
wins at Hohenfriedeberg, 43f; gets Si- 
lesia, 44a; Fr. & Aust. against. 21b. 
98b: army of, 105f; invades Saxony, 
106a; Seven Years" War. 21b. 44a, 
98b, 106a, 140a; threatened with ban 
of empire, 106a; subsidized by Pitt, 
53e: Peace of Hubertsburg, 21c. 44a. 
106a: gets Silesia. 44a; partition of 
Poland. i40b: forms league of Ger. 
princes. 106b; dies. 21e, 106b. See 
also Prussia. 

— of Sweden (Fred, of Hesse-Cassel), 
becomes king. 148c&f; succeeded by 
Adolphus Fred,, 143f. 

— I., of Wiirttemberg, king, 99c. 
^ the Great = Frederick II . of Prus. 
^ Augustus 1.. elector of Saxony. See 

AiLOustus II. of Poland. 
^Augustus I., of Saxony, king; receives 

Warsaw, 99d, 
^Augustus 11., elector of Saxony, 105f. 

See Auaustus III. of Poland. 
^ Charles of Hesse, Prince, elected 

king of Finland, 93c. 

— Charles, Prince of Prus., at Mars-Ia- 
Tour; Gravelotte, 100c; Bazaine surr. 
to, lOOd, 

^ William, of Brandenburg, the Great 
Elector, becomes ruler of Brand. .19b; 
supports Poles, 139e; suzerain of 
Prus., 105e, 139e: defeats Charles X., 
USe: aids Dutch, 97d, 130a; defeats 
Sw.at Fehrbeilin, 19f, 148f. 

— William, of Ger.. Crown prince, re- 
called to Germany: joins staff of army, 
107f: at Wieringen. 108f. 

— William I,, of Prus.. kmg, 20d, 105e; 
war against Sw.; takes Stralsuad. 
I48f: dies, 20f. 105f. 

— William II., of Prus., succeeds Fred- 
erick II., 21e, 106b; conference at 
PiUnitz: supports Fr, Loyalists, 106b; 
dies, 22a, 106b. 

^ William HI., of Prus., becomes king, 
22a, I06b; against Napoleon. 22i; 
dies, 106d. 

^ William IV.. of Prussia, king, 106d; 
title of Ger. emperor offered to; de- 
clines, 103c: Prince William regent 
for, 106e. 

^ William, of Prus., Crown Prince. 
See Frederick III., of Ger. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 161d, 175b, 
198d- 

Fradrikshald, siege of, 148f. 

Fredriltshamn, Treaty of, 22e, 93d, 
149a. 

"Frse breakfast table," 177b. 

Free Church of Scotland, estab- 55e; 
part of United Free Church, 57d. 

Free Democrats, 173d. 

Freedmen's Bureau Act, I76a. 

Freeport Doctrine, 174b. 

Free-soil party. lOOf, 173b&:d, 214c. 

Freestone state, 196c. 

Freetown (Sierra Leone), 68a. 

Freiberg, battle of. 106a. 

Freiburg, Baden. Fr. capture, 97e. 

Freiburg. Switz., aristocracy of. 149d. 

Frelinghuysen, Theodore, vote for 
vice pres., 172f. 

FrSmont, John C expeditions. 172e: 
explores Utah, 208a; explores Rocky 
Mts.. 206c&.d; nomin.forpres. (1856), 
161a: vote, 173f; withdraws from elec- 
tion (1864), 175f. 

French. See FraTice. 

^, Sir John D, P., commands Brit, 
forces, 3lf: resigns, 33b; Haig suc- 
ceeds. 33b, 59d; Lord Lieut, of Ire., 
60f; assassination attempted, 61e. 

^& Indian war, 158b. 168c&d; begins. 
:ib,44a.5id,98b,212a;end3.53e.l08J. 

^ battle Hags, burned at Berlin. 109c. 

— colonies and dependencies, 96 & 97. 
See France for chronology. 97c. 

— Congo. See Fr. Equatorial Africa. 
^ Equatorial Africa (French Congo). 

descrip., 94f, 96e; map, 64. 

— era, new, begins, 98e. 

^ Guiana, descrip.: Dreyfus confined 
in; area & pop., 97b; boundary set- 
tled, 49c&:f. 101a. 

^ Guinea, geog.; area & pop.. 96d. 

— India, descrip.; area & pop.. 96f . 

^ Indo-China, descrip.. 90f, 97a; con- 
test with Siam. 144f; map, 64; mail 
carrier, illust.,116. 

— Revolution (1789). I6c, 21eS:f, 22a. 
94a. 98c-f, 99a; effect on Aust., 42d, 
44b; on Ger., 106b; & Russia, 137c; & 
U. S.. 159c. 

— Revolution (1S30), 23a, 94b. 100a. 

— Revolution (1848), 23c, 94b, 100b; 
effects of in Ger., 106d. 

^ settlements in Amer.. 69b, 70f, Tla, 
97b, 157c&d, 167c; in Brazil, 49a3;c. 

"Frenoli Shore," 73e&i. 

French Somah Coast, descrip., 90e. 

^ West Africa, hist, outline; area & 
pop.; govt.; indus. & labor; relig.; 
educa.. 96c&d. 

Fresnoy-le- Grand, Canadians take; 
Germans recapture, 35d. 

Freycinet, Charles L. de S., Jesuit or- 
dinance; resigns (1880); premier 
(1882); resigns; premier (1886), lOOe; 
resigns; premier (1890) ; ministry 
overthrown, lOOf. 

Friars' lands, Phil. Is., purchased, 
ISld. 2Ilc. 

Friedland, battle of, 22d. 99d. 140c. 

Friedrlch ministry; resigns. 114b. 

Friendly (Tonga) Islands, descrip.. 
77e; under Brit, protection. 57d, 



E*roiS3art, Chronicles. 15b. 
Frolic, Wasj> defeats, 159d, 170e. 
Fronds, the. civil wars, 97c; Turerme 

overcomes, 97d. 
Frontenac, Count, gov. of New France 

(1672, 1689), 71a. 
^, Fort, taken, 168c. 
Front Royal, battle of, I75a. 
Frumentius. bishop of Ethiopia, 39a^ 
Fryatt. Charles, Brit, steamship cap-- 

tain, executed by Ger., 59f. 
Fuad I., sultan of Egypt. 69a. 
Fuegian hut {see Did.), illust., 128.. 
Fuel (during World War). Eng., coaL 
strike in So. Wales; act limits price of ' 
coal( 1915). 59c; govt, controls. 60ar- 
"curfew order," 60e: miners strike,. 
61b; Coal Commission reports, 61b8£c;- 
nationalization of mines, 61d; U- S., 
Garfield appointed administrator. 
190a: wamsagainst strike, 190c: short- - 
age of coal; use forbidden for 10 Mon- 
day8:order suspended. I91a: govt. con- 
trol, 192b; strike of coal miners (19 19); 
Federal injunction: Garfield resigns, 
193e; administration continued. 194a.. 
Fugitive Slave Act, 1st (1793), 169fr 
Supr. Court decision on, 172e; Law of 
1850, 173d, 215a; laws in No. States; 
to hinder, 173e; declared constitu-- 
tional, 174b; repealed. 175e. 
Fu-Hi, accession of, 83e. 
Fuji, ll8a; last eruption. 119c. 
Fuller, Melville W.. chief justice. ITSf.. 
Fulton, R.. 1st steamboat on Hudson.- 
22d. 170c; centennial of invention* 
182f; illuat. of Clermont, 90. 
Fulvius, conq. .Etolian League, 9c. 
Funchal, bombarded. 35b. 
Fundamental ConstitutionsC'Grand 

Model"). 199e. 
^ Orders, 167e. 
Funston, Frederick, commandsat Vera ■- 

Cruz. 127f. I85d. 
Fur-Seal Arbitration Act. 209b. 
Fur trade, begun in West, 170e. 
Fusion ticket, in N. Y. City, 185b,, 
FUssen, peace of, 21a. 



Qabinian Law, 9f. 

Gachupines, in Mexico, 1264; eif 

pelled. 12eb. 

Gadsden Purch.. 160c, 173e, 208d.e&i. 

Gage, Gen, Thos.. 168e, 196f. 

Gag Resolution, in Cong.. 1st. 172c. 

Gaillard (Culebra) Cut, slides, 187c. 

Gaines's Mill, battle of, 175a. 

Gainesville, battle of, 175b. 

Galapagos Islands, 92f. 

Galba, 10b. 

Galerius, defeats Iiiarses: restores Tir- 
idates; tolerates Christians^ lOd. 

Galgacus, defeated, 10b. 

Galicia, goes to Austria, 42d, 140b: 
Aust. gets West, 44b; uprising(lS46), 
44d, 140d: Poles in, seek autonomy. 
44f: Rus. invade, 32b; Aust. in, 33b: 
Ger. take, 33c: Rus. retreat from. 35e; 
Rathenians unite with Ukraine, 134e; 
Poland controls Eastern, 134f. See 
Lodomeria. 

Galileo, satellites of Jupiter, 18e; as- 
serts world is round; prosecuted by 
Inquisition. 19a. 

Qalin63, Fr. explorer, 71a. 

Gallatin, Albert, 195c; sec. of treas.. 
170bid. 

Gallican Church, 95e. 97e. 

Oalli6ni. Gen., mm. of war. 102b, 

Gallipoli, capt. by Turks (1355), 14f: 
earthquake C1912), 154b; in Balkan. 
War (1913), lo4c; campaign (1915). 
33dSte; Allies land in. I52b: unsuccess^- 
ful, 28c: withdraw. 33e. 

Gait, Mrs. Edith Boiling, mairiea- 
Pres. Wilson. I87e. 

Galvao, Antonio, 82b. 

Galveston, hurricane. 180e. 

Oalvez, Jos^ de. Span, commissioner 
in Mexico, 12:6a.. 

Galway. 58b. 

Gama, Vasco da. Capeof Good-Hop^ 
lOd; to India, 16d, 63d. 157b. 

Gamarra,Agu3tin. pres. of Peru. 133di 

Gambetta. L6on. 94d; at Tours. lOOd; 
succeeds Ferry, lOOe; dies. lOOe. 

Gambia, 67f, 54f. 

Gambiar, the. 97c. 

Gamboa dike, biown up, IS5a. 

Gaona, provis. pres.; resigns, 132a-., 

Gapon. Father, Rus. leader. 137f,141d,. 

Garcia, Lizaro. pres., 92f. 

Garfield, Hai-r>' A., hecomes fueladm-.. 
190a; warns against coal strike, 190cr 
restricts use of coal; "heatless" Mon- 
days, 191a; resigns, 193c. 

^, James A., life; chronology, 216e: 
portrait, 212. — Other refs.: prea.. 
163c; vote; inaug.; shot; dies, 78a. 

Garibaldi, unites Italy, 23d; repub. 
in Rome, il6c; in Sicily & Naples. 
Il4f, 116c; & king of Sardinia; resigns 
dictatorship; against Rome: capt.; 
amnesty, 116d; at Civitavecchia, lOOc: 
attacks Rome; at Mentana; at Cap- 
rera: dies. 116d. 

Garland (ex parte). Supreme Court 
decision, 176c. 

Garrison, Lindley M., sec. of war, re- 
signs, 188a. 

^, Wm. Lloyd, 160e; estab. "Libera- 
tor," 172a; organizes Amer. Anti- 
slavery Society, 172b, 

Garros, Fr, aviator, flies to Tunis. lOlf. 

Gary, Ind,, martial law, 193c, 

Garza, Roque Gonzalez. SseGonzdles 
Garza, Roque. 

Gas, poisonous, 1st use of in World. 
War, 2Sa. 

Gastein, Treaty of, 25c. 

Gaston, Gian, dies, 116a. 

Gates. Gen., & Burgoyne, 169a. 

Gaugamela, battle of, 8d. 

Gaul, Romans conquer. 6a: Catsar 
takes. Of; Franks in; Tetricus crushed; 
Germans driven fr.. lOd: Attila. lOf; 
Franks in. He. Sec also Gau/s. 

Gaulois, Fr, battleship, sunk, 35b 

Gauls, in Po valley (400 B.C.); defeat 
Romans, 8bi capt Rome, 6c; Rome 
repels, 8c: Romans defeat, 8e; invade 
Macedonia: in Asia; driven fr. Macedo- 
nia. 8f; advance on Rome, So; join 

' Hannibal, 9b. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



235 



Oaza, Alexander takre. 8d; battle of 

, <312 B. C): battle near (Brit. & 
Turks. 1917). 2yf. 36a; falls. 36a. 

" Geary law." 86a. 

Geddes. Sir Eric, First Lord of the 
Admiralty. 60b. 

Geelong. settled. 75e. 

Gefirard. Fabre. pres. Haiti: over- 
thrown, 11 If. 

Oela. fnd.. 7c. 

Gelo. tyrant of Syracuse. 7f. 

Getnbloux. battle of. I8a. 

General Amnesty Act. 177b. 

— Bank Act. Canada, 72a. 

— Court of Mass.. 196f. 197b. 

— Education Board. lS2b. 

— Federation of Labor (Spain). 148b. 

— Staff (U. S.). authorized. ISlc. 
^Survey Act. I71d. 

Oene3t (Gen?t) . Edmond. Fr. min. to 
U.S.. 9Se. 169f. 

Geneva (canton) independ. Protestant 
commonwealth, 17b; added to Fr.. 
99a. I50c; new canton, 149e. 

^ (city). Calvin in. 17c; arbitration of 
Alabama claims (Geneva award), 56c 
&d, 150d. 164b. 177aS:b: exhibition 
(1896). nOe; meeting of Serbian min- 
isters. 121c. 

^ (Red Cross) convention. 25c, 150d. 

— Tribunal, on Alabama claims. See 
Alatiama claims & Geneva. 

Genghis Khan. 83f. 137a; Mongol 
emp.; in China; subdues Chowares- 
mians, 13f: burns Peking; overruns 
Asia; dies: empire divided. 14a. 
Genoa (Genoese), war with Venice, 
14b; naval battle off Constantinople. 
J4f; defeated at Chioggia. 15a: repub. 
restored, 21b; cedes Corsica. 98c; goes 
to Sard. ma. 116b. preserves National 
spirit of It., 114e. 
Genro, Japan. llt*c, 119e. 
Genseric, in Afr.; at Rome. lOf. 
" Gentlemen 'b agreement," Japa- 
nese immigration, 182b. 
Geoflrey of Anjou (Plantagenet),13c. 
Geok-Tepe, capt. by Russians, 141a. 
Georgakis, rebellion quelled, UOb. 
George I., of Eng.. king, 20e, 53c; (as 
Elector of Hanover) granted Bremen 
& Verden. 148f; dies, 20t. 53d. 
^11., king, 20f. 53d; reign, 53d&e: war 
with Fr. in Amer,, 2 la; dismisses 
Pitt, 53e; dies. 53e. 
^ III., king, 21b, 53e; dismisses min- 
istry; Pitt premier, 54a&e; insane; re- 
' covers, 54b; mobbed, 54c; again in- 
I sane; Prince George regent, 21b, 54e: 

d.es, 21b. 55a. 
^ IV., regent. 54c: king. 55a; dies, 55b, 
— v., becomes heir apparent. 57b; (as 
Duke of Cornwall) opens 1st Pari, 
of Aust-. 76b; visits Canada (1901), 
72; at tercentenary of Quebec, 72e; 
(as Prince of Wales) visits India. 64f; 
king: coronation; with queen visits 
Ireland; visits India, 58c; durbar at 
Delhi, 64f: visits Pans, 102a; clianges 
family name, 60b, 
^ I., of Greece, reign, 109e; ascends 
throne, UOc; decrees revis. of consti- 
tution; opens new National Assembly, 
llOd; inSaloniki. !54b:assas., llOd. 
— . Prince, of Or., high comr. for Crete, 

109e. UOd. 
^, Prince, of Den.. 20c. 
— , Crown Princeof Serbia, resigns right 

to succession, 122c. 
Georgetown, D. C. govt, estab., 

209c; chartj^r annulled, 209d. 
Georgia (Republic), hist, outline; 
gort.; educa.; indus. & labor; area & 
pop., 102f; recent stat. sties, 222; 
map, 38. Chronology, 102f. — Other 
refs.: Rus. claims in, 21e; joins Rus- 
sia. 132e: annexed to Rus., 102f, 
140c; province of Rus.. 41d; refuses to 
recognize Brest-Litovsk treaty; joins 
Repub. of Transcaucasia, 143b; indo- 
pend. repub., 36c. 41d. 139c: in league 
with Azer baijan; recognized. 3Sb,143e. 
^ (U.S.). hist, outline, 195f; statistics. 

— 220, area. 221. Chronology. 196b. 
— Other refs.: charter; settled. 16Sb; 
charter includes part of Ala. & Miss., 
201f. 202d; Ger. Protestants emigrate 
lo, 105f; contest with Fla., 53d, 
168b; royal province, 16,Sc; ratifies 
Constitution, 169d; cedes western 
claims. 170b; relinquishes claims to 
Miss., 201f; relinquishes claim to 
Ala.. 202d- conlroversv with Creeks 
& Cherokees, 172a; Cherokee Nation 
V. Georgia, Supr. Court decision; 
Worcester r. Georgia, decision; Geor- 
gia defies decis., 172a; secedes. 174c; 
Reconstruction. 176b; temporarily re- 
stored to Union; required to ratify 
15th Amendment. 176e; readmitted, 
176f; Conservatives (Democrats) con- 
trol, 17ib: adopts prohib.. 182c, 186b; 
ends system of leasing convicts, 182f. 

— , University of, 196b. 

^ i>, Stanton, Supr. Court decision, 

176d. 
Georgian Bay, 70f. , 

— Church, 102f. 
Gepidse, kingdom of, 12a. 
Gerard, James W., recalled. 189c. 
Gerlzim, Mt,. temple. &a. 
German Alliance Insurance Co. v. 

Lewis. Supr. Court decision. 185c. 

^Austria, declared part of German Re- 
public (1918). 43a. 46c: union with 
Germany approved by Constituent 
Assembly (1919); denied by Allies in 
treaty (1919). 46c. 

^ Confederation. See Confederation 
of German States. 

—East Africa, 48b, 105b; Ger. coloniza- 
tion begins. lOrb; revolts of natives, 
107d; Brit, atuck. 32c&d, 67e; Bnt. 
control, 34f; German forces driven 
out. 36a; surr., 37d. 67e; mandate to 
Gr. Brit ., 61b&c; portions of attached 
to Belgian Congo. 48c; map, 64. 

^ possess. ons. former. 104f.' 

— South^vest Africa, I05a; invaded by 
South African forces: surr., 28d, 67e, 
331 

Germanic Confederation = Confed- 
erationof German stalesAic,e&.f.90i. 

Germanos. Archb..Gr. patriot, UOb. 

Germans (see Germany), number of 
in Austria, 42f. 

Oermantown, battle of, 169a, 195c 



Germany, hist, outline. 103a; organi- 
zation; govt., 104b: indus. & labor; 
religion; educ. 104e; defense; area, 
!04f. 221: pop,: former colonial emp.. 
l()4f; rccont statistics. 222: map. 38, 
64. Chronology, lOSd. — Other refs.: 
Before 1648 : Rome conq,; abandoned 
by Rome; Germans driven fr. Gaul, 
lOd; Louis the Ger. takes; beginning 
of Ger. nat'l hist., 12c: Caroiingian 
dynasty ends; Conrad king: dies; 
Henry the Fowler, 12d; Otto I., the 
Great; Otto I. crowned Holy Roman 
Emperor (lasting union with Empire 
begins); Otto II. & III.. 12e; Conrad 
11.; Henr>' III.; Queen .^gnes; Henry 
IV.: Hanno seizes Henr^- IV.. 12f; Ru- 
dolph of Swabia, 13a: Henry V.; 
Franconian dvn ends; Lothaire II., 
13b; Conrad III.; Fred'k I. (Barba- 
rossa). 13c; Henry VI. ; Fredk II., 
l3e;OttoIV.; Fredk II. begins strug- 
gle for crown, 13f; Fred'k emp.. 14a: 
Fred'k deposed; Conrad IV.: Wm. of 
Hoi.. 14b; Rudolph of Hapsburg.l4c; 
Adolphus of Nassau: Albert of .'\U3- 
tna. 14d; Henry VII.; \\-ar bet- Louis 
of Bavaria & Fred'k of .\ust., 14e; 
Charles of Luxemburg. 14f; Wences- 
laus deposed, lob; Luxemburg dyn. 
ends: ."Albert II., 15c; Maximilian, 
16d; Reformation Cha-les V.; Ger., 
Sp., N'pth.. Sicilies & Sard, joined. 
I6f; Peasants' War: Charles V. & 
Francis I.: reformers protest, 17a; 
League of Schmalkalden. 17b; Charles 
V. wars with League, 17c; Augsburg 
Interim, I7c&d; freedom of worship; 
Peace of Augsburg; Ferdinand I.,17d; 
Protestant states in Evangel. Union; 
Rudolph II.; Matthias, Hd&e; Cath. 
League formed; strife bet. Prot. & 
Cath.; 30 years' war begins. 18e; Fer- 
dinand 11.; Prot. massacre, 18f;Treaty 
of Westphalia, 19c. 
164S-1914: war with Turk.; defeats 
Turk.; gains Transylvania, 43e;Ouad- 
ruple Alliance. 20e: Golden Era of 
literature. 21a: divided bet. Aust. & 
Prus., 42d; Fred'k Wm. 11.. 21e: Leo- 
pold II.,21e; Peace of Basel. 22[; loses 
west of Rhine to Fr., 22b; Confed. of 
the Rhine: Holy Roman Empire ends, 
99c; gets Helgoland. 91c; Germanic 
Confed., 44c; Zollverein, 24e: Revolu- 
tion (1848), 24c&f: Federal Diet re- 
established; Confederation revived, 
44e: Austro-Prussian contest, 25c; 
Confederation breaks up, 44f; empire 
proclaimed. 2Se. 42e: acquires Alsace- 
Lorraine. 25e: secret alliance with 
Aust. (1879). 45a: in Triple Alliance. 
45a; beginning of ascend, in Turk.. 
153d;convention with Eng. on spheres 
i nOceania, 76a : " * Re i nsurance Treaty 
with Rus., 141b:(secret)all.ance with 
Rus.. 26a; spheres in So. Africa de- 
limited. 57a, 67a: geLsHelgoland,26a; 
comm'l treaty with Austria (1891), 
45a: comm'l treaty with Rub. (1894), 
141b; ambitions in Near East. 41f; 
seizes Kiaochow. 86b; trade relations 
with Can., 72c: Boxer rising in China. 
84c; Venezuelan claims, 26c. 155e; in 
Morocco. 128e; influence in ^altic 
Provinces&Lithuania, 144c; diinculty 
with Fr. over Morocco, 101cS:e,107e; 
agreement with Rus. on Persia & Bag- 
dadrailway.l 42a;" Berlin-to- Bagdad" 
railway; in Mesopotamia, 125a; in 
Persia, I32f: influence in Turk., 152a; 
colonial empire (in 1914). 27b; at 
height of prosperity, 24a. 
From 1914: for completerecord of re- 
lations & events in World War, see 
WoTld-War Period. 27-38.— Other 
refs. for this period follow: invasion of 
Belgium. 47eS:f, 48a; Eng. declares 
\vzr on, 58f ; aids Aust. against Serbia 
& Montenegro, 43a: sends cargo of 
arms to Mex.. 127e; sympathy with 
Mexicans, 127f; declares war on Rus., 
142b; war with Fr., I02a; loses pos- 
sessions in South Seas, 76e; relations 
with Lithuania, 124bS:c; Dresden at- 
tacked, 83d; 1st Lusitanianote, 186f; 
It. declares war on, 117d; Greece 
decl. war on, llOf; attempts to land 
arms in Ireland, 59e: replies to U. S. 
note on submarine warfare. lS8b: Li- 
beria declares war on, I24a; relations 
with Mex.. 125e, 128b: U S. declares 
v-ar on, lS9e: Cuba dec!, war on, 89f; 
Bolivia severs dipl. relations, 48i: 
Siam decl. war on. 145a: Argentina 
severs dipl. relations, 41c; Uruguay 
severs dipl. relations, 155c; Brazil 
decl- vrai on, 50a: Treaty of Brest- 
Lilovsk. 143b: treaty with "white" 
govt, in Finland. 93e: three suppl. 
treaties with Soviet govt., 143c; armi- 
stice, 36d; propagandainAmer. ,192a; 
attempted union of Austria with 
(1919), 46c; recognizes Brit, protec- 
torate over Egypt, 69a; Ger. troops in 
Baltic States. 124c: Ger. Republic: 
constitution adopted; president. 104d. 
See also: Armistice, "Berlin-to-Bag- 
dad." Brcst-Litorsk itie^ity). Central 
Powers, Confederation of German 
states, Dreikniserbund. Franco-Prus- 
sian War. Fred- kl . Sc 1 1. .Fred'k Wm. 
I.-IV..Holu { Oman Empire. Triple 
Alliance, Versailles {treat];), Wm. 
f. & II. of Prussia, Zollverein. 
Geronimo, chief, surrenders, 178d. 
Gerry, Elbridge, vice pres., 170e. 
Gettysburg, battle of. 161e. 175c, 

195c: 50th anniversary, I95c. 
^ Address. Lincoln's. 2I5f. 
Ghazni, 12e. 

Ghent, Count Louis II.: Philip van 
Arteveld, 15b; Ger. occupy, 32a; Ger. 
retire to, 37a. 
^. "Pacification" of, 18a. 
— . Treaty of (1814). 71d. 159e, I70f, 

205c. 213e. 
Ghibelliaes. Philip of Swabia em- 
peror; war with Guelphs, 13e. 
Gibbons v. Ogden. 171d. 
Gibraltar, 62b; Eng. takes. 20c, 53b, 
146e; ceded to Eng.. 53c. 145c; ceded 
to Gr Brit., 146i; siege of (17Z9), 
53f. 98c. 147a; bombarded, 98c: final 
attack fails (1782). 54a: becomes 
Brii naval base in Medit., 58d. 
"Gibraltar of the East" (Aden) . 62b. 



Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, in Newfound- 
land, 18b. 73d&e, I67c. 

^ Islands, 57b. 

Giles V. Hams, Supr. Court decision, 

ISlc. 
Gillett. F. H., Speaker of House, 192f. 
Giolitti, Giovanni, premier; scandal; 
deposed, 116e; new ministry' (1911); 
resigns: again premier, 117a; resigns, 
II 7b; oppos. d to World War, I17c&d: 
in Council of Four, 192d. 

Giotto, cathedral of Florence, 14f. 

Glralda, Sp. steamer, destroyed, 148a. 

Girondist ministry, formed. 98e: falls, 
9Sf. 

Girondists, representatives slain, 98f. 

Olzeh. Great Pyramid of. 6d. 

Glacier National Park, IS5. . 

Gladstone, Herbert J. (Lord), gov.- 
gen. of So. Africa. 67d. 

— . W. E.. in ministry (1843); chancel- 
lor of exchequer (1852), 55f; chancel- 
lor of evcheq.( 1859). 56a: 1st ministry: 
his Irish Land Law, 56c; defeated 
(1874); forms 2nd ministry, 66d; re- 
signs; 3rd ministry; Home Rule Bill; 
defeated: resigns. 56f; Irish Home 
Rulcbills, 50f; 4th minis.; new Home 
Rule bill, 57b- resigns (1894). 57c. 

Glasgow, Cromwell lakes, 52a. 

Glass, Carter, sec. of treasury, I92a: 
estimates cost of World War to U. S., 
193a: opposes further loans, I94c&:d: 
resigns, 194e. 

Glaueia. Marius crushes, 9e. 

Glencoe, massacre at, 53a. 

Gliding machines, illuat., 160- 

Gloucester. Duke of. regent, 15b. 

Ooa. 63d. 135d. 

Goblet. Ren6. premier; resigns, lOOf. 

Gobryas, Babylon aurr. to, 7e. 

Godeffroy & Son, -10b. 

Goderich. I rd, prime minister, 55a. 

Godfrey, of Bouillon, in 1st crusade; 
at Jerusalem: defeats Islamites, 13b; 
kingdom of Jerusalem falls, 13d. 

Godolphin, Sidney. Lord Treasurer; 
becomes a Whig. 53b. 

Godoy, Manuel de. 145d, I47a. 

Godunov.Bor IS, ascends throne. ISc&d. 

Goeben. See Breslau. 

Ooethals. G. W., chief engineer of 
Panama Canal. 82e. 182b; civil gov 
Canal Zone. 185c; resigns. 190a. 

Goetner, Geo., succeeds Ludendorff, 
108e. 

Gold, disc, in Australia. 24f, 74f. 75f, 
76a, in Brazil. I35e; ia Calif.. I60e, 
173b, 204f. 205a; m Colo.. 205c: 
in Klond.ke. 26b. 72c; in northern 
Ontario. 72d; in Transvaal. 66d, 67a. 
-.price of (U.S.), <1862).174e;{18631. 
175b: (1S64), highest price ever 
reached. 175d; (1865). I75f; at- 
temptedcornerof (1869). I76e; (1870), 
I76f; (1875). 177c; (1876), 177d; 
(1877), 177e; (1378), 177f. 

— reserve (U. S.), low, I63e, 179d&f: 
bond issue to replenish, 179e; 2ad 
bond issue, 179f. 

^ standard. China adopts. 86f: India, 
64e; Japan. 120a; Philippine Is ands, 
ISlc: U S . 163f. 164b. 217d. 

— Standard Act (1900), I80e. 

— Coast. 51f, 57c, 67f. 
Golden Bull. 15a, 112f. 
■■Golden Horde." 137a&b. 139e, 
Golden State, 204f. 
Goldman, Emma, deported, 193f. 
Golovin. Feodor. prea.2ndDuma.I41f. 
Goltz. Baron Kolmar vooder. adviser 

to Turkey. 153d: 1st G^r. gov .-gen. of 
Belgium, 47e: adviser to Turk. army. 
154d; commands Finnish army. 93e; 
ordered out of Baltic States. 124c. 

Gomel, outbreak against Jews. 141c. 

Gomensoro. Tomas. pres., 15Sc. 

G6mez, Gen. Juan Vincente, pres. 
Venez.. 156c&e; becomes commander 
of army; again pres., 156e. 

^, Jos6 Miguel, pres. of Cuba; inaugu- 
rated: protects U. S. fleet, 89e; vetoes 
Amnesty BUI. 89f. 

^, Maximt), commander in chief. 89c. 

Gomez, explores Nova Scotia, 167b. 

Gompers, S., sentenced. 182e. 

^ V. United States, Supr. Court de- 
cision. lS5d. 

Gondra. pres.. 132a; resigns. 132a. 

Gonzalez, Manuel, pres. Mex.. 127b. 

^ Flores, pres.; deposed, 81e. 

^ Garza, Roque, provis. pres. of 
Mex.; deposed. 128a. 

^-t. Williams. Supr. Court decision,lSId. 

Good Hope. Cape of. disc.. 15f, 62e, 
66f; \'ascoda Gama sails around, 16d; 
passed by Diaz, 157b; Eng. capt. .54c: 
again capt. (1806). 54e; not restored 
by Eng '1814). 54f. 

Good Roads Act, 188d. 

Goodwin Sands, Tromp defeats Eng. 

oiT. r:9f. 

Goodyear. Charles. India rubber, 172f. 
Gopher State. 205b. 
Gorchakov. Pnnce M. A., crosses 
Danube, in the Crimea. I40e; Berlin 
memorandum. 15b. 
Gordon, Charles George ("Chinese") 
defeats Chi. rebels, 84a, 85e; arrives 
at Khartum; killed, 68b&e. 
^, Lord George, "no-popery" riots,54a. 
— College. 68c. 

Gor§e, restored to France, 53e. 96b. 
Goremykin, I.L., Rus, premier, 141e; 

removed. 141f; succeeded. I42c. 
Gorgas. Wm.C. in charge saniution. 

Panama. S2e. 133f. 
Gorge! (or Gorgey). Arthur, retreats 

before Windischgratz. 44d. 
Gorges, Sir F,. grants S: charters for 

Maine, 167d&f. 19Sa&b. 202f. 
Goricar, Joseph, exposes Teutonic ac- 
tivities in U. S.. 187d. 
Oorizia= G9r;, 29a. 
Gorki, Maksim, grantedamnesty.I42b. 
Gorman, Arthur P., I97d. 
Oorst, Sir E., Bnt. agent in Egypt. 68f. 
G6rtz , Georg Heinrich von, prime 

minister; executed. 148f. 
Gdrz (Gorizia), Austria cedes, 122f; 
promised to It.. 12ib; attack on. 33d; 
capt., 29a, 34e, 43a; Italians occupy. 
121c; Jugo-Slavia claims. 121c 
Goschen, in ministry, 57a, 57c, 
Gosnold, Bartholomew, disc. Cape 
Cod, I67c; settlement on Elizabeth 
Islands, 196e. 



Goths, invade Roman emp.; in Thrace; 
Claudius II. (Gothicus) defeats; take 
Dacia. lOd; Ulfilas bishop to. lOe; 
sack Rome. lOE. 

Gough. Gen-, in Picardy, 30a. 

Gounaris. forms cabinet. IlOe. 

Government of any country. See un- 
der Organization, following Hist, 
outline of that country. 

— of India Act. 65b. 
Governors" Conference on business & 

labor problems. I92e. 

— Conference on conservation, 182d. 
Gracchus, Cams Sempronius, 9d. 
— , Tiberius, dies, 9d. 

Grafton, Duke of. Sec. of State: prime 

minister. 53f. 
Graham, W. A., v.-pres. cand.. 173d, 
Grain. See com, wheat, crops, etc. 

— Corporation, continues. 194a. 
^ elevator, illust.. 96. 

— Standards Act. ISSe. 
Gr^mmont. occupied, 37a. 
Gramont. mm. of for. affairs, 100c. 
Granada (Spain), Ferd. & Isabella 

conq.. 15f. 

— (C. A.) fnd.. 79f. SOc; Wm. Walker 
occupies. SOf. 

Granadine Confederation. 88a. 
Granados, Tmoco. See Tinoco Gra- 

nados. 
Grand Alliance against France {see in 

Dic(.. under ffrand). 30b. 42e, 97e, 

130a; 2nd. 20c. 53b. 97f. 145c. 146e, 
-.Army. French, 99e, 140c. 
—Army of the Republic, parade in 

Washington. D. C, 187e. 

— Cailon, 208f. 

^ Caiion National Park created. 192d. 

— Central Terminal building, N. Y,, 
opened. lS4d. 

Grandcourt. occupied, 35d. 

Grande-Terre, 97b. 

"Grandfather Clause," in Ala., 
ISIa. 202c; La., 162d, 180c; N. C, 
ISOi-. Oivla.. 162d, I83b, 187a. 208d. 

Grand Fleet (Ger.). first & last bat- 
tle, 29c, 

"Grand Model." 199e. 

Grand Kapids. Mich., statistics. 220. 

— Trunk Pacific Ra.Kray. 70a, 72d, 72f . 

— Trunk Railway, govt, takes over. 73d. 
Grandprfi, Americans at. 36f. 
Granger Cases. 177e, 17Sd. 

— movt.-ment. I7Sd. 
"Grangers." ' 164aS:f. 
Granicus, the. battle of, Sd. 
Granite State. !98a. 
Qranson, battle of. 15e. 

Grant, Ulysses, life. 216a; chronology, 
216c; life, portrait, 212.— Other refs.: 
202b; m Civil War, 161d.e&f; at 
Belmont, Mo., 174e; takes Ft. Henry; 
Fort Donelson; at Shiloh, I74f; ad- 
vances on Vickeburg. 175b; opera- 
tions against Vicksburg, 175b&c:cap. 
Jackson, Mist.. 175c; commander 
Div. of the Miss.. 175d: lieut,-gen., 
175e; advances against Lee; checked; 
attempts to break Lee"3 line; crosses 
James; repulsed, 175e; pursues Lee; 
Lee surrenders, 176a; vote for pres., 
176e; president, 162c; suspends ha- 
beas corpus. 177a; vote for (1872), 
177b: vetoes Inflation Bill, 177c:scan- 
dals of admin.. 177d; visits Pekin,85f; 
visits Japan. 119e; Repubs, attempt 
to nominate for 3rd term, 163c. 

Grant & Speke. explorations, 25a. 

Grasse. Count de, defeated, 54a. 

Gratian. 13c. 

Gravelotte. battle of. lOOc. 

Gray. Robert, disc. Columbia River, 
169e, 205d. 

Graz. food riots in. 45f. 

Great Britain, name & formation of, 
53b; map; and Ireland, area, 221. 
See England: British Empire. 

— Charter, lid, S^e .\faona Charta. 
^ Corn island. See Corn Islands. 

— Eastern (S. S.). built, 25a. 
"Great Emigration," I57e, 196e. 
Greater New York, charter, 180b. 
Great Lakes, disc 157d, 

Great Moravia. Se^tMoravia. 
Great Northern R. R, opened. 179d. 
Great Plains, explored, 171c&d. 
" Great Pure" dyn. = Ta-Tsing dyn., 

85b. 
Great Salt Lake. 172f. 208a&b. 
^ Slave Lake. disc. 7Ib. 

— Slave River, explored, 71c. 

— Western (S. S.), 172d. 

Greece. hist outline. 109d, govt.: indus. 
& labor, 109f; religion; educ-; defense; 
area. 110a. 221; pop.. llOa; recent 
statistics, 222; map. 38. 64; merchant- 
man, illust.. 96; anc, galley, illust., 
144. Chronology. llOa. 
Ancient Greece: see a^lso Athens. 
Attica, Sparta, Thebes. Corinth, 
Macedon.K^tc; overthrows Mycenaan 
states, early civilization; sends out 
colonies. 5f; culture; Rome conquers. 
6a; Cretan culture in, 6e; masters 
.■Egean archipel.; Mycenjcan civiliza- 
tion declines; Trojan War, 6f; epic 
poetry: age of Homer, 7a; Ist Olym- 
piad; archons: colonization, 7b; lyric 
poetry, 7c; 1st recorded nax-al battle; 
Seven Wise Men, 7d; Cyrus takes 
cities in .Asia Minor; tragedy; lonians 
revolt; Ionian Greeks burn Sardis. 7e; 
e.\ped. against; Thermopyls;Salamis; 
Mycale; Platasa: Sacred War. 7f; Pel- 
oponnesian War. 8a&b; Xenophon; 
retreat of the 10.000 (Anabasis); Co- 
rinthian War; Peace with Persia; 
Thebes, Sb; Theban ascendancy, 8c; 
Sacred War (339-338 B. C); Mace- 
donian hegemony. Sd; Macedonians 
defeat near Crannon; Pj'rrhus rules in 
Macedonia, 8e; bucolic poetry; 
Jewish scriptures trans,; phalanx; 
Pyrrhus & Macedonian supremacy, 
8f; Macedonia to be expelled; treaty 
Rome & Corcyra. 9a; science: Ro- 
mans invade;2nd war bet. Rome& Mac- 
edonia: Macedonian suprem. ends, 
9b; Antiochus enters, 9c; subject to 
Rome, 9d; Plutarch. Nero in, 10b; 
Hadrian visits. 10c; Olympian games 
abol., lOe; Alaric invades, lOf; con- 
test of Lat. & Gr. Christians. 12d; 
with Saracens defeat Otto II.. !2e: 
Latin emp. in East fupplants (Sreek; 
Turks conq., lib, ISd; exodus of Gr. i 



scholars fr. Constantinople, lid. 15d. 
Modern Greece. Before 1820. s>'q 

Turkey & Buloaria. From 1820: 
hist, outline, 109d: chronology. 110a; 
revolution (war for independ,), 24c, 
151f; powers intervene. 5.^a: war with 
Turkey: independ. won, 24c, UOd, 
I51d, I52f: controls Bulg. church; 
lang, used in Bulg., 78d; gets Ionian 
Islands. 56b; Turko-Greek War. 26b, 
151e: alliance with Bulgaria & Serbia. 
152a: Balkan League, 121f. lo4b: de- 
clares War on Turkey; invades Mace- 
donia. 154b; attacked by Bulgaria; 
gels Kavala. 7Sb: refusesaid to Serbia, 
122a: mobilizes; troops menace Allies, 
33a. 34c: Serbs ret ire to. 33a; relations 
with Allies, 28c; pacific blockade of; 
ministry dismissed; Allies control 
navy; war on Ger. & Bulg.. 34b; sa- 
lutes Allied flags. 34c: Constantine 
abdicates: Alexander succeeds; Veni- 
zelos premier; breaks relations with 
Ger. & Aust., 35c; treaty with U. S. 
for reciprocal mil. service, 191d; 
troops with Denikin, 143d: occupies; 
Smyrna, lUb; gets part of Thrace, 
79a, 154f: getsSmyrna; .tgean islands, 
154f; mandate in Smyrna. llIb;World 
War statistics, 38. See also Balkan 
League. Balkan Wars, World War, 
Mgean islands, Dodecanese, , 

Greek Catholic (Orthodox)Church, 
schism culminates. 12d&f; union with 
Latin Church decreed but not affected, 
15c: in Albania, 40a: Aust., 43c; Bos- 
nia & Herzegovina, 123c; Bulgaria, 78c: 
China. 85a; Croatia& Slavonia. 122e: 
Cyprus. 62d. Finland, 93d; Greece, 
UOa: Hungary. 113e: Japan. 119b; 
Roumania. 136e; Russia. 139b;Serbiaj 
122b: Turkey. 140e. 152c. , 

Greeley. Horace, pres.vote. 177b. 216c. 

Greely, A W.. at Greenland. 91f. 

Greenback party (Greenbackers), 163 
e&f. Ili4f. 176d, I77b. 177e. i 

Greenbacks.issued in Civil War, I63e: 
volume increased, 174f: retirementau- 
thorized. 176b; retirement stopped. 
176d; not legal tender, 176f; legal ten- 
der, 177a: bill to raise volume. 177c; 
retirement stopped; outstanding,177f. 

Green Bay. 71a: settled. 204c. 220. , 

— Book, 117d. I 
Greene, Gen. F. V., hoists U. S. flag 

over Wake Is.. 2l0d. 

— .Gen. Nathanael,I58f,199f; defeated: 1 
retreats. 169b. ' 

Greenland, disc. 130e: hist.descrtp,, 
91f: map. 64; Eskimo hut. illust, 128. 

Green Mountain State, 200a. 

Greenville, Treaty of. 169f. i 

Greenwich. meridian adopt. 25f. lOle. 

Gregorian calendar. See Calendar, i 

^ Church, ^ee Armenian Church. 41e. 

Gregory I. (the Great), Pope; sends 
Augustine to Eng . 12a. 

— VII. (Hildebrand). Pope. Henry IV. 
besieges; Henry again deposes & be- 
sieges; summons council; lay investi- 
ture;* Henry IV. of Ger,: Henry de- 
poses; dep. & excom. Henry; absolves 
Henry, 13a; Robt. Guiscard delivers. 
13a. • 

^ IX.. against Fred"k II., becomes 
pope; inquisition. 14a. 

— XI,, Pope, leaves Avignon; papal 
court at Rome, 14e. 15a. 

^ XII.. Pope, deposed, 15b. | 

~" XIII. . Pope, reforms calendar. 18b. 

— XVI.. dies. 116c. , 
^. the Illuminator, 41e. 

^, T W., res igns as attorney-gen, ,192e. 

Greif , raid.r. sunk. 35a. 

Grenada, 1 1 b. 74d, ceded to Eng., 53eJ 

Grenadines. 74d. 

Grenville. George, leader of Commons; 

prime minister. 53e. 
— . Lord (1806). 54e. 1 

Grfivy. Jules, pres. of Fr., 94d. lOOe; 

resigns. lOOf, 
Grey. Albert H. G , 4th Earl, gov.- 

gcn. of Canada, 72d. 
— . Charles (Earl), prime minister 

(1830). 55b. 
^, Sir Edward (later. Viscount), in 
ministry (1905). 57f; proposes confer- 
ence of Fr,. Ger,, It., & Gr. Brit. 
(1914), 3 Id; in coalition cabinet 
(1915), 59c; upholds Senate treaty 
reservation, 194d, 
^, Sir George, gov. of N. Z.. 77c, ■ | 
— , Lady Jane, attempt to enthrone; ex- 
ecuted. 17d. 
"Greyhound", ocean, illust , 96. 
Greytown (San Juan del Norte) , 
British occupy, 80e; made a "free 
city;" bombardment. SOf, 
Grieve, Mackenzie. &: H. Hawker at- 
tempt no-stop flight across Atl., 61c. 
Grijalva, Juan de. I25f. 
Grimaldi family. 128d. 
Griqualand West, 66f. 
Grodno, falls. 33c. 
Groseilliers, Sieur des (Medard 

Chouart). Fr. explorer. 71a. 
Gross-Jagersdorf. battle. 106a,140a- 
Groton. Conn., attacked, 196c. 
Groveton. battle of. 175b. 
Gruziya. See Georgia. 
Grypus, reigns. 9e. 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of.l25c, 
126e, 173b. 204b, 205a, 206b&d,208b. 
e,&f. 
Guadeloupe, outline, 97b; Brit, take 
fr. Fr., 98b; restored to Fr., 53e 98b. 
Guam, hist outline. 210a; statistics, 
220&221; area & pop . 210a: map. 194; 
chronologj-, 210a: seized by U. S., 
180c; ceded to U. S.. 164d. ISOd; an- 
nexed. 217d. 
Guanahani, disc, 74a, 167a, 
Guanica, 180d. 
Guano Islands, 210d. 
Guantanamo Bay, 164c. 180c. 
^ naval station, 89d, 209d. 
Guaranis, aborig,. I31e. 
Guardias rurales. Mex , 127c. 
Guastalla,5pain gets. 21b, 44a; ceded 

to Fr.. 99b. 
Guatemala, hist, outline; organiza- 
tion; govt.: industry & production; 
relig. it educ, 79d: defense; area & 
pop., 79e; recent statistics, 222; map. 
92d. Chronology, 80c.— Other refs.; 
Alvarado conquers: settlement, 8()c; 
Salvador incl. with, SOb; captaincy 



236 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



Q 



general, 80c; Honduras united with, 
79e; incl. in New Spain. 125b; Costa 
Rica a prov. of, 79b; declares inde- 
pend.; war with Salvador (1822), in 
Central Amer. Confed.; war with Sal- 
vador (1827); revolt in. 80d; boun- 
dary treaty with Mex., 12ib&c; severs 
dipl. relations with Ger., 35c; de- 
clares war, 36c; enters World War.38f . 
^ (city), fnd.. 80c; occupied, 80d; de- 
stroyed by earthquake, 81e. 
Guayaquil, revolution, 92d; R. R. to 
Quito. 92f; U. S. Sanitary Com., 93a. 
Guchkov, out of cabinet (1917). 142e. 
Gudea, era of, 6e. 

Guelph VI. , tries to get Bavaria: Con- 
rad in. defeats. 13c. 
Guelpha. propose Otto of Brunswick 

as emp,; and Ghibelliaes, 13e. 
Ouericke, von, invents air pump, 19d. 
Guerrero Manuel, Amador, pres.. 82d. 
— , Gen. Vicente, 126a; revolts; over- 
comes aristocrats; pres.; flees; capt. & 
shot. r26b. 
GuerriSre, Constitution captures, 

159d. 170e; illugt., 144. 
GueuX. league of the, 17f. 
Guiana, disc. 167a; Port, cedes to 

Fr., 135e: map. 64. 
^. British. See Britiah Guiana. 
— . Dutch. See Dutch. 
Guibert, elected pope. 13a. 
Ouienne, Fr. take. 15d. 
Guilford Court House, battle of, 169b. 
Guinea, Portuguese. 133d. 
^, Spanish, 14Gd. 
Guinegate. battle at. 16f. 
Ouines. Field of Cloth of Gold. 16f. 
Guinn and Beal v. United Stales. 

Supr. Court decision, 187a. 
Quiscard, Robt.. Duke of Apulia & 
Calabria, 12f, 13a; in Sicily, 12f; de- 
livers Gregory VII., 13a. 
Guise, taken, 37a. 

^. Fran9oi9, duke of , murdered, 17e&f. 
— . Henry, duke of, at Paris: assass.. 18c. 
^. Mary of. See Mary of Guise. 
Guizot, Francois P, G..in ministry 
(1S32). 100a; min. for. affairs; pre- 
mier: dismissed. 100b. 
Gujarat, battle of. 64c. 
Gulflight, sunk, 32f, 186e: Ger. note 
( on. 33a. ISOf. 
GuU States, tornadoes, 182d. 
Gulistan. Treaty of, 140d. 
Gutnbinnen, battle of. 32b. 
Gunib, 140f, 
Gunpowder Plot, ISd. 
Gurkhas, 64b, 129b; conq. Nepal: 
permitted in Indian army, 129b; con- 
quered. S5c. 
Gurko, Gen., 142f; crosses Bulkans, 

153b. 
GuatavusX.. Vasa, revolt; king, 16f. 

— II., Adolphug, in Poland, 18f; enters 
war in Ger.; defeats Tilly at Breiten- 
feld. 19a: at Rain; enters Munic/i; 
besieges VVaUenstein:at Lutzen;slain; 
Golden Age of Sw. under, 148b; Chris- 
tina succeeds, 19a, 148c. 

•^ III., king of Sweden; new constitu- 
tion; success in Gulf of Finland: as- 
sass.. 149a. 

—■IV., Adolphus. king; abdicates, H9a. 

—v.. of Sweden, 148d, 149b: meeting 
at MalmO, 91c. 131b. 149b. 

^ Adolphu3= Guatavus II. 

Gutenberg, invention of printing, l.'>c. 

Outhrum, Alfred defeats; bapt-, 12d. 

Gutierrez, Peruvian min. of war, im- 
prisons Balta; assas. Balta; lynched, 
133d. 

^, Eulalio, provis. pres. of Mexico, 
127f; Convention disowns, 128a. 

^, Lopez, pres. of Honduras, Slf. 

^, Plaza, pres.; pres. again, 92f. 

— Guerra, pres. of Bolivia, 48f. 
Guy. king uf Lusignan. dethroned, 13d: 

reinforced, 13e. 
Guzman Blanco, Antonio, pres. of 

Venez., 8Sa, 155d, 156a. 
Gypsies, in Serbia, 122b. 



H. 



Haakon VII., king of Norway, 130f, 
131b; crowned. 131b; meets with 
Gustavus& Christian, 91e, 131b. 149b. 

Haarlem, sp, conq., 18a. 

Haaae. Hugr,, tor. min.; resigns, 109a. 

Habeas Corpus m Eng., 52e: sus- 
pended (1817). 54f; in Ire. (1866). 
56b; not" granted m Rus.(1905). Ule; 
in U. S.. writ suspended (1862). 174d; 
Prea- authorized to suspend. 175c; 
■ Pres. Grant suspends (1871), 177a. 

Habib Ullah Khan, ameer of Afghan- 
istan, 39d&e. 

Habitations of Mankind, Plate, 128. 

Hadadezer, 7b. 

Hadrian, imp.; builds wall in Britain; 
visits Egypt & Greece. 10c. 

Haggai. temple restored, 7e. 

Hague, The, Ist Internat. Peace Con- 
ference (1899). 23f, 26c, 94f, 141b. 
lliOd; Roosevelt issues invitation for 
2ndConf.. ISle; 2nd Peace Conf. 
(1907) ,23f.26d. 94f . lS2c:limit3 use of 
armed force to recover contract debts, 
156c: Univ. Peace Congress, 20th ses- 
sion (1913). 130c; Palace of Peace at, 
26f. 130c: Intern. Congress of Women, 
13(K;; Convention violated by Ger- 
mans in Belg,, 47e. 

^ Tribunal (Court of International 
Arbitration), formed. 130c; "Pious 
Fund" case. 181b; Amer. sealers & 
Rus.. ISlc; Eng. & Fr. to submit ju- 
dicial questions in treaties. 101b; 
Venez. claims, 156c; Casablanca inci- 
dent, 128e, 129a; North Atlantic 
Coast Fisheries, 182e, J83b. 

Haidar All, 63e: begins 2nd Mysore 
War, 63E. 

Haig, Sir Douglas, succeeds French, 
33b. 59d; takes Pozieres. 34d: offen- 
sive renewed, 35d: alUcks line of the 
Selle, 37a; issues famous order. 30a: 
attacks Bapaume. 36e; & Fr, final as- 
sault, 36f. 

Hain9.n, rebellion in. 85f. 

Haiti (republic), hist. outIine,Illb&c: 
organization; govt.; prod. & com- 
merce; relig.; educa.; defense; area & 
pop., lUd: recent statistics, 222; 
map,64. Cbronology, Hid.— -Other 



refs.: island disc, (native name //ai(i, 
orig. Span. Eapafiola: Latinized, 
Hvapaniola). 16d. 92a. 167a; Sp. 
cedes W, part to France. 92a; insur- 
rection (1791). 9Sd; freedom for Ne- 
groes proclaimed; withdrawn, 2 If; 
Sp. cedes rest of island to Fr.. 92a; 
Toussaint I'Ouvtrture revolts; French 
driven out. 99b; Sp. regains eastern 
part of island {^anto Domingo, which 
see); Haiticonq. Santo Domingo, 92a; 
Fr. recognizes independ. of Haiti, 
lOOa; Santo Domingo independent 
{Dominican Republic, which see), 
92a; virtually a protectorate of U. S. 
A.. 164e, 187c; treaties with U. S., 
Illd, lS7c; severs dipl. relations with 
Ger.. 35c; declares war, 36c, 38f. 
Haiyang. naval battle, S6a. 
Hakkaa, rebellion of, Sof. 
Halepa, I'act of, 153c. 
Halicarnaasua. Sb. 
Halicz, Rus. take. 35e. 
Halidon Hill, battle of, 14f. 
Halifax, N. S.. fnd.. 71b; Brit, arrive 
from Boston, 71c; Commission. 177a; 
Award, 177f; Newfoundland's share 
in, 73e; defenses taken over from Imp. 
govt., 72d; prohibition, 73a; explo- 
sion. 73b. 
^, Earl of (CharlesM.). injunto, 53a. 
^, Marquis of. See SavUe, George. 
Halleck, Gen. H. W.. takes Corinth. 

17oa. 
Hall of Fame, eslab., ISOe; Ist list 
of names, 180f; additions (1905). 181f; 
(1910), 183b; (1915), 187d 
Ham, Louis Napoleon imprisoned at, 

100b; falls (1918). 30a. 
Hambach (Ger.), Congress at, 106d. 
Hamburg, Fr. annexes, 99e; regains 
autonomy, 106c: dockyard strike, 107c; 
strike (1918), 108c; republic. lOSf. 
^, Peace of. 106a. 
^-American Line, indicted, I86d. 
Hamilcar, holds Eryx. 9a. 
Hamilton, Canada, pop., 70d. 
^, granted part of Newfoundland. 73e. 
— , Alexander. Scfetieraitst, 159b. 213b; 
in Wasliington's cabinet. 159c, 169e; 
financial system, lG9e; becomes Fed- 
eralist; retires from cabinet. 169f: & 
John Adams, 212d; & Jefferson, 213f; 
& Madison, 213b; Burr kills. 170b. 
^, Sir Ian. lands on Gallipoti, 33d; 

succeeded by Monro, 33e. 
Hamlin, lianmbal. 202e; elected vice 

pF'.-s., 174b. 
Hammarskjbld, K. H. L. de. forms 

new cabinet, 149b; resigns. 149c. 
Hammer v. Dagenhart. Supr. Court 

decis., 19Ic. 
Hammurabi, Babylonian supremacy 

under. 5d; reign of. 6e. 
Hampden, John, ship money, 19a. 
Hampshire, cruiser, sinks. 35b. 59f. 
Hampton, Wade, advance on Platts- 
burg, 170f. 

— Court conference. ISd. 

— Roads, battle of, 161d. 174f: Prim 
Eitel Fnedrich enters, 186e. 

Hancock. John, signs Declaration of 
Independ., 168f. 

^, Gen. W. S., Dem. candid, for pres. 
(1880), 163c; vote. 178a. 

Hangb, battle of, 139f. 

Hankow, massacre of Manchus; im- 
perial forces take. S6e; revolutionists 
take. 84d. 

Hanna, Marcus A., 164b. 

Hannibal (409 B. C). in Sicily, 8b. 

^ (218 B. C), crosses Alps; battle at 
the Ticinus; the Trebbia; Gauls join; 
Lake Trasimenu3;alliance with Philip 
v.; Cannse; Capua; retires to south- 
ern It.; retires to Carthage. 9b: at 
Zama; Prusias receives; suicide. 9c. 

Hanno. Abp. of Cologne, 12f. 

Hanoi. captUl of Tonkio. 97a; Fr* 
storm, lOOe. 

Hanover, becomes an electorate, 20b, 
103b, 105e: union with Gr. Brit., 20e. 
103b: gets Bremen &. Vetden. 148f; 
Fr. driven from, y»b; Fr. occupy, 99b; 
Prus. to receive, 99c; made a kdm., 
106c: liberal constitution. lOGd; Duke 
of Cumberland becomes king of, 55c: 
insur. in, 106e: sides with Aust. against 
Prus.; Prus. invades; incorporated 
with Prus.. I06f. 

^. House of. estab.. 20e. 

Hanaeatic League, 14b: Riga in, 
U4a: merchantman, illust., 96. 

Hanaon, Ole, mayor of Seattle, checks 
strike. 192d. 

Hapaburg, House of, ascendancy be- 
gins, 14c; Aust. comes into possess, 
of. 42c; struggle with Swit2., 149d; Al- 
bert II. succeeds. 15c .rule over Czechs; 
Czedis di'pose, 90c, war with Fr.. 42c; 
Hung. under, 42d, 105e, 113f;becomes 
Hapsburg-Lorraine with Francis I., 
which see; restoration of (1920). not 
permitted, lllb. See namea below: 
Rudolph I.. Albert, Albert II., Maxi- 
milian I., Charles V., Ferdinand I., 
Rudolph 11., Matthias. Ferdinand.II.. 
Ferdinand III., Leopold I., Joseph I., 
Charles VI.. (Hapsburg-Lorraine) 
Francis I., Joseph II., Leopold II., 
Francis II.. Ferdinand 1., Francis 
Joseph I. .Charles 1.; in Spain, Charles 
I., Philip II.. Philip III.. Philip IV.. 
Charles 11. — See also Austria, hist, 
outline, 42b, Germany, I03a. 

Hara, premier, of japan. 120f 

Harccurt, W.Vernon.io min'(1886), 
56f; again (1S92), 67b; budget, 57c. 

Hardecanute, dies, I2f. 

Harden, Maximilian, convicted of li- 
bel, 107d. 

Hardenberg. Prince Karl August von; 
premier, 106c. 

Harding, Warren G., portrait. 212; 
life; chronology. 219a- 

Hardinge, Sir Henry (Lord), gov.- 
gen. of India. 64b. 

^of Penahurst, Baroo, viceroy of India, 
64f, 60b. 

Hargreavea, James, spinning jenny. 
21c. 50d. 160a. 

Harkany, battle of. 20a. 

Harley, Robert. Earl of Oxford. 53c. 

Harold Hardraade, kg . of Norway. 12f 

— II., king; defeats Norsemen, 12f; 
William defeats, 13a, 

Harpers Ferry.raided by John Brown, 



161a. 174b; arsenal seized, 174d; 
Uken by Jackson, 175b. 
Harriman, railroad merger, dissolved 

by Supr. Court, 184c. 
Harrisburg, Pa., statistics, 220 
Harriaon. Benjamin, hfe, 217b; chro- 
nology, 217c; portrait. 212. — Other 
rets.: pres. vote: inaugurated. 178f; 
war message on Chile. 83a, 179c; pro- 
clamations against strikers, 179c;8ub- 
mits Hawaiian treaty to Senate, 209f; 
defeated (1892). I63d, 179c, 217a. 
— , William Henry, life, 214d; chronol- 
ogy, 214d; portrait. 212. — Other refs.: 
gov. of Ind., 201d: defeats Tecumaeh, 
170e, 201d; battle of Thames River. 
170f; elected pres., 160c. 172d; inaug.- 
dies. 172d. 
— Act, 186a. 

Hartford. Conn., fnd.. 167e, 196c: 
center life-insurance business, 196d: 
statistics, 220. 
^ Convention, 170f, 196c. 
HartingtOD. Marquis of (Duke of 
Devonshire), in ministry (1880), 56e: 
opposes Home Rule BUI. 56f: in min- 
istry (1895), 57c. 
Hartlepool. Eng.. bombarded, 32f. 
Hartog. Dirk, voy.to Australia, 75d. 
Harun-al-Raahid, caliph, 12c. 
Harvard College, fnd.. 167e, 197a. 
Harvey. Wm., circul. of blood, 18e. 
Hasdrubal, crosses Py renees; defeated 

& kilKd, 9b. 
Hastings (Senlac). battle of, 13a. 
— . Warren, gov. of Bengal, 21c. 63f: 1st 
gov.-g.-n. of India. 63f; recalled, 21c; 
trial, 2Ic. 63f. 
^, Marquis of (Earl of Moira). gov.- 

gen. of India, 64a. 
Hataau, Queen of Egypt. 6f. 
Hatch Act, 178e. 
"Hat-in-the-ring" speech, Ro se- 

velt's. lS3f. 
"Hata. ' ' Sw. party of nobility, I48cif. 
Hatteraa inlet, occupied, 174e. 
Hatti-humayun. proclaimed, 153a. 
— sherif , promulgated, 153a. 
Havana, fnd.: sacked by French. S8d. 
S9a; Fng. Uke. 88e, 89a. 147a: used 
by Confed. blockade runners, 89c; 
Maine blown up in harbor, 164c. 
180b; ashes of Columbus removed 
from to Sp.. 147e; general strike 
(1919): dock workers strike. S9f. 
Havelock. Sir Henry, relieves Luck- 
now. 64c. 
Havre. France, seat of Belg. govt, in 

World War, 47e. 
Hawaii, or Hawaiian Islands, hist, 
outline. 209d: rclig. & educa.. 209f; 
area, 209d: pop.. 209f, 220; recent 
statistics, 222; map. 194, Chronology. 
210a, — Other refs.: Reciprocity Treaty 
with U, S,, I77c; treaty of annexation: 
revolt in; queen deposed; Cleveland 
withdraws treaty. 179d; Republic rec- 
ognized. I79e: annexed to U. S.. 180d, 
217d; territorial govt, estab.. 180e; 
legislature meets; ex-queen asks in- 
demnification, 181a; cable completed. 
181c: Jap. emigration to, 120c; pro- 
hibition in, 191c. 
Hawke, Brit, cruiser, sunk, 32e. 
— , Adm.. defeats French, 53e. 
Hawker. Harry, attempt at Atlantic 
airplane (light, 61c. See also Grieve. 
Hawkeye State, 204c. 
Hawkina, Sir John. 157d. 
Hay, John, sec, of state, 180d; "open- 
door" policy in China, S6b, 164d. 
180d; Roum. Jews, 136f. 181b: reci- 
procity convention between Newf. & 
U. S.. 73f; & Morocco. 128f; diea.lSlf. 
For treaties, sie below. 
^-Bunau-Varilla Panama Canal 

Trt-aty, 8-M. 181d, 210e. 
Hayea, Rutherford Birchard, life; 
chronology, 216c; portrait. 212. — 
Other refs.: pres, vote; contest; de- 
clared elected. 162c. 177e; takes oath, 
177e; administration, 163c; with- 
draws troops from South, 162c, 177e; 
decides EI Chaco controversy. 132a; 
against French Canal grant: vetoes 
Bland- Allison Bill. 177f: vetoes Chin. 
Excl. Bill; vetoes other bills. 178a. 
Hay-Herran Panama Canal Treaty, 

82d. ISlc. 
Haymerle, Heinrich Karl, Baron von. 

premier; dies. 45a. 
Haynau, von. Baron Julius Jakob, 

wins as Temesvar, 44e. 
Hayae, R. V., debate with Webster, 

171f. 

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. Ist. fails, 

82d, 1^0^-; 2nd. passed, 82d. 181a: 

Panama Canal tolls contrary to. 58e. 

"Haystack meeting," centennial. 

lS2a. 
Haywood, Wm. D., sentenced. 191e. 
Haza, El, under Wahabi state, 112c. 
Hazael, defeated, 7b. 
Healdton, sl.-amer. sunk. 35c, I89e. 
"Health marriage," law to enforce, 
in Pa., Wis.. & No. Dak.. 184f. 185a. 
Hearne, Samuel, Eng. explorer in 

Canada. 71b. 
Hebert case, Canada, 72e. 
Hebrewa. See^cuis, 
Hebron. David reigns at. 7a. 
H6dervary . Count, forms cabinet, 45c. 
Hegira ul Mohammed. 12a, 112c. 
Heidelberg, confirmed to Baden.lOOc. 
—, Univ. of. 15a, 104e. 
^ Catechism, 17f, 
Heilbronn. Union of, I9a. 
Heim i'. McCall, Supr. Court decision, 

187d, 
Heinsiua, Grand Pensionary, rules; 

dies, 130a. 
Hejaz, hist, outline: area 8i pop., 112b: 
recent statistics. 222. Chronology (of 
Arabia St Hejaz). Il2b.— Other refs.: 
railway. ir2d: Husein controls. 34f. 
Il2d: emir assumes title of king of 
the, 112e: recognized by Allies. 34c: 
kdm. independent. 152b8i:d; Damas- 
cus turned over to, 112e: at Peace 
Congress, 30f, 37e. 112e: king claims 
Syria. 150f; Turkey recog , independ.. 
H2p, 151b. 154f. Seealso Arabia. 
"He kept US out of war," lS8f. 
Hela. Ger. cruiser, sunk. 32e. 
Helena, -'\rk-. attack on, 175c. 
Helgoland, Den. cedes to Eng.; Eng. 



cedes to Ger., 26a. 57b. 91c: Brit. 

naval victory near (1914). 28a, 32e. 
Helicopter, illust. of. 160. 
Hellenes = Grfeis. Kingdom of. 109f. 
Hellenic League, 8d. 
Hellespont. Ancient name of Darda- 

Hell Gate Bridge, completed. 137c. 
Helper. H, R. , /mpendinp Crwiw 173f. 
Helsingfcrs occupied by Ger., 93e. 
Helvetian (Helvetic) republic, es- 
tab.. 22a, 99a, 149d, 150c. 
Henderson, Arthur, m coalition cabi- 
net (1915). S9c; mwarcabinet(1916), 
60a; resigns, 60c. 
Hendricks, T.A.,v.pres, vote(1876). 
I77e: elected v. pres. (1884) ,17Sc. 201. 
Hendry, Canad. explorer. 71b. 
Hengist. lands in Eng.. lOf. 
Hennepin, Father, explorer. 205b&c. 
Henr f quez y Carva jal , prov . pres . 

Dominican Repub,. 92c. 
Henry. Eng. explorer in Canada, 71c. 
^, Patrick. 212b, 

^ of Anjou. duke = //enry ///.of Fr. 
^ of Anjou (Plantagenet) = Henry II. 

of Eng. 
^ (the Proud) of Bavaria & Saxony, 
duke, contest with Conrad III.; de- 
feats Albert the Bear; dies. 13c. 
"- I., of Eng., restores Normandy to 

Eng., 13b. 
^ II. (Plantagenet), of Eng,; French 
possessions, 13c; relinquishes claims 
against church; Wm. the Lion of 
Scot., 13d; dies, 13e. 
^ III., of Eng., king. 14a: war with 

barons: prisoner, 14b, 
— IV., of Eng., becomes king; conq. 

Percys at Shrewsbury. 15b. 
^ v., of Eng., at Agincourt; acquires 

Fr. crown: enters Pans; dies, 15c. 
"~ VI., of Eng., proclaimed king of Fr.; 
crowned, 15c; Duke of York against, 
15d: imprisoned; Warwick restores; 
murdered. 15e, 
^ VII. (Tudor), of Eng., as duke of 
Richmond, defeats Richard 111., 15e; 
becomes king; marries Eliz, of York: 
Treaty of Medina del Campo; war 
against Fr., 15f. 
^ VIII.. of Eng., marries Catherine of 
Aragon; Holy League; invades Fr., 
16e; peace with Scot. & Fr.; Francis I. 
entertains. 16f; wars, with Francis I., 
against Charles V.; & Wolsey. 17a; 
marriage annulled; marries Anne Bo- 
leyn: head of Eng. Church; incorpo- 
rates Wales, 17b; Aune Boleyn be- 
headed, marries Jane Seymour; mar- 
ries Anne of Cleves; divorces her; 
marries Catherine Howard; marries 
Catherine Parr; king of Ireland: joins 
Charles V. against Fr.; dies, I7c. 
^III,, of Fr. (Henryof Anjou), king 
of Poland: becomes king of Fr,:Treaty 
of Bergerac, ISa; Caiholia League; 
reconciled: Henry of Navarre defeats, 
18b; flees from Paris; States-General; 
alliance with Henry of Navarre; as- 
sass., ISc. 
™» IV., of Fr. (Henry of Navarre), as 
Henry of Navarre marries Marga- 
ret of Valois: escapes from Pans; 
leads Huguenots, ISa; defeats Henry 
III. at Coutras. I8b; alliance with 
Henry III.. ISc; succeeds him as 
Henry IV.. 18c. 40c; wins at lvr>-; 
abjures Protestantism: crowned; en- 
ters Paris: campaign against Sp.; 
Edict of Nantes, ISc; assass., 18e. 
^I, (theFow|(;r). of Ger-, chosen king. 
12d. 103a: defeats Hung.. 12e: suc- 
ceeded by Otto I.. 103a. 
^ III., of Ger., king; decrees Clement 

II, pope; dies, I2f. 
^ IV., of Ger.. becomes king; Hanno 
seizes, 1 2f ; controv . with Gregory; 
deposes Gregory; deposed & excom- 
municated; submits to Rome; ab- 
solved: again deposes Gregory; ad- 
vance on Rome; besieges Gregory, 13a. 
"■V., of Ger., arrests Paschal II.; pope 
crowns: excommunicated: papal diffi- 
culties settled: free election of bish- 
ops; dies. 13b, 
^ VI., of Ger., becomes king; Richard 

I.; dies. 13e. 
^ VII. (of Luxemburg), of Ger. .emp,; 
It. exped.;3iegeof Florence; dies, 14e. 
^ of Guise = Gi(ise, Henry. 
^ of Luxemburg=/fenri/ V//. of Ger.. 

14e. 
^ of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,duke,I30c 
^ of Navarre = //cnrtf IV. of Fr. 
^ of Prussia. Prince, visits Japan.I20d; 

visits U. S.. 107d, 18la.. 
^ of Saxony (the Lion), duke, gets 

Saxony. 13c; loses it, I3d. 
^ the FowIer= Henry I. of Ger. 
^ the Proud = //enrj/ of Bavaria & 

Saxony, duke. 
^ the Lion = //eT)ry of Saxony, duke. 
^ the Navigator. Ud. 15d. 134f. 157b. 
•^ Stuart = />arn/ y. Lord. 
— • V. Dick Co.. (Mimeograph Case). 

Supr. Court decision. 183f. 
Henty, settles Portland Bay, 75e. 
Hepburn Act, 164f, 182a; Supr. Court 
upholds constitutionality, I82f, 185e. 
^ Isthmian Canal Act, 82d. 181b. 
^ V. Griswold, Supr. Court decision. 

176f. 
Heptarchy in Eng.. era. lOf; suze- 
rainty of Egb'.rt. 12c. 
Heraclea, battle of, 8f. 
Heracleopolite dyn.,9th and 10th, 6e. 
HeraclidsB, return of, 7a. 
Heracliua. against Pers.: defeats 

Chnsroes II. at Nineveh. I2a. 
Herat, Pers. attack, 132b, 64c; Eng. 
& Pers. lA-ar over, 132e; Pers. gives 
up. 64c, 132e; Rus. designs on. 141b. 
Herculaneum, destroyed, lOb. 
Hereros. African people. I05b. 
Herjulfson, sights N. A., 12e. 
Hermann^ ,4rmmtu8. lOa. 
^ of Luxemburg. 13a. 
Herminonea, conquer Rome, 6a. 
Herod Agrippa. king of Judea. 10b. 
^ the Great, king of Judea. 10a. 
Herodotua, in Athens, 7f. 
Hero Fund, fstab, by Carnegie. ISld, 
Herran. T. See Hay-Herrdn Treaty. 
Herrera, Jos6 J. de. acting pres. of 
Mex.: overthrown, 126d; prea. 126e. 
— y Obes, Julio, pres. Uruguay, I55c, 



Hertling. Georg F. von, prem. of Ba- 
varia: Ger. chancellor. 108c; Wilson's 
peace terms, lOScJid; states peace 
terms: resigns. 108d. 
Hertzog, Gen., Boer leader in So. 

Africa, 67e. 
Heruli, kingdom of. in It., lib, 
Herulians. See //ermmones. 
Herzegovina, early hist.. 123c: source 
of name, I23d: insurr. (1861), 153a: 
(1875). 153b; rising in (1882), 45a: 
joins Serbia, 121c: in Jugo-Slavia. 
121d. Site also Bosnia St. Her zeoovina, 
Juoo-Slavia. 
BeTz\'s Jewish Slate, pub.. 131d. 
Hesiod, Greek epic poet, 7c. 
Hesperian, Brit. liner, sunk. 33a, 187c. 
Hesse, reforms in (1848), 106d: in 
state of war, 106e; Prus. invades; 
sides with Aust.. incorporated with 
Prus., I06f. 
— Caasel, independ. otate, 106c; radi- 
cal agitation, new constitution, lOCd. 
Hessians, m Amer. Rev,. 156f. 
Hetch Hetchy Act, ISSb. 
Heureaux, Gt-n. Uhsse, pres. Domin. 

Ripub , assas.. 92b, 
Hezekiah, becomes king, 7c. 
Hicks-Beach, Sir Michael, in minis- 
try, 57c. 
Hicka Pasha. Mahdi defeats, 68e. 
Hidalgo. Miguel, leads revolt ia 
Me.v., betrayed & executed. 126a. 
Hidetada, shogun; lyemitau succeeds. 

1 19c. 
Hien-fung. dies. 85e. 
Hiero. Syracuse, tyrant (478): defeats 

Etruscans; dies. 7f: (268). 8f. 
SieTonyinus = Jerome. St., lOe. 
High Cost of Living, See Living. 
Highflyer, Brit, cruiser, sinks A'aiser 

Withdm derGroaae, 32e. 
Highlanders, pacihed. 53a. 
Hildebrand = G7-eoori/ VII.. 13a. 
Hill, Sir Rowland, penny postage, 55d. 
Bilmi Pasha, forms cabinet; resigns. 

153f: grand vizier. 154a. 
Himera. battle of. 7f. 
Hindenburg, von. Gen. Paul, com- 
mands in E.Pru3aia:occupies Suvalki, 
32b. at battle of the N iemen; retreats; 
begins invasion of Pol., 32c; near 
Warsaw, 27e;2nd invasion of Pol.. 32c; 
Masurian Lakes. 28b; drives Rua. 
from E. Prus,. 33b&c; retires into E. 
Prus., 33c; & Mackensen. great Aus- 
tro-Ger. offensive under, 28b, 33c; 
takes Warsaw, 28b. 33c. 138a: occu- 
pies Kovno. 33c; succeeds von Falken- 
hayn. 34d, 108a; Ludendorff succeeds, 
35e; offers services to new government; 
forbids conflicts with Councils. 108f; 
arrives in Berlin, 109b: causes Royal- 
ist demonst. (1919), I09c. 
— line, built. 34d: retreat to (1917), 
29e, 35d: pierced (1917), 35d; final 
assault. 36f; penetrated, 30d. 36f, 
Hinduiam, 63b. 

HindU3(East Indians), National Con- 
gress (1885), 64d: immigration to 
Canada, 72baif: strike in Natal. 67d; 
Nat. Cong, (1916), 65a; in Fiji Isls. 
77e: in Mauritius, 65f: in Trinidad. 
74d: in Brit. Guiana. 74e. See /niiio. 
Hindustan. See India. 
Hinea, Walter D.. director-general of 
railroads. 192c; & R. R. strikes. I93b. 
Bintze, Adm. von. for. sec.; resigns, 

108d. 
Hipparchus, 7e. 
Hippias. tyrant expelled, 7e. 
Hippo, Bishop of, lOf. , 

Hippolyte, civil war: pres., lllf. 
Hirobito. crown prince of Japan, I20e. 
Hirsch, Baron Maurice de. fnds. Jew- 
ish Colonization Assoc. ISld. 
Hispaniola = //airi, disc., 16d, 92a, 

lllb. 
History, divisions of. 11a; Ancient, 
5b-10f; Medieval. lla-15f; Early 
Modern, 16a-22f; Nineteenth-Cen- 
tury. 23a-26f; World-War, 27a-38f. 
Hit, captured. 30c, 37c. 
Hitchtnan Coal & Coke Co. v. 
Mitchell, Supr. Court decision. 190d- 
Hittitea, culture of, 5f: first appear- 
ance, fie; overthrown; peace with Ram- 
ses. leave Asia Minor:fall of power. 6f. 
Hobart. G. A. .vice pres. (1896), 180a. 
Hobart Town. 75d: settled. 75e. 
Hobkirk'a Hill, S. C, battle of. 169b. 
Hobson. Lt, sinks MerHmac, 180c. 
Hochkirch, battle of, I06a. 
Hocbstadt, battle of, 20d. 146e. 
Hodel. attacks William I.. 107a. 
Hodgenville. Ky.. Lincoln Memorial, 

I82t-. 183e. 
Hoe. R M.. printing press, 24d, 173a. 
HoSmann. member Federal Council. 

resigns, 150e. 
Hogue, Brit, cruiser, sunk, 28a. 
— , La. battle off. 53a. 97e. 130a, 
Hohenems, Count of. 124a. 
Hohenfriedeberg, battle of 43f. 
Hohenlinden, battlr-of, 22a. 44b, 99b. 
Hohenlohe-Schilllngsfiirat. Prince 
of, becomes chancellor. 107c; von Bii- 
low succeeds, 107d. 
Hohenstaufen line, of Ger.. begins. 
I3c: acquires Two Sicilies, 13e; ends, 
14b. Sovereigns. — Conrad III ..Fred "k 
I.. Henry VI.. Philip. Otto IV., 
Fred'kll., Conrad IV. 
Hohenwart, Count of, ministr>', 44f. 
HohenzoUern (see in Diet.), dynasty 
estab.. 20c: candidate for Sp, throne 
(1870). 25d, 100c, 107a: as emperors 
of Ger., see William I.. Frederick 
III.. William II. 
Hoke V. United States. Supr. Court 

decision, 184d. 
Holden v. Hardy, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 180b. 
"Holiday of National Shame," 87e. 
Holkar. Jaswant Rao, chief, 64a. 
Holland. Sie Netherlands. 
Holly Springs, Miss.. Van Dora 

raids. 1 75b. 201e. ^ 

Holstein. See Schleawig-Holatein. 
^-Gottorp. House of, 91c, 140a. 
Holy Alliance. 23a. 24b. 44c. I06c. 
140d; restores absolutism in Naples. 
24c. 114f;passe3 its zenith, 24c: revival 
of principles. 24e; no longer possible 
in Europe (1848). 24f. 
^ Cities, Mecca & Medina. Il2c. 
^City = Jerusalem. 29f. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



237 



Holy coat of Treves. pilErimaees.l06d. 
^ Land, 131c; attempt to recover ends. 

14c; Christian power in ends, Hd. 

See Palestine. 
^ Leaeuc. against Fr., 16e; against 

Turka. 18a. 
^ Name of Jeau9 = .San Miguel, 210f. 

— places, in Syria, 150f, 151a. 

■^ Roman Empire, historical out- 
line, lie. 16b; map (1648). 18. See 
under Gcrmanw. 103a; also Roman 
Empire. in Diet. Charlemagne 
crowned; Louis I. (the Debonair); di- 
vided in three parts. 12c; Otto 1., 12e: 
divided into Prot. & Catholic states 
(1648). 43e. 105d; Diet of. 19e; 
Liechtenstein in, 124a: "mediatiza- 
tion." 22c. 106b; secularized; Cath. 
& Prot. votes in Diet, lOBb; breaks up, 
22c; end of, 22d. 42c. 99c, 106c. See 
following names: Charles I., the Great 
(Charlemagne); Louis I- (the Debo- 
nair); Lothaire I.; Louis II.; Charles 
II. (the Bald); Charles 111- (the 
Fat); Arnulf; Louis HI.: Henry I.; 
Otto I.,I1.S: III.: Conrad II.: Henry 
III.. IV. & v.: Lothaire 11.; 
Conrad HI.; Frederick I. (Barbaros- 
sa); Henry VI.: Philip: Otto IV.; 
Frederick II.: Conrad IV-: Rudolph 
I.; Adolphus: Albert I.; Henry VII.; 
Louis 1V-; Charles IV.; Wenceslaus; 
Rupert; Sigismund; Albert U.; Maxi- 
milian I.; Charles V.; Ferdinand I.: 
Rudolph II.: Matthias; Ferdinand II. 
& III.; Leopold 1.; Joseph i.; Charles 

• VI. & VII-; Francis 1.; Jospeh II.; 
Leopold n.; Fraocia II. 

— Sepulcher. 13b. 

— war (1915). 27f, 42a. 
Homer, age of, "a. 

Home Rule. Irish, gen. account, 50f. 
51a; Federation organized, 56d: intro. 
(1886), 56f; (1893); passes Commons; 
Lords reject, 57b; (1912), 58d: Ulster 
against; passes Commons: Lords re- 
ject; passes 2nd time, 58e; Roberts 
against forcing; Asquith's compro- 
mise plan; passes 3rd time, 58f; 
suspended during war, 58f, 59a: & 
Ulster Nationalists, 59f; & Irish 
Nationalists. 60a: Lloyd George's 
propoBal(1917),60b;proposed for Scot. 
& Wales. 60f; (1919), introd.; noteat- 
isfacton' to Ire., 61e. 

Homestead, Pa., strike riots, 179c. 

— Law. enacted. 175a; enlarged, 182e. 

Horaonhon = MaMon, 210f. 

Honan, rebellion, S5c. 

Honduras, hist, outline: organization: 
govt.; indus. & production; relig. & 
educ; defense; area & pop., 79e&f; 
recent statistics, 222; map, 64. Chro- 
nology, 80c. — -Other refs.: relig. re- 
lations with Guat., 79d; in Greater 
Repub. of Cen. Amer., 79b; Salv. 
supporU; sues Salv., 80b; severs dipl. 
relations with Ger., 35c; enters World 
War, 36c, 38f. 

— , British. See Bri/isA //ontiura*. 

^, Gulf of. settlement on. SOc. 

Hongi Ika, Maori king, 76f. 

Hongkong, descnp., 62d; ceded to Gr. 
Brit ,.'i,)d, 84a, S5d: ter. added to, 57d, 
SOb; typhoon, 86d. 

Honolulu, Hawaii, settled. 220; wire- 
less tel. messages received at, 187c; 
strategic position of, 209d; pop., 222. 

Honorius, Emp., at Ravenna; gives 
up Britain, lOf. 

— Ill,, fope, 14a. 
Honv6ds6g, 113e. 

Hood, t^.cn. John B.. in Confed. com- 
mand; attacks Sherman; invades 
Tenn., 175f. 

Hooker, Gen. Jos., Chancellorsville, 
Itile, 175c; Meade succeeds, 175c. 

Hook of Holland, Bnt. cruisers sunk 
oft, 32e. 

Hoosier State, 201d. 

Hoover, Herbert C, directs work of 
Belg. Relief Com., 46f , 47f ; appointed 
U. S. food admin., lyOa; restrictions 
on food, 191a; food relief in Europe 
(1919), iy2c. 

Hopetoun, Earl of, 1st gov.-gen. of 
Australia. 76b. 

Hophra= ,-lprif«, 7d. 

Horace, 10a. 

Horn, Count of, executed, 17f. 

—,Wi-r nor, attempts to dynamite bridge. 
186c. 

Hornet, defeau Peacock, 159e. 170e: 
sinks t'enuuin, IJla. 

Horsa, in England, lOf. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 170f. 

Hortensian law, enacted, 8e. 

Horthy. Adm. Nicholas von, regent of 
Hungaiy, lUb. 

Horvath, Gen., govt, in Siberia, 143c. 

Hosea, prophet. 7b. 

Hoshea. 7c. 

Hospital ships, Brit., sunk, 36b. 

H6tel di 8 Invalides, Napoleon's re- 
mains at, 100b. 

Hdtaendorf , von. Trent ino offens.,34e. 

Hours of labor, U. S., act limiting, 
182b; 54-hour a week law in N. Y., 
184b; in Pa., I84f; for textile workers, 
192d. 

Housatonic, Amer. steamer, sunk, 
35c, 189c. 

House, Col. Edward M., Wilson's in- 
vestigator in Europe, 187e; heads 
Amer, War Com., 190c; at Paris 
Peace Conf.. 192a. 

^ of Representatives, U, S., how made 
up, 159b: adopts rule of previous 
question, 166c, 170d;"'Reed rules" 
estab. in, 179a: Speaker of, power 
much reduced. 183a. 

Housing and Town Planning Act, 
Eng., 6 Id. 

Houston, David F., sec. of agric, be- 
comes sec. of treasury, 194e. 

— •, Gen. Sam, 204a. 

^, Tex., race riot, 190a&d; statistics, 
220. 

Howard, Catherine. Henry VIII. mar- 
ries, 17c. 

^, D. E.. pres. Liberia. 123f. 

^, Sir Henry, Bnt. amb. to Vatican, 
117c. 

^, Lord, & Sp Armada, 18c. 

Howe, Elias.Bewingmachine.24d, 173a. 

^, Joseph. Canad. politician, 71e; in 
ministry, 72a. 



^, Sir Wm. defeats Washington, 168f: 

takes Philadelphia, 169a. 
Howland Isl.. belongs to U.S.,210d. 
Hsiian-tung (Pu-yi), emp. of China, 

84d, S6d. 
Hsu Shib-chang. prem. of China, 

S7a; pres.; resigns: not accepted, 87e. 
Huascar, in Peru, 133a. 
Hubertsburg, Peace of, 21c, 42d. 

44a. lOGa. 
Hudson, Henry,e-\plores Hudson Riv.; 

18e. 157c, 167c, 198f. e.xplores Bay & 

Strait, 18e. 70f. 91f; dies. ISe. 

— Bay, explored (1610). 18e, 70f; 
(1658); Fr. post taken by Eng., 71a; 
country ceded to Eng., 53c, 69b, 71b, 
97f, 168b. 

^-Fulton celebration. 182f. 

— River, disc, 18e. 167c; 1st tunnel 
under opened, 182d; Penn. R. R. 
electric trains under, 183b; exhibition 
of iK-.'t. lS6f. 

Hudson's Bay Co., chartered, 19e, 
"la. Iti7f; parts of U. S. included, 
205c, 206f; Fr. capture posts, 71a; 
estab. post; explores region, 71b- ab- 
sorbs N.-W. Fur Co., 71d; estab. 
posts in Ore-, 71d, 205d; on Van- 
couver Is., 71e; surr. Vane. & Winni- 
peg to crown, 71f; claims purchased, 
19e, 69b&d, 72a. 

Hue, Fr. storm, 100c. 

Huelsemann incident, 24f. 

Huerta, Victonano. 164e; prov. pres. 
of Mex.; has Madero & Sudrez shot. 
127e; Wilson refuses to recognize, 
125d, 127e; elected prea., 127e; Tam- 
pico incident, 127e, 185c; resigns. 
125d, 127f. 

Hugh of Vcrmandois, 1st crusade, I3b. 

Hughes, Chas. E.. life insur. investi- 
gation, I81f; gov. of N. v., 199b; 
nomin. for pres , lS8c: Progressives 
indorse, 188d; Roosevelt supports. 
218b; aircraft investigation (1918). 
191c&f; & Leagm of Nations, 193a. 

^, Sir Sam, resigns, 73a. 

•■■, Wm. M., premier of Australia; ex- 
pelled from Labor party; resigns & 
forma coalition ministry, 76e: resigns; 
again premier; at Peace Conf. 76f. | 

Hucuenots, worship limited;wars be- 
gun, 17e; 1st colony in Amer., 167b; 
defeated at Dreus,17e;2nd (St. John's 
River) colony in Amer., 167b; wars 
renewed; peace of Longjumeau; strife 
renewed; defeated at Jarnac; at Mon- 
contour, 17f; Treaty of St. Germain; 
massacre of St. Bartholomew; war re- 
newed: LaRochtlle; toleration; Henry 
of Navarre; Catholic League; treaty 
with Henry III.. ISa; Philip II.; war 
resumed, l8b; alliance with Henry 
III.; Edict of Nantes, 18c; Louis 
XIII.; wars renewed (1625); treaty 
with Louis XIH.. ISf; yield La Ro- 
chelle; wars ended. 19a; legal status 
(1648). 97c; efforts to convert; perse- 
cution. 9ic; Edict of Nantes revoked; 
leave Fr., 20a, 97e; in Amer., 1571; 
in So. Carolina, 197e. 

HulakU Khan. 14b. 

Hull, Gen., surr. Detroit, 170e. 

Humanitarian movement. 24d. 

Humbert I. (Umberto), reigns, 116d; 
& Leo XIII.. U6e; assas., llGf. 

— swindle, exposed, lOlb. 
Humble Petit ion and Ad vice, Eng.,52b. 
Humboldt glacier, 91f. 
Handing Im.-, 36f; Ger. fall back to; 

a-,auU..l. :t7a. 

"Hundred Days," 94b. 

"Hundred Thousand Islands," 65b. 

Hundred Years' War, begins, 14f; ends. 
15d. 

Hungary, hist, outline, 112e; organi- 
zation, govt.. 113c; industry & labor, 
religion, 113d; education, defense. 
113e; area. I13e, 221; pop., 113e; 
recent statistics, 222; map, 38, 64. 
Cbronolocy, 113e. — other refs.: 
Henry the Fowler; Otto the Great; 
St. Stephen; accepts Rom. church. 
12e: crusaders in, 13b: Andrew II. & 
5th crusade; Golden Bull, 14a; Bela 
IV. loses Styria, 14b; crown elective, 
Hd: Louis the Great, 15a; Solyman 
the Magnilicent, 17a: John Zapolya, 
17b; Turks again overrun, 17c; last in- 
vasion, 17f; Rudolph II. loses, ISd; 
Kupnli invades, 152d; Buda retaken 
by Austr.; Turkish ascendancy over- 
thrown. 20a; under the Hapsburgs. 
105e* Joseph I.. 20a; ceded to Austria, 
20b. 42d (for events in common with 
Austria, sec Austria, Hist, outline. 
42b. & Chronology, 43e); seeks to 
Magyarize Serbian peoples, 122e&:f; 
Bohemians oppose separate Hung., 
90c; Russia reduces, 24f ; blockade not 
raised (1919), 38a; Roum. army in- 
vades, 136d, receives treaty, 38b, 90e. 
See also World War, decho-Sloca- 
kia. JuooSlavia. 

Hung Siu-tsuen. 85d&e. 

Huns, Attila invades Thrace; Gaul; at 
Orleans: battle of Chilons, lOf. 

Hunyadi, John (Hunyadi Janos) de- 
teats Turks; son chosen king I12f. 

Hupeh province, rebels victorious, 8 6e. 

Hurley, Edward N., chairman Ship- 
ping Board. 190a; plans for 191S.191a. 

Huron, Lake, Champlain crosses, 70f. 

Hurricanes. See Storms. 

Husein ibn Ali. shereef & emir of 
Mecca. 112d; Eng. agreement with. 
125a; declares independ. from Turkey, 
34b, ll2d, occupies Mecca; controls 
Hejaz, 34f; proclamation, 112d; king 
of Hejaz, 34b, 112b; rc-cognized by 
Allies. 34c. 

Huss. John, burned. 15c. 

Hussarek.von, premier; resigns, 46b. 

Hussein Kamil, nominal sultan of 
Egypt, 68b&Lf; dies, 69a. 

Hussites, in Prague; Jan Ziska; rav- 
age Saxony, Franconia & Bavaria; 
uprising ends, 15c. 

Huazar coalition, I14b. 

Hutchinson, Anne, fnds. Providence, 
1991. 

Hwang (Yellow) River, overflows,86a. 

Hyderabad, Bussy at. 63e; Nizam of. 
63f, 64a; Nizam cedes Berar to Brit. 
E India Co; loyal during mutiny, 64c. 

Hyksos dyn.. 15th & 16th; Shepherd 
kings, 6e; driven out, 6f. -. ■ 



Hylacomylus, 157c. 

Hylan, John F., mayor of N.Y., 190c. 

Hylton 1 . U. S., Supr. Court decision, 

170a 
Hyrcanusl. (John), at Jerusalem, 9d, 
^ II.. high priest, 9f. 
Hystaspes, 7e. 



Iberian, Br. 5. S.. sunk, 187b. 

Ibrahim Lodi, of Delhi. 17a. 

^ Pasha, overthrows Wababis. 112d: 
commands Egyptian force; in Morea; 
retires fr. Morea, 110b; routs Turks; 
loses Crete & Syria, 152f; driven out 
of Syria. 6Sd; regent of Egypt, 68a. 

Iceland, hist, outline. 114b; govt.; 
area & pop., 114c; recent statistics, 
222; map, 64. — Other refs.: colonized, 
I2d, 157a; conquered. 130c: Frederick 
VIII. visits. 114c; law to protea fish- 
eries, 91d. 

Iceni defeat Romans, 10b. 

Xconium. crusaders at. 13b&e. 

Idaho, hist, outline, 207d, statistics. 
220: area, 221; cluonologj-, 207e, — 
Other refs.: Ter. organized, 175c. 207e: 
Montana incl. in, 207c; Wyo. in,207f; 
admitted. 179a; adopts woman suf- 
frage, ISOa; forest lires, 183b: adopts 
prohibition. 186b. 

^, U S. battleship, Greece buys, llOe. 

Iddesleigh, Lord = JVor(Aco(c, Sir S. 

Ifni, I46d, 

Iglau, Treaty of, 15c. 

Iglesias, pres. of Peru; renounces con- 
trol, 133e- 

Ignatiev, N. P.. min. of interior; suc- 
ceeded, 141a. 

Ignatius. bp. of Antiocli:martyred,10c. 

Igorrotes. 211a. 

Iguala, Plan of, Mexico, 80d, 126a. 

Ikhnaton = .4meTiop/(ta IV. 

Ildefonso, San. See San lldefonso. 

lie de France. See Mauritius. 

tie du Diable, Dreyfus at, 97b. 

Hi. S5c&f, 141a. 

Illinois, hist, outline, 202a; statistics, 
220: area, 221; chronology, 20'2b.— 
Other refs.: 1st settlement, 16Sa; ter- 
ritory' created. 170d; organized. 202c: 
includes Wis., 204e; & part of Minn.. 
205c; admitted. 171b; Black Hawk 
War, 172a; woman suffrage in, 184f. 

— , Univer. of. 202b. 

— . U. S. S.. sunk, 189e, 

^ Central R. R., 173d. 

Illyria, ceded to Aust., 22a. 

Illyrian pirates, 9a. 

— Provinces, 99e, 122f; Napoleon gets, 
122t!: restored to Austria, 44c. 

"^ Slavs," union of. 122f. 

lUyrians, Philip 11. defeats, 8c. 

Illyrian War, 2nd. 9b. 

"lis ne passeront pasl" 28e. 

Immaculate Conception (see in 
Did). 25a. 

Immigration, Australia, Chinese re- 
stricted, 76a&b; Restriction Act 
(1902), 76b; amendment. 76c. 

—•.Canada, Chinese, 72b; Japane3e,72e; 
law (1919), 73d. 

— , Hawaii, 209f. 

^, U. S., numbers, (1820, 1st official 
report); 1789-1820 est., 171c; (1820- 
ISeO), 24c; (1825). 171d; (1830), 
171f: (1835). 172b; (1840), 172d: 
(1845), n2f; (1850), 173c; (1854 & 
53), 173f; (1860), 174b; (1865), 175f; 
(1870), 176f; (1875J, 177c: (18s0), 
178a: (1885), I78c; (1890), 179a: 
(1895), 179f: (1900), I80e; (1905), 
ISle; (1910), 182f; after 1910, given 
for each year, iachronol.. 183-194. 

— , U. S., general statistics; from vari- 
ous nations, 162e; Ger. into U. S. 
(1848). 24f; Burlingame Treaty(1868) 
allows Chtnese,85e;Chinese restricted 
(1880); Chinese forbidden (Chinese 
Exclusion Act, 1880), 85f, 17Sa: Chi- 
nese Exclusion Act (1882); act to re- 
strict general immigration, 178b: 
great growth of (1891): restriction 
proposed, 179b; "Geary Law" against 
Chinese (1895) , 86a; Cleveland vetoes 
bill for literacy test, 180a; Immigra- 
tion Act (1903), ISlc; Immigration 
Act (1907); restrictions on Japanese, 
182b; Taft vetoes literacy test for 
(1915), 184d; Immigration Act (1917) 
includes literacy test, 189c: during 
World War. 165d. 

— , Dureau of (U. S.), 179f, 182a. 

— , Supt. of (U. S.). 179b&f. 

"Impending Crisis of the South," 
publ.. 173f. 

Imperial Diet, 18e. 

Imperialism, U. S., campaign issue 
(1900). ISOf. 

Imperial Order Daughters of the Em- 
pire, 72f. 

Imports, U. S., (1790), 169e;(1795). 
169f: (ISOO), I70a; (1805), 170c; 
(1810). 170d; {H15), 171a; (1820), 
171c: (1825), 171d; (1830), 171f; 
(1835). 172b; (1840), 172d; (1845). 
172f; (1850), 173c; (1855). 173f; 
(1860), i74b: (1865), 175f: (1870), 
176f: (1875). 177c; (1880). 178a; 
(1885), 178c: (1890), 179a; (1895); 
179f; (1900). 180e; (1905). 181e; 
(1910), 182f; (1911), 183c: (1912), 
183e; (1913), 184c; (1914), 185b; 
(1915), lS7f: (1916), 187f; (1917). 
189b: (191S). I90e; (1919), 192c. 

Impressment, Eng. claims right of, 
159d; in effect (1807), 170c&e. , 

Inarus, Athenians aid, 7f. 

Incas, empire of, 48d, 133a: civiliza- 
tion overthrown, 133a, 

Income tax. Confederate, 175b. I 

— tax, Eng. (1842), 55d. 

— tas,U.S. (1861), 174e; (1862), I75a; 
declared constitutional, 178a: bill 
passed; unconstitutional, 163e, 179f; 
amend, to Constitution passed (1913), 
lS4d, 165c; exemption, 185a; yield 
from (1914). 185e; (1915), lS7a; Su- 
preme Court decl, constitutional, 
188a: collections (1916), 188d: in- 
creased, 190b. 

— Tax Act, Canada (1917), 73b. 
Indemnity Act, So. Africa. 67d. 
Independence, Mo., Gen. Price be- 
fore, 175f. -. 



^, War of. See Revolutionary War. 
^ Day, Argentine, 40f. 

— Hall, illust , 212. 
Independents in Eng., 50b, 51f. 
Independent Socialists, Sw. Con- 

gri-ss of. 149c. 
India, hist, outline, 62e: govt.. 62f; 
religion; industry & labor, 63b; educ; 
defense, 63c; area. 63d, 221; pop, ,63d; 
d'-pendcncies, 65b; recent statistics, 
222; map. 64; butTalo. illust., 116. 
Chronology. 63d.— Other refs.: Al- 
exander invades, 8d; under Gr. con- 
trol, 6a; Mahmud invades, 12e; sea 
route to, 157b; Mogul dyn. estab., 
17a; Akbar the Great, 17e; Jahangir, 
18d; Shah Jahan, 19a; Calcutta fnd-, 
20a; Nadir Shah invades: sack of 
Delhi, 20f; war bet. Fr. & Eng.; Eng. 
supremacy estab., 2Ib; Brit, rule in, 
50f; Fr. power destroyed, 98b; terms 
of treaty (1784) with Du. regarding, 
54b: relations with Bhutan, 48c: 
troops in Mesopotamia in World War, 
I25a; India Defense Force Act. 65a: 
1st imperial war cabinet, 60b;2nd ses- 
sion, 60f; cost of World War, 38c. 

— Bill, Fox's, 63f. 

— Bill. Pitts, 54a: Act, 63f. 
^ Defense Force Act, 65a. 
Indiana, hist, outline, 201d: sutis- 

tics, 220; area, 221; chronology, 201e. 
— Other refs.: 1st settlement; terr., 
170a&c. 20le. 202c, 204e, 205c; ad- 
mitted, nia&b; floods (1913), 184e: 
woman suffrage, lS9d, 190c; prohibi- 
tion, 189c. 

Indian Allotment Law, 178d. 

Indianapolis, Ind.. statistics, 220. 

Indian Councils Act, 63a, 64c, e&f. 

^ massacres, Wyoming Valley, Pa., 
169a, Raisin River, Mich. ;Fort Mims, 
Ala., 170f; Minn. (1862), 205b; Mon- 
tana, Custer's force, 177d. 

^ Removal Act, 172a. 

•^ Territory, 208c&d: tribes removed to, 
172a; partly opened to settlement, 
1 78f , — See also Oklahoma. 

— wars, in Mass., 196f. 

Indians, American, 166a&b: colonist 
trade with,I57f; methods of European 
nations with, loSa; Indian Removal 
Act; right to sue in Federal courts de- 
nied; Black Hawk War; Federal govt, 
has excl. authority over; removal be- 
yond Mississippi; Civilized Tribes in 
Ind. Ter., 172a: made nat'l wards, 
177a; become citizens, 208d. See also 
Apaches, Chr^okees, Sioux, etc.; In- 
dian Massacres. 

— Relief Act, 67d. 

Indo-Chinji. See /^rencft/ndo-CAino. 
Indonesians, 211a. 
Indulgence, Declaration of (Eng.). 

issuL'd by Charles II.; rescinded. 52d; 

by James II., 52f. 
Indulgences, selling decreed, 16f. 
Industrial Conciliation & Arbitration 

Act, New Zealand (1894), 77c. 

— Conference, at Wash., D. C, 193d; 
2nd, 193f. 

^ Disputes Investig.Act, Canada, 72d. 

— Parliament. British (1919), 61b. 

— Union (U.S.), 164a. 

— Workers of the World. See 7. TF. IT. 
Industry, advancement in during 19th 

cent., 23c; in U. S. in 50 yrs. after 
Civil War, 162d; eCfect of World War 
on in U. S., IStia. — For Industry & 
labor in any country, see under Or- 
oanization following Hist, outline of 
that country. 

Infallibility, papal, 25d, 116d. 

Infantile paralysis, epidemic. 188d. 

Inflation Bill. 177c. 

Influenza, Spanish. 191eS:f, 108d. 

Ingersoll, Jared, 170e. 

Inglesias, 127b. 

IngoS, the Norwegian, 114c. 

Ingria, Rus. cedes to Sw., 18e: Sw. 
cedes to Rus., 20f, 137c, 140a, 148f. 

Inheritance tax, 180e, 100b. 

Initiative, m Switz., 150d; in U. S^ 
165a, lS3f; inCalif., lS3e, 204f;Colo., 
206d; Mich., 203d; Ohio, 200f; Okla., 
208c; Ore.,205d; S. Dak.. 206f;Wash., 
207c. — See also Referendum. 

Inkermcn, battle of, UOe. 

Inner Mongolia. Gee Mongolia. 

Innocent II., Pope, Anacletus li. at- 
tacks, Lothaire II. sustains, 13c. 

— III., Pope, 4lh crusade. 13e; 5th 
crusade; against Albigenses; Langton 
Abp. Canterbury; aids Fred 'k Il.,13f. 

^IV., Pope; Fred'k 11. deposed, 14b. 

— XII., Pope, 20b. 
Innsbruck, student riots at, 45b. 
Inoculation, intro. into Eng., 20f. 
Xnouff, Count, n9f. 
Inquisition, 14a&b. 
Institute of France, fnd., 98f. 
Institutes of theChristian Relig. ,17c. 
Instrument of Govt. (1653), 52a. 
insular Cases, Supr. Court. 180f, 2l7d. 
Insurance, Life, investigation in N. 

Y.. 181f; War (U. S.), lS5f, I90b: 
•Workmen's(Ger.),103e, 107b; Work- 
men's (Switz.) ,150e. Seealso ITor*- 
inomen. Workmen's compensation. 

Interallied Council, 1st, 35d. 

In' ernal revenue (see internal, a., 3, 
Diet.). 175a, 176d&e.l76f, 177b, 178b. 

International, 3rd, 131b, 149c. 

^Arbitration Congress, 180a. 

— Assoc- for reform & codi6cation of 
internal. law, 150d. 

— Assoc, of Bridge and Structural Iron 
Workers, 183e. 184c. 

^ Commission, at Pans, 154d. 

— Congress of Women, 130c. 
^copyright. See Copyrt(jA(. 

^ Harvester Co., fined, 184b; decl. a 

monopoly: govt, suit .against ends, 

185e, 191d. 
^ Harvester Co, r. Kentucky, Supr. 

Court decision: v. Missouri, Supr. 

Court decision. 185d. 
^ Interoceanic Canal Society, 82c- 
^ Labor Committee, final report, 37f. 
^ Labor Conference, Ist meeting at 

Wash., 193e. 

— law, amended after Crimean War, 
140f; conference at Bern, 150d; insti- 
tute at Lausanne. 150e. 

^Mercantile Marine Co. formed, 181b. 

^ Opium Conference, 86d. 

^ Peace St Arbitration Assoc, I50d. 



— Waterways Treaty, 182f. 

Internationals. Sp., risings, 147d. 

Interoceanic Canal Co., 81b. 

Interstate Commerce, Supr, Court de- 
cision regarding (1824), I71d; taxei 
on freight in. 177b; equal accommo- 
dations in; telegraph in, 177f; In- 
terstate Commerce Act. 178d; combi- 
nations in restraint of illegal (Sher- 
man Antitrust Act), 179a; Hepburn 
Act. suppl. Interstate Commerce Act, 
I82a: cases, to have precedence ia 
courts, 181c. See also next. 

-~ Commerce Commission, fixes Pull- 
man rates; powers increased (Mann- 
Elkins Act), 183a; orders reductions 
in freight rates, 183b: refuses increase 
in frt. rates; investigates express com- 
panies, I83d; act for physical valua- 
tion by, I84e; new schedule for express 
companies, 185a: & N. Y., N. H., & 
H. R. R., 185e;increa8e in frt. rates 
(1914), 186a; decisions on R. Rs. & 
steamship lines, 186c; freight rates 
increased (1915), 187b: refuses in- 
crease (1917), 189f; recommends R.R. 
control unified during war, 190d: in- 
crease in rates (1918). 191a; opposes 
McAdoo plan for extension of R. R. 
control, 192c; powers extended. 194e. 
See also Railroads. 

— Commerce Law (1887), 163d, 164f. 
^ Commerce Laws, offenses against in 

1910, 183c. 

Intervention, principle of , 24c. ' 

Inventions, 19th Cent., 23b. 24d: era 
of in U. S., 162e. 

Ionian Greeks, revolt; burn Sardis; 
defeated at Ephesus. 7e. 

^ Islands, Fr. receives; Rus. & Turks 
seize, 99a; Brit, protectorate over, 56b; 
annexed to Greece, 110c. 

Iowa, hist. outline,204c; statistics, 220; 
area, 221; chronology, 204d.— Other 
refs.: Territory, 172d, 204d, 205c, 206f, 
207a; admitted, 160e. 173a; adopts 
prohibition. 186b;rejectsprohib, ,190b. 

— . U. S. battleship, illust.. 144. 

^, University of. 204c. 

Ipsus, battle of, Se. 

Iran. 132b. 

Ireland, hist, outline (Great Britain 
& Ireland). 50b; government. 5lb; 
religion. 5ld; area & pop.. 51f, 221; 
recent statistics, 222; map, 18, 38, 64, 
Chronology , 5 1 f .—Other refs .: made 
a_kingdom, 17c; ONeill's rebellion, 
17e; rebellion suppressed. 17f: rebel- 
lion (1641), 19b; rising against Crom- 
well; Cromwell subdues, 51f; James 
II. in, 53a: Catholics oppressed in, 
53b; Brit. Pari, asserts power over. 
53c. 54a; free trade with (1785); Irish 
Pari.; Society of United Irishmen. 
54b; religious disturbances; Fr. at- 
tempt to invade, 54c; rebellion(1798). 
54c, 99a; union with Gr. Brit., 54d; 
Robt. Emmet, 54e; estab church in. 
55b; Poor lawfor (1838); land legisla- 
tion, 55d; famine (1845-6), 24c, 55e: 
Peel's bill for relief of; Russell's act 
for public works for. 55e; rebellion 
(1848); land legislation, 55f; Fenians 
in, 56b: Reform Act for;Disestablish- 
ment Act; Land Law (1870), 56c: 
Home Rule Federation; antirent agi- 
tation; Land League, 56d; Land Act 
(1881); Phoenix Park murders; Irish 
Nat'l League, 56e; Land Purchase 
Act; Gladstone's Home Rule Bill for. 
56f; Irish Crimes Act (1887). 57a: 
Local Gov't Act for (1898); Nation- 
alists reunite, 57d; Edward VII. & 
queen visit, 57e; Land Purchase Act 
(1903). 57f; Universities Act (1908). 
58b; King George & queen visit, 58c: 
Ulster against Home Rule; Home 
Rule Bill (1912) introd., 58d; bill 
passes Commons (1913): rejected; 
again introd.; demonstration of Ul- 
stermen; Dublin transport workers 
strike, 58e; Compulsory Mil. Serv. 
Act does not apply to, 59d; Ger. at- 
tempt to land arms; Sir Roger Case- 
ment; rebel, in Dublin. 59e; manifes- 
toof prelates ( 1917) ; Lloyd George's 
Home Rule proposal; Dublin rebel- 
lion prisoners released, 60b; Irish 
convention. 60c; Reform Act of 1918 
(redistribution of seats in Commons); 
disturbances, 60d&e; Convention of 
1918; incl. in Man Power Act. 60e; 
Lord French becomes Lord Lieut.; 
Sinn Fein agitation, 60f ; Sinn Fein in 
general election (1918); Declaration 
of Independence of; De Valera pres. 
of Irish Republic, 61a; proclamation 
for suppression of Sinn Fein; attempt 
to assas. Lord Lieut.; new Home Rule 
Bill (1919); martial law in; Sinn Fein 
gains; Lord Mayor of Cork assass.; 
hunger strikes & general strike. 61f; 
recognition of Republic sought at 
Peace Conference; hydroplane dights 
to. fr. Newfoundland, 61c. See also 
Home Rule: Sinn Fein. 

Ireton. at Naaeby, 19c; in Ireland, 51f . 

Irigoyen, Hip6lito, pres.. 41b. 222. 

Irish, see /re/and & the following: 

^ Crimes Act. 57a. 

— Disestablishment Act, 56c, 
•— Land Act. 56e. 

^ Land Law, 56c. 

^ Universities Act, 58b. 

Irkutsk. Jap. troops at, 143d. 

Ironclad Oath, for Federal officials, 
175a; for ex-Confederates, 176c; re- 
pealed. 177a. 

Iron Cross, order fnd., 22f. 

"^Division" (of Ger. troops), 124c. 

"^ ring,' ' 95a. 

Ironsides, Cromwell's, 50b. 

Iroquoian family of Indians, 166b. 

Iroquois. See Five Nations. War with 
Fr. colonists. 167c, 70f; power de- 
stroyed, 169b. 

Irredenta {aee Irredentist, in Did.). 
See Italia irredenta. 

Irrigation system in U. S., 26a; 
Corey Act, 179e. 

Isaac, Hebrew patriarch, 6e. 

— Angelus, throne restored, 13e. 
Isabella I., of Castile, weds Ferd of 

Aragon; reigns, I5e; patron of Colum- 
bus, 157b. 
^11,, of Sp,, succeeds to throne; insurr. 
under Don Carlos, her uncle; declared 



238 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



of age; ma!Tie9: reign; flees fr. Sp.; 
abdicates, 145e, I47d. 

Isabella, Countess dEu, 49b. 

Isaiah, 7b. 

iBhli, Viscount, reaches U. S., 190a; 
exchanges notes with Sec. Lansing, 
84e. list". 190c. 

Islam, Islamism, gains Persia, 12a. See 
also Mohammedans. 

iBlamites. defeated. 13b. 

Island No. 10, taken. 174f, 200d. 

Ismail Pasha, ruler of Egypt, 68a. 68d: 
deposed. GSe. 

Isocrates, Sb. 

Isonzo River, in Ital. campaign, 33d. 

Israel, Benhadad ravages, 7b. 

— , Children of, 6e. See also Jews. 

Israelites- See Jews. 

ISSUS, battle near. 8d. 

Isthmian Canal, U. S. interested in 
(1S36), 172c; Canal Com. recom- 
mends (1st) Nicaragua route, (later) 
Panama. 81c; Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 
signed, 181a. — See a\30 Hay-Paunce- 
fote Treaty. Panama Canal. 

— Canal Act. 181b. 

^ Canal Commission, 210e. 

^ games, 9c. 

Istria, Austria cedes, 122f; promised 
to It.. 121b; It. occupy, 121c: Jugo- 
slavia claims, 121c&:d; assigned to 
It.. 121d. 

Italia irredenta {see Irredentist, in 
Diet.). 25d. 2Sc, 29a, 11. c. 

Italian front (1915) 28c. 33d; (1916). 
29a. 34e; (1917), 29e.35f: (1918), 30b. 
37b. 

— Republic. Bonaparte pres.. 22b, 99b. 

— Somaliland. See Soma/nand. Italian. 
Italians,lynched in New Orleans, 179c. 
Italo-American arb. treaty (1914), 

117b. 

Italy (Italians), hist, outline. 114d; 
organization; govt.; indus. & labor, 
115b; relig., 115c; educa.. 115d; de- 
fense. 115d; area, 115a. 221; pop.. 
115e. recent statistics, 222; depend- 
encies, 115e; map, 38, 64. Chronol- 
ogy, 115f.— Other refs.. city-states 
fnd- 6a; Etruscans dominate, 7d; It. 
allies revolt; slaves revolt. 9e; Ra- 
venna capital, lOe: Odoacer. lie; Os- 
tiogothic kingdom estab.; Belisarius 
recalled fr.; Ostrogothic kdm de- 
stroyed; Narses; restored to Justinian, 
llf; Franks invade; Lombard kdm. 
formed. 12a; Lothaire gets; begin, of 
aat'i hist., Saracens in, 12c; Otto the 
Great; Berenger 11. dethroned: Be- 
renger H. finally deposed; Saracens & 
Gr defeat Otto in, I2e; Norman ter- 
ritories consolidated; Lothaire in, 13c; 
Louis of Bavaria invades. He; Franco- 
Ital. wars; Charles VIU. withdraws. 
16d, Fr. power reestab.; Fr. & Span. 
•war renewed, 16e; Francis I. invades, 
16f ; Fr. withdraw, 17a; Austrian cam- 
S)aign in. 43l; revival of independent 
spirit (1 790), 116a: Napoleon in ;Lodi, 
22a; Napoleon takes title of king; 
Venice ceded to. 22c; Napoleon's 
kdm. of. 122f; ordered restored by 
Aust., 24e; revolution (1848). 24f; 
Aust. defeats at Custozza (1848). 44d: 
united kdm . 23d: kdm. proclaimed, 
25b; San Marino, dependency, 144d; 
Seven Weeks' War, 25c; Custozza 
<1866). 44?; gets Venice; Treaty of 
Vienna, 44f; alliance with Prussia, 
106f; receives Venetia; union w.th 
Rome. 25d; dispute with Switz. set- 
tled. loOd; in Triple Alliance. 2jf. 
45a. lOOe. lOib; treaty with Eng. over 
Africa 57b; Fr. pilgrims attacked. 
lOOf; treaty with Eng. over Somali- 
land. 57c; in Abyssinia, 39a&b; with- 
draws troops from Crete, llOd; conq. 
Tripoli & Dodecanese. 154a; forbids 
emigration to Argentina, 41b: war on 
Turkey. 26f; occKpics Dodecanese, 
llOd; Sf. Russia. 142a; refuses to con- 
sider action against Serbia. 31c; dec- 
laration of neutrality, 2/c, 32f; prom- 
ised territory by Treaty of London, 
32f.l21b; Germany seeks to keep neu- 
tral; Austrian troops massed on fron- 
tier; abandons Austro-ltahan alli- 
ance, 45e: declares war on Austria, 
45e, 2Sc, 33a; Cadorna at Trent & on 
Isonzo R.; Borgo occupied; Monte 
Nero & Monfalcone capt., 33d; occu- 
pies Aviona, 33e; Trentino offensive, 
34e; captures G6rz. 34e. 43a; occupies 
Southern Albania; extends line to 
Saloniki. 34f; declares war on Ger- 
many. 103a; raids Pola. 35b; defense 
t mts, collapses, 29e; Smyrna as- 
signed to, lUb; Ger. break through 
at Caporetto; Udine occupied; re- 
treat from Carnic Alps, 35f; treaty 
with U. S. for reciprocal mil. service. 
]91d; It. & Fr. offensive in Albania. 
30b; advance in Albania; capture Du- 
razzo. 37b: drive (1918) renewed. 30c: 
£nal offensive opens, 3(b; occupies 
Scutari. 37c; approves of Jugo-Slav 
indcpend., 121c; demands Fiume.Slb; 
proclaims Albania protectorate; given 
nsandate over. 40b; receives Dodeca- 
nese. 154f; turns over Dodecanese to 
Gr., 111b; World War statistics. 38. 
See also Florence, Genoa. Lorn- 
bardu, Rome, Sardinia, Venice, etc.; 
Juoo-Siavia, chronoLi Triple Alli- 
ance: World War. 

Itata incident, 83a. 

Ito Hirobumi, Prince (advanced to rank 
of Prince in 1907). cabinet (1885), 
119f; writes Imperial Constitution of 
Japan, llSc: ullimatumto China, 86a: 
cabinet (1898); resigns, 120a: assass.. 
120d. 

Iturbide, Agustm de. Mex. leader, 
325c; enters Mex. City, 123a; crown- 
ed emperor ; abdicates ; executed, 1 26b. 

Iturrigaray, J.de, viceroy Mex. 126a. 

Itzsteui, Johann Adam von. at Mann- 
heim. 106d. 

luka, battle of. 175b. 

Ivan II. (of Bulgaria), conquests. 77f. 

— Shishman HI. (of Bulgaria), ab- 
dicates & becomes vassal of rurk.,77f. 

— 111., (the Great), of Rus.fnds. Mus- 
covy. 137b. 

— IV. (the Terrible). hisreign. 137b: & 
Teutonic Knights in Baltic Provinces. 
X3f; extends Rus. domln.; Tatars of 



Kazan: overcomes Astrakhan. 17d. 

^ V. of Rus., joint ruler with Peter; 
dies. 139f. 

— VI.. of Rus.20f, 140a. 

Ivory Coast, hist.; area & pop., 96d; 
map, 64. 

Ivry, battle of. 18c. 

I. W. W. (see in Diet.. Addenda), 
Lawrence strike, 183f; organize strikes 
(1912), 184c; at Paterson. N. J.. 
strike, 184d; strikes. 185b; driven out 
of Bisbee.Ariz.; Frank Little lynched; 
officials arrested at Spokane, 190a: 
offices raided, 190b; sentenced at Chi- 
cago, 191e; sentenced at Sacramento. 
192c; fire on Amer. Legion parade at 
Centralis, 193e: in Winnipeg, 73c; in 
Australia. 70e. 

lyemitsu. & Christians: dies, 119c. 

lyeyaau, ehogun; policy of isolation; 
persecutes Christians; rt^signs, 118b, 
119c. 



J- 



"J'accuset", lOla. 

Jackson, Andrew, life. 214a: chronol- 
ogy, 214b; portrait. 2l2.--Other refs.: 
campaign against Indians; defeats 
Creeks. ITOf; at New Orleans, 159e, 
171a; in Fla., 203e; let min. to Mex.. 
126b; elected pres. (1828). 23a. 159f, 
171f; inaug.. l-lf; 1st term. 160b. 
17!f; policy toward Indians; vetoes 
bill to recharter Bank of U. S.. 172a; 
reelected pres. (1832j, 172b; nullifi- 
cation in S. C. 160 b&c, l-2b, 19;f; 
public land sales; Fed. deposits in 
Bank of U. S., 160b. 172b; issues 
Specie Circ; Isthmian Canal. 172c. 

•^, Gen. Thomas J. ("Stonewall"!, 
16ld, 174/; Valley campaign. 174f, 
176a; defeats Federals; joins Lee; de- 
feats Pope, 175a; at 2nd battle of Bull 
Run; takes Harpers Ferry, 175b; 
killed. I75c. 

— . Mich. ,Repub. party namedat, 173e. 

— . Miss.. Grant captures. 175c. 

Jackson-Crisp loan, 86f. 

"Jackson men." 171f. 

Jacksonville. Fla., fire (1901). 180f; 
statistics, 220, 

Jacob. Hebrew patriarch. 6e. 

Jacobins, revolutionary tribunal. 9Se. 

Jacobites, plots of, 20e; riots in Eng.; 
in Scot.. 53c; executed, 53d. 

Jacob Jones, Amer. destroyer, torpe- 
doed. 36b. 
'Jacobson p. Mass., Supr. Court de- 
cision. I81e. 

Jacquerie revolt, 15a. 

Jadar, battle of. 32c. 

Jafla. Brit, capture. 29f. 36a; Allies 
attack coast line north of. 37c. 

Jagello (Jagellon). Prince of Lithua- 
nia, marries, 134a; king of Pol. as 
LadisIasII.. 15b. 134c, 144b; ostab. 
dyn- 15b. 

Jagellon dynasty, estab.. 15b. 134a; 
ends, 134a. 

Jagow. Gottlieb von, resigns, 108b. 

Ja.hangir, Mogul emp.. 18d. 

Jainism. 63b. 

Jalalabad, relieved, 39c. 

Jamaica, hist, outline; govt.; area St 
pop.; dependencies. 74b, 74a: Eng. 
take, 52a. 167e; insurr, in. 56b.' 

James, Thomas, seeks northwest pas- 
sage. 70f, 

^ I., of Eng. = James VI. of Scot.; 
king; conference at Hampton Court; 
Lond. & Plymouth companies, 18d. 

— II.. of Eng.. as Duke of York, re- 
ceives grantof N. Y., 19De&f. 199aS:c; 
professes Catholicism; Test Act; mar- 
ries Cath. princess, 52d. becomes king; 
appoints Catholics; issues Decl. of 
Indulgence; son; flees to Fr.. 20a. 52f: 
abdication, 52f; reaches Ireland. 53a; 
defeated at the Boyne. 53a. 97e; flees, 
53a; dies. 53b; his reign. 50b. 

— I., of Scot.; at liberty; gains throne; 
assas.. 15c. 

— II., of Scot., becomes king, 15c. 

— III., of Scot., slain, 15f. 

— IV., Scot..invadesEnE.;killed.l6f. 
^ v., of Scot.. Queen Margaret regent, 

16f; dies. 17c. 

^ VI., of Scot., king. 17f; becomes 
James I. of Eng.. I8d. 

^ Edward (Pretender). Louia XIV. 
recognizes as king. 53b. 97f; Fr. fleet 
to support. 97f; lands in Scot.; with- 
draws, 53b; renounced by Fr., 53c,97f; 
again in Scot.; returns to Fr., 53c. 

^. Duke of York, grant to bet. Del. 
& Conn, rivs,; grants N, J, to Berk- 
eley 8: Carteret, 167f; deeds counties 
on Delaware to Penn., 195b; becomes 
king. 167f. See James //.. of Eng. 

— River. Federal base on, 175a. 

— V. Bowman, Supr. Court decis., 181c. 
Jameson, Dr. L. S.. raid, 6Tb; pre- 
mier of Cape Colony. 67c. 

Jamestown, Va.. settled. 18d. 157d. 
167c, 198e. 220; 1st colonial assembly. 
167d. 198f; negroes brought to, 18f, 
167d; Exposition, 182c. 

Janiculum, 8e. 

Janina. Greeks occupy, I09f. 154c. 

Janizaries, founded; influence in Tur- 
key. 151c; tribute of Greek children 
for. 109d; Serbs rise against. I22b: de- 
throne .Selim. 151d; massacre of. 152f . 

Jansen, teaching condemned. 19b. 

Japan, hist, outline, 118a;l9th-century 
period. llSb; world-war period, 119a; 
organization; govt., 119a; indus. & 
labor; relig.; educa.; defense. 119b; 
area. 119c. 221; pop.. 118c, 119c; re- 
cent statistics. 222; map, 64; modes 
of travel, illust., 110. Chronology. 
119c. — Other refs.: Voshimune. 20e; 
Perry's treaty. 173e; 1st treaty with 
Eng.. 56a; 1st embassy to U. S-. 25b, 
174b; treaty with Korea. 85f: immi- 
gration to Canada (18S5-1908). 72b, 
d&e; & Korea against China, 84a, 86a; 
& Russia after Japan-Chinese War. 
137e; Boxer suppression, 26c, 84c; al- 
liance with Eng,, 51a. 37e, 120b; 
Russo-Japanese War. 84c. 137e; ex- 
pansion of. 23d; treaty with Eng. 
(1905). 57f; cable to U. S, opened. 
182a; Japanese excluded from San 
Francisco schools, 182a&b; "gentle- 
men's agreement" on immicration. 



182b;withdraws from Manchuria. 86d; 
signs treaty with Russia ab^ut China, 
141f; protests Calif, antiailen law. 
lS5a; alliance with Gr. Brit, renewed, 
58e; ultimatum to Ger.. 31e, 105c; 
declares war on Ger.. 27f, 31e. 105c; 
declares war on Aust.. 45e; begins 
campaign against Kiachow & takes 
Tsingta'i. 32d; captures Pacific Isls., 
32d, 105c: presents "21 Demands" to 
China; China boycotts goods; ultima- 
tum to China, 87b; treaty with China, 
84e. S7b; demands settlement of Chi- 
na. 87c; sends mission toU.S. (1917), 
190a;"LansinE-Ishii" note. 87d,190c; 
secret agreements with China, 87dS;e; 
troops in Siberia, 143b&d. 138c:aEree- 
ment with U. S.. 36c; Pacific Isls. as- 
signed to (1919), 37f. 105c; obtains 
Shantung, 31a, 84f; ratifies treaty, 
38b; decides not to withdraw from 
Siberia; seizes Vladivostok (1920), 
143f; Japanese in Hawaii, 209f;World 
War statistics. 38c-f. 

Jara. pres. of Paraguay, 132a. 

Jarnac. battle of . 17f. 

Jaroslau. Rus. occupy, 32b; cap., 33c. 

Jason of Pherae. 8c. 

^, U. S. collier ("Christmas Ship"). 
186a. 

Jassy. Peace of (Rus. 8c Turk.), 21f. 
137c. 140b. 152e; insurr.. 110a. 

Jaur^s. Jean L^on, Socialist leader, 
assas.. 102a. 

Java, descrip.; area & pop., 129f ; taken 
Si restored. 54e. 

^, Conatitution defeats. 159e, 170e. 

Jay, John. & Federalist, 159b, 199a, 
213b; & Madison. 213b; treaty with 
Eng.. 21f. 7ld. 159c. 169f, 212b. 

Jayhavffker State. 205e, 

Jedda. in new Arabian state, 29a. 

Jefferson, Thomas, life. 212e; chronol- 
ogy. 213a; portrait. 212. Other refs.:" 
198d;Decl.of Independ., 21d. 16Sf. 
212d; 1st Ter. Ordinance: Land 
Ordinance. 169c; U.S. min. to Fr., 
169d:lstsec. of state. 169e,) 59c; leads 
Republicans. 169f. 212d: retires. 169f; 
vice pres.. 170a: elected pres. (1801), 
22b, 159d. 170b; takes oath; again 
pres. (1804). I70b. 

^. State of, attempted, 206e. 

^ City. Mo., Gen. Price before, 175f. 

— county, W. Va,. 1st settlement, 206a. 
Jeffreys. Lord. 52f. 

Jehoahaz, reigns, 7b. 

Jehoiachin, 7d. 

Jehoiakim, reigns; 8t Nebuchadnez- 
zar. 7d. 

Jehoram, 7b. 

Jehosbaphat. reigns, 7a. 

Jehu, king. 6b: seizes throne, 7b. 

Jellachich. Count Joseph, wars on 
Hungarians; routed, 44d. 

Jellicoe, Sir John, takes command in 
North Sea. 58f; battle of Jutland, 35a; 
1st Lord of Admiralty. 60a. 

Jemappes, battle of. 44b. 98e. 

Jena, battle of. 22d. 99c; Socialist 
Congress at, 107e. 

Jenkins, Wm., abducted by Mexicans, 
128c. 193d, 

Jenkins's Ear, War of. 53d. 

^ Ferry, battle of, 175e. 

Jenner. introd. vaccination. 22a. 

Jeremiah. 7d. 

Jerez de la Frontera. battle of. 12b. 

Jericho, .\llenby takes, 30c, 37c. 

Jeroboam, reigns, 7a. 

— II., 7b. 

Jerome, St.. at Rome; Vulgate, lOe. 

— of Prague, 15c. 

Jersey City. N. J., statistics. 220. 

Jerusalem, made capital; temple 
fnd.. 7a; Sennacherib invades, 7c; 
Nebjchadnezzar II. takes; Zedekiah 
reigns; Nebuchadnezzar destroys city; 
Jews captive to Babylon, 7d; Jews re- 
turn; 2nd temple; temple completed, 
7e; mission of Ezra, 7f; Nehemiah 
visits; wails rebuilt; Mosaic law; Ne- 
hemiah '32 ndvisit;Manasaeh expelled, 
8a; Alexander enters (?) . 8d: Ptolemy 
takes. 8e; Antiochus visits, 9c; Simon 
Maccabaeus, high priest; John Hyrca- 
nus I.; walls destroyed. 9d; Pompey 
takes. 9f: partly destroyed. lOb; Bar- 
cocheba takes, lOc; Turks possess,13b; 
crusaders take, I3b, 131d; Godfrey of 
Bouillon king, 13b; kdm. of, 131d: 
Salad in overcomes Godfrey & de- 
thrones King Guy of Lusignan, 13d, 
131d; secured to Christians, 14a. 13Id; 
Turks capture. I4b; Christian kdm. 
ends. 151a; Turks evacuate (1917). 
36a; AUenby captures, 29f. 131d.l51a. 
152b; Anti-Zionist demonstrations in, 
131d. See Jews. 

Jervis. Sir John, defeats Sp., 54c, a47a. 

Jesuits, orderfnd-. 17b; Pope Paul III. 
sanctions. 17c; in China, 18b; in Para- 
guay. 131f; in New France. 701; ex- 
pelled from Abyssinia, 39b; at Chi- 
nese court, 85b; driven from Port., 
135a&e; suppression in Fr.. 98b; 
driven fr. Spain (1767). 147a; from 
Sp. dominions. 126a, 145d; from Par- 
aguay, 131f; Clement XIII. abolishes, 
21c; in Switz., 150b; driven from 
Switz.. 149e. 150c; from Ger.. 103d, 
107a: from Guatemala. 79d. 8Ia: or- 
dinance against in Fr.. lOOe; driven 
from Fr.. 94d: fromNicar.,8lb; Pope 
Leo Xlll. praises, 116e; leave Fr.. 
lOIb; readmitted to Ger., 107d; in Al- 
bania. 40a. Seefi. C. Church. 

Jesus Christ, born, 10a; begins to 
teach. 10b; in Palestine, 131c; cruci- 
fied. 10b. 

Jewish Colonization Society. 131d. 

^ Religious Community, in Fr.. 95e. 

"Jewish State", by Herzl,pub.,131d. 

Jews (Children of Israel. Israelites, 
Judea, Judah, Hebrews). Culture of, 
5d; early history. 6b; era of Hebrew 
patriarchs; Children of Israel in 
Egypt. 6e; threaten Canaan; leave 
Egypt. 6f; enter Canaan; era of 
Judges; era of Eli, Samuel, &: Saul; 
David; Solomon; temple at Jerusalem 
fnd.; kdm. divided (Rehoboam, Ju- 
dah; Jeroboam. N. Israel); Asa; Baa- 
sha; Omri; Samaria built; Ahab & 
Jezebel; Elijah; Jehoshaphat, 7a; Jo- 
ram; Moab revolts; Elisha; Jehoram; 
Edoni revolts; Jehu ;AthaIiah; Jehoa- 



haz; Benhadad III. ravages Israel; Is- 
rael freed from Syria; Uzziah (Aza- 
riah); Jeroboam II,, external pros- 
perity, 7b; Amos&Hosea; kings of 
Israel in Assyrian canon. 6b. 7b; 
Isaiah; Micah; Uzziah dies; Jotham; 
tribute to Assyria; Ahaz; Syria & N. 
Israel against Judah; Pekah, 7b; 
Hoshea; Ahaz pays tribute; Samaria 
falls: kdm. of Israel ends; Hezekiah; 
coalitions with Egypt; Manasseb, 7c; 
Amon; Josiah; Jeremiah; Book of the 
Law; Jehoiakim; Nebuchadnezzar II. 
conq. Judah; Zedekiah; Judah rebels; 
Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem; 
Jews to Babylon; Ezekiel; Jerusalem 
destroyed, 7d; edict for return; Hag- 
gai & Zechariah, 7e; Ezra, 7f: Nehe- 
miah. 8a; at Alexandria. 8f; Antio- 
chus IV. persecutes; revolt; treaty 
with Rome, 9c: Simon Maccabteus; 
independ. recognized. 9d; Alex. Jan- 
nteus, 9e; Hyrcanus II., 9f; Herod the 
Great; Judea under Rom, procurators. 
10a; Pontius Pilate; Herod Agrippa; 
Jews ban, from Rome; rebel (in Pales- 
tine) ; Domitian persecutes, 10b; Ju- 
dea revolts; Severus protects. 10c: e.x- 
pelled from Spain, 15f; eligible in 
Eng. to munic. offices. 55e; eligible to 
pari., 56a; anti-Semitic movement in 
Ger.. lOrbSic; persecuted in Rus. 
(1881, 1891). HlaStb; outrages in 
Roum.. 136f. 181b; mobbed at Kishi- 
nev; other outbreaks against in Rus. 
(1903). 14lc: concessions to. by Rus. 
govt., 141d; massacres at Odessa, etc. 
(1905), 141e&f; Amer.. in Rus. .I42b; 
anti-Semitism at Kiev. 142a&b; suf- 
ferings in Rus. from war, 142c; Rus. 
govt, removes all civil Sc polit. disa- 
bilities, 142d; freed in Roum., 137a: 
number of: in Algeria, 96b; Aust., 43c; 
Ger., 104e: Palestine, 131c: Persia. 
132d; Pol., 131c; Roum.. 136e; Rus.. 
139b; Serbia, 122b; Spain. 146b; Tu- 
nis, 96c; Turkey. 152c, See also 
Jerusalem. 

Jezebel, qaeen. 7a. 

Ji-Gisho, abol.. 119d. 

Jihad (holy war) . proclamation ig- 
nored. 3le&f. 
"Jim Crow" cars, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 180a. 

Jimenez, pres. Domin. Repub.. 92c. 

— . Jesus, pres. of Costa Rica, 81d. 

Jimmu Tenno, U8a. 

Jiyuto, organized. 119f. 

Joachim I.^Murat. 99d. 

Joan of Arc, at Orl&ns; burned, 15c; 
beatified. 117a. 

^ the Mad. queen; regency. 16e. 

Joannice, cap. Emp. Baldwin. 13f. 

Joffre. Gen. J, J. C. supreme com- 
mand. 31f: at the Marne. 27d. 32a: in 
Champagne. 33b; hands over com- 
mand to Nivelle; advist;r & pres. Al- 
lied mil. council. 102c; heads Fr. 
mission to U. S., lS9f; member Fr, 
Academy, 102d. 

Johannesburg, development of, 67a 
&b; conspiracyat, 67b; occupied, 67c; 
rioting in, 67d; strike (1918). 67e. 

John, of Abyssinia, emp.. 39b. 

— . Archduke of Aust., at Hohenlinden, 
99b; admin, of Ger. Emp.. 106e. 

^. of Aust.. Don (1570). defeats Moris- 
cos. 17f; at Lepanto; gov. of Nether- 
lands. 18a; at Gcmbloux; dies. 18b. 

— , of Eng, (Lackland), plots against 
Richard; intrigues with Philip; suc- 
ceeds to throne, 13e; loses Fr, posses.; 
refuses Langton; yields; receives Lang- 
ton. 13f ; defeated by Philip Augustus; 
Magna Charta; dies, 14a. 

— II., of Fr. (the Good). 15a. 

— II.. of Poland. Casimir. 139e. 

— III., of Poland- SeeSobieski. 

— I., of Port. (House of Aviz). 134f. 
^IV.. of Port.. Duke of Braganza, 

king. 19b. 135a: war with Sp.. 135e. 

— v., of Port.. 135a. 

^ VI.. of Port., as prince regent, flees 
to Brazil. 49b&e. 135e; becomes king. 
49b; grants const.fgovt. to Brazil, iQe; 
returns to Port.. 49b&e. 135a&e; mod- 
ifies constitution. 135e; dies, 49f.l35e. 

— . Don, of Sp., 146d. 

— XII., Pope, 12e. 

— XXII,, Pope. 8;Louisof Bavaria. 14e. 

— XXIII., Pope. 15c. 
^ of Brienne, 14a. 

— of Lcyden, 17b. 

^ of Montfort. See Montforl, John of. 

^ the Baptist, 10b. 

^ Zimisces, assassinates Nicephorus; 
Byzantine crown. 12e. 

Johns Hopkins University. 197d. 

Johnson. Andrew, life, 215f; chronol- 
ogy, 216a: portrait, 212. — Other refs.: 
elected vice pres., 175f; becomes pres.. 
176a: adminis., 162a&b; prod, of am- 
nesty, 176a; VVashington's Birthday 
speech (1866), 176b; vetoes bill to 
admit Colo.. 206e; impeached, 162c. 
176d; acquitted. 176d. 

^, H. v., vice pres. vote. 174b. 

— , Hiram W,, candid, for vice pres. 
(1912). 184a; vole, 184b. 

— , R. M.. elected vice pres. (1836), 
172c; vote (1840). 172d. 

— . Samuel, dictionary, 21b. 

Johnston, Gen.A.S.,at Shiloh, 161d, 
174f. 

— , Gen. Jos. E., at Bull Run, 174e; be- 
fore Richmond, 175a; opposes Sher- 
man. 161f. 175e; retires, 175e; surr., 
I61f, I76a. 

Johnstown (Pa.), flood. 17Sf. 

Johore, descrip., 65c; comes under 
Brit, control, 56f. 

Joint Powers Loan to China. 184e. 

Joliet, Louis, in Wis., 204e; in 111., 
202a; in Mo.. 202f. 

Jolo, Sultan of. leads Moro rebellion 
in Phil. Is., lS4f. 

Jonathan Maccabseus, 9c. 

Jones. John Paul, captures Serapia, 
21d, 169b; Rus. admiral. 140b. 

— Act. 211d. 
Joppa = JaiJ'a. 
Joram. 7b. 

Jordan. Turks driven from. 37c. 
JosephL.of Aust. = JoaepA/. of Ger. 

— II,. of A.\i3t. = Joaevh II. of Ger. 
■^. Archduke of Aust., coup d'etat, in 

Hung.; regent; resigns. 114b. 



^ I., Ger. emperor; crowned king of 
Hung.. 20a; becomes emp.. 20d. 105f; 
dies. 20d. 97f, 105f. 146f. 

— II., Ger. emperor. 21c. 106a;Treaty 
of Vienna. 106a; claims ter. in Bava- 
ria, 21d, 106a;reforms.21d;freedom of 
religion. 21d. 44b; war with Turkey, 
44b;Ger. made official lang.. 113f; of 
Austria, alliance with Catherine 11.. 
137c;reformsfail.21d;die3,44b.l06b. 

— I., of Hung. = Josep/i /, of Ger. 

— I., of Port., 135a; assass. attempted, 
135e. 

— ,brother of Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 
Joseph. 

^ Ferdinand, of Bavaria, to succeed 
Charles II. of Sp,. 20b; dies, 20c. 

Jpaephine, empress. 99c; divorced. 99e. 

Josiah, reigns; reforms; defeated at 
Megiddo, 7d. 

Jotbam, reigns. 7b. 

Jourdan, at Wattignies, 98f: at 
Fleurus, 44b; Rhine campaign; & 
Pichegru in Ger.. 98f; & Moreau 
conq. S. E. Ger., 99a. 

Jovian, peace with Sapor; yields Pers. 
provs.; restores Christianity. lOe. 

Juana. early name of Cuba, S8d. 

Juarez, Bemto Pablo, 125c; head of 
Me.x. govt.; decrees against clergy, 
126f: defeats Miram6n; pres.; at war 
with Fr,, 127a; again pres. (1867); re- 
elected (1S71); dies. 127b, 

Judah. See Jews. 

Judas Maccabseus, 9c. 

Judea. See Jews. 

Judges, rule Israel. 7a. 

Judicial recall, elim. from Ariz, con- 
stitution; restored, 183f. 

^ review under 14th amend.. 163b&c, 
165a. 

Judiciary Act (of 1801). U. S.. re- 
pealed. 170b. 

Jugo-Slavia. hist, outline. 121a: 
govt,; area. 121b. 221; pop., 121b; 
recent statistics, 222; map. 38. 
Chronology, 121b; component parts. 
12Ie; Serbia becomes part of, 122d; 
Bosnia & Herz. incorporated in, 123c 
&d; Montenegro votes to unite with, 
123c; claims Fiume. 31b; holds Aust. 
fleet. 37e; Greece signs treaty of alli- 
ance with. Ilia. 

—Slavs (South Slavs). 121a&b. 122e; 
desire independ. state. 43a; commit- 
tee of Austrian States, 121c; rights 
of, recognized by Aust.; revolt (1918). 
46b. See Jugo-Slavia, 

Jugurtha, shares throne of Numidia; 
war with Rome; betrayed, 9e. 

Jugurthine War. 9e. 

Julian, buys Rom. emp.. lOc; emp. of 
West; abjures Christianity; slain. lOe. 

Juliana, of Neth.. princess, I30c. 

Julius U., Pope, in League of Cam- 
brai: Holy League. 16e. 

Juneau. Alaska, 209b. 

Jungay, battle of. 4Sf. 

Jung Bahadur, prime minister, 129b. 

Junius, letters of. authorship. 53f. 

Junkers, take posses, of Berlin. 109c. 

Junot. invades Port.. 99d, 135e; evac- 
uates Port., 99d. 

Junta, in Chile, S3c! in Port.. 135e. 

Junto (1694). Eng., 53a. 

Jupiter, satellites of. disc, 18e. 

Justinian, reigns, llf; codifies Roman 
law, llb&f;regains Sicily; consecrates 
St. Sophia; regains Italy, llf. 

Jutes, in Eng.. lOf. 

Jutland. Prus. occupy. 91d; battle of 
(1916). 29c. 35a. 

Juvenal, 10c. 



K. 

Kabul. Brit, retreat from; reoccupy, 
64b; Brit, resident murdered; Roberts 
enters. 64d. 

Kadesh, battle of. 6f. 

Kagoshima. Xavier at. 119c. 

Kahoolawe, 209d. 

Kaiser. German, see William I. & //. 

— Wilhelm Canal. See Baltic Ship 
Canal. 

^ WilhelmderGrosie.Ger. cruiser, 32e. 

^-Wilhelmsland. described; oc. by 
Australian forces; assigned to Aus- 
tralia, 105c. 

Kaishinto, organized. 119f. 

Kajar dyn., 132b&e. 

Kalat, treaty with khan of. 64c; capt. 
by Brit.; Brit, resident in. 65c. 

Kaledin. Gen., arrested, & dismissed; 
temp, assumes govt, of Cossack Terr., 
H2f; joins Kornilov against Bolshe- 
viki; pres. of Republic of the Don. 
143a; defeated by Bolsheviki. 143b. . 

Kalevala. collected & pub.. 24e. 

Kalish, Treaty of. 221. 99e. 

Kalka, battle on the. 14a. 

Kalmar, Union of, 15b. 130e. 148b. 

Kalnoky, Count Gustav Siegmund. 
min. of for. affairs. 45a. 

Kalogeropoulos, cabinet. llOf. 

Kalusz, Rus. take. 35e. 

Kamehameha X., unites Hawaiian 
Is.. 2I0a. 

— I. -III.. 209e. 
Kamenski, Gen.. 140c. 
Kamerun, 105a; Fr. cedes terr. to 

Ger-. 941; Anglo-Fr. attack on. 32c; 

Allies occupy, 28d; Brit, attack. 33f; 

surr., 34f; joint mandate to Fr. &: Gr. 

Brit., 61c. Map, 64. 
Kamran Khan, ameer of Afghan. .39c. 
Kanakas, 209e; Kanaka laborers in 

Queensland, 76a&c. 
Kanea. commission at. 153e. 
Kangaroo Island, settlement. 75e. 
Kang-hi. emp-, I9e. 85b: conq. Tibet 

& Formosa. 19e; dies. 85c. 

— Yu Wei, reforms. 86b. 
Kansas, hist, outline. 205e; statistics. 

220; area, 221; chronology, 205f. — 
Other refs.: explored. 167b; Terr.. 
160f, 206e; settlement, I61a; organ- 
ized, 161a. 205f; struggle over slavery 
(1S54-6), I73f; Kansas-NebraskaAct. 
173e; "Bleeding Kansas." 173f; Le- 
compton Constitution; offered admis- 
sion; Free-State men in control. 1 74a; 
constitutional amendment. I78a; ad- 
mitted. 174c; prohibition. 178a, 186b. 
See also Kanaaa-Nabraaka Act. 
— , Univer. of, 205e&f. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



239 



' Kansas Act, 194c. 
^ City. Kans.. statistics, 220. 

— City. Mo,, statistics, 220. 

Nebraska Act. I60f: (Bill), 161a. 

173e, 174a. 205e. 

■ — V. Colo.. Supr. Court decision. 1 83c, 
Eansu, Uighur Turks in; Turks rebri; 

suprrt^ssi'd, 85c. 

Kappel, Kutle of, 17b. 

Karabunar, 125a. 

Kara Georg ("Black George"). See 
Czerny Diordje. 

Earageorgevich, Peter, proclaimed 
king. 121f. 
family. 122b. 

Kara Mu3tafa. besieges Vienna. 152d; 
invades .^uet,. 43e. 

Kardis. Peace of, 139c. 

Karelia, Rus. cedes to Sw.. ISe; Rus- 
sia regains. 137c. UOa, 14Sf. 

■ — . Eastern. Republic of, 139c. 
Karkar, battle of. 7b. 
Karlowitz, Treaty, or Peace. of (1699), 

42d. 43e. 105e, 113a&f. 151c. 152e. 
-— . truce of (1697). 139f. 

Karlsbad. ConRress of, I06d. 

Karlsruhe. (.<r. cruiser, destroyed, 32e. 

Karlstad. Agreement of. 131a. 

Karnak, moimments, 6e; temple. 6f. 

-Karolyi, Count, forms peace party in 

Hung., 45e; demands independ. for 

Hung.. 45f; autonomy for Magyars; 

premier. 113d, lUa; pres.; falls, 114a. 

IKarpeiliiBi,attackson Turks at. 110b. 

Kars, surr., 140f; stormed. 153bS:c: 
Russ. gets. 141a. 153c; ceded to 
Turk.. 36c. 138b. 143b. 

Karst (Carso) Plateau, Cadoma at- 
tacks Aust., 33d; attack renewed. 35f. 

Kaahgar, Chinese reconq,. 85f. 

Kashmir, separate native state. 64b. 
-Kaskaskia, III., fnd. IGSa; settled, 
■2U2b. 220; Clark conq., 169a. 

Kassala. battle of. 116f. 

Kasfiite dviKisty. 6e. 

Katmandu, capital of Nepal, 129b. 

Katsura Taro, Prince premier of 
Jap., 120a; resigns; new cabinet; 
stoned, r20d. 
-Katwyk, Du. steamer, sunk, 130c. 
^Kauai, area. 209d. 

Kaufmann. Gen. C. P., takes Khiva. 

141a. 
-Kaunitz, Prince Wenzel, chan., 44a. 

Kavala. Greece gets, 78b, 109f. 
.Kazan, Tatars of. 17d; Czeclio-Slovaks 

take. 90d. 
"Kearny, Philip, occupies Santa^ Fe; 
organizes govt, for New Mex.. I73a. 
-Kearsarge, corvet, sinks Alabama, 
175e. 

Kedah. 65c. 

Keeling Islands. See Cocoa /a(a.,65d. 

Keewatin, dist.of Canada, 69e, 70f. 

Kekea, 20'.le. 

Kelantan. 05c. 

Kellermann, F. C, at Valmy. 98c. 

Kemmel, cjipturcd. 36d. 

Kemp. Liiut.-Col., revolts against 
ISritish; capl.. 67e. 

Kpnesaw Mountain, battle of, 175e. 

Kennebec River, Me., settlement 
on, 202e. 

Kent, Augustine converts. 12a. 

Kentucky, hist, outline, 200b; statis- 
tics, 220; area. 221; chronology, 200c. 
— Other refs.:explored&, settled, IGSd; 
Daniel Boone explores. 168e; admit- 
ted. I69e; remains in Union. 16lc, 
174d; Invaded. 175b. 

— , U. S. S., ordered to Tampico, ISSa. 

— Resolutions, 170a. 

Keppel, Augustus (Viscount Albe- 
marle), captures Havana. 88e. 

Kerenski, Aleksandr F., heads so- 
cialistic repub., 29d; min. of justice, 
13Sb, 142d; min. of war; premier; has 
■unlimited powers, 142e; his govt, pro- 
claims Rus. a republic; forms coali- 
tion cabinet; leaves for front; over- 
thrown: escapes fromPetrograd. 13Sb. 
142f; restores consti. to Finland, 93c. 

Kermadec Islands. 77b. 

Kermanshah, taken, 34f; Turks re- 
capture, 35a. 

Kern, J. W.. candid. forv. prea., lS2e. 

Kernstown. \'a.. battle. 174/. 

Kerosene. See Petroleum. 

Ketteler. Baron von. murdered. S6b. 

Key. Francis Scott. 170f, 197d. 

Keya, House of (Isle of Man). 62a. 

Keystone State, 195b&d. 

Key West, 1st train to, over Fla. East 
Coast R. R.. 183f. 

Khafra. era of, 6d. 

Khaireddin Pasha, Algeria. 96a. 

Khan Bagdadi, taken. 37c. 

Kharkov, tapi,, 143d; retaken by Bol- 
sheviki (I'JIS). 143e. 

Khartam, Gen. Gordon in; Mahdi 
capt.; Kitchener reoccupics. 68b5;f. 

Khiva. 139e; Rus. treaty with (1854). 
140e; taken, 141a. 

Kholm. Polish, Ukraine gets, 134e. 

Khomyakov, pres.of 3rd Duma, 14 If; 
r.-5igns. 142a. 

Khorassan. Tamerlane in. 15a. 

Khosru. s-e Chosroea. 

Khotin, Turks in. I52d. 

Khufu (Clico[>3), era of. 6d. 

Khvostov, resigngas min. of int.l42d. 

Khybar Pass, 64e; Afghans & Brit, 
m. 64b. 

Kiackta, Siberia, caravan trade, S5c. 

Kia-king. becomes e»np.; dies, 85c 

Kiamil Pasha, Grand Vizier, resigns, 
153f; cabinet. 154b; resigns. 154c. 

Kiangyin. riot. 8Sa- 

Kiaochow, descript.. 105b; geizcd by 
Ger,, I05b, 86b; leased to Ger.. 84b. 
86b; virtual annexation to Ger., I04a; 
Japan demands surr., 27f, 31e, 120e; 
port of Tsingtau surT..119a;Jap. oper- 
ations against, 32d; capt., 27f. 

Klaoyang. Jap. attack. 120b. 

Kiel, submarine crews mutiny; strike, 
108c; further mutiny, 108e. 

— . Treaty (Peace) of. 22f. 9lc, 131a, 
149a. 

— Canal. Sec Baltic Ship Canal 
Kien Lung, becomes emperor; n-ars: 

wars against the Gurkhas: Nepal & 
Tibet submit; receives Lord Macart- 
ney; abdicates, 85c. 
Kiev, 137a. 139c&e; Poland yields to 
Russ.(1667), 134c; student outbreaks 
(1900, '02), 141c; strike, 141d; Jews 



expelled, H2a: anti-Semitism, 142b; 
capt. by Denikin (1919); retaken by 
Bolsheviki, 143e; Poles & Ukrainians 
capt-. U3f; Poles take, 134f. 

Ki-ki. ttieshogun. resigns, 118b. 

Killiecrankie, battle of. 53a. 

Kiltamagh, capt. by Sinn Fein rc»o- 
lutioniats, 60e. 

Kimberley, diamonds disc, 66f; be- 
sieged; relieved. 6ib. 

Kinetoscope. I79d. 

King, C. D. B- pres. Liberia. 124a. 

^. Mackenzie, leader of opp. in Can. 
Pari.. 73c. 

— , Rufus. 170b. 

^, William Rufus, vice pres., 173d. 

King Edward VII., ship. sunk. 35a. 

•—George's War, begins; ends, 21a. 
LSSb, 168b, 

—Philip's War, 158b. 167f, 196f. 199f. 

— William's War, 158b, 16Sa. 
King 's College (later Columbia 

Univ.), fnd . 168c. 

— Mountain, battle of. 169b. 197e. 
"King's Pledge Sunday," 59b. 
Kingston. Can., fnd., 7 la; capt., 168c. 
^. Jamaica, 74c. 

Kirin- Kwan-ehengtze R. R.. 87b. 

Kirke, Sir David, gianted Newfound- 
land; gov., 73e. 

Kirkes(DavidS! Lewis), capt. Quebec. 
71a. 

Kirk Kilise, battle of. 7Sb; Bulgari- 
ans capt., 154b. 

Kishinev, Jews killed, Hlc. 

Kitchener, Horatio H., Gen. (later 
Lord Kitchener) , takes Khartum, 681 ; 
in Sudan, GSc; chief of staff in So. 
Africa, 67b: commander in chief . 67c; 
in India, 61f: in Sudan. CSe; Brit. 
agent in Fgi-pt. 68f: sec. of war. 59a; 
in coalition cabinet (1915), 59c; lost 
with llampahire. 35b. 59f. 

KiushU", island of. revolt in. I19e. 

Klagenfurt area, plebiscite. 121d. 

Kleinstaaterei, 105e. 

Klondike, 70e, ISlc; gold. 26b. 72c. 

Kluck, von. Alex.. Ger. commander; 
retreats, 32a. 

Kniaz Potemkin, Russ. battleship. 
mutinv on. Hid. 

Knighthood, i Japan. 119e. 

Knights of Labor. 162f, 178c. 

— of St. Ju]in, Malta granted to. I'b; 
in Malta, C2a; Napoleon dispossesses; 
lose Malta, 99a, 54d: not restored by 
Eng.. 54d. 

^ of the Sword. Teutonic. See Teutonic 
Knig' t8 of the Su>ord. 

—Sword bearers. Scq Livonian Knights. 

^Templars, Council of Vienne con- 
demns. 14e. 

Knossos, age of, 6c. 

Knowlton v. Moore, Supr. Court de- 
cision. ISOe. 

Know-Nothing party. 173f, 215b. 

Knox, Jolin, 17e. 

— r. Let \ Supr. Court decision, 177a. 
Knoxville, Tenn., besieged. 175d; sta- 
tistics. 220, 

Kobleni. Allies in. 37b. 

Kodiak Inland, settled. 21a, lOSb.220. 

Kokand, annexed by Russia. 141a. 

Kokovtzov, V. N., premier, 142a. 

Kola peninsula, railroad to. 142c: Al- 
lied troops in. 143b. 138c. 

Kolchak. Adm.. campaign against 
Bolsheviki. 13Sc&d: in Siberia. 13yd; 
leads directorate in Siberia; overcomes 
Bolslieviki; partially recognized by 
Supreme Council; retreats. 143d; 
Allies hold conference at Omsk on; 
driven out of Omsk; succeeded by 
Semcnov; e,\ecuted, 143e. 

Kolin, battle of, 44a. 

Kolokotronis, Theodores. Gr. pa- 
triot. 110b. 

Kolomea, Rns. occupy. 34d. 

Kongo. See Congo, Belgian Congo, 
Frt-nch Congo. 

Konia, 125a. It. occupy, 1 11a; Nation- 
alist govt. at. 154f. 

KOniggratz, battle of (1866), 106f. 
See Sad own. 

Kbnigsberg, Fred'k I. crowned, 20c; 
Wm. 11. *s speech ("divine right"), 
107e; siege (1914). 32b. 

— (Ger. cruiser), sinks Pegasiia, 32e; 
disc, in Rufiii Riv.; blockaded, 33f; 
destrnyd. 32e. 

Kdpiili (VV-les), captured, 37b. 

Koprivscica. rising at, 77f. 

Kbrber (or Koerber) , Ernst von. 
premier; resigns, 45f. 

Korea, complications with Japan: Ja- 
pan occupies; independ, estab.. llSd: 
treaty with Japan; autonomy recog- 
nized, 118d, 119e; tr-.aty with Japan 
(1S83): pays indemnity. 119f; Russia 
in, 13 7e; China sends troops into 1 19l ; 
China acknowledges independ,; Jap. 
& Russ. agreement on. 120a; Jap. & 
■ Rues, controversy over; Jap. occupies. 
120b; Jap. overruns, 84c; Japan's pre- 
ponderance in recogn zed: Jap. re- 
forms in, 118f; cmp. abdicates; auton- 
omy ends; Jap. confiscates emperor's 
property, \'26c; Jap. annexes, 118f, 
120d; becomes Chosen (province) . 
120d; "passive revolution;" provis- 
ional govt, for republic; emp. dies; 
Bolshevists in, 120f. Map. 120f. 

Komilov, Laurus Georgievich. Rus. 
commander in chief; offensive in Ga- 
licia; Halicz & Kalusz taken: retreat, 
35e; resigns command of Petrograd 
army: issues orders to fire upon de- 
serters; commander in chief. 142e; 
marches on Petrograd; movement col- 
lapses, 142f; joins Kaledin ag-ainst 
Bolsheviki, 143a: defeated by Bol- 
sheviki. 143b. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus. revolts; at Ma- 
ciejowice, 21f; leads Polish uprising: 
taken. 140c. 

Kossovo, battle of . 121e. 123a. 

Kossuth, Francis, leads Magyars; de- 
mands of. 113c. 

^. Louis, Hung, leader, 113a; revolu- 
tion. 23c, 113a; controls Hung. Diet, 
113b; heads com. of protection in 
Hung ; pres. of repub., 44d. 1 13b: re- 
signs & surr., 44e; visits U. S., 54f; 
dies. 45a 

Koszta incident, 24f. 

Kotow, Russ. embassy refuses to per- 
form. 85b; Chinese emp. receives for. 



ministers without, 85e; ceremony re- 
cstab., S7a, 

Kotromanfc, Stephen, 123d. 

Kovno. province. 124a&b, 143f, 144b: 
Hindenburg in, 33c. 

Koweit. Gr. Brit- subsidizes. 112d; 
Brit, control. 125a. 

Kowloon, ceded to Gr* Brit., S5e; 
addi'd to Hongkong, 57d. 62e. 

Kram&r, Karri, govt,, 90e, 

Krapotkin, gov. of Kharkov, 141a. 

Krasnik. Rus. defeated;2nd battle of; 
Aust. defeated. 32b. 

Krasnostaw, battle of. 33c. 

Krefeld, battle of. 9Sb, I06a. 

Kremsier, conference at. 45a. 

Kressenstein. commands Turks. 69a. 

Kriemhilde line. 36f. 

Krithia, 33d. 

Kronprinz Wilhelm, ship, interned, 
331, lS6e. 

Kronstadt, Fr. fleet at.lOOf, 141b;mu- 
tiny. !41f; Brit, -iquadron visits, 142b. 

Kruger, Pres., Emp. William congrat- 
ulates. 107c- 

Krupp Company, trial, 107f, 

Krylenko, Gen., abolishes all rank in 
Rus. army. 143a. 

Kuang-hsU, cmp. China. 85c;dies.86d. 

Kuban, 137c. 139d; Republic. 139c. 

Kublai Khan, lie; estab Yuen dyn.. 
capita] trans, to Peking; Mongol 
power supreme, 14c, S3f. 

Kflchuk Kainarja, Treaty of, 21c. 
78d, 137c, 140b, 151a. 151d. 152e. 

Kufa, 12b. 

Kuge nobility, abol.. 119d. 

KUhlmann, Richard von. for. seci; 
r.'buk..-d; r.-signs, lOSd. 

Ku-Klux Act, 177a. 177d. 

Ku-Klux Klan, 162c. 176f, 216b. 

KuliLovo, battle of. 137b. 

Kulja, 141a, 

Kultur, of Ger.. 27a. 

Kulturkara-f (see in Diet.). 103d. 

Kunersdorf. battle of, lOGa, UOa. 

Kunc, ■ iNKc. 8.5f. 

Kuo Ming Tang, 84d: ordered to 
dissolve. S"a. 

Kup ikenf battle of. 31f. 

Kuprili (or Kb., rili). Fazil Ahmed, 
invad--5 Hung., lJ2d: defeated, 43e. 

Kurdistan, tent, illust., 128. 

Kurds, 152c; & Armenians. 153d. 154e. 

Kuria Muria Islands, 62c; ceded to 
Eng,. 56a, ll2d. 

Kurile Islands, Jap. gets part, 119e. 

Kurland, Rus. Baltic province. 143f& 
144a; area; pop.: people, 1-Ha passes 
to Teutonic Knightt , 144a; under 
Poland; under Russian control, 144b; 
annexed by Rus,, 137c, 140c; pop. 
reduced, 124b; overrun by Aust.. 2Sb; 
Rus. surr..3Cc. 13Sb. 143b: Republic, 
139c: part of Latvia. i:3d. 

^. Duke of, vassal of Sigismund Augus- 
tus. 17e. 

Kurna, British capt., 33f. 125a. 

Kuroki, Count, crosses Yalu. 120b- 

Kuropatkin. Gen., at Kiaoyang.l20b; 
resigns. 130c; com. in chief. 142c; at 
Lake Narach, 34d. 

Kut. See ivu(-e(-.4mora. 

Kutaia, convention of. 6Sd. 

Kutais, annexed to Rus.. 102f. 

Kut-el-Amara(Kut), Brit, capture. 
33f; Brit, retreat to. 28c. 33f: Anglo- 
Indians relieve; Lake fails before, 34f: 
Brit. surr. at. 29a&34f. 125a. I52b: 
new offensive, 35a: Maude attacks, 
3.5f; rccapt,, 29f, 36a, 125a. 

Kutuzov. Prince, on the Danube; at 
Borodino. 140c, 99e. 

Kwangchow, port of. 96f.97a:Fr. 
seize. 101a- 

Kwangsi, rebellion, 85c; insurr.. S5f; 
secedes, 87d. 

Kwangtung, secedes. 87d. 

Kyoto, Sir Francis Xavier visits, 119c; 
Yoshihito crowned, 120e. 



La Bass^e, Allied line penetrated near 
(191S). 36d, 

La Bicocca. battle of. I7a. 

Labor, Bureau of (U. S.), 178c. 

^. Dept, of, created, 184e; reports on 
high cost of living. 193b. 

^, forced, in Belgium, 48q. 

^ Committee, Infl. 37f. 

^conditions. U.S.. 162f; during World 
War, 192b; U. S. (1919). 194a. For 
labor conditions in any country, see 
Industry t& Labor, under Organiza- 
tion, following Hist, outline of that 
country, 

^ Congress. Int'lSocialist, Brussels, 47d. 

^ Day, 1st observed in N. V., 25f; as 
a legal holiday. 178e. 

^ disputes, compulsory arbitration of 
in Australia, 76b; Conciliation & -Ar- 
bitration Act, Australia. 76c: begin- 
ning cf settlement by nat'l authority, 
in U. S.. !78f. See Labor Iroables. 

^B.xchange Act, 5Sb, 

^ laws. adi,pted in Swit;.. 150d. 

^ organizations, in lapan. 119a. 

— parties. U. S.. 163f. 164a. See jVo- 
tutnal Labor party. 

^ party, in Eng., 50f&51a. 57f; votes to 
send delegates to Stockholm, 60c;con- 
ference states demands, 60d. 

— question, Cleveland message on 
(1886). 178d. 

— Reform party, 162f, 177b. 
^ reforms, N. Z, leads in. 77d. 

^ troubles. Austria (1890), 45a; food 
riots (Vienna. 1911). 45c; Aust. 
(1912); (Budapest. 1912), 45d; (Vi- 
enna, 1915). 45e; Bohemia (1916). 
45f; Canada (1918). 73c; England, 
suspended by World War: increased 
cost of living increases. 58f; Eng. 
(1915). 59b: Eng, (1917), 60c: Eng. 
(1918). 61a; Ger. (18931, 107c; pa- 
rade of 50,000 unemployed in Berlin 
(1908), 107eGer. (1918\ 108c, d&e: 
food riota in Cologne (1918). 109a; 
Holland, food riots, during World 
War. 129d; at Amsterdam (1916). 
130d; Italy (1891). 116e; It. (Milan, 
1898), 116f: Port. (Lisbon. 1912), 
136a: Port- (1920), 136b; Rus. (Pet- 
rograd. 1917). 142d. Sp. (Barcelona. 



147a;.Sp. (1916-17). l4Sa:Sp. (1919). 
I4.8b; U. S. (1877). 177f: (1886). 
178c; (1894). 179e; (1913). 185b. 
See also Anarchists, Bolsheriki, 
I. W. W.. Riota, Strikes, etc. 

— unions, 23f; in Eng., 51d; law against 
(Eng.) repealed; repeal revoked, 55a: 
House of Lords decides may be sued, 
57d; suits against prohibited, 58a; 
prewar practices restored, 61d; in U.S., 
organized, 162f. See Trade-unions. 

Labrador, descr.. area & pop., 73d: 
explored. 167a; incl. in Quebec prov., 
71b; Amer. fishing rights, 73e. 

Labuan,65d; ceded to Gr.Brit., 55c. 

Labyrinth, the, taken, 33b. 

Lacaze, Adm., min. of marine, 102c. 

Laccadives. descr.. 65b; Gr. Brit, se- 
questers, 5fid- 

Laconia, Brit, liner, torpedoed. 189d. 

Ladislas II., of Hungary, reign, 112f. 

— II.. of Pol.. 15b. 134c. 144b. See 
Jagello. 

— of Naples, takes Rome, 15b. 
Ladrone Islands=Jtfartana Islands, 

16i, 105d, 210a. 
Ladysmith, besieged; Brit, defeated 

at; relieved, 67b. 
Lafayette, Gen., commander of Fr, 

Nat'l. Guard. 98d; in U. S.; made 

major -gen., 169a; revisits U, S., IHd. 
La FoUette, Robert M .. 204e: accused 

of disloyalty. 190b. 

— Seamen's Act, 186d, 187b. 

La Fuerza, fortress in Cuba, 8Sd. 
Lagash. Babylonian city, 6e. 
Lagmadur, of Iceland, 114c. 
Lagos, purchase of, 56b, 67f. 
— , Bay r.f. battle in, 53e. 
Lagthing, of Norway, 130f. 
Lahore, occupied by Brit.. 64b. 
Laibach. cunRress of powers at. 116b; 

in World War, 35f; incident, 121d. 
Laird rams. Confederate, seized. 

175d. 56b. 
Lake. Viscount, in India. 64a. 
^,_Gen. Sir P. H. N.. starts to relief of 

Kut; before Kut; lakes Umm-cl- 

Hanna, 34f. 
^ of the Woods, disc. 71a. 
Lake State, 20r'c. 
Lama, of Tibet. 64e. 
Lamachus, at Syracuse; falls. Sa. 
Lamar. Jos^, pres. Peru; deposed, 133d. 
Lamartine, Alphonse M. L. de, in 

Fr. provis. gov.. 100b. 
Lambros cabinet, llOf. 
Lamian War, 8e. 

Lammasch. Heinrich, premier, 46b. 
Lampun, 144d. 
Lanai, 209d. 
Lancaster, House of, line estab.. 15b: 

contention with York begins. 15d:'St. 

Albans; Barnet; Tewkesbury, 15e; 

united with York.lof. Sec lUnru T V.. 

v., & VI.. of Eng.; Roses. Wars of, 

Tudor-. York. 
Lancastrians. See Lanrasfer, House. 
Landesgemeinden, Swiu., 149f. 
Land grants, to R, Rs. (U. S.),last, 

17,'a; forfeiture. KCb. 
Landis, Judge K. M., fines Standard 

Oil Co.. lS2b. 
Land Law. Irish (1S70), 56c. 
^ League. Irish, formed. 56d: leaders 

imprisoned: proclaims against rents; 

suppressed. 56e. 
^legislation. Irish. 65d. 
^of Steady Habits, 196c. 
^ Ordinance. Jefferson's. 169c. 

— Purchase Act (Ir.) ,56f ; (1903) . 57f. 
Landshut, battle of. 99d. 
Landsthing (Den.), described. 91a. 
Landsturm Bill (Neth.). 130c. 
Land taxes (Eng.). reform of. 58b. 

— Titleand Trust Co. Bldg., Philadel- 
phia, illust.. 163. 

Lane. Franklin K.. Sec. of the Interior, 
resigns, 194c. 

^, Joseph, vote. 174b. 

Langside. battle of. 17f. 

Langson. Chinese defeat Fr.; 2nd Fr. 
defeat at. lOOe. 

Langton. Stephen, abp.: John refuses; 
received; suspended. 14a. 

Language, otlicial in various parts of 
.■Austria- Hungary. I22e&f. 

Lansdowns. Marquis of, gov. -gen. of 
Canada, 72b; viceroy of India, 64d: 
m ministry (1S95), 57c; in coalition 
cabinet (1915). 59c. 

Lansing, Robert, Sec. of State, lS6f; 
replies to Aust. -Hung,, lS7a; ac- 
knowledges Carranza. 187d; note to 
Entente, lS7f; reply. lS8a; reviews 
Mt-c. situation, ISSa; note to S. St 
Cen. .Amer. repubs. (1916), 188c; ex- 
changes notes with Ishii, 84e. 87d, 
llSi.l90c; agreement with Ishii.l20e; 
commr. to Paris Peace Conf., 192a; 
resigns, 194c. 

•^-Ishii notes & agreement. See Lon- 
smcr. Robt. 

Laodicea. fnd., 8e: Achseans def., 9a. 

Laon. Blucherat. 99f;Fr.take (1918), 
30d, 37a. 

Laos, 96f; descript., 97a. 

— States. 144d. 

La Plata, cap Buenos Aires prov. ,4 la; 
U. S. naval forces sent to. 131f. 

^ River, pampas wagon, illust., 116. 

La Rochelle. assembly of Protestant 
leaders,17f; defended, ISa; yield3,19a. 

Larsa dynasty. 6e. 

La Salle, explorations of. 69b; in III., 
202a; Minn., 205b: disc. & explores 
Miss. R.. 20a, 97e, I67f; takes Louisi- 
ana, 201c: names La.. 201b: estab. 
colony in Tex,. 167f; attempts settle- 
ment at Matagorda Bay, 204b. 

Lascaris, Theodore, emp. Nicaa,13f. 

Las Casas. Bartolome. fnds. colony at 
Cumana, Venez., 155d. 

— , Luis de, capt. gen. of Cuba. 89b. 

Lassalle, Ferdinand, fnds. Ger. So- 
cialist party, 103d. 

Lassen Peak, Cal,. erupts, 185d. 

Laswari, battle of. 64a. 

Lateran council, 1st, 13b. 

Latin America, relations with U. S.. 
164e. 

^Empire. See Roman Empire. 

—War, great, 8d. 

Latorre, Gen., Uruguayan dictator; 
pres.; resigns. 155c. 

Latter-day Saints, Church of Jesus 
Christ of the. 20Sa. 



Latvia, descript.; govt.: industries; re- 
lig. & educ, 123d; area & pop., 123e; 
recent statistics. 222; map, 38; chro- 
nology, 123e; sends delegates to Yurev 
conference, I24c. 

Laud, William, abp,. 19a; imprisoned, 
19b: attainted; beheaded, 19c. 

Lauderdale, Duke of. in Cabal. 52d: 
persecution of Covenanters, 52e. 

Laudon, Gen.Gideon Ernst,at Kuners- 
dorf. 44a. 

LaudonniSre, RenS de, colony, 167b. 

Lauenburg, Prus, cedes to Den.. 91c: 
Den, renounces right to. 90f. 91d.l06f. 

Laufteld(Lawfeld).battle(1747).43f. 

Launceston. Tasmania, fnd.. 75i?. 

Launits, Gen. van dcr, assass. 14If. 

Laurier. Sir Wilfrid, premier of Can- 
ada, 72c; ministry resigns. 72e: refuses 
to join coalition govt., 73b; in Pari.; 
dies, 73c. 

Lausanne, inst.of internat'IIaw.lSOe. 

— . Treaty of. 117b, 154b. 

La Verendrye, Fr. explorer, 71b. 

Law, .\ Bonar. leader of Unionist 
party, 5Sc: in coalition cabinet (1915), 
59c: colonial sec. on War Committee. 
59d; fails to form cabinet; Chancellor 
of Exchequer in war cabinet of Nat'l 
ministry, 60a; budget statement 
(1917). 60b; budget statement (191 8), 
60e; Privy Seal in war cabinet of new 
coalition (1919). Ola. 

— , John, speculations. 20e: bank in 
Pans. 98a. 

Lawrence, Sir J. viceroy of India. 64d. 

— Kans., separate govt. at. 173f. 

^, Mass.. statistics, 220. strike, 183e. 

Layard. Sir Austen Henry, explora- 
tions. 124f. 

League of Nations, plan of Gen. 
Smuts for, 67e; Wilson proposes, 30d; 
Wilson's 5 principles for found, of, 
36c; adoption, 37f; to deter, whether 
Aust. may unite with Ger.: Aust. may 
join League, 46c; opposition to, in 
U. S., 165e. 192d; Wilson explains at 
White House dinner. 192d; speeches 
by Wilson & Taft, 192e: unofficial 
meeting, 37e: Covenant for. 31a; 
Covenant adopted, I92e; provisional 
organization, 37f; has final decision 
as to status of Eupen & Malmedy; to 
decide military use of Scheldt, 4Sb; 
Costa Rica not asked to join, 81f; 
Dominican Republic omitted from, 
92d; Mex. not asked to join, 128c; 
presented to Senate; Hughes reserva- 
tions; Taft's "mild" reservations^ 
193a: Lodge's reservations, 193b;Wil- 
son's nation-wide speaking tour in be- 
half, 193b, 218f; Senate amendments 
& reservations on, 193c; Wilson's tour 
ends;further Senate reservat'ns. 193d; 
in F.ume, 121d; 1st meeting, 38b. 
See Supreme Council; Versailles, 
Treaty of. 

— of the Eight Old Places, 14f , 149d. 

— of the German Princes, 21e, 106b. 

— of the Three Emperors. See Drei- 
kaiscrbund. 

— to Enforce Peace. 21Sd. 
Leander, the, captures the Rattle' 

snake, 170f. 

Lebanon, Mt.. Maronites massacred; 
2nd massacre, 131d. 151a,153a;Chris- 
tian governor, 151a, 153a; autonomy 
granted. 131d. 

Lebrun. consul. 99b. 

Lech, battle on the, 12e. 

Leclerc, in Haiti: & Touesaint I'Ou- 
verture.99b;captures Toussaint.l He; 
attemptsUo subdue Toussaint, lUe.J 

Lecompton Constitution, 174a. 

Leconte. pres-; killed, lllf. 

Lee, Gen. Robt. E., in Civil War,16Id. 
e&f; commands Army of W. Va.; de- 
feats McClellan.l75a;at 2nd battle of 
Bull Run; at battle of Chantilly; in- 
vades Md,; retires into Va.; at Fred- 
ericksburg. I75b; at Chancellorsville; 
at Gettysburg, 175c; Grant attacks; 
checks Grant: repmlses Grant. 175e; 
commander in chief of Confederate ar- 
mies: evacuates Richmond & Peters- 
burg; surrenders, 176a, 216c. 

Leelanaw. sunk, 33a, lS7b. 

Leeward Islands, 74c, 97c. 

Lefevre. Ernesto, pres. Panama, S3e. 

Legagneaux, aviator, breaks altitude 
record, lOlf. 

Legazpi, in Phil. Islands. 210f. 211c. 

Legion of Honor, fnd,. 99b. 

— of the Thousand, 114E. 

Legislative Assembly (Fr.), 21f; con- 
venes, 9Sd; Nat'l Convenfn replaces, 
9Se. 

Legitimacy (sec Legitimist, inDiet.), 
principle of. 23a. 

Legitime, Francois Denis, in civil 
war, lllf. 

Legnano, battle of, 13d. 

Legula, Augusto B., pres., 133e&f. 

Leiden. Sp. besiege. 18a. 

Leipzig, battle, 22f. 42e. 44c,94b. 99f. 

^, trial at. 38e. 

— , University of. 15a. 

Leipziger bank, fails. 107d. 

Leisy r. Hardin. Supr.Courtdecis, ,179a. 

Leite, Dr. Duarte, premier of Port.; 
succei-ded. 136a. 

Leland Stanford Junior Univ., 205a, 

Le Mans, Wright's (light at, lOld. 

Lemberg, 1st battle of, 27e, 32b; ad- 
vance on. 33b: taken, 28b: KorniloT 
launches offensive against, 35e. 

^ university. 43d, 

Lemieux Act, Canada, 72d. 

L'Enfant, Major, 209c. 

Lenin. Nikolay, prime minister of 
Russia. nSb&c&d. I42f; dissolves 
Rus.Const it. Assembly :decrees separa- 
tion church & state. 143a; declares 
war exists bet. Rus. & Allie9;wound- 
ed; relations with Ger. govt., 143c. 

Lens, evacuated, 36f. 

Leo I. (the Great). Pope, lOf. 

^III. , Pope, Charlemagne aids;crowns 
Charlemagne, 12c, 103a. 

^ X., Pope; & Francis I.; indulgences; 
excommun. Luther, 16f: prisoner. 17a. 

^ XIII., Pope. llOd; Jesuits; temporal 
sovereignty: denounces Humbert; ju- 
bilee (1888). 116e; jubilee (1893); 
25th anniv. of pontiAcate; dies. 116f; 
Taft confers with, 218c. 

Leoben, preliminary peace of, 99a. 



240 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



U 



V 



W 



Le6ti, Sp.. 12d. 

Leon (C. A.) fnd.. 80c: sacked. 79f. 
LfionGambetta, cruiser, torpedoed,34a. 
Leonidas, at Thermopyiar, 7f. 
Leopard. H. M. S.. fires on U. S. S. 

Chesapeake, 170c. 
Leopold of Austria, Duke, imprisons 

Richard I.. 13e. 

— I. & II. . of Aust. = Leopold I. & II.. 
of Ger . 

^ of Babenberg, 42c. 

— I., of Belg. (L. of Saxe-Coburg), 
king of Belg.. 46f&47c: dies. 47c. 

•— II. , of Belg.. king; & Belgian Congo. 
46f, ilc. 4Sb; dies. 47e. 

■^ I., of Ger. (I. of Aust ). emperor, 
105e; king of Hung.. 43e, 105e; claims 
Sp. throne, 20c. 146e; receives Tran- 
sylvania, 152e; declares crown heredi- 
tary, 113f: vrars with Turk.. 42d; in 
2nd Gr. Alliance, 20c; dies, 20d. 105f. 

— II., of Ger. (II. of Aust.). sovereign 
of Aust. & Hung., 21e, 41b: emp.of 
Ger.. 44b: gets Tuscany, 116a: elected 
Holy Rom. emp., 106b; reafiirms con- 
stitutional libertieaof Hung.. 44b;con- 
ference at PiUnttz; supports French 
Loyalists; dies, 44b. 106b. 

^of Hohenzollern. Prince, elected king 

of Sp., 100c. 
^ of Saxe-Coburg= Leopold I. of Belg. 
Lepanto. battle of. ISa, 145b, 151c. 
Lepe, Diego de. on coast of S. A,, 167a. 
Lepidus, 2nd triumvirate, 10a. 
Lerdistas. 127b. 
Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian, pres. of 

Mexico; reflected; flees. 127b. 
Lerin (Fiorina), Allies pushed from; 

recovered, 34e; Or. gains. 109f. 
Lesbos, revolts. 8a. 
Leslie. Gen., at Dunbar. 52a. 
LesSaintes, island, 97b. 
Lessepa, Ferdinand de, constructs Suez 

Canal, 6Sd; completes canal. 25d; 

fnds. company to construct Panama 

Canal; fails. 25f; in charge Panama 

Canal. 82c; arrest & conviction, lOOf. 
Leszczynski. See Stanislas Lesz- 

czynski. 
Letts, tribe in Baltic Provinces, 123d, 

143f; pop.; character, 144a: become 

Lutherans. 144b; attempt to check 

Bolsheviki. 138c. 
Leucopetra, battle of, 9d. 
Leuctra, battle of. 8c. 
Leuthen, battle of, 44a. 
Levant, the, ship. capt.. I7Ia. 
Lewis, M., Am. explorer, 22c, 71d. 

— & Clark Expedition. 22c. 71d, 170b. 
205d&e. 208b. See also Clark, Geo. 
Rogers. 

— & Clark Expos.. 22c, ISle. 205d. 
^Publishing Co. v. Morgan. Supr. 

Court decision, 184f. 

Lexington, Ky.. occupied. 175b. 

— , Mass., battle of, 15Sf, 168f. 

^, Mo., surrendered. 174e. 

*'Lexreffia," 91b, 9lc. 

Ley Lerdo. 126f. 

Leyte, island. 210f. 

Lhasa, occupied by Eng., 64e; Chinese 
occupy, 86d. 

Liaotung penin, leased toRus., I41b. 

Libau, 144a: Lithuanian govt, over- 
thrown. 124c. 

Libel Act. Fox's, 54c. 

Liberal party (Liberals) CAust.) 
in gen. election(1913). 76d; (Belff.) 
gains control; overthrown (lSo2J; re- 
gains majority; pass prim. educ. bill, 
47c; overthrown, 47d;in coalition min- 
istry. 48a; in Parliament ( J919J . 48b; 
(Brazil), 49b&f: (Canada), Mac- 
kenzie ministry. 72a; repeals Fran- 
chise Act, 72b; Laurier ministry. 72c; 
(Chile) Balmaceda, 83d;Santa Maria. 
83c; (Colombia), revolt :2nd revolt, 
88c; organ. 3rd revolt, 88a&:c; (Dsn- 
mark), gains of; ascendancy of, 91d; 
(Eng.), 50f; beginning of, 55b; aids 
repeal of corn laws; ministry formed, 
65e; Gladstone's 1st ministry, 56c:2nd 
min., 56d: Parnell makes agreement, 
56e; unpopular; in general elec- 
tions: 3rd min., 56f; 4th min., 57b; 
Campbell-Bannerman ministry; vic- 
tory in Pari., 57f; Nationalist (Irish) 
party refuses support, 58a: elections 
(1910), 58b; in coalition cabinet 
(1915), 59b&c; in coalition ministry 
(1918). 61a; Aequith ret'd to Parlia- 
ment, 61e; (Fr.) , emperor grants de- 
mands. 100c; (Qer.), congress at 
Hambach, 106d; attempt to pass army 
bill against. 107c; Liberals elected to 
Nat'l Assembly, 109b; (Italy) in- 
vestigates monastic institutions,116e; 
elections (1919). 117f; (Japan) or- 
ganized (see Jiyulo), 119f; rivalry 
with Conservatives. U6f; (Neth.), 
carry elections, 130b; defeated, 130c; 
(Port.), foments revolution; minis- 
try (1909). 135f; (Spain), revolu- 
tions (1820) ; in Two Sicilies, 24c; vic- 
torious, 147b; overthrown, 147c;favor3 
economic reforms, 147e; ministry 
( 1909) . 1 47f ; ( Sweden) . estab. Liber- 
al govt. (1911). 149b; (Switz.).150d. 

"Liberal Republicans." 177b&c. 

Liberal Unionist party fnd., 56f. 

IJberation, War of, (Belg.), 46e; cen- 
tenary (Ger.), 107f. 

Liberator, the, established. 160e, 172a. 

Liberia, hist, outline; govt., 123e; in- 
dustry; relig.; educ; defense; area & 
pop., 123f: recent statistics, 222. 
Chronology, 123f. — Otherrefs.:fnd., 
171a; severs diplomatic relations; war 
on Ger., 35c; U. S. loans to, 3Sd; enter 
World War, 38e. 

Libert6,La,battleship.,de8troyed,101e. 

Liberty Bonds, U. S., 165c&e. See 
Liberty Loans. 

— Enlightening the World, sUtue. 178d. 
^Loans (U. S.) amounts. 38e; 1st. 

189f ; 1st & 2nd. 190d: 2nd. 190c: 3rd. 
191c; 4th, 191f. See Victoru Loan. 

— party. 160f, 172d. 172f. 173b. 
"Liberum veto," 134a. 

Libia Italiana. See Tripolitania. 
Libya, Cyrene fnd.. 7d. 
Libyan Desert. Brit, sphere in, 68f. 
^domination in Egypt. 7a. 
Libyans, 6f. 

License Tax Cases, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 176c. 



LieiniUS, Constantine defeats. lOd. 

Liebknecht, Karl, influence on Ebert; 

followers called "Spartacides," 108f; 

foments gen. strike; calls radicals to 

Berlin. 109a: killed, 109b. 

Liechtenstein, hist, outline; area & 

pop.; chronology. 124a. 
•— family, 124a. 

Liege. Germans at. 27d, 46f; falls. 27d; 
Belgians withdraw, 3 If; Spaniards 
killed at, 14Sa; center of metal indus- 
try. 47a. 
Liegnttz, battle of. 106a. 
Lienchow, Am. missionaries killed, 

86c. 
Light Brigade, charge of, 140e. 
Ligny. battle of. 99f. 
Liguria. land tenure in, 115b. 
Ligurian Republic, Fr. annexes, 99c; 
combined with Cisalpine, 116b. 

Li Hung Chang, Taipings, 84a; 
"Nien" rebels, 85e; Chin, foreign af- 
fairs; favors western nations. 85f; 
wounded by Jap., 120a; peace with 
Japan, 86a. 120a; dies. 86c. 

Lij Yasu, emp. of Abyssinia, 39b. 

Liliuokalani, queen of Hawaii; de- 
throned, 209e. 210a; asks indemnifi- 
cation of U. S., 181a. 

Lille, captured (1708), 97f: Germans 
occupy (1914); reoccupy, 32a; aban- 
don, 37a. 

Lin^a, fnd.. 133a&c; center of Sp. power 
in S. A., 133a; San Martin takes for 
Arg.. 40d, 133b; Bolivar at, 133b: 
strikes at (1919). 133e8rf. 

Limburg, Hoi., partitioned. 47c; Ger. 
troops disarmed in, 130d; Belgians 
claim. 4Sb. 130d. 

^. Prussia, mutiny (1918). 108c. 

Limerick, surrenders (1691), 53a; 
Sinn Fein demonstrations (1919); 
strike & military occupation; martial 
law. 61b. 

Lincoln, Abraham. life, 215d: chro- 
nology. 215f; portrait. 212.— Other 
refs.i 202b; captain in Black Hawk 
War.l72a;in 30th Cong. .173b: debates 
with Douglas, 174a; elected pres. 
(1S60). 161b. 174b; against concea- 
eion on territorial slavery, 174c; in- 
aug.. 161b. 174c; decries right of se- 
cession; war cabinet, 174d; calls out 
militia, 16Ib. 174d; proclaims block- 
ade. 161c, 174d; suspends habeas 
corpus. 174d; more volunteers, 161c. 
174d; prelim, emancipation procl., 
161e. 175b; formal. 25c, 161e, 175b; 
Procl. of Amnesty & Rcconstr., 175d; 
his reconstruction plan. 161f, lG2a; 
defeats Wade-Davis Reconstr. Bill, 
175e; reelected pres.. 175f; shot; dies, 
162a. 176a; centennial of birth, 182e; 
Memorial at Hodgenville. Ky., lS3e. 

~, Gen., at Savannah, 169b. 

Lind, John, Amer. repr. to Mex.; mis- 
sion fails. 127e. 

Lindman ministry, overthrown. 149b. 

Linevich, Gen., succeeds Kuropatkin, 
120c. 

Linnjeus, Sustema Nalura, 20f. 

Lippe, republic estab.. 108f. 

Liquor Shipment Act, Webb, passed 
in U.S., 184d. 

Lisbon, intellectual center, 135a; rev- 
olution, 19e; Treaty of, 135e; earth- 
quake, 135a&e: Fr. occupy. 135e; fire, 
135f; revolution (1910) , 135bS!i; mar- 
tial law; riots; monarchist outbreaks 
(1913): (1915); revol. against Castro, 
136a; mutiny, on warships, 136b. 

Lisgar. Lord. See I'ounti, Sir John. 

Lissa, battle of. 44f. 116d. 

Literature, American Revolution, 
21d; Middle 19th Cent.. 24b&c; 
Transcendental (N. E.). 24d; Later 
19th Cent.. 25b. 

^. Belgian, Modern, 25f. 

—.English, Eiiz. Age. early period, 17e; 
Shakespeare & Eliz., 18c; Puritan 
Age, ISf; Restoration per., 19e; Early 
18th Cent., 20c; 2nd half I8th Cent., 
2ia; Early 19th Cent., 22b; Victorian 
Age. 24d; 20tli Cent., 25f. 

■>-, French, Renaissance period, 16e; 
Pleiad, 17d; 17th Cent., period of 
prose. 19a; Classic period of drama, 
19b; Age of Voltaire, 20b&c: period 
of Revolution; Encyclopedists, 21b; 
Reaction period, 22b; non-Romantic; 
Romantic school. 24d; Naturalist 
school. 24f; Modern, 25f. 

^, German, Golden Era, 21a&:b; Later 
I9th Cent.. 24d. 

^, Greek, epic poetry, 7a; lyric poetry, 
7c; tragedy. 7e: bucolic poetry, 8f. 

^, Hal., early; Petrarch, 14d: Boccac- 
cio, Dante, 14e; revival of drama. 20f; 
19th Cent., 24d. 

^, Latin. Augustan Age. 10a. 

— , Polish, 19th Cent., 25d. 

— . Russian. Early national, 22b; period 
of novelists, 24d. 

^, Scandinavian, 19th Cent., 24f. 

^, Spanish, most brilliant period of 
drama. 18f; Renaissance of prose 
(19th Cent.), 24f. 

Lithuania (republic), hist, outline. 
124a; govt.: industry; labor; area & 
pop.. 124b; recent statistics, 222; 
map. 38. Chronology. 124b.— 
Other refs. (for early history, as part 
of Russia, see Former Baltic Prov- 
inces of Russia, hist, outline, 143f& 
144a): accepts Christianity. 144a; al- 
liance with Pol.;extent under Olgierd. 
144b; united with Pol.. 134a&c, 144b; 
gets Kurland & Livonia. 144b; organ- 
ic union with Pol., ISa. 144b; conflict 
withRus.. 137b; Rus. acquires (1772- 
1796). 134a. 140b&c, 144b: revolt 
(1905). 144c; overrun by Aust.. 28b; 
Rus. surr,. 36c. I38b. 143b; Ger. pro- 
claims independ., 138c. 143b; repub- 
lic proclaimed, 36d, 143d. 

Little. Frank, lynched, 190a. 

— Corn Island. U. S. gets. 81e, 185e, 
209bS;c. 

"Little group of willful men," I89d. 

— Rhody, 199f. 

— Rock, Ark., occupied, 175d. 
^Russians, 139c. 

Liukiu Islands = Oitinaioa Islands. 
Livenza. It. retreat from. 35f. 
Liverpool, police strike in; riots, 61d. 
^, Lord, premier, 54e; disabled, 55a. 
Living, high cost of. in Ger. (1915). 



108a: in U. S.. Dept. of Justice in- 
quiry, 189a; highest in history of 
country. 187a; Wilson's message on: 
Dept. of Labor report (1919). 193b; 
& pi-rsonnel of army & navy. 194a. 

"Living Buddha." 87b. 

Livingstone, David, on Congo. 48c. 

Livius Andronicus, 9a. 

Livonia, Rus. Bait. prov.. 143f&144a: 
area & pop.; people, 144a; Breth. of 
Sword at Wenden. 144a;under Lithua- 
nia (Poland). 17c. 144b; conq. by 
Sw., 144b: ceded to Sw., 19e, 148e; 
Rus. renounces claims to (1660),I39e; 
ceded to Rus., 20f. 137c. 140a. 144b. 
148f ; Rus. surr. W. half of, 36c, 138b; 
under Ger. protection. 143b; Rus. re- 
nounces E. half, 36c. For history since 
1918, see under Latvia. 123d. 

Livonian Knights, 17e. 

Livs, i44a. 

Livy, flourishes. 10a. 

Li Yuan-hung, proclaimed pres. of S. 
China, 87b; becomes pres. of China, 
84d, 87cr takes oath of office, dis- 
misses Tuan Chi-jui, 87c; resigns, 87d. 

Li Yuen. 83f. 

Li Yung-choi, insurrection, 85f. 

Lloyd George, David, in ministry 
(1905), 57f; chan. of exchequer; 
budgets (1908. 1909). 51cStd, 5Sa: 
(1915), 59b; min. of munitions, 59c; 
on War Committee, 59d: sec. for war, 
59f; forma national ministry (coali- 
tion cabinet) (1916), 51d. 60a; Home 
Rule proposal (1917). 60b: peace pol- 
icy, 36b:new coalition ministry(1919), 
61a: at Peace Congress. 102e; in Coun- 
cil of Four, 37e. 192d: new Home 
Rule Bill (1919), 61e. 

Loan Act, U. S. (1863). 175c. 

— & Legal Tender Act. U. S.. 174f . 
Loans. U.S., (1865). 176a: private, in 

U. S. to Allies. 38d: U. S. to Allies, 

3Sd. 190b; Anglo-French, external. 

187d; N. Y. banks to Gr. Brit.. 188e. 

S^c^lsoBond Issues. Liberty Loans, 

Victory Loan. 
Lobbying, at Washington, denounced 

by Wilson. 184f. 
Lobositz. battle of. 44a. 
Local Govt. Act. Eng. 8e Wales, 57a; 

new (1894). 57c; for Ire. (1898), 57d. 

— option, in Ala.. 182c; Canada, 72c: 
N. H., 173f: Vt., I73d. 

Lochner v. New York, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 181e. 

Locke, John, frames govt, for Carolina, 
197e, 199e. 

Lockouts. See Strikes and Lockouts. 

Locomotive, 1st ever used (in Wales), 
22c; 1st used in Amor., 171f; Peter 
Cooper's. 172a. 

Lodge, Sen. Henry C, reservations on 
League of Nations, 193b. 

Lodi. battle of. 22a. 99a. 

Lodomeria & Gahcia. 44a, 140b. 

L6d£. outbreak against J^ws. 141c: 
centerof iron industry, 134c; captured, 
32c: Ger. estab. line near, 27e. 

Loewe Company, 107c. 

^ V. Lawlor, Supr. court decision, 182d. 

Logan, John A., vice pres. vote, 178c. 

Logarithms, invented, ISe. 

Lollards. 15b. 

Lombardini, M.M., temp. pres. of 
Mex.. I26e. 

Lombard League, formed: defeats 
Fred'k I.; difficulties adjusted; peace 
of Constance; cities independ., 13d; 
reestab., 14a;Fred'k IL attacks, 14b. 

Lombardy, Gepidae; kingdom formed: 
disintegrated, I2a; Ravenna; Charle- 
magne destroys; crowned king of, 12b; 
Conrad declared king. 13c; Fr. re- 
pulsed. 16e; Francis I. gains, 16f: 
Charles V. king. 17b: submits to al- 
lies (Grand Alliance). 146e: Aust. 
loses, 43f: in war bet. Maria Theresa 
& Fr., 116a: Aust. cedes to France. 
44b. 99a: Napoleon crowned king of, 
1 16b: Aust. recovers, 44c, 114e,116b;in- 
surr. (1848), U6c; Aust. cedes to Sar- 
dinia, 25b, IHf; land tenure in, 115b: 
educ. in, 115d. 

Lonato, battle of. 99a. 

London, early Roman camp, 10b; Wat 
Tyler seizes, 15a; plague, 19e, 52c; 
fire, 52c: St. Paul's begun. 19f; char- 
ter lost. 52e; "no-popery" riots. 54a: 
exposition (1851). 24f. 55f: (1862). 
25c, 56b: elections against munic. 
ownership, 58a: dock laborers strike 
(1912), 58d: Stock E.xchange closes 
(1914), 58f; reopens, 59b; Zeppelin 
raids. 34a, 36b; Ger. airplane raids. 
36b; Amer. & Canad. soldiers in riot 
(1919).6Ib,192e; •'tube"6trike, 61b; 
shortage of houses; police strike, 61d. 

^.Conference, Peace (1864), 91d; on 
neutrality of Black Sea, 140f; Impe- 
rial Defense. 72e; Peace (1913). 
breaks up, 154c. 

^. Convention of (1831) = London. 
Treaty of (1831): (1840); Straits 
Convention (1841). 24e: (1861) = 
Treaty of (1861); (1867) = Treaty of 
(1867): (1884). independ. for So. Afr. 
Repub., 67a: (1909) , on regulation of 
naval warfare, 26e, 31e. 

— , Declaration of (1909). see London, 
Convention of (1909). 

^. Treaty (or Convention) of (1824). 
64b: (1827). 24c. 100a. UOb; proto- 
col (1830). 110b: (1831). 24e, 46f, 
47c: Quintuple Treaty (1841). 24e; 
(1852). 91c: (1861). 25b&c, 127a; 
{1867),25d. 124d: (1871), 25e: (1913). 
26f, 78b&f, Ula, 121f. 154d: secret 
treaty of (1915). 32f. 111b, 115a. 117c. 
121a&b,Jugo-Slavia refuses to recog.. 
121c;Wilson denies validity of, 121d. 

"-Company, chartered: fnds. James- 
town, 18d, 167c. 198a; separate char- 
ter. 167c, 198e: abolished. ISf. 198e. 

^ Government Act. 57d. 

^ Times, estab., 21e. 

Londonderry, siege of, 53a. 

Lone-Star Republic. 204a. 

Lone-Star Sute, 160c. 203f. 

Long, Major S. H., explorer. 171c; in 
Rocky Mts., 206c&d. 

^, Walter, in coalition cabinet (1915) . 
59c; sec. for colonies; in new coalition 
min. (1919). 61a. 

— Island, battle of. 168f. 

^ Island Sound, boat, illust., 96. 



-" Parliament, begins, 19b: Cromwell 
purges. 19c, 50b; formal legis. author- 
ity, 51f: end of. 52b. 

— Walls of Athens. 8b. 
Longjumeau, peace of , 17f. 
Longstreet, Gen, at Knoxville,175d. 
Longueville, Duke of, 97d. 
Lookout Mountain, battle of. 161e, 

I75d. 

Loos, battle of, 28b. 33b. 

Lopez, Carlos A., pres. of Paraguay, 
131e: dictator. 131f. 

— . Francisco Solano, dictator, 131e&f. 
155a; war with Arg, 131f; killed. 131e. 

^. Narciso. filibustering expeditions. 
89b. 173c; executed, 173c. 

Lopukhin, arrested for treason, 142a. 

Lords, House of, composition, 51b; 
abolished by Cromwell, 51f; Com- 
mons resolution to deprive of veto; 
election on question: Commons passes 
bill; Lords accept. 58c; illust., 213. 

Lord's Day Observance Act, Canada. 
72d. 

Lords of Trade, organized, 52d. 

Lorimer, Wm.. seat in Senate de- 
clared vacant. 184a. 

Lori3-Melikov,& Nihilism ;succeeded 
as min. of interior, 141a. 

Lome, Marquis of, gov.-gen. of Can- 
ada. 72b. 

Lorraine, beginning of, 12c: under 
Holy Roman Empire. 47b; Fr. oc- 
cupy, 20a, 97d; cedes to Fr.. 20f, 43f; 
Stanislas gets, 98a, 140a; reverts to 
Fr., 98c. 

^. Ger., 104e; ceded to Ger., lOOd, 
107a; Fr. invade, 31f; Amer. troops 
in, 191b. S'fe also Alsace-Lorraine. 

Lorton, Peruvian ship, sunk, 133e. 

Los Andes. University of, 155f. 

Los Angeles, Calif., invokes recall 
against mayor. lS2e: Times building 
destroyed, 183e: statistics, 220. 

Lothaire I., claims succession; de- 
feated; It. & Frank, lands. 12c. 

^11., duke of Saxony, king, 13b: Con- 
rad; subjugates enemies; in Italy, 13c. 

LbtSChberg tunnel, opened, 150e. 

Lou, army destroyed, 85d. 

Loubet, premier; overthrown. lOOf; 
pres., 101a; in St. Petersburg: inEng.. 
101b; in luly, lOlc; visits Victor Em- 
manuel III., 116f; in Spain, 147e. 

Louis, SAint = Louis IX.. 14b. 

^ of Baden, defeats Turks, 152e. 

^ of Battenberg, Prince, resigns First 
Sea Lord, 59a. 

^of Bavaria (1314) ^Lom'a the Bava- 
rian, of Ger., 14e. 

— I., of Bavaria (1825). UOb; abdi- 
cates, 106d. 

— I., of Flanders. Count, rebel.. 14f. 
^ II., of Flanders. Ghent rejects; Fr. 

restore. 15b. 

— I., of Fr.(& Ger.) (the Debonair), 
king; dies, 12c. 

— VII.. of Fr., 2nd crusade. 13c, 

— VIII., of Fr. (son of Philip II.). 
claims Eng.; goes there; king of Fr.; 
dies, 14a 

— IX.,ofFr..king.l4a:crusade(1248): 
prisoner: ransomed, 14b; against 
Mamelukes (1270):dies, i4c. 

— XI., of Fr.. war witU feudatory 
princes; conq. Burgundy; seizes An- 
jou: Provence; war with Maximilian 
ends, 15e. 

— XII., of Fr., conq. Naples; in It.; 
League of Cambrai; Holy League, 16e. 

^ XIII. , of Fr.. king; marries Anne of 
Austria. 18e; Huguenot war; treaty of 
peace, 18f; Richelieu. 19a: dies, 19c. 

— XIV., of Fr. ("Grand Monarch"), 
king; Anne of Aust. regent, 19c: mar- 
ries Maria Theresa. 19d&e. 9(d; as- 
sumes power (1661), 19c&e, 97d; 
wars for Sp., 97d; triple alliance, 19f. 
52d, 97d; occupies Franche-Comt6, 
97d: treaty with Charles H., 52d.97d; 
occupies Lorraine; campaign in Hoi., 
19f. 97d; deserts Messina, 115f: Peace 
of Saint-Germain. I9f. 148f; occupies 
Strassburg; attacks Luxemburg. 97e; 
pension to Eng. king, 52e; invades Sp. 
Neth., 20a, 97e; occupies Luxemburg; 
seizes Treves; Truce of Regensburg, 
20a; revokes Edict of Nantes. 20a, 
97e; claims Palatinate, 97e; invades 
it, 20a, 97e; receives James II., 20a; 
Treaty of Ryswick, 20b, 97e; peace 
with Empire, 97e: acknowl. William 
III. of Eng.. 20b. 53a, 97e; claim to 
Sp., 20c, 146c; war against Eng. & 
Grand Alliance, 97e; supports James, 
the Pretender, 53b, 97f; loses Bava- 
ria. 97f; driven from It.. 115f; gives 
up Sp.; closes Dunkirk; commercial 
treaty with Eng. & Hoi.; cedes Aca- 
dia. 97f; dies. 20e, e8a; his reign, 93f . 

— XV., of Fr.. king, 20e, 98a; assumes 
govt.. 20f: marries, 98a; Polish Suc- 
cession War. 98a, 140a; capitulations 
with Turkey, 151a: dies, 98c; his 
reign. 94a. 

^ XVI., of Fr.. as dauphin marries 
Marie Antoinette, 44a. 98c; king; ap- 
points Necker; States-General, 98c; 
Nat. Assembly: 3rd Estate; recalls 
Necker; removed to Paris; attempts 
to leave Fr.; forced to return; consti- 
tution, 98d: Girondist ministry: Aust. 
war. 98e; Swiss guard defends, 150b; 
trial; convicted, 98e; executed, 21f, 
98e: his reign, 94a. 

— XVIII., of Fr.. king, 94b, 99f: en- 
ters Paris (1814): Charte Octroyle; 
flees. 99f;2nd entry into Paris(1815); 
dies. 100a. 

^ of Ger. (the Debonair) = Louis I. of 
Fr., 12c. 

^ of Nassau, 17f. 

^ of Orleans, Duke, attempt on Fr. 
throne; Anne of France defeats; pris- 
oner, 15f. 

^ the Bavarian, war with Fred'k of 
Austria; wins; excommunicated; in- 
vades It.; pope deposed: retreats, 14e; 
dies. 14f. 

— the Child, dies. I2d. 

^ the Debonair = Lou ia I . of Fr. 

— the German, claims crown; defeats 
Lothaire; accepts Ger., 12c; Svato- 
pluk II, rebels, 12d. 

^ (the Great) of Hungary, 15a, 112f. 
^Napoleon. See Bonaparte. L. N. 

— Philippe, 23b; king. 94b. 100a; 



Casimir Perier. premier. lOOa; occu- 
pies Ancona, 116b: fortifies Paris; ab- 
dicates, 100b. 

Louisa.infanta of Spain, marries, 147c. 

Louisburg. captured (1745), 21a. 71b, 
158b, 168b; restored. 71b; Amherst 
captures (1758). 168c. 

Louisiana, hist, outline, 201b: statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221. Chronology, 201c. 
—Other refs.: disc. 20a. 97e: LaSalle 
takes for Fr.: claims Texas, 167f: set- 
tlement begins, 97e. 157d, 168a; Cro- 
zat's patent; New Orleans fnd.; made 
cap., 168b; eastern portion ceded to 
Eng. (1763). 21c. 53e. 168d: western 
portion ceded to Sp., 98b, 147a, 158b, 
168d: Span, portion retroceded to Fr. 
(1800). 99b, 147a. 201c: U. S. buys 
fr. France (1803), 22c. 99b&c. 159d. 
160c. 201b (see also Louisiana Pur- 
chase: see map. 194); Arkansas incl. 
in, 203b; Kansas incl. in, 205f: Minn. 
incl. in, 205c; Nebr. incl. in. 206c; 
Okla. incl. in. 208c; S. D. incl. in, 
207a; (State) admitted. I70e; Mis- 
souri succeeds Louisiana Terr., 203c; 
secedes. 174c; Unionist constitution 
(1864). 175f; readmitted. 176d; car- 
petbaggers control returning board, 
177e; vote disputed (1877); Democrats 
organize legislature; Federal troops 
withdrawn. 177e; gales & floods. 17Sd; 
adopts "grandfather clause." 162d: 
new const. disfranchises Negroes, 180c: 
rejects equal suffrage. 191f. 

— Purchase, treaty, 170b, 201f. 202d. 
203a, 203b. 204b. 204d. 205c. 205f. 
206c, d&e. 207a, bSif; 208c. 213d: 
boundary settled, 171b; slavery pro- 
hib., 171c. Map, 194. 

^ Purchase Exposition. 181d. 

Louisville, Ky., statistics. 220. 

•— & Nashville R. R. v. Cook Brewing 
Co., Supr. Court decision. 183f. 

Louren^o Marques. 135e. 

Louvain, battle of (891). 12d: Ger- 
mans destroy, 27d, 31f, 

^, Univ. of. 47a. 

Louvre. Mona Lisa stoIen;recov. ,117b. 

Lovett, William, People's Charter. 55c. 

Lowell. Mass.. statistics, 220- 

Loyalists, in Amer. colonies, exiled, 
168f. 

Loyalty Islands, 97c. 

Loyola, Ignatius, fnds. Jesuits. 17b. 

Luang Prabang, 144d. 

LQbeck, cap. Hanseatic League, 14b: 
Fr. (Napoleon) annexes, 99e; regains 
autonomy. 106c. 

Lublin (Lyublin), union of, 134c. 

Luca, conference at, 9f. 

Lucan, put to death, lOb. 

Lucania.S.S..wirelesstelegramtoSias- 
conset. 181a. 

Lucca, Maria Louisa gets, 147b. 

Lucerne, aristocracy of. 149d. 

Lu Cheng-shiang, delegate to Paris 
Peace Conference, 87e. 

Lucius Sextus, consul. 8c. 

Lucknow, siege; relief, 64c. 

^. Treaty of, 64a. 

Luco. Barros, pres. of Chile, 83d. 

Lucullus, defeats Tigranes. 9f. 41e, 

LudendorS, Gen. Erich von. succeeds 
Hindenburg, 35e; 1st great offensive; 
2nd offensive:3rd attack;Champagne; 
Soissons; reaches Marne. 36d; 4th of- 
fensive. 36e: refuses food for Aust., 
108d: 5th (last) offensive. 36e: re- 
signs. 30e. lOSe; takes refuge in Swe- 
den, 108f. 

Lilderitzbucht, occupied, 32d. 

Ludlov7, Edmund, in Ireland. 51f. 

Ludwig III., of Bavaria, king, 107f; 
deposed, 108e. 

Luis, king of Sp.: dies. 146f. 

Luitprand, captures Ravenna, 12b. 

Luiz I., king of Port.; dies, 135f. 

— . Prince, of Port., assass., 135f. 

Lukacs, Ladislas, premier, 45c: min- 
istry falls. 45d. 

LUle-Burgas, battle of, 78b. 154b. 

Lulumi, Nebuchadnezzar I. defeats, 
7a. 

Lumber State, 202e. 

Lund, Treaty of. 19f, I48c. 

— , University of, 148e. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of. 170f. 

Lun^ville, Treaty (Peace) of, 22b, 
44b, 46e. 99b. 103b. 106b. 

Lung-yii, Empress Dowager, 86f. 

Lusiad of Camoens, 18a. 

Lusitania,anc. name of Portugal. 134f. 

— , S. S.. sunk. 28e. 32f. 165d. 186c: 
ist Amer. note on; Ger. reply. 33a, 
186f; 2nd Amer. note.l86f;Ger. reply. 
187a; 3rd note. 187b. 

Luther, Martin, theses; burns papal 
edict; excommunicated. 16f; Diet of 
Worms; heresy; "Here I stand." 17a: 
translation of Bible. 17b; & Zwingli, 
149d. 

— r. Borden. Supr. Court decis., 173b. 
Lutheran Church, Lutherans, in 

Australia. 75a; Denmark, 91a; Estho- 
oia, 93a; Finland. 93d: Fr,. 95e; (Ger.) 
Peace of Augsburg; peace with Catho- 
lics, 17d; Formula of Concord, 18b; in 
United Evangelical Church of Prus., 
106d; in Norway, 130f; Sweden, 148e. 

Lutsk, capt., 28f; recapt., 34d. 

Latter, battle of, I9a. 

LUtzen. battle (1632). 19a. 99e. 

Luxburg, Count von. Ger. charg^d'af- 
faircs at Buenos Aires; disclosures; 
"spurlos versenkt;" dismissed. 35c, 
41c. 190a. 

LtlxemburgCcity). U.S.troops in.l24e. 

^ (duchy), hist, outline. 124c; govt.; 
industry; relig. ;educat ion ;area&pop., 
124d; recent statistics. 222. Chro- 
nology, I24d.— Other refs.: formerly 
in Holland. 129c; Louis XIV. attacks, 
97e; Fr. occupy. 20a. 97e; included in 
kdm. of Netherlands (1815). 130b: 
part given to Belgium (1831). 47c; 
Fr. about to annex; depend, of Ger., 
106f; neutrality guaranteed (1867). 
25d. 106f; Adolphus of Nassau suc- 
ceeds to sovereignty, 130b; Ger. at- 
tacks (1914), 27b; Germans enter, 
3Id; disposition of by Treaty of Ver- 
sailles, 38a. 

— , House of, 112f. 

— . Rosa, killed. 109b. 

— dynasty, ended, 15c. 
Luzon, Phil. Islands, area, 210f. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



241 



IiUSzatti.Luigi, premier; resigns, 117a. 
Lvov, Prince Georges, head of provis. 

cabinet. Russia, 138b; premier. 142d; 

resigns. 142e. 
I^autey. Gen. Herbert, Fr. min. of 

w^T. 102c. 
Lydia, in triple league, 7d; Croesus 

king: Cyrus conq.,7e. 
Lydiades. falls. 9a. 
Lyman M. Law. schooner. sunk,189c. 
Lynn, Mass.. sUtistics. 220. 
Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, at Boooville; 

killed. 174e. 
Lyons, battle of, 10c. 
^, Council of. 14b. 
Ly Sander. 8b. 
Lysimachus. receives Thrace, 86: 

peace with other generals; defeats An- 

tigonus. Se: Seleucus defeats, 8f. 
Lys River. Ger. advance along, 36d; 

Ger. retire from. 36f. 
Lytton, Earl of, viceroy of India, 64d. 
Lyublin, Ger. occupy. 33c. See also 
Lublin, 



M. 

Maastricht. Saxe takeg (1748), 9Sb. 

McAdoo. \Vm. G., director-gen, of R. 

Rs., 190d; authorizes expenditures 

for 1919. 191c. succeeded by Glass as 

sec. of treas.. 192a: & railroad control; 

eucceeded by Hines as director-general 

of railroads, 192c. 

Macao, 135d. 

MacArthur. Gen. A., amnesty procl. 

to Fihpinos. 180e. 
Macartney, Lord, George, 21f. 8-5c. 
' Macbeth, slays Duncan; king of Scots, 
12f. 
Maccabasus. See Jonathan, Judas, <fc 

Simon, Maccabants. 
Maccabees, lead revolt, 9c. 
McCardle iei parte), Supr, Coart de- 
cision. ITW. 
McCarthy, Justin, leader of National- 
ists. 57b. 
McClellan, Gen. Geo. B., 195f: in W. 
Va., 174d; commands Army of the 
Potomac, 174e; Peninsular campaign. 
174f; in Va. campaign. 161d; captures 
Yorktown; at Williamsburg, 174f; 
Lceforces retreat. 175a; Burnsidesuc- 
ceeds. 175b; repulses Johnston; pres. 
candidate. 170f. 
McClernand, Gen. John A., captures 

Arkansas Post, 175b. 
McClintock, Eng. explorer. 24f. 
McCormick, C. H., invents mower. 

reaper, etc.. 24d, 172b. 
M'CuUoch r. Maryland, Supr. Court 

decision, 171b. 
MacCurtln, Lord Mayor of Cork, as- 
sassinated. Olf. 
Macdonald, Sir John A., premier of 
Canada, "If; ministry resigns, 72a; 
forms 2nd ministry; dies, 72b, 
MacDonald clan, massacred, 53a. 
Macdonou&h, Thomas, 170f. 
McDowell, Geo. Irvin, at Bull Run, 

174e. 
— , Va. (now W. Va.). battle. 174f. 
Macedonia (ancient), supremacy of. 
6a; Alexander I., 7e; Perdiccas II.. 7f; 
Archelaus, 8a; Archelaus assass.. Sb; 
Perdiccas III.; Philip II., Sc. Alexan- 
der the Great, 8d; Philip III. (Arrhi- 
daeus), 8e; Antipater, Sd; Cassander; 
Roxana & Alex. IV. put to death: 
Alex. V. & Antipater; Alex. V. mur- 
dered; Demetrius 1.; Pyrrhus rules. 8e; 
Gauls invade; Antigonus (Gotiatus); 
Gauls driven from; Pyrrhus defeats 
Antigonus; Pyrrhus king; slain. 8f; 
struggle for sea power; Demetrius II.; 
jEtohans and Achieans unite against; 
Antigonus (Doson) ; aids Achseans; 
Philip v.; vanquish Spartans. 9a; al- 
liance with Hannibal; 1st war with 
Rome; jEtolians make peace with; 
peace with Rome;2nd war with Rome; 
supremacy ended. 9b; subject states 
declared free; Perseus; 3rd war with 
Rome; monarchy ends, 9c; revolt sup- 
pressed; Roman province; Greece de- 
pendency of, 9d. See also A/exonder 
///.. the Great, and Philip II. 
, — (modern) Bulgaria conquers. 77f; re- 
t'd to Turkey. 78d; Mussulman out- 
rages. 153d; disturbances (1888), 110c; 
massacres. 151e; outbreaks in; Aust.& 
Rus. demand reforms; powers make 
demands, 153e; Turks lose fortifica- 
tions in. 26f; autonomy dema ded, 
154b:Greekainvade(I912),109f,I54b; 
Balkan allies overrun;Monastir surr., 
154b; Serbia gains large part of, 121f: 
Bulgaria excluded from; in frightful 
condition (1913), 78f. See also Sa- 
loniki. 
Macedonian, Eng -ship, knifed 5(a(es 

defeats, 159e. 170e. 
^controversy, czar and, 142b. 
Maeeo, Ant.. Cuban leader: slain, 89d. 
Machado, Bernardino, pres. Port.. 

136a; arrested, 136b. 
Macbiavelli, Niccolo, 16f. 
Machinery, agricultural, intro.. 24d. 
Maclan, 53a. 

Maciejowice, battle of, 21f. 140c. 
Mack. Gen., surr. at Ulm. 99c. 
McKenna, Reginald, chancellor of ex- 
chequer in coalition cabinet (1915); 
introduces plan for financing war, 59a; 
on War Com.. 59d; budget (191b) ,59e. 
Mackensen, Gen. A. L. F. August 
von, invades Poland, 32c; drives back 
Rus- troops, 138a; in great Auslro- 
Ger. offensive (1915); in Galicia 
(1915) ; Tarn6w; Jaroslau; Przasnysz; 
Riga; Krasnftstaw; Lyublin; Brest- 
Litovsk, 33c; invades Dobruja, 34e, 
136d; drives back Roumanians& Rus- 
sians. 34e; in imperialist plot, 109a. 
Mackenzie, dist. of Canada. 69d&e,70f. 
^, Alexander, premier of Canada, 72a. 
^, Sir Alexander, Scottish explorer in 

Canada. 71c. 
^, W.L., leads rebellion in Upper Can- 
ada, 71e. 
^ River, disc. 7Ic. 
McKlnley, Mount, 209a. 
^.William. life, 217c; chronology, 
2I7e; portrait, 212.— Other refs.. 
pres.(1896), 164b, 180a; inaugurated. 



180a: Span.-Amer. War. 164c, 180c: 
policy toward Phil.Is.,21Ia:reelected, 
I64f, ISOf; shot; dies. 164f. ISla. 

— Bill. 217c. 

— Tariff, 163d. 

— Tariff Act. 179b. 

McLean, Allan, in Reld-McLean min- 

istr>', Australia, 76c. 
Maclean, Sir Harry, kidnapped by 

Raisuli; ransomed. 129a. 
MacMahon, Marshal, defeated at 
Worth; surr., lOOc; com. of govt. 
forces in War of the Commune: pres. 
of Fr. Repub.; term fi.xed, lOOd. 
Macnaghten, Sir Wm.. killed 39c. 
McNamara. J. J., convicted, lS3e. 
McNeely, R. N.. lost on Persia,187f. 
Macon Bill No. 2, 170d. 
Macpherson. Sir John. gov. -gen, of 

India. 03f- 
Mactan. Magellan killed on, 210f. 
Macy Case=Strau3 p.Amer. Publish- 
ers' Assoc., lS5b. 
Madagascar, hist, outline; govt.; In- 
dus. & labor; 96e: relig., 96e&:f; ed- 
uc.;defense; area& pop,, 96f; map, 64. 
—Other refs.: disc, 16e; war (1883): 
Fr. protectorate. lOOe; Fr. control 
over recognized, 57b; Fr. colony, 94f. 
lOla; Eng. & Fr. exchange notes, 
57f. 
Madeira Islands, reached (1419). 15c. 
Madero, Francisco. I64e; revolts 
against Diaz; pres. of Mex,; deposed 
& shot, 125d, 127d&e. 
Madison, James, life, 213a: chronol- 
ogy. 213c; portrait. 212. — Other refs.: 
supports Federal Constitution. 198d; 
with others composed the Federalist, 
159b; presents commercial resolu- 
tions. 169f:sec. of stale, 170b: pres.. 
22e. 159d&:e. 170c: takes oath. 170d. 
"Mad Mullah, ' ' of Somaliland. 58b; 
finally defeated. 61e; in India. 64e. 
Madras, beginning of settlement. 63d; 
becomes subordinate agency, 63e: Fr. 
capt.;restored, 21a;2nd Mysore War, 
63f; presidency, 62f, 63a, 64a. 
Madrasahs, I52c. 
Madrid, Murat enters, 99d, 147a; ca- 
pitulates, 147a; Brit, enter (1812), 
99e. H7b: Fr. enter (1823), 147c: 
anarchistsactive (1906), 147e;rioting 
(1909); martial law.l47f; martial law 
(1919). 148b. 
— , Treaty of(1526), 17a;(1670). 52d, 

167f; (ISOl). 99b, 
Madriz, Dr. Jos€, pres.; flees, 81d. 
Madura, island Du. E, Indies. 129f. 
Msecenas, 10a, 

Mafeking, railroad connection; be- 
sieged: relieved. 67b. 
Magdaia, capt., 56b. 
Magdalen College. Cath. president; 

fellows expelled, 52f. 
Magdeburg, stormed, 19a. 
^. Ger. cruiser, blown up, 32e. 
Magellan, Fernando, sails through 
strait. U>f. 167b; enters Pacific. 167b: 
disc. Guam, 210a; at Ladrones, 16f: 
reaches Philippines; killed, 16f, 210e. 
211b; one of his ships completes cir- 
cumnavigation of globe, 16f. 167b. 
Magenta, battle of, 114f, 116c. 
Magersfontein, battle of, 67b. 
MagnaCharta(seeinDicf.),Ild,X4a. 
Magnalia, Cotton Mather's, 20c. 
Magnesia, battle near. 9c. 
Magoon, Charles E., provisional gov. 

of Cuba; withdraws, 89e. 
Magyar language (Hungarian), 45b; 
ofhcial language in Hung., H3f, 122f; 
in Croacia-Slavonia, 122f. 
Magyars , cross Carpathians; defeat 
Moravians, 12d; settle near the Tisza 
(Theiss), 12d; conq. Hungary, 112e, 
113e; conq. Great Moravia, 12d; revo- 
lution (1848), 113b; demands under 
Francis Kossuth, 113c; converted. 
113e; contests over language, etc., 
113f; autonomy demanded, 46b; num- 
ber of in Hungary, 42f, 113b. 
Maha Mongkut, 144e. 
Maha Vajiravudh, of Siam. 145a. 
Mahdi, appears. 68b; revolt; defeats 
Hicks Pasha; Khartum; dies, 6Se. 
Mahmud I., sultan, 151d. 
^ II,, sultan, 151d, 152f: massacre of 

the Janizaries. 152f; dies, 153a. 
— • of Ghazni, 12e. 

^ Shevket. grand vizier, lS4c&d; as- 
sass.. 154d, 
Mail seizures. U. S. protests to Gr. 
Brit.. lS7f; Fr.&Eng. reply on. lS8b; 
2nd protest, 18Sc;Fr.&Eng.reply.l88f. 
Maine (anc. prov. of Fr.), lost by 

King John. 13f. 
^ (State), hist, outline. 202e; statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221; chronology. 202f. 
— Other refs.; colony sent to, 167c: 
granted to Mason & GorEes,167d;part 
of Mass.. 197b; set apart, 19(c; admit- 
ted, 171c; bound, settled. 160c; pro- 
hibition in, I86b; rejects woman suf- 
frage, 190b. 
^. U. S. battleship, blown up, 164c, 
ISOb; Court of Inquiry reports, 180b, 
I83e; wreck raised, 89e; national 
monument to, 184f. 

— Law, 173d. 

Maintenon, Madame de, 97e. 
Mainz. Allies enter, 37b. 
Majuba Hill, Boers defeat Brit., 67a. 
Malacca, 65d; Albuquerque capt.; 

Dutch uke, 63d;added to Straits Set- 
tlements, 54b. 

Malakofl, stormed by French. 140f. 

Malay Peninsula. 65c&d. 

^ States, Federated, descr.; area & 
pop,, 65c; Brit, protectorate. 56d. 

— States, nonfederated, area&pop.,65c; 
under Brit, suzerainty, 58b. 

Maldive Islands. 62d. 

Malek el-Ashref, conq. Acre, 14d. 

— Shah, 13a. 

Malherbe, Francois de. 17d. 
Malhon {Homonhon), 210f, 
Malietoa, King, of Samoa, treaty with 

Ger., 21(ib&c; protectorate. 210b; re- 
fuses to carry out treaty; Ger. repri- 
sals; Ger. dethrones, 210c. 

Malladra, Prof., descent into Mount 
Vesuvius, 117b. 

Malmedy, circle of, to vote on future 
status; Belg. sovereignty begins, 48b. 

Malmd, Truce of, 91c; kings of Den., 
Nor.. & Sv/e. meet at, 91e, 131b, 149b. 



Malory. Sir Thomas, Marled' AHhur, 

loo. 
Malplaquet. battle. 20d. 97f, 146f. 
Malta, 62a: granted to Knights of St. 
John, I7b; Mustafa Pasha atUcks. 
17f; Napoleon takes. 22a, 99a: Brit. 
take, 99b; in Napoleonic wars. 54d; 
reuined by Eng, (1814), 54f; naval 
base shifted to Gibraltar (1912);con- 
ference 0912). 5Sd. 
Malvern Hill, battle of. 161d. 175a. 
Malvy, Louis J,, min. of interior; trial: 

treason, 102d- 
Mamelukes, rule Egypt, 14b. 68a: 
subordinate to Turkey; overcome by 
Bonaparte. 6Sa: conq. by Ottomans; 
defeated by Bonaparte. 68d, 99a. 
Man, Isle of. 62a; area & pop., 51f. 
Manassas, battles of. See Bufi un. 
-^Manasseh, priest, expelled, 8 . 
— , reigns in Judah, 7c. 
Manchester, Eng., riots, 54f. 
^, N. H.. statistics. 220. 
— & Liverpool railway, opened, 55b. 
^ Ship Canal. 57a. 
Manchuria, rebellion in, 86a; Japan 
invades, 86a, 120a; Russ, in, 137e; 
concessions to Russ.; Russ. occupa- 
tion. 84b. 86a; rail connection with 
Moscow, 141c; Russ.St China to evac- 
uate: Russ. evacuates terr.; negotia- 
tions over Rues, position in, 86c; Jap, 
gets part of, 118e; restored to China. 
S4c, 86d; Jap, estab. police stations 
in; Russ, builds forts in, S7c 
Manchus, dynasty estab., 19c; lack of 
progress. S3f; privileges abolished, 
86c; rising against, S6d: power in leg- 
islature; massacre at Hankow. S6e; 
control ends, 24a; dyn. ends, S4d, 86f . 
Mandates. Austr.-Hung. over Bosnia 
& Herzegovina (1878). 122f; system 
of, as provided for by League of Na- 
tions (1919) , 31a, 37f: granted, Aus- 
tralia, over Pac Isla south of equa- 
tor. 37f, 76f, 105c: Prance. Kame- 
run Cointly with Gr. Bnt.); part of 
Togo, 105a: Syria, 150f. 151b: Gr. 
Britain, Ger, E. Africa. 105b; Kam- 
eruo (jointly with Fr.), 105a; Meso- 
potamia. 125a: Nauru, 37f; Palestine, 
131e, 162d. part of Togo, 105a; Ja- 
pan, Pac. Isls. north of Equator. 37f. 
105c, I20f ; Shantung (see underNAan- 
lung-.tioX strictly a mandate) ;N. Z., 
Ger. Samoa, 37f. 77d, 105d; So. 
Af., Ger. S.W.Africa, 105b; U. S., 
refuses mandate for Armenia, 42b, 
Manfred, king of Sicily. 14b. 
Mangaia, 77b. 
Manhattan Island. Dutch settle.lSe, 

167d. I'JW, 
ManichieisDi, lOd. 
Manila, included in New Spain, 125b: 
cap. Phil. isls.. 210f; Brit, take, 147a, 
210f. 211c; Brit, evacuate, 147a: re- 
stored to Sp.. 53e; U, S. troops reach, 
ISOc; siege of, ISOc&d, 21Ia; surr., 
164c. 210e&f: atUcked by Filipinos, 
164d, 180d; civil govt, estab., 181a; 
pop., 211a. 

— Bay. battle of. 164c. 180c. 211c. 

Manin, Daniele, Venice repub., 44d. 

Manipur, Eng. claim renounced. 64b. 

Manitoba, province, repr. in Com- 
mons, 69e; descr., area & pop., 70c; 
admitted to Confederation. 72a; 
boundary with Ont. settled; school 
controversy, 72b, 73a; Prohibition 
Act,72c;take3 over tel. system; bound- 
extended, 72e; prohibition, 73a. 

— Act, 73a. 

Mann Act, 183b: upheld by Supr. 

Court, lS4d. 
Mann-EIkins Act, 183a. 
Mannerheim, Gen., frees Finland fr. 

Bolshevist activities, 93c. 
Mannheim, confirmed to Baden, 106c; 

assembly at, 106d. 
Man Power Act. Eng., 60e: U. S.. 

191d&e. 
Mantineia, Spartans defeat Argives, 
8a: restored; battle of (Spartans de- 
feated), 8c. 
Mantua, Bonaparte takes. 99a. 
Manua, annexed to U, S,. 210c, 
Manuel II., king of Port.; plot to de- 
throne; pension; flees to Eng., 135bSJ. 
^ Comnenus. reigns in Byzantium; 

hinders 2nd Crusade; wars. 13c. 
Manufactures of any country. See 
Indus. & Labor, underthat country. 
Manzanillo (Cuba), independence 

declared at, S9c. 
Maoris, 76f, 77a, b&c. 
Maori Wars, 1st & 2nd, 77c. 
Maps, Roman Empire. 10; Europe in 
1648, 18; Europe, Peace Conference 
boundaries, 1920, 38; Nations of the 
world, 64; United States, territorial 
growth, 194. 
Mar, Earl of, leads Jacobites, 53c. 
Maranhao, French at, 49a. 
Marash. massacres at. 42b, 151a. 
Marat, Jean Paul, in Reign of Terror, 

98e: assass., 98f. 
Maratha Confederacy, 63e, 64a. 
Maratha Wars, lst,63f; 2nd,64a;final, 

64b. 
Marathas, rise to power, 63d&f: aid 

Eng. against Tippoo, 63f. 
Marathon, battle of. 7f, 
Marbury v. Madison. Supr, Court de- 
cision. 170b. 
Maroellus, captures Syracuse. 9b. 
March, Peyton C. chief of staff, 191a. 
Marches (It.), joins Piedmont, 25b; 
c land tenure in, 115b. 
March Laws (Hung), 113aSrf. 
"March to the Sea," Sherman's, 161f, 

I73f, 196a, 
Marcomanni, 42b; invade Rome, 6a. 
Marcus Aurelius, emp., 10c. 
Mardonius. leads Pers., 7f, 
Marengo, battle of, 22a, 44b, 99b, 

116b. 
Margall. Ste Pi v ^faroaU. 
Margaret of Eng., defeated at Tewkes- 
bury, 15e. 

— of Norway, Sw.. & Den. (1395). 15b. 
148b. 

^ of Parma, regent of the Neth., I7e; 
withdraws fr. Neth,, 17f. 

— of Scot., dies (1290). 14d. 

^ of Scot. (1513), regent for Jam(:3 v., 

^ of Valoia, marries. 18a, 



^ Theresa. St Sp. succession, 20c. 
Maria I., of Port.. 49b. 

— II. (Maria da Gloria), of Port.. 135a 
Sie; of age; dies, 135f. 

^Christina (wife of Ferdinand VII.) 
of Sp.. regent; insurr. against; forced 
lo swear allegiance to constitution 
of I.S12; leaves Sp., 145e. H7c. 

— Christina (wife of Alfonso XII.). 
of Sp . regent (1885); Alfonso XIII. 
born, I45e. 147e. 

— dai'.loria. See Maria II. 

^ Louisa, Span, infanta, gets Lucca, 

147b. 
^ Theresa (1638-83; queen consort of 

Louts XIV.), marries Louis XIV.. 

19d&e, 97d; & Sp. succession, 20c. 

— Theresa (1717-80) of Aust.. suc- 
ceeds to Austrian throne, 20eStf, 42d. 
105f; becomes queen of Hung,; Eng. 
supports claims; treaty with Maxi- 
milian of Bavaria, 43f; claims to 
Lombardy, 1 16a, Hung, nobles pledge 
support, 113f; alliance with Rus., 
140a, husband elected emp. as Francis 
I. (swFrancis I.). 21a: dies, 44b. 

Mariana (or Ladronej Islands, 105d; 
Japan cap.;assign<'d to Japan, lOoc 
Marie Adelaide, Grand Duchess; ab- 
dicates. 124e. 
^ Antoinette, 42d; marries Louis 

XVI.. 44a. 98c; executed. 98f. 
Marie-Galante. island. 97b. 
Marie Louise. Napoleon marries, 22e, 

y9e. 
Marietta, O.. settled. 169d, 201a, 220. 
Marignano, battle of. 16f. 149d. 
Marino. Brit, steamer, torpedoed, 188f. 
Marion-Dufresne, Nicholas T., vis- 
its Tasmania. 75c. 
Maritz, Solomon G., revolts against 

Brit.; escapes & executed, 67e. 
Marius, Caius, Jugurthine war: Teu- 
tones overcome; Cimbrl; consul for 
6th time; crushes Satuminus & Glau- 
cia; war with Sulla; massacre of Sul- 
la's partisans; dies; leaders proscr.,9e. 
Marlborough. Duke of. leads Grand 
Alliance, 146e; Queen Anne patroness 
of, 20c; captains-general, 53b; invades 
Sp, Neth.. 146c; at Blenheim (Blind- 
heim), 29d, 43e. 97f. 146e; becomes 
Whig, 53b; at Ramtllir-s, 20d. 97f, 
146e; at Oudenarde; takes Lille, 97f; 
at Malplaquet, 20d, 146f; deprived of 
all offices. 53c. 
Marmont, Auguste Fr6d&:icde. de- 
feated, 99e, 147b. 
Marmora, Sea of, Brit, fleet enters, 

153c. 
Mame. the. line. 32a; 1st battle of. 
27d, 32a;Ludendorff reaches, 36d; 2nd 
battle of, 30b. 36e. 
Maronites, Druses massacre (1842), 

153a; (1860). 131d, 151a. 153a. 
Maronite schools in Cyprus, 62d. 
Maroons, in Jamaica, 74b. 
Marot, Clement, 16e. 
Maroto. Rafael, Carlist leader, 147c. 
Marquesas Islands, 97c. 
Marquette, Jacques, settles Sault 
Sainte Marie. 203c; reaches 111. Riv.. 
202a; explores region of Missouri, 202f, 
Marriage law, uniform, in Canada, 72e. 
Marroquin, Jose, pres. Colombia, 88c, 
Marseilles, Indian troops at, 65a: 

Rua. exped. force lands, 142c 
Marshall, Jame^W.,di8C.goldin Calif.. 

204f. 
—', John, chief justice, 170b, 198d; 

Taney succeed, 172c. 
— . T. R., nom. vice pres. (I9I2),184a; 
elected. 184b: again v. pres.. 188cS;f. 
^,Gen. (Sir) Wm .succeeds Maude ;takes 
Hit; takes Khan Bagdadi; advances 
east of Tigris; defeats Turks; Mosul 
eurr.; occupied. 30c, 37c. 
■■ Islands. 105d; Japan captures; as- 
signed to Japan. lOSc, 32d. 120e. 
Mars-la-Tour. battle of, 100c. 
Marston Moor, battle of, 19c. 
Martignac, premier of Fr., 100a, 
Martin V., Pope. 15c. 
^ V. Hunter's Lessee, Supr. Court 

decision, 171a. 
^v. Mott, Supr. Court decision, 171e. 
Martinez. Tomas, pres..E80f; retires, 

81a. 
Martinique, outline, 97b; Brit, con- 
quer, 9«b; restored to Fr., 53e, 98b. 
Martos, Gen., 139d. 
Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 
retains Neth, and Franche-Comt6; 
marries Maximilian, 15e. 
^ I. (Mary Tudor), of Eng.,queenmar- 
ries Philip II. of Sp.. 17d; dies, 17e, 
^11., of Eng, weds William of Orange. 
19f, 52d, 130a; offered joint sover- 
eignty. 52f, 130a; becomes queen. 20b. 
130a: dies, 53a. 
^ of Guise, queen regent of Scot.; Prot. 

reformers rebel against; dies, 17e. 
— . Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart), suc- 
ceeds James V., 17c; marries Franc-g 
11.; Treaty of Edinburgh; arrives in 
Scotland, 17e: marries Darnley; mar- 
ries Bothwell; imprisoned: abdicates; 
escapes: Murray defeats; flees to Eng.; 
Elizabeth captures, lif; inconspiracy; 
beheaded, ISb. 
^ Stuart = .Wary, Queen of Scots, 
— Tudor, Mary theCatholic = .A/ary /. 

of Eng. 
Maryland, historical outline. 197c: 
statisti'^^. 220; area, 221; chronology, 
197d. — Other refs.: granted to Cal- 
vert, 157e. 167e; 1st settlement, 167e, 
220; proprietary govt, overthrown. 
168a; proprietary restored: Baltimore 
fnd.. 168b; ratifies Articles of Con- 
fed., 169b; ratifies Constitution. 169d; 
remains in Union, I61c, 174d; Lee in- 
vades, I75b; abol. slavery, 175f. 
Masaniello, revolt in Naples. 19c. 
Masaryk, Thomas G.; pres., 90d; at 

Prague, 90e. 
Masbate. 210f. 
Mashonaland, 67b. 
Masinissa, joins Scipio, 9b. 
Maskat, cap. of Oman, 131c; Port. 
occupy, 112c: Sultan of, cedes Kuria 
Muria Isls. to Eng., 63c. 
Mason, James M., Confed. commis- 
sioner, 161c, 174e. 
^, John, land grants. Maine, 167d,202f; 
of N.H.. 167d. 198a&b; obtains royal 
cliaxXers, 167d. 



Mason and Dixon's line, I97c. 
Massachusetts, hist, outline. 196e: 
statistics. 220: area. 221. Chronology, 
197b.— Other refs,: Gosnold. 167c: 
settled at Plymouth, 157e, 167d; 
Mass. Bay Co. chartered, 167d; char- 
ter includes part of 111., 202b; part of 
Mich., 203d; part of Wis., 204e; Sa- 
lem fnd.; Boston fnd.; Harvard fnd.; 
Prov. & R. I. plantations settled fr., 
167e: e.\tend8 jurisdiction over Maine 
towns. 167d; in N. E. Confed.. I58e. 
167e: purchases Gorges grant, 167f, 
202f;charter annulled. 167f;2nd char- 
ter includes Maine. 202f; Govt. Act, 
168e; sends John Brown as agent to 
Canada, 71c; StateConstitution.l69b: 
relinquishes claim to Vt., 200b; cedes 
western claims. 169c. 202b, 203d. 
204e; Shays's Rebellion. 169d: act for 
State R. R. com.. 176e;minimum wage 
law, 187f;Ger. submarines off. 37d. 
^ Bay Company & Colony. See under 

Massachusetts. 
Massagetae. kill Cyrus, 7e. 
Massaua, it. occupies. 115a, 116e: 

battle of. 116f, 
Massfina. Wellington repulses: re- 
treats from Port., 99e. 
Massey, W. F., premier of N. Z., at 

Peace Conference. 77d. 
Masulipatazn. Eng. factory at, 63d. 
Masurian Lakes. Rus. defeated at, 

23b. 32b. 
Matabeleland, under Brit. So. Afr. 

Co.. 67b. 
Matabele War. 67b. 
Matagorda Bay, Texas, settlement at- 
tempted. 204b. 220. 
Matamoros. Taylor occupies, 173a. 
Matanzas, prov. Cuba, insurr-, 89c. 
Matches, reform in manufacture,184a. 
Mate, export of Paraguay. 131f. 
Maternity Bonus Act. Australia.76d. 
Mather, Cotton. Magnalia. 20c. 
Matilda, dispute for crown, 13c. 
Matos, Gen. .heads civil war in Venez., 

I56c 
Mattathias, Jewish revolt, 9c. 
Matthias, emp. of Ger.; contest with 
Rudolph. ISd; takes crown; 30 Years' 
War. 18e; succeeded by Ferd.. 18f. 
^, king of Hungary, 112f. 
Maubeuge. Fr. garrison left at;taken 

by Ger.. 32a; Fr. take, 30d. 37a. 
Mauchamp. Dr., murder. lOld. 
Maud, queen of Nor. crowned. I31b. 
Maude, Sir Frederick S., offensive 
against Kut, 35a&f: recaptures Kut- 
el-Amara, 29f, 36a. 125a; defeats 
Turks at Ramadie. 36a. 
Maui, area. 209d, 

Maura, Antonio, premier; ministry re- 
signs. 147f ; forms new cabinet (1918), 
H8a; (1919); resigns, 148b. 
Maurepas, minister of state, 98c. i 
Mauretania, descrip., 96d. 
Maurice of Nassau, head of Neth., 
18b: defeats Sp.. ISc; Mauritius 
named for, 65e; defeats Albert of 
Aust., 18d. 
— of Saxony, attacks Charles V.. 17d. I 
Mauritius, descrip.; area & pop.; 
dependent islands, 65e; Eng. take. 
54e, 99e: retain. 54f. 
Maurokordatos, Aleksandros. UOb. 
Mauromichalis, Petros. llOb. 
Mausolus, r.igns; dies, 8c. I 

Maximian, lOd. ' 

Maximilian of Aust. (1477). marries; 

war with Louis XI . ends. 15e. 
^ of Aust.. Archduke, emp. of Mexico. 
44e, 125c. 127a; arrives; ordered to 
withdraw. 127a: overwhelmed&shot 
125c, 127a. 164b. 
^ of Baden, Prince, becomes chancel- 
lor. 104b, 108d; statement on Ger. 
govt.. 30e; resigns, 108e. 
^ I. of Bavaria, king. 99c. 
^ II,, of Bavaria. I06d. 
—, Ger -emp., treaty with Charles VIII.; 
reforms, 16d:war with Swiss; League 
of Cambrai; invades Fr.,I6e; as ruler 
of Aust-. 42c; dies, 16f. 
^ of Mexico = Maximilian of Aust., 

Archduke. 
^ Joseph, elector of Bavaria, 105f: 
treaty with Maria Theresa restores 
dominions, 21a, 431; dies, 106a. 
Mayas (seeMaua. inDict.). 79b:disc. 
by Sp., 125f: resent white settlement 
in Yucatan. 127c. 
Mayenne. Duke of, at Ivry, ISc. 
Mayflower, reaches Plymouth. 167d: 

compact. 197b; illust. of, 96, 
May Laws (see Kulturkampf. in 

Diet.). 103d: proclaimed, I07a. 
Maynooth College, & Ir. Diseatab. 

Act, 56c. 
Mayo, Earl of (R. S. Bourke), viceroy 

of India, ■64d. 
Mayotta. 96f. 

Maysville R<-ad Bill, vetoed, 171f. 
Mazagan, Port, expelled from. 128f. 
Mazarin, prime minister. I9c; insurr. 
against; leaders imprisoned, 97d;dies. 
19e. 97d, 
Mareppa, revolts, 20d. 
Mazzini, Society of "T;'oung Italy;*' 

pub. book; leader of republic, 116c, 
Meade, Gen. George G., succeeds 

Hooker; at Gettysburg, I61e. 175c, 
Meat inspection laws, U. S, passes 

(1906), 182a. 
Meatless days, in Fr., 102d: in U. S., 

191a. 
Mecca, Mohammed bom at, 112b: 
Mohammed flees: takes. 12a: Holy 
City of Mohammedans, 112b&c; local 
shereef; Grand Shereef (see below); 
Wahabiism in, 112c; Caaba shelled, 
112d; Husein occupies, 34f; in New 
Arab state, 29a. 
^, Grand Shereef of , 112c&d; (Husein) 
revolts, 29a: declares independ.. 34b; 
takes Mecca, 34f. 
Mechanicsville, battle of, 175a. 
Mecklenburg, insurr. (1848), 106e; 
tax on bachelors. 1071; republic. 108f . 
■^ Declaration, 199d. 
Media, fnd., 7c; Phraortes; Cyaxares. 
7d; triple league. 7d&e; Astyag-^s; 
Cyrus conq., 7e; Ale.xander crosses, 
8d. See Medo-Peraian Empire. 
Mediation, Act of, 22c, I49e. 
Medici, driven from Florence (1494), 
16d; return. 16e; Leo X., pope, 16f: 



242 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



R 



U 



W 



X 



expelled (1527). 17a: possessions pass 
to Francis of Lorraine. IHe. 

Medlct. Alcssandro de'. aaaas.. 17c. 

^, Cosmo de'. the Great, ISa. 

M6dicis, Marie de. regent. ISe. 

Medieval Pc-nod of History. 11-15. 

Medina, Mohammedat. 12a, 112c; po- 
litical capital. 112c;HolyCity of Mo- 
hammedans. 112b&c; local shereefg 
in; Wahabiism in, 112c; R. R. con- 
nection with Damascus; Turks hold, 
112d; in new Arab state. 29a. 

— de Campo, Treaty of. 15f. 
Medlna-Sidonia, Duke of, commands 

Armada, 18c. 
Mediterranean, Fr. navy in, lOle. 

— agrcemt-nt (1S87) . (Aust.. It, & Gr. 
Brit,). 45a; (1387 ii: 1891) (It. .Aust.. 
& Sp.).147e. 

^ civilization, 5f. 

— possessions. Brit., 62a. b&d; recent 
statistics. 222. 

Medo-Persian Empire, 5d, 132b. 

Sec Media. 
Meerut. Sepoy Mutiny begins at, d4c. 
Megalopolis, fnd.. 8c. 
Megarians, fnd. Byzantium, 7d. 
Megiddo.batileof.6f:(60SB.C.),7d. 
Mehemet Ali, CSa: revolts; his reign; 

contest with Turkey. 68d; pasha over 

Syria. 6Sd. 151a: four powers aEainsl; 

driven Into Egypt. 24e. 55d: hered. 

tributar>' prince of Egypt, 151d,153a. 
Meiji, year period, 119d. 
Melbourne, settled, 75b&e; demon- 
stration against convicts: Eight Hours 

Demonstration Day. 75f; conference 

of Austral, premiers. 76b; pop., 75c: 

govt, building, illust., 213. 
— , Lord, in ministry (IS30); prime 

minister (1334); dismissed by king; 

returns. 55c: ministry defeated. 55d. 
MelSndez, pres. of Salvador. Sle. 
Melilla. Spanish attacked at. 129a. 
M61ine. premier of Fr,. 101a. 
Memorial Day (1919), observance of. 

19Jf. 
Memphis. Egypt, fnd.. 6d. 
— , Tenn.. surrenders, 175a; Waterways 

Convention. lS2c; statistics, 220. 
Memphite dynasty, 3rd; 4th; 5th; 6th. 

Gd; 7th & Sth. 6e. 
Mena, Luis, revolts; surrenders. 81d. 
Menahem. king of N . Israel. 7b. 
Menander. age of, 8e. 
Mendowg. Lithuanian chief, 144a. 
Mendoza. Antonio de, 1st viceroy of 

Mex,. 125f. 
^, Carlos Antonio, acting pres. of 

Panama. 82e. 
— , Hurtado de. viceroy. 133c. 
— , Don Pedro de. fnds. Buenos Aires 

(1535). 40c&f; explores Rio de la 

Plata: fnds. A3unci6n (1536), 40c. 
Menelik, emp. of Abyssinia, 39a&b; 

defeats It. at Adowa, 116f. 
Men^ndez, pres. of Peru, 133d. 

— (de.Aviles), fnds. St. AuBUStine,167c. 
Meneptah. reigns, 6f. 

Menes. 6d. 

Menin, taken, 37a. 

Menocal. Gen. Mario, pres. of Cuba. 

S'Je; inaugurated: reelected, S9f. 
Menshikov, Prince A. D., adviser to 

Catherine I.. 20f. 
^, Prince A. S.. czar's envoy to Turkey; 

at the Alma, 140e. 
Mentana. Garibaldi defeated at. U6d. 
Menton, 12Sd- 

Merchant Marine, development of 
from earliest times, colored plates, 
96. ScQ Shipping. 
Meroier, Cardinal, condemns German 
inethodsinBelg.,47f; visits U.S. .4Sb, 
193c. 
Meredith, E. T.. becomes eec. ol 

agriculture, 194c. 
Mfirida, Vcnez., univ., 155f. 
Merodach-baladan, & Tiglath pile- 
eer; revolts; king; Sargon II. defeats; 
Sennacherib defeats. «c. 
Merovingian dyn.. falls. 12b. 
Merrimac, destroys Cumberland & 
Consresa. 161d5:e: fights Monilor, 
161e. 174f: illust. of, 144. 
— , steamer, Hobson sinks, 180c. 
Merritt. Gen. Wesley, in command in 
the Phil, Isls,, 210f; & Dewey at 
Manila. 164c. ISOd. 
Merryman, John, ez parte. 174d. 
Merv. 141b. 

Merville. Ger. 2nd great attack, 36d. 
Merwede Canal, completed, 130b. 
Mesha, king of Moab, 7b. 
Meshed. Brit- occupy, 132f. 
Mesopotamia, hist, outline, 124e; 
ar- ;i ."v [mp.. 124f; recent statistics. 
2 JJ Chronology, 124f. — Other refs.: 
(jiKn-iit 1, Naram-Sin lord of, 6d; 
(modern): Brit. -Indiana invade, 32d. 
152b: British success in, 28c; Brit, 
capture Kut-el-Amara. 33f; Gen. 
T^rtnahend surr.. 29a: responsibility 
for campaign m, 60b; Allies" success 
in, 29f; Gr. Brit, gets. 152d; northern 
independ,, 151b; under mandate. 154f. 
See also World War, Outlying Opera- 
tions for years 1914-18. 
Mesaenia. Rhegium fnd . 7b; revolt 
against Sparta (630-600 B. C). 7d: 
revolt (464-436). 7f; joina Achaan 
League. 9c, 
Messina, revolt (1674),^ ll5f; de- 
stroyed by earthquake, 117a. 
Messines (Ridge). Ger. take (1914), 
32b, Brit, take (1917), 29e. 35e:Brit. 
lose (191S). 30a; retaken. 36f. 
Messudiyeh, Turk, battleship, sunk. 

32f. 
Metaurus, the, battle near, 9b. 
Metcalfe, Sir Charles, gov.-gen. of 

India, 64b. 
Methodism, in Eng,. 20f, 50e. 
Methuen, commencal treaty. 135e. 
Metropolitan Life Bldg., N. Y., il- 
lust.. 103. 
Metternich, Prince, at Congress of 
Vienna. 42e. 44c; leader of reaction & 
absolutism, 23a, 24b; heads Mid-Eu- 
ropean combination. 44c, 13 7d. at Con- 
gress of Karlsbad, 106d; Hung, reac- 
tion. 113f: falls. 24f, 44d, 113a. 
Meuse. Allies advance along. 30c. 37a. 
Meuse-Argonne campaign, Amer. &. 

Fr. la. 3Gf. 191e. 
Mexican-American joint commission, 
J88e&f. 



Mexican War, IGOc&e. 173a&b. 214f. 

Mexico, hist, outline, I25b: govt.; in- 
dustry & labor. 125e: religion & educ; 
area. 125f. 221; pop., 125f; recent sta- 
tistics. 222; map, 64. Chronology. 
125f. — Other refs.: Cortes conq., Ua: 
(New Spain), province. 204b: revolt 
of. against Sp.. 22e. 204b, 205a; inde- 
pend., 22f; Chiapas joins. 80d: Costa 
Rica unites with; soon withdraws, 
79b; Guat. joins, 79c; union of Cen. 
Amer. with; Salvador withdraws from 
union with, SOd; Texas declares inde- 
pend. from. 172c. 204a&b; declines to 
acknowledge independ. of Texas: 
threatens war. 172f: Slidell Mission, 
173a; war with U.S , leOc&e. 173a&b. 
204f; Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 
(1848). 173b. 205b. 206b&d. 20Sb.e 
&i; Cession, map, 194; Gadsden Pur- 
chase Treaty. 173e, 208d.e&i; negoti- 
ations with(185S),174a: Eng., Fr., 
Sp. against, 25b&c, 36a: Maximilian's 
empire in, 44e, 100c, 164b; U. S. 
forces Fr. withdrawal. 25c; bound, 
dispute with Guat. settled, 81c;"Pi- 
ousFund" case with U.S., 181b;"rcla- 
tionswith U.S.(1910-1G), 164e;Amer. 
troops sent to border (1911). !83d: 
Amer. neutrality. 183l. 185a: T^ft 
embai go, 183f ; U. S. warships sent to 
(1913J. 184d: Wuson l.fts embargo; 
Tampico incident. 185c&d; embargo 
restored; ABC mediaiion: U. S. 
Army in Vera Cru:, 18id; Wilson's 
policy, 180b; condition discussed. 
ISib: raids in Texas & Ariz., 18.b&c; 
Carranza. pres.; embargo on arms 
(1915). 187d. attack on Columbus; 
Lansing reviews situation (1916), 
ISSa: U. S. cxped. into. lS8a-l; pro- 
poses joint commission, lS8d: U, S. 
militia ordered to border, lS8f; Zim- 
mermann note, 35c, 189d: U. S.troops 
withdrawn, 189c; minister recalled 
from Cuba. 89f; Amer. troops cross 
border at El Paso (1919). 192f; not 
asked to join League of Nations, 3/f. 

^, c.lyof. under Aztecs, 125b; Spanish 
capture. (1521) , 125b&f; drainage 
works; Iturbide enters. 126a: Acor- 
dada Insurr., 12Cb; Scott takes, 125c. 
liib; Juarez enters; Fr. occupy;Ma.\i- 
milian enters; Fr. evacuate, 12(a; R. 
R. connections, 12.b&:c; 2nd Pan- 
American Cong. (1901). 26a. 12, c; 
mutiny (1913). 12, d: Convention 
leaves: Obregon leavus; Carranza rc- 
occupies, 126a; U. S.-Me.\ico Irade 
Conf. (1920), 12Sd. 

^, Gulf of, coast explored, 167b. 

Meyer, Eduard, chronology of Egyp- 
tian dynasties, 6c. 

Mezentsov, Gen., Nihilists murder, 
141a. 

Miani, battle of, 64b. 

Miaulis. Andreas V., Gr. com., UOb. 

Micah. prophet, 7b. 

Michael, Grand Duke, brother ol 
Nich. II., refuses throne, H2d. 

^, Prince, of Serbia, l^If. 

— Obrenovich, rules Seibia; assass., 
123b. 

— Palaeologus. of Nicsea. 14b. 
Micnatiis, Georg, chancellor; says 

Gtr. des.res honorable peace. lOab; 
states Ger. pos.t.on on peace; Hert- 
ling succeeds. lObc. 

Micticlangelo, born; d.es. 15e. 

Michigan, hist, outline. liOJc: statis- 
tics. 220; area, 221. chronology, 20Jd. 
— Other refs-: Terr, organized, l*Oc, 
20,ie; extent of Terr., :;04 date, 205c, 
20Df, 20, a; admitted as State, i;2c; 
forest fire* (lti94), l*9f; prohibition, 
191b; adopts equal suffrage, 191f. 

^, Lake. disc. Via. 

— , UntversUy of. 203d. 

Michilimackinac, settled, 203d. 

Micion, age ol. 9a. 

Middle Ages, 11a, 114d. 

Middle-Class Union, British. 61f. 

Middle Kingdom (see in DicL), 83e. 

Midnat Pasha, grand vizier; dismissed, 
153b. 

Midia. Turk, boundary, 154c. 

Midway islands. 210d; map. 194. 

Miecisias, king of Pol., converted, 
12e. 

Mieroslawski, Ludwig. leads Polish 
insurrection, 140d&ie. 

Mimin, Thomas. I96c. 

Miguel, Dom, usurps Port, throne; 
Gr, Brit, opposes, submits, I35c, e&f. 

Mikado, in power, llhc: functions ol, 
119c; supreme; promises new consti- 
tution; reiorms of, IJyd. 

MlKhail. See Romanov. 

Milan, Frederick Barbarossa besieges; 
razes, IJd: Ludovico Sforza regains: 
Sforza dyn. restored. Idc. trancis 1. 
defeats Sw>ss allies, 16i. Slorza dyn. 
ends: Charles V. seizes, lib; ceded to 
Aust.; Aust. retains, 114e, 116a. Napo- 
leon occupies. 99a; revolts, 114t; ex- 
pels Austrians; Aust. take, 116c; goes 
to Piedmont, 114f; riots. 116f. 

— , Bishop of. 10c. 

— . Edict of, lOd- 

— , Treaty of (1849). 44e. 

— I., of Serbia, 12ab; abdicates. 122c. 
^decree, issued. 22d. 99d, 170c; nomi- 
nally withdrawn. 17Uq. 

Miles, G'.^n. Nelson A. .captures Gero- 
nimo. 178d: invades Porto Rico. 164c, 
180d, 21 Id. 

Miletus. Thra6ybulu3,7d: Persiansde- 
stroy. 7e. 

Military & Naval Insurance Act. 190b. 

— League, in Greece. llOd. 
^service, Belg.,CompulBoryMil, t>erv. 

Bill(1913). 4ie; Canada. Mil, Scrv. 
Act (1917). 73b&c: Eng., Mil SerV- 
Act announced (1915); passed. 59d; 
amended. 59f; certain exemptions 
abol.. 60d; Ger.. universal mil. serv- 
ice introd., 106f; Newfoundland. Mil. 
Serv. Act (1918), 7.3f; N. Z.. Mil. 
Serv. Act (1916), 77d; Russ.. uni- 
versal mil. serv. introd.. 141a; U. S., 
compulsory, 190e; reciprocal, U. S. & 
Gr. Brit.; U. S. & Gr.; U. S. & Fr., 
191d. See also Z>e/en8e. i)ra/(. .A/an 
Power Act. 

— Voters" Act, Canada (1917). 73b. 
Militia, Wilson orders to Mex. border, 

18Sb&f. 



— Act. Canada (1904), TOb. 72d. 

— Law. Dick. ISlc. 

Millenary, of Alfred the Great. 57d: 
of Hungarian nat'l existence, 45b; of 
settlement of Iceland. 114c. 

Milterand, Alexandre. Fr. war min- 
ister. 102a; premier, 102f. 

Mllligan {.ej parte). Supreme Court 
dt-cision, 176c. 

Mill Springs, Ky., battle, 174e. 

Milner. Alfred (Lord), commissioner 
for So. Africa, 6,'b: Chinese coolie 
question. 67c; in war cabinet of na- 
tional ministry (1916). 60a; sec. for 
war, bOe; in coalition ministry 1919), 
Ola; missionlo Egypt U920n 69a. 

Miloi Obrenovic, pnnce of Serbia, 
fndr. of Obrenovi6family, 122b; l^ads 
insurr.; elected pnnce of Serbia, 152f; 
abdicates: recalltd; dies. l2-b 

Milvlan Bridge, battle of. lOd. 

Milwaukee, \\ .5.. statistics, 220; 
Roosevelt at (1912), lS4b. 

Milyukov.l'aul N.,min. of for. affairs. 
declares Rus. w.ll finish war. 142d; 
forti-'d out of cabinet, 142e. 

Mimeograph Case. I83f. 

Min. quLin of Korea, murdered, 120a. 

Mincio, the, made boundary, 116c. 

Mindanao, 2l0f. 

Mindcn. battle of, 9Sb. 

liindoro. 2lOf. 

Minerals of any country. See Indus- 
try d- Labor under that country. 

Ming dyn.. in China, estab., 15a, 83f: 
ends. 19c, 85b. 

Minimum wage, Eng. Labor party de- 
mands, 60d. 

— Wage Act (Eng.), 5Sd; (Mass.). 
lS4a, I87f. 

Ministry of all the Talents, 54e. 

Minneapolis. Minn., statistics, 220; 
i-^t ann. meeting Amer. Legion, 193c. 

Minnesota, hist, outline. 20oa; sta- 
tistics, 220: area, 231; chronology, 
205 J. — Other refs.; Terr, estab.,l(3c, 
205c: extent of terr., 206f, 207a: ad- 
mitted. 174a; Indian uprising (1S62), 
177a; forest fires (1894). l,9f: forest 
firea(19l8),19!f; rejects prohib.,19lf. 

^, Univer. of. 205b. 

^ and Missouri Rate Cases. Supr. 
Court decision. lS4f. 

MinoanAge, early, 6d; middle (Land 
11.), 6e; late (Land II.), 6f; (III.), 
6e&f. 

— civilization, 5f. 

Minor V. Happersett, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 17id. 

Minorca, ceded to Eng.. 53c. 145c: 
Fr. capt., 53d, 98b, ceded to Eng., 
53e. 96b; ceded to Sp., 21e, 54a, Uia. 

Mint Act, 169e. 

Minto, 1st Earlof, gov.-gen. India. 64a. 

^, 4thEarl of , gov.-gen. of Canada, (2c; 
viceroy of India, 64f. 

Kiquelon, descrip., 97b; restored to 
Fr. (1763), 53e; (1783). /Se; Fr. re- 
tains, 73f. 

Mirabeau. 21e. 98c. 

Miramdn. Miguel, Mex. revolution- 
ist, I26f; Judrez defeats; flees, 12ia. 

Miranda, Francisco, Venez.. leader, 
laJd; filibustering exped,; dictator; 
captured, 156a. 

Mirbach, Count von, assass., 143c. 

Mirjawa, railway to, 65c. 

Mirs. l3Se&f. 

Missionary Ridgo, battle of, 161e. 
l/6d. 

Mississippi, hist, outline, 201e; sU- 
tisl.ca, 220; area, 221. Chronology, 
20lf, — Other refs.: Territory created, 
1/Oa, 201c&f. 202c&d; W. Fla. added 
to. l,Oe; admitted, 171b: secedes, 
l/4c; Reconstruction, 175b; required 
to ratify 15th amend.. IVOe; readmit- 
ted. Ij6f; Democrats control, li"<d; 
new constitution (1890). 162d, 179b; 
prohibition in. 182d, l&Ob. 

^, U. S. battleship. Greece buys, UOe. 

— Bubble, 20e. 

— River, Pineda passes mouth of, 167b; 
disc, 15*c. 16ib; explored. I5id.205c; 
La Salle descends, 20a. 9-e. 16, t: W. 
toSp.; E.loGr. Brit.. iOjc: free navi- 
gation demanded, 169c: treaty with 
Sp., 169i, Pike explores. I'Oc: 1st 
steamboat on. UOe: steamboat on. il- 
lust.. 96; Federals open, 174f, li5c: 
floods (1882), 178b; (1903), 181c; 
(1912). 184a. 

^ c. Johnson. Supr. Court decis.. 176d. 
Missolonghi. Byron dies: falls, 110b 
Missouri, h.sl. outline, 202i; statis- 
tics. 220; area. 2:il- Chronology, 203a. 
— Other refs.: Territory orsanizcd, 
202f: region included m Ter.. 203c. 
205f. 206b.c,dail. 20,aiib. '205c: ad- 
mitted as State. 1.1c: remains in 
Union, 16lc. 174d: struggle for in 
Civil War, 161c: Union army secures, 
174f: slavery abol.. l-6a; R. R. strike 
(18S6) , 17Sc, rejects prohibition, 191f. 

— Compromise, 159e, I60e, 2021, 21Jd; 
act passed, 171c: forbids slavery in 
States; Iowa, 204d : M inn ., 205c; 
Kans.. 205f; Nebr.. 206c; Colo.. 206d: 
N. Dak,, 206f. S. Dak.. 207a; Mont., 
207b; Wyo.. 207f: permits slavery in 
Mo.. 203a; Ind. Ter., 20Sd: repealed 
by Kans. -Nebr. Act. 161a, 215b; un- 
constitutional, 161a, 174a. 

^ Pac. R, R. Co. V. Mackay. Supr. 
Court decision. 178e. 

— River. Lewis & Clark exped., 170h. 

— u, Illinois. Supr. Court decision. 181f. 
Mitanni. 6f. 

Mitau, Ger. occupy, 33c; Rus. dictator- 
ship set up, 124c. 

Mitchel, John Purroy. elected, 185b: 
defr-ated. 190c. 

— . John, Irish leader. 55f. 

Mitchell, John, Amer. labor leader. 
lS2e. 

Mithridates I. (139B.6.).of Parthia. 
conq. Babylonia, 9d. 

.^ VI. (Eupator) of Pontus. succeeds. 
9d: invades Asia Minor; massacres 
Romans; Roman War ends (82 B.C.); 
frd War beuins. 9e: Pompey against; 
War ends (63 B.C.). 9f. 

Mitre, Gen. Barlolom^, pres., 41a. 

Mitsubishi Steamship Company, es- 
tat'-. ll^e 

MitV-ermaier, Karl J. A., pres.Frank- 
furl prelim, pari., 106e. 



Moab. revolts from Israel, 7b. 
Moablte stone (see in Diet.). inscribed. 

7b. 
Moawiyah, fnd. Ommiads. 12b. 
Mobile. Ala., settled. IflSa. 202d. 220; 

taken, 176a. 

— Bay, Battle of. 175f. 
Modena, It. State,114d; under French, 

llle. 

Modena, Duke of, restored. 21b; Fr. 
protect. 116a; insurr.. 116b; union 
with Piedmont, 25b. 116c. 

Moderates, in Fr., lOla. 

Modern Period. Early, of World His- 
tory, 16-22. 

Moeris, Lake, excavated, 6e. 

McESia, Rome conq,. 10a. 

Mogul dyn., in India, estab., 17a ,63d: 
empire extended by Akbar. 17e, 62e, 
63d; Jahangir. emp.. ISd: Shah Ja- 
han, 19a, declines. 62e. 63d: last emp. 
sent to Rangoon, 64c. 

M*haOS. battle of (1526). 17a, 113a; 
(1687), I52c. 

Mohammed, born, lib, 12a. 112b: 
flees to Medina. 12a. 112c; new creed, 
112c; conq. Mecca: dies, i2a. 

^, claimant in Morocco. 128f. 

— II. (the Conqueror), captures Con- 
stantinople, 15d. 

— v., sultan of Turkey. 151f, 154a:dies. 
154e. 

— VI. , sultan of Turkey. 154e. 

— Aga. 132bS:e. 

^ All Mirza, Shah of Persia; constitu- 
tional monarch; dethroned; invades 
Perg.; defeated. 132c: abdicates. 132e. 

— Rc9had = Mo/.ammed V. 
^ Shah, reigns in Pers.. 132b. 
Mohammedan ascendancy in Eur., 

12a. 
^chronology, begins. 12a. ■ 
Mohammedans, see also Saracens 
d- Moora: outrages in Macedonia, 
153d; in India, All-India Moslem 
League, 64f; attacked by Christians in 
Crete. 154a; in India, during World 
War. 65a&b: invade Egypt (1915): 
demand independ. in Egypt (1920), 
69a. in Albania. 40a; in Algeria. e6a; 
Arabia. I12c: Armenia, 41f; Bosnia & 
Herz.. I23c: China. 85a; Cyprus. 62d: 
Egypt. 6Sc; Fr. W . Africa. 96c: India, 
62e, 03a.b.datf; Jugo-Slavia, 122e: 
Mauretania, 96d; Morocco, 128e: 
Pers., 132d: Phil. Isls.. lilla&b; 
Roum.. 136e; Russia. 139b; Serbia, 
122b; Tunis. 96c; Turkey, 152c. 
Mohawk Valley. 157f. 
Moira, Earl of. See Hastings, Mar- 
quis of. 
Molasses Act (1733). 15Sd, 168b. 
Moiay, de. grand master burned. 14e, 
Moldavia, hist, outline: see under 
I^oumania, I36b; Russian protecto- 
rate. 140d: Aust. replaces Rus. in, 
140e; part of Bessarabia added, 140f; 
returns part of Bessarabia to Rus. 
(1878), 141a: Rus, gtts part (1912), 
22f ; Roumanians &: Russians retire to. 
34f; Rus. troops retire. 35f. See also 
Danubian Principalities. 
Moldavian Republic, formed. 143a. 
Mol6, premier Fr.; ministry falls, 100b. 
Molina, pres. of Salvador, 81e. 
Molino del Rey. battle of. 173b. 
Mollah Sabib, sheik ul Islam. 154a. 
Mollwitz, Austrians defeated at, 43f. 
Molly Magtiires. I77d. 
Molokai, area, 209d. 
Moltke, Count Kuno von. Harden 

convicted of libeling. 107d. 
Molucca Islands, 129l; captured: re- 
stored, 54e. 
Mombasa, C5e; Brit, land at. 32d. 
Monaco, dt-scr. & chronology, 128d. 
Monagas. Jos^Gregorio. pres. Venez.; 
abdicates: drives Falc6o out of power. 
156a. 
Mona Lisa, stolen; recovered. 117b. 
"Monarchists". Russia. 14If. 
Monastir, surr. to Serbia (1912), 121f, 
154b; Bulgars capture (1915), 33e; 
Seibs occupy, 29a. 34f. 
Monck. Lord. gov, -gen.of Canada. 71f. 
Moncontour, battle of, 17f. 
Money, paper, in N. E. Colonies,168c; 
making of. forbidden in Amer. colo- 
ni«. ICSd; in Civil War, 175c&d; in 
England. 5Sf. See Greenbacks. 
"Money trust, ' ' investigated byPujo 
Commit.. Iti3f. 184c; report on. 184d. 
Monfalcone. captured. 33d. 
Mongolia. 83, 84c; rebellion in. 86a, 
87b; Rus, rtcog. independ. of Outer 
M.; secret treaty of Outer M. with 
Kus., S7a; Russo-Chinese agreement 
on, 142b; status determined; auton- 
omy of Outer M. guar.. 87b; Chma 
sends troops to: motor line to, 87d; 
Semenyv invades: cancels autonomy; 
reincorporates with China, 87f. 
^. Brit, liner, sunk. 36b. 
Mongolian Empire. See jUonoofs. 
Mongols, emp. estab., 13f: subdue 
Bokhara, etc.; defeat Rus., 14a; sub- 
due Rus., 137a: in Cen. Europe;conq. 
Poles, etc.; overrun Asia Minor; de- 
stroy Seljuks. 14b; supreme in China. 
14c; Tamerlane revives emp., 15a: 
in India, see Moguls. 
Monhegan. Me., settled. 202e, 220. 
Monis ministry; resigns. lOle, 
Monitor & Memmac. battle, 161e, 

174f: illust. of. 144. 
Monk, Gen. (Duke of Albemarle), 
marches to London: controls govt.; 
capt.-gen. under Charles II., o2b. 
Monmouth, battle of. 169a. 195e. 
— , Duke of. defeats Covenanters; con- 
federacy with Essex; pardoned, 52e: 
lands in Dorsetshire; declares himself 
king: Pedgemoor; executed, 52f. 
Monocacy. battle of, l~^i. 
Monoplane, typ^s of, illust.. 160. 
Monro, Sir Charles C succeeds Ham- 
ilton. 33e. 
Monroe. Fortress. See Fort Monrne. 
— •, James, life. 213c; chronology. 213d; 
portrait. 212. — Other refs.: elected 
pres,. 17la: inaug., 1st term. 171b; 
again pres.. 159e, 17Ic: advises recog- 
nizing Sp. Amer. states, 17lc, 
— Doctrine. 159e, 171c: also. 24c. 89".. 
213d: Nap. lll.'s attempt to defy. 
164b; in Venez. bound, dispute. 155e, 
164c, 179f; & Ist Hague Conf.. 180d; 



interpreted by Roosevelt. 164e;&2nd 
Hague Conf.. 182c; & arbitration 
treaties with Gr. Brit. & Fr., 183f: 
Carranza does not recognize. 128c; 8c 
League of Nations. 3(f. 
Monrovia. 1st Negro colonists land. 

1231; bombarded, ;j<d; college. 123f. 
Mons, attacked. 2?d: Bnt, at (1914). 

31f; Allies take (1918). 30d. 37a. 
"Monster Alliance, "in Neth..l30c. 
Montagu. Charles- Halifax. Earlof. 
— , F. S,. sec. for India, Montagu- 
Chelmsford scheme for govt.. 65a; in 
new coalition mm. (1919). 61a: repre- 
sents India at Peace Conference, 65a. 
— . Lady. 20f. 

Montana, hist, outline. 207a; statis- 
tics. 220; area. 221; chronology. 207b. 
— Other refs.: Ter. created, li5e; Cus- 
ter massacre. i77d; admitted. 178f; 
forest hres. lS3b; Glacier National 
Park erected; adopts woman suffrage. 
lS5f; Miss Jeannette Rankin, Ist 
woman representative. 189e: 
— , Lniver. of. 20ib. 
Montafio, leads revolt in Mex.. 126b. 
Mont Blanc. 1st ascent. 150b. 
Montcalm, Gen., abandons Forts Ti- 
conderoga S: Crown Point. 168c: 
killed. I6.8d. 
Mont Cenis tunnel completed. 25d. 
Moii.tdidier. Ger. take, 30a, 36d:Ger. 

evacuate, 36e. 
Montd Alverno. 14a. 
— Carlo. 12Sd. 
^ Claros. battle of. 135a. 
^ Nero, captured. 33d. 
Montecuccoli. Count Raimund, at 
St. Gothard.43e.105e, 152d, defeated. 
105e. 
Montello plateau, 37b. 
Montenegro, hist, outline. 123a;peo- 
ple. 121a. Chronology, 123b.— Other 
refa:independ.,122e: war with Turkey; 
Omar Pasha; aids insurr. in Herzegcv 
Vina; Omar vanquishes, 1.^3a; war 
with Turkey, 25e. 153b, NikSic yields, 
153c; independ.. 151e: size trebled; 
independ. recognized, U3c; difl.culty 
on frontier, I53d, in Balkan League. 
109e. 121t. 154b; declares war on 
Turkey, 154b: Aust. ultimatum in re- 
gard to Scutari; coagt blockaded; be- 
sieges ScuUri, 45d: evacuates Scutari. 
154d: aids Serbia, 27e; declares war on 
Aust., Sle, 3Se, 45d; vanquished by 
Ger. & Aust.. 43a: Aust. occupies: 
govt, in exile, 34e; Aust. driven out 
(1918), 3ib; deposes King Nicholas; 
votes to unite with Serbia. 121c; in 
Jugo-Slavia. I2\d. Sea Jugo-Slavia. 
Monterey. Calif., occupied. lV3a. 
— , Mex.. Taylor occupies, 125c, 173a. 

214f, 215a. 
Mont-^ro, Gen., pres., murdered. 92f. 
— , Jos6. pres. of Paraguay. 132a. 
Monies. Ismael, pres. of Bolivia, 48f. 
Montevideo, Port, fortify; Spanish 
capt.; Brazil capt.. 155b: besieged by 
Rosas, 40d. 
Montezuma. 125b. 
Montferrat, Victor Amadeus gets. 

115f. 
Montfort, John of, contest for Brit- 

Uny. 14f. 
— , Simon de (1160-1218), leads 4th 

crusade, 13e. 
— , Simon de(1208?-1265), parliament: 
rebellion of barons; imprisons Henry 
III., 14b; slain, 14c. 
Montgomery, Gen. Richard, invades 
Canada, 69c; capt. Montreal; at Que- 
bec; killed. 71c. 16fif. 
^, Ala., secession convention at, 161b. 

174c. 
Montmartre. yields (1871), lOOd. 
Montojo, Adm.. 210f. 
Montpensier, Duke de. weds, H7c. 
Montreal, Cartier reaches; attempts 
col.. 167b: fnd., 71a; post estab. at. 
157d: Brit, take (1760), 158b, 168d: 
taken by Montgomery. I68f: rioting 
in; Parliament buildings burned 
(1849); capital removed from, 71f; 
trade conference (1903). 72d; strike 
of policemen & firemen. 73c. 
Montrose, Marquis of. lands in Scot.; 

defeated & kilJed. 51f. 
MontS, Sieur de. settles Acadia. 70f. 
Montserrat. 74c; ceded to Eng-, 52c. 
Montt. Jorge, pres. of Chile. 83d. 
— . Manuel, pres. of Chile. 83c. 
^, Pedro, pree. of Chile; dies. 83d. 
Mooney , T homas J .. labor leader. 
192c: new tr;al denied, 191b&/: sen- 
tence commuted, 192a. 
Moore. Sir John, Gen.. 147b. 
Moorish tribesmen, attack Spanish in 

Morocco. 129a. 
MoorS. defeat Alfonso, 13p: Almohade 
ascend, in Sp. broken. 13f; hist, of in 
Sp.. H5b; dominion of inSp. ends. 1 of; 
Moors (Moriscos) rebel, Don John 
overcomes, 17f; driven out of Sp., 18c. 
Moraes Barros. Prudente de, pres. of 

Brazil. 49c&f. 
"Moral and Civil Primacy of the 

Italians", 116c. 
Morales, Pres. Dominican Repub.* 

92b; appeals to U. S/, 92c, 
Moratorium declared (1914). 58f. 
Moravia, Great Moravia, kingdom ot. 
fnd.: Mag>'ars conq., 12d. Il2e: Ru- 
dolph II. loses, ISd; demands auton- 
omy, 44f; in Czecho-Slovakia. 90a 
(gee Csecho-Slovakia, Hist. Outline 
& Chronol.). 
Moravian Gap. 90a. 
Moravians. Magj-ars defeat, 12d; in 

Ga , 196a: m Jamaica. 74c. 
Morazan, Francisco, last pres. Cen- 
tral Amer. confederation, 80d; leaves 
country :land3 in Costa Rica:pre9 ,80e. 
More. Sir Thomas. 16f: beheaded. 17b. 
Morea (anc. Peloponnesus), Turks 
defeated. 152e; Venice gets. 20b. 151c. 
152e; Turks capture. 152e: Venice 
cedes to Turk., 20e. 152e: revolution 
beeins in: Turks vanquished in: cam- 
paign in (1825); Fr. in; Ibrahim 
Pa=ha. retires, 110b. 
Moreau. Gen. Jean Victor, in Ger.; 
retreat from Rhine; Rus. & .4ust. over- 
whelm, 99a; defeated atCassano, 140c: 
Aust. defeats at Hohenlinden, 99b. 
Moreira. Delfim, pres. Brazil. 50a. 
Morelos-Pav6n, Jos€M., 125c, 126a. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



243 



Moreno, Baquerizo, pres. Ecuador, 
93a, 

^. Gabriel Garcia, pres. Ecuador, 92e: 
revolts; assass.. d2f. 

— . Arg«nline dreadnought, 4lb. 

Moreanet, ceded to Belgnini. 4Sb. 

Moret mini5tr>'; plot to overthrow; re- 
siens. 147f. 

Moreton Bay , made penal colony, 75e. 

Morgan, Sir Heory. destroys Panama 
(city). 82b. 

^, Gen. J. H.. raid: captured. 175d, 

— , J. Pierpont, 116f. 

— , J. Pierpont (2nd), shot, 187a. 

— . J. P.. & Co., ISoc. 

Morgarten, battle of. 14e, 149d. 

Moriscos, see Moots. 

Morley, John. sec. for Ireland, 56f; in 
ministry (1893). o7b: in ministry 
(imoj. 57f. 

Mormal. Forest of, 37a. 

Mormon ChurcniJ.U.S.,Supr. Court 
.l.-.:i?ion, l."Se. 

Mormons, not against in Ills.: driven 
out of State; migrate to Great Salt 

L Lake. 172i; settle Utah (Salt Lake 
City), ZOSa&b; Ant. polygamy Act. 
178b: renounce polygamy, 180a. See 
als.i Lalter-day Sainta. 

Mormon State, 20Sa. 

Mormon War, 174a. 20Sb. 

Mornington, Earl of. See FTei/eaicv, 
Marquis. 

Morocco, hist, outline, 128e; govt.; 
troduciion & industry, area &: pop-; 
recenlstatistics.2i2;map. 64,Caro- 
nology, 128f. — Other refs : Spam 
declares war against (1859), 14/c; 
French in. 57f: Fr. & Ger conte<!t for 
control in, 94f; Franco-Span.sh agree- 
ment. 26d; Fr. & Ger m, 101c; Fr. & 
Sp. control, 26d; G..r. attitude toward, 
il04a: joint control, ^l>c-; Fr. & Ger. 
[agreemenl over, 107e; Sp- occupies 
part of: Agadir affa.r, 26e; Fr. protec- 
torate. 2Gi; outbreak renewed: Gi*r. 
in iPantfier) ; Fr. claims protectorate 
•in; Moorish upr.s.ng, lOle: Franco- 
Spanish treaty, lOit; Fr. protectorate. 
31a, 59a, 102a, 129a; revolts during 
World War, 129a. 

Morocco, Spanish, 146d. 

Moronvilli^rs H^ignts, Fr. atuck, 
35e: evacuated. S-a. 

Moros. rebcll.on in Philippines, lS4f. 

Morosini, Francesco. 115f. 

Morrill Agric. College Act, 175a. 

— Tariff Act. 174c. 

Morris. Robt., 195c. 

Morrison, Frank, sec. of Am. Fed. of 
Labor, sentenced, lS2e. 

— , Dr. George E., political advisor to 
pres,, 80f. 

•^, Rev. Robert, 1st Prot. missionar>- to 
China, 84a; reaches Canton; trans. 
Bible, Srjc. 

Morse, Samuel F. B.. telegraph. 172f. 

Morte d'Artnur, 15e. 

Mort Homme. Le (Hill 265), Ger. 
take. 34c. 

Mortimer, Roger, imprisons Edw. 11. 
14^. 

Morton, Levi P.. 217b: v. pres. vote, 
1 , Si . 

— , \V. T. G.. ether, KSa. 

Mosaic Law, promulgated, 8a. 

Moscow, capital removed to St. Pe- 
Irrsburg. U.b; taken by French. 94b, 
14«c: burned. 22f, 99e. UOc: panic. 
141b: congress of zemstvos, 141d. 
anti-German mobs; riots, i42c; con- 
gress of Soviets ratifies peace treaty 
with Ger.. 143b; counter-revolution 
suppressed by Bolsheviki, 143c; 3rd 
International at. Ulb, 149c. 

M03;;ft, leads Israel, 6f, 

Moskva, battle of, 22i. 99e. 

Moslems. See Mohammedans. 

Mosquera. Gen. Tomas de. civil war, 
&2c. s>c dictator of <^olombia, 88a&c; 
pres-. SSc. 

Mosquito Coast, British claim protec- 
torate over, liOe: controversy contin- 
ues, SOf; under Nicaragua, Sla; Nicar- 
aguan sovereignty over. 81b: Nicar. 
forces in; British forces landed: Fng. 
recognises Nicar .sovereignty over.Slc. 

^ Indians. SOa. Sla: recog. sovereignty 
of Nicaragua, 81c. 

Mosul, occup.ed. 37c, 125a, 

"Mother of Presidents." IQSc&d. 

'Mother of States," l9Sc. 

Mothir s Day. l&5d. 

Mount Desert Island, Fr. settlement 
tm, destroyed, 70f. 

Mountjoy, Sinn Fein prisoners at, go 
on liuiiyer strike. 61f- 

Mount Kemmel, British lose, 30a. 

Moving pictures, Edison develops 
kmetoscope, 179d. 

Mbwe, operates in Atlantic, 35a; raids 
-Mhed shipping, 36b. 

Mozambique, l35d: map, 64. 

Mui;nttir, Erich, bombs senate recep- 
tion room, suicide. IS. a. 

Mugler V. Kansas Supreme Court de- 
cision, 178e. 

"Mugwumps," lC3d, 17Sc. 

Miihlberg. battle of, lic. 

MuKdcn, battle of,- llc(e, 120b; Jap. 
occupy. 120c. 

Mukhtar Pasha, compels Rus. to leave 
Kars. 153b; routed at Alaja Dagh, 
153c; grand viz.er. resigns, 154b. 

Mulai-ADd-cl-AziZ, sultan of Mo- 
rocco, 128e &J.lJ9a. 

Mulai-Abd-el-Hafid, sultan of Mo- 
rocco. I2l>a. 

Mulai Yusef.sultan of Morocco, 129a. 

Miiller ministry-, in Ger., 109d. 

Mummius, defeats Ach^ans, 9d. 

Miinchengratz. Convention, 24e; 
Ausirians i Saxons routed at, lD6f. 

Munda, battle of, 9f. 

Munich, Gustavus defeats Tilly & en- 
ters. I9a; Red govt, overthrown, 109c. 

Municipal Corporation .^ct (Eng.). 
55c. 

Munitions of War Act (Eng.) passed; 
establishments under, 59c. 

Munn 11. Illinois, Supr, Court decision. 
I77e. 

Miinnich, Count Burkhard C. 140a. 

Munro-Ferguson. Sir Ronald, gov.- 
gen. of .-Australia. ^6e. 

MUnster, Anabaptists at, 17b; treaty 
of Westphalia. 19c, 47b. 



Murad v., Bultan of Turkey: deposed. 
I33b. 

Murat, Joachim, occupies Vienna. 99c; 
enters Madrid, 99d. 14.b: kg. of Na- 
ples. 22e, 99d. lUe, n6b; deserts Fr,; 
with Napoleon: at Tolentino. 99f; Na- 
ples exped.; shot. 100a. 

Muravev. Gtn. N. N.. capt. lCars,14OT. 

Murfrejsboro, battle of. 161e. 17ob. 

Murman Coast. Brit. & Fr. troops 
land on. 143b: Amer. forces on, 143c; 
Allies advance from. 143d, 

— (Murmansk) Region, 139c; Allied 
troops in. I38c. 

Muromcsov, pres- of lat Duma. 141e. 
Murray, James Street, Earl of, regent; 

at Langs, de. 17f: murdered. ISa. 
— , Lord George at Cullodcn. 53d. 
— . Gen. S.r Archibald, defeats Turks 

near Gaza; succeeded by Alleaby, 36a, 
Miirzstig program. 45b. 153e. 
Musclj Suoals, Ala., 20-M. 
Muscovites. Pol. overrun by, 134c. 
Muscovy, fnd.. I37b. 
Mush, occupied. 34f. 42a. 
Mustchogian family of Indians. l&6b. 
Mussulman. Sec Monamjuedana. 
Mustafa, Kara. See Kara Mustafa. 

— Kemal, Nationalist govt, at Koma; 
intrigues. lo4f. 

— Pasha, attacks Malta. 17f. 
^ Resh.d Pasha ministry. 154f. 
Mutiny .^ct, 52f. 

— . Indian. 62f. 

Mutsuhito, emp. of Japan. llSc, 

119d: d.es. I20J. 
Muzadar-ed-Din. shahofPers., 132c 

&e; rep. nat. council- end of absolute 

rule: conatitution; dies. 132e. 
Mycal-'. battle of, 7f. 
MycenEB. 6f; overthrown by Gr.. 5f. 
Myc^nsean age (late MinoanllD.fif. 
^ Civilization, of. 
Mylag. battle of, 8f. 
Mysore War. 1st. 63c; 2nd; 3rd. 63f: 

4th, 64a. 
Mytilcjne, Fr. seizes. 153e; powers 

seize, 153f; annexed to Gr., UOd. 



N. 



Nabis, tyrant, 9b; murdered, 9c. 

Nabonidus. 7e. 

Naoopalassar, 7d. 

Nadir, sliart of Persia, 132bSre: sciies 
^Vigiianistan. 39c: invades lndia;3acks 
Delm, 20t. 

Nafels. battle of, 149d. 

Nagasaici, ^utch traders at, ll8b:Du. 
trade restricted to; Cliristians massa- 
cred. 11 9c. 

Nagpur, becomes Eng., 64c. 

Maicbimov, Adm. Paul S., destroys 
Turk, fleet, 140e. 

Namur, occupied by Ger., 27d. 31f. 

^— Lharleroy l.nc, 3if. 

Nana Sahib, m Cawnpore, 64c, 

Nanchang, missionaries killed. 86d. 

Nancy, battle of (Hn). 15e; Fr. at- 
tackud at; Oer. fail at, 32a. 

Nanking. Treaty of, 6.!d. 85d: Taiping 
rebels attack. 8 Jd; revolutionists take, 
84d; Sun Vat ben inaugurated at; re- 
pub, assembly at, S6i; Lhinese attack; 
apology & reparation, 120dii;e. 

Nansdn, Fndtjof. 91i. 131a. 

Nantes, Edict of, proclaimed. 18c; re- 
voked. 97e. 

^, Nouades at, 9Sf; La RSpubliQue, 
balloon ascent at. lOld. 

NantuclCtit. Mass.. merchant ships 
suakoff. ISSf. 

Napier. Adm. Sir Charles, at Canton. 
8oc: commands Eng. Baltic fleet (in 
Crimean War). 140e. 

— , Ld. John, logarithms, 18e. 

Napl>iS (cityj , Masaniello's revolt, 
19c; Fr. reduce, 9Ja; revolutionary 
outbreaks, 24c. 110b>:i:c. Naples was 
the capital of the Kdm. of Napl:^ and 
of the ivdm. of the "iwo S.c.l.^s. See 
Naples. Kd n.of. Sici.ies. the Two. 

^(Kingdom of), 114d; Alfonso V. of 
Aragon, 15c; Charles VUI. con a,: 
witndraws; Ferdinand regains, 16d: 
Louia XII. con juers; Fr. dr.ven out. 
16e; Philip II. king. 1/d: Masamel- 
lo'srevoli. Ittc; Aust. gets. 42d.I14e; 
Sp. regains. 116a. 14oi; Fr. reduce 
city of; Ferdinand restored. 99a; Par- 
thenopean repuo., 22a. 116b: Fr. cap. 
(1S04L ll4e; Joseph Bonaparte made 
king, 22d, 114e, 116o: Murat receives, 
22e. 99d. I14e: revolution in, 24c, 
114e. 116b: absolutism restored, 24c: 
radical administration, 116c; insurr. 
(1860); Bourbons overthrown. 114f; 
annexed to Sardinia. Il6d; conq. of. 
25b; illiteracy in. 115d. Map, 18. See 
also Sicilies, the Two. 

—, University of. 115d. 

Na^^oleon, Napoleon I,, Napoleon 
Bonaparte. See Bonaparte, Napoleon. 

— III. (Louis) = Bonaparte. Louis 
Napoleon. 

Naram-Sin, 6d. 

Narbo. 9e. 

Narbonn*. Saracens take, 12b. 

Marocn, Lake, Kuropatkin at, 34d. 

Narragansett Bay, Fr. fleet in. i69a. 

Nar3^&. Ki.ig of Persia, lOd: succeeds 
Belisanus: slays Tot la; Ostrogothic 
kingdom: 1st exarch of It., llf; routs 
Atemanni & Franks. 12a. 

Narva, battle of. 20c. 139f, 14Rf. 

Narvaez. Paniilo de. explores Gulf 
coast. 167b. 

^, RamOn Maria, duke of Valencia, 
causes fall of Espartero; succeeds 
ODonnell. 147c. 

Naseby, battle of. 19c. 

NashviUs, battle of. I75f, 200d. 

— , Tenn.. settled. 200d; battle, 175f. 
200d; sutistics, 220. 

Na3irKhan,head prince of Baluchistan; 
d.es. 65c. 

Nasr-ed-DinShah.relationswithRus. 
in Crimean War. 132b; visits London; 
assass., 132cS:e. 

Nassau, cap. of Bahamas. 74a, 

^, form, duchy of Gei.. insurr. (1848). 
I06e: incorporated with Prussia. 106f. 

Natal Province, hist. & govt,; educ; 
production & industry: area & pop.. 
66d. — Other refs.: first settlement.' 



Boers in. 66f: proclaimed a Brit, col- 
ony 55e. 66f; bound., 67b; strike St 
riots (1913). 67d. 

Natality.SupremeCouncil of (France), 
I02f. 

Nathan. Mayor of Rome. 117a. 

National Army (U, S.), recruits as- 
semble, 190b. 

^ Assembly. of China, 84d: 1st meeting; 
demands relo'ms;dis3oIves;2nd meet- 
ing. S6e. 

^Assembly, of England, 14b. 

— (or Constituent) Assembly, the. 
French hist . ( 1 7S9) . 3rd Estate; abol . 
feudal rights; Rights of Man; iorms 
chamber of deputies: removes to Pans; 
conrtitution: incorporates Avignon i 
VenaiSiiQ with Fr.: ends, 98cA;d. 

— Assembly. Fr.. 95b; {1S4S). lOOb; at 
Bordeaux, lOOd: (1914) war pledges, 
103a. 

^ Assembly, Ger., elections (1919); 
meets at Weimar, lO'JO: demands 
peace based on "14 points." 37e; pro- 
claims republican constitution; ad- 
journs: to reassomoleat Berlin; inves- 
tigates responsib.l.ty for war; mob 
attacks, lOJc. 

— Assembly. Greek. 110b. llOd. 
^Assembly, Hung., elections, 114b. 
^ Assembly. Serbian. 122a. 

^ bank, 1st moderntEng.J, 20b. See 

Bunk oj England. 
^ Bank, of Sw., resumes payment in 

gold. I49c 
^ Bank of U. S. See Bank, U. S. 
^ bank notes. 176a. 
^ Banks Act, l("5c. 
^ Board for Historical Service, U. S. 

(1918). 192c. 
^Cash Register Co.. officials convicted, 

184d; gov. wins suit, 188a. 

— Colon. zat. on Soc.eiy, I.la. 

^ Convention. France, 21f; replaces 

Legislative .Assembly, 9Se. 
^ conventions (nominating), first in 

U.S. (I6i0). 1. 2d. 
^Convention, Democratic(I912),184a: 

(1916). ISac. 
^Convention, Republican (1912) , 184a; 

(1916). 18Sc. 

— Convention, Whig (1840), lat in U. 
S.. 172d. 

— Council, of Georgia. 102f. 

— Counnl of Ger. Repub., 104d. 

— Council of Jugo-Slavia. I21c. 

— Council, of Persia. 132d&e. 

— debt. See Deb;. 

— defense law, Italy. It7c. 

^ Defense League, Ger., 107e. 

— Farmers' Alliance, See Farmers' 
Alliance. 

^ Guard. France, formed; Lafayette 

commands. Mod. 
—Guard. U.S. ,federalJ2cd(1916), 188c; 

mobilized. ISSc. l:iSP; pres. auth. to 

draft into Federal service, ISid; goes 

into Federal serv.ce, 190a. 
^ Histories, 39-21S. 
^ history, beginning of, for It., Ger., & 

Fr.. 12c. 

— Institute of Arts and Letters, incor- 
porated by Congress. 184d. 

^ Insurance .Act (Eng.), 58c. 

Nationalist League, Ir, formed. fl6e. 

Nationalises, Armeniau, I53d. 

— , in Egypt, revolt and not, 69a. 

— , Irish, divided. 5/b; reunited, 57d; & 
Liberal party's bill, 5aa: of Ulster. 
59f: demand immed. application of 
Home Rule Act, 60a; object to put- 
ting of Home Rule in operation, 60i>: 
Redmond dies S; Dilloo becomes 
leader, 60e. 

Nationalist \'olunteers. Irish, 5Sf. 

Nationalization, Eng. Labor party 
program. 60d. of coal mines, Eng., 
61d. 

National Labor Party, U. S., new, or- 
ganized, 1931. 

— Labor Policies Board. 192b. 

— ministry (coalition cabinet), Lloyd 
George's (1916;. 60a. 

— Polish Relief Assoc., 186f. 
^ Progressive Party. ISSd. 

— • Progressive Republican League,lS3c. 
^ Republicans. ItiOc. 172b. 
^(CumDerland)Road, l(Oc= Cum6er- 

land tioad. 
^ service, act for ministry (Eng.) , 60b. 
^ Telephone Co.. oSc, 

— War Labor Board. U. S.. 165d, 192b& 
c: discoMttnued, 194a. 

Nations, earliest. 5. 

^. battle of lhft = Leipzig, battle of, 
22f. 99f. 

— , statistics of chief. 222. 

Native American party, 172f. 

Nat Turner s Insurrection, 160e. 172a. 

Naturalization. Bureau of Immigra- 
tion & Naturalization, U. S.. lS2a. 

^ of subjects, Eng.; Brit, Nationality 
& Status of Aliens Act. 60f. 

Naupactus, Peace of , 9b. 

Nauru, island, 76f: Gr. Brit, manda- 
tori-, 37f. 61c. 

Nauvoo,lll.,riotag'nst Mormons, 172f 

Naval&air operations, in VVorid War, 
ii-d. 33.', 35a. 36a. 3.'d. 

— Approp. .A.ct. U. S., 186d, 188e. 

— Defense Act, Australasia (18SS),76a; 
N.Z. (1913). TJb&d. 

— Flying Corps. U. S.. ISSe. 

— Service .Act. Canada(1910), 72e&f. 
Navarino, battle of, 24c, 109e. 110b. 

UOd. 151d. 

Navarre, Sancho the Great. 12f. 

^, Spanish. Ferdinand V. conquers, 16e. 

Navero, Emiliano G.. pres. of Para- 
guay (1908, 1912). 13-2a. 

Navigation Act, 1st (Eng.. 1651). 52a 
&j.;c. 129f, 167e; 2ad Eng., 167e. 

^ .Acts. Eng., partly repealed. 71d&f; 
last remnants repealed. 55f. 

Navigators Islands, form, name ot 
^amoa Islands. 105d. 

Navy, of any countrj'. See art. on De- 
fense under Organization of that 
country. Royal Australian navy be- 
gun. 76d: Eng. developed. 20a: Ger. 
developed. 103f. 104a; Ger. naval bill 
(1912). 107f: U. S., beginning of 
(1794). 169f: Dept. of. created. 170a: 
beginning of new steel navy. l7Sb; 
numbers in service (1917), 190a. De- 
velopment of v/arshipa. illust., 144. 

^Depl., U. S. created, ITOa; takes coii- 



trol Philadelphia police. 191b; build- 
ing, illust., 212. 

Naxos, naval battle near, 8c. 

Nazim Pasha, minister of war, shot & 
killed. I54c. 

NC-4, crosses Atlantic, 192f. 

Nearchus. Indus & Euphrates. Sd. 

Near-East question. 24d. 25f. 

Nebogatov. Adm.. 120c. 

Nebraska, hiat. outline. 206b; statis- 
tics. L'JU; area. 221. Chronology. 206c. 
—Other refs.: Terr.. 160f. 206c, eStf; 
207a.c&f: admitted, 176c: ratifies 
ISth Amendment, 192c; Kansas-Ne- 
braska Act, I73e. 

^, Univer, of, 206c. 

Nebraskan. freighter, submarine at- 
tack. 33a. 186f. 

Nebuchadnezzar I., reign of, 5d; de- 
feats Elamites & Lulumi. 7a, 

— II.. defeats Necho; reigns: conquers 
Judah; takes & destroys Jerusalem. 7d. 

Necho, era of; defeats Josiah: defeated 
by Nebuctiadnezzar. 7d. 

Necker. Jacques, min. of finance; re- 
signs: restored. 9Sc; dismissed (1789); 
recalled; dismissed (17S0). 98d. 

Neerwinden, battle of (1793). 44b. 

Negapatam. ceded to Eng., 54b. 

Negri Sembilan. 65c. 

Negritos, 2lla. 

Negro, Rio, settlement on. 155b. 

Negroes, 1st brought to Va.. 18i. 167d; 
freed in Haiti, 2lf; emancipated, 161e: 
status in So. States. 162a&b; black 
codes (1865): Civil Rights Act. 176b; 
suffrage question; Reconstruction 
Act, 1 76c; suffrage (15th Amend- 
ment), 176e; intimidation. 176f: Ku- 
ICIux Klan, 163c. t76f: negro vote in 
South; political rights. 177a; Civil 
Rights Act (IS75). I77c; in South, 
repression of vot<^, 177e: cannot be ex- 
cluded from juries, 17Sa: Force Bill 
(1890). 179a: new State constitutions 
restrict suffrage, 162d: MiaB-. 179b; 
S. C. ISOa: La., ISOc: Ala,. ISla: 
Va., ISlb; Okla.. 183b: 187a; "Jim 
Crow" car decisions. ISOa; Supr. 
Court avoids decision on suffrage. 
18lc; Exposition at Richmond. Va., 
lS7a: race riot at Houston, lOOaScd; 
segregation. 190c: race war in Arkan- 
sas, 193d. Numbers in U.S.. see Cen- 
aus. See also Liberia, Slavery, Ku- 
Klui Klan, "Grandfather Clause," 
Riots. 

Negros, 210f, 

Nehavend. battle of, 12a. 

Nehemiah, vi3it3jeru8alem:2nd visit, 
Sa. 

Nelson, Adm. Horatio, battle of the 
Nile. 54d. 68d. 99a: bombards Copen- 
hagen. 54d.90f,9Ic;Tr^falgar(killed), 
22c, 54e, 99c. 

^, Sen. Knute. 205b. 

— . N. Z.. settled. 77c. 

Nemours. Treaty of. ISb. 

Nepal, hist, outline; area & pop., !29b; 
map. 64. — Other refs.: Kien Lung 
conq., 85c: war with Brit., 64b. 

N6pfblkel6s, 113e. 

Nerchinsk. Treaty of. 85c. 

Nero, empi'ror; Rome burned: perse- 
cutes Christians; in Graece, 10b. 

Nerva. I Ob, 

Nestorian controversy, lOf. 

Nestorians, in Persia, 132d; in Tur- 
key. 152c. 

Ne Temere decree. 72e. 

PTetherlands (Holland, Dutch).hi3t. 
outline: physical character. 129c: or- 
ganization; govt.; indus. & labor: re- 
lig.. 129d; educa.; defense. I29e:area. 
129e. 221; pop., 129e: recent statis- 
tics, 222: map. 38, 64; Dutch posses- 
sions, 129e. Chronology, I29f. — 
Other refs.: Before 1648: see Medie- 
val Period. Early Modern Period; 
William I. leads 5th crusade. 14a; 
Belgium united with, 46e&47b:Mary 
rftains. loe; under Charles V.. 16f, 
46e; Philip II. receives sovereignty, 
17d: Margaret of Parma, I7e; league 
of the Gurtix; civil war: .Ah-a; Blood 
Council: William of Orange; Prot. 
campaign against Sp., 17f; war against 
Sp. (1572-81). 18a; Union of Utrecht; 
William of Orange, stadholder; inde- 
pend. declared: Du. repub. formed. 
ISb; Maurice of Nassau, ISbSic; peace 
with Spam. ISe; Dutch in India, 63d; 
warrenewed by Philip IV., 18f; defeat 
Sp. (1639). I9b; left independ. by 
treaty of Westphalia. 19c. * 

From 1648: warswithEng.. J9d&e. 
52a&c; with Louis XIV.. 97d: Triple 
Alliance (16tiS). I9f. 97d: Eng. joins 
Fr. against (1672), 19f, 53d, 9 /d; lost 
to Fr., 97d; joins Eng. against Fr.. 
53a; Marlborough invades, 146e: Aust. 
gets, 20d. 42d. 43e; Barrier Treaty. 
20e; Quadruple Alliance, 20e, 146f: 
States-General. 20e; Fr. invade, 43f; 
alliance against Prussia. 21a; in Amer. 
War of Ihdependence, 21d: adheres to 
Armed Neutrality; \var with Eng,. 54 
a&b: loan to U, S.. 169c: revt-lt in. 21e; 
France takes Austr. Neth., 21f, 44b; 
Fr, invade (1795). 21f. 98f: war with 
Eng,, 54c: Dutch lose Ceylon, 62d. 
64a; Louis Bonaparte, king, 22d: Na- 
poleon annexes. 99e; withdraws. 99f; 
convention with Eng. on colonies. 54f. 
66f; Luxemburg given to: Luxemburg 
revolts, 124d: united with Belg.. 46a. 
47b: cedes all India estab. to Eng., 
64b: Belgium revolts. 24e, 46a. 47b; 
part given to Belg. (1839). 47c; breach 
with Venez.. 156c; Eng, requisitions 
ships (1917). 35a; allies reach boun- 
dary. 37a; Kaiser flees to. lOSf: Belg. 
negotiates with, for additional terri- 
tory", 4Sb; refuses to give up ex-Kaiser. 
38b. See also DufcA. 

Neuch&tsl, ceded to Prus., 105f: ceded 
to Fr.. 99c: a Swiss canton. 149e; con- 
troversy, 149e. 150d. 

Neuilly (-sur-Seine), Treaty of (.Allies 
& Bulgaria). 38b. 79a.llla; (Allies & 
Hungary). 114b, 121e. 

Neustria. granted to Rollo; duchy of 
Normandy, 12d. 

Neutrality, of Belgium, guaranteed 
by powers, 24e. 46f. 47c; broken by 
Ger.. 27c, 31d; of Black Sea. 25a.l40f. 
151d; ends, 25e. 140f; of Den., pro- 



claimed (1914), 90f' of Eng., in U. S. 
Civil War. 56b; of Fr,. in war bet. 
Prus. & Aust., 100c: of Greece, in 
Turko-Rus. War. 110c; of Italy, dec- 
laration of (1914). 27c, 31d. 115a: of 
Luxemburg, guaranteed by powers. 
124c&d: of Neth.. enforced (1914). 
130c; of Norway (1914). 130f. 13lb; 
of Persia, prod. (1914), 132f:of Spain 
prod. (1914), 145f, 148a; of Sw , 
prod. (1914). 14Sd. 149b; of Switz.. 
guaranteed, 150c; respected (1914), 
I50e; maintained, 149e; guar, cont., 
150f; of U, S.. Washington's procl. 
(1793), I69f. 212b; in war bet. Sp. & 
colonies (Monroe Doct.), 213d; to- 
ward Mex., IS5a; in World War, 31e, 
185e; violation of by .Allies protested, 
31f. 33a: power of Pres. to enforce. 
186d: Ger. charges U- S. with violat- 
ing. 186e; prod, as to It., 186f; armed; 
Appam Case. lS9d, 

Neuve-Chapelle, Ger. take. 32b; 
Brit, attack, 28a. 33b. 

Nevada, hist, outline. 206a; statistics, 
220: area, 221; chronology. 206b. — 
Other refs. :Ter.esUb., 174c. admitted, 
175f; adopts woman suffrage, 185f; 
prohibition, 191f. 

Nevis. 74c. 

New Amsterdam (New York), set- 
tled. 167d. 190c; Eng. capture. 19e. 
52c. 129c. 130a. Ifl7f; rcUined by 
Treaty of BrHa, 52c, 

Newark, N. J., statistics, 220. 

New Bedford. Mass.. hours for textile 
workers. 192d; statistics. 220. 

Newbern. N. C„ occupied. 174f. 

Newberry, Sen. T. H.. convicted, 
194f. 

New Britain (island), lOSc. 

New Brunswick, province; descrip., 
area & pop.. 70c: repr. in Commone, 
69e: separate prov.. 71c; favors re- 
sponsible govt., 71e; joins Dom., 71f; 
prohibition. 73b, 

Newbury, battle of. 19b. 

New Caledonia = Bri(isA Columbia. 

^Caledonia, Fr, col,, descrip. .97b&c. 

^ Castile, riots; state of siege, 147d. 

Newoascie, Australia, fnd . 75e. 

^, Eng,. tramways 1st used in, 20a. 

^, Duke of. in cabinet; premier; dis- 
misses Pitt; resigns. 53d; in coalition 
ministry: again premier; resigns. 53e. 

New Connecticut^ Vermont. 

^ England. Verrazano on coast. 167b; 
1st attempt to colonize; Popham's 
colony in Me.. 167c; named; 1st per- 
manent settlement. ISf. 167d; council 
foi. succeeds Plymouth Ce.. 167d: 
settlement of. 157e; gro\rth of colo- 
nies. I57cSd; Pcquot War. 167e;Con- 
federation(see below); King Philip's 
War. I58b. 167f; Dominion of. 16Sa. 
196e. 197b, 199c. 200a; Sir E. .Andros, 
168a; in Queen Anne's War, I58b; 
witchcraft in. 20b: paper money, I68c. 
See also names of States. 

— England Confederation, lS8c,167e, 
196e, I97a&b. 

— England of the West. 205b. 
Newett. Geo. .A., libel suit. lS4f. 
Newfoundland, hist, outline; area & 

pop.: Labrador. 73d; recent statistics, 
222: map. 64. Chronology, 73e.^ 
Other refs.; J. Cabot disc.. 167a: cod 
fisheries. 167b: Elizabeth grants to 
Gilbert; colony attempted, 18b. I67c; 
ceded to Eng,. 53c. 69b, 7ib. 97f. 168b; 
has separate govt. ,71b:in 1st Imperial 
War Cabinet. 60b: 2nd session. 60f ; 
hydroplane flights fr«m (1919). 6lc. 

New Prance^ Canada (Quabec. 160S- 
1763). 70d; conq.. 69b; at war with 
Iroquois; Fr. settlement, 70fi Fronte- 
nac gov.. 71a. 

^ Granada, hiat. outline, see Colom- 
bia. S7f, Ecuador. 92d, Peru, 133a. 
Venezuela, l.loal. Chronology, see Co- 
lombia, 88b. — Other reis.: prov. of 
Tierra Firma becomes, 82a. separated 
from Peru. 133d: Venez. included in, 
155i: Panama in. 81f, 82b; Ecuad. in, 
92e; Venez. & Ecuad. unite with to 
form Repub. of Colom.. 156a; U. S. 
Treaty with (1846). 173a. 

— Guinea (or Papua), British, de- 
scrip.. 75d; map, 64; native huts, il- 
lust.. 128; Brit, protectorate, 5&e; 
Queensland takes possess.. 763; be- 
comes crown colony, 56e, 76a; ter. of 
Australia, 76c. 

^ Guinea, Dutch. 129f. 
^ Guinea, German, 105c; Australians 
Uke, 32d. 76e; mandate for. 76f. 

— Hampshire, hist, outline. 198a; 
statistics, 220; area, 221, Chronology, 
198b. — Other refs,: granted to Mason, 
167d: 1st settlements. 167d, 220: royal 
prov.. 167f; 1st written State constitu- 
tion, 168f: grants. 20Ua&b; relin- 
quishes claim to Vt., 200b; against 
slavery. 169c: ratifies Constitution, 
169d: adopts prohibition; local option, 
17.3b: prohibition. 191b. 

^ Haven, Conn.. fnd„ 167e. 196c&d; 

in N. E, Confed,. 167e; royal charter. 

167e. 196e; Yale College moved to. 

168a: statistics. 220. 
^ Hebridaa. descnp., 97c: joint An- 

glo-Fr. protectorate, 57f. 

— Holland. 75d, 

— Hopa Church (Dallas), Ga., battle 
of. 175e. 

^ Jersey, hist, outline. 195e: etati*- 
lics. 220; area. 221. Chronology. 195f. 
— Other refs.: granted to Berkeley & 
Carteret. I67f; development of. 157e; 
Sir E. Andros rules; royal province, 
163a; College of (Princeton), fnd.. 
16Sb: ratifies Constitution. 169d: 
gradual emancipation, 170b; under 
W. Wilson. 21Se. 

Newlands Reclamation .Act, 181b. 

New London. Conn.. Deutschlarui 
reaches. 18Sf. 

— Mexico, hist, outline, 208d: sUtis- 
tics, 220. area. 22 1, Chronology, 20Se. 
— Other refs. :Coronado explores. 157c. 
167b; Espejo, 167c; 1st settlement of. 
125f. 16rc. 220; Kearny occupies 
Santa Fe; organizes govt.. 173a: ceded 
to U. S.. 125c. 126e, 160c&e. 173b; 
Nev. included in cession, 206b: n:ap. 
194; organized as ter.. 160f, 173c; & 
slavery,160f;includc3 portion of Colo., 



244 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



S 



U 



w 



206e: EnablinB Act for joint state 
with Ajiz.. ISlf; Arizona refuses, 
I82a; Enabling Act for separate State, 
lS3a: admitted, 183e; prohibition 
adopted. 190c. 

"New Nationalism," Roosevelt's 
(Osawatomie speech), 183b. 

New Netherland, named. I67d: Du. 
W. India Co. in. ISf. 167d, 199c; an- 
nexes Sw. possess., 19d;Eng. conq. S: 
name N'ew York. 157e, 199c, 
- Orleans, fnd., 98a, 168b. 201c. 220; 
cap. of La.. I68b; ceded to Sp. by Fr., 
J5Sb. 16Sd; battle of. 159e, 171a, 
201b. 2Ub: taken (1862). 161d. 174f, 
White League rising, 177c; Cotton 
Centennial Exp., 178c; Italians 
lynched, 179c; yellow fever epidemic, 
ISlI; statistics, 220. 

Newport, R. I.. Brit, occupy. 199f; 
Rochambeau at, 169b. 

New Providence island. 74a. 

— River (Kanawha), disc., 167f. 
News Letter, Boston. 16Sb. 

New South Wales, descrip., 75b: 
named: settlement;insurr. of convicts; 
mil. revolt; act for govt.; transporta- 
tion ceases. 75e; has control over N. 
2.. 77c; repr, govt, in; demonstrations 
against convicts; gold disc. 75f; 
Queensland separated from. 75c; re- 
Btricts Chin, immigr.; confers on fed- 
eralization. 76a; adopts Fed. Bill; la- 
bor dispute act; adopts woman suf- 
frage. 76b. 

^ Spain, ter. included in, 125b. 20Se; 
viceroyaltyerected;S.\V. U.S.&Pacific 
coast region become parts of, 125f; 
Cuba part of. 89a: settlements of; re- 
volt; territorial claims, 126a. 

Newspaper, lat in Europe. ISe; 1st io 
English, 19e; London Times estab., 
21e; Publick Occurrences, oihoslon, 
19e; IstinU.S., 168a&b: stamp duties 
on, abol. in Eng., 56a. 

New Sweden, settled, 167e, 195b&d; 
Dutch conq., 129f, 167c. 

^Testament (Tyndale'a version), 17a. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, reflecting telescope, 
19f; pub, Principia, 20a. 

— Butler, battle of. 53a. 
Newtown, Va.. battle. 175a. 

New World, disc, of; recognition of, 
167a; 1st conceived as separate from 
Asia. 167b. 

— ■ York (city), for events to 1664, see 
N€w Amsterdam: named, 19e, 167f, 
199c; Dutch occupy. 130a; King's 
College fnd.. 168c; Brit, enter. 158f. 
169a; evacuate, 169c: Washington in- 
aug. at, 169d: Draft Riots (1863), 
175d: Brooklyn Bridge. 178b; centen- 
nial of Brit, evacuation, 178b; Bar- 
tholdi statue, 178d: centcu. Washing- 
ton's maug.. 178f; Greater N. Y. 
charter. 180b; Dewey parade, 180d; 
HallofFame. 180eSJ; subway opened. 
26c. 181e; stock panic (1907). 182c: 
tunnels under East River & Hudson. 
182d; Pa. R. R- station opened; elec- 
tric trains run under Hudson; Rocke- 
feller Institute opened, 183b; Rosen- 
thal murder S: police corruption. lS4b; 
garment workers' strike(1913). 184c; 
Grand Central Term, opened, lS4d; 
Maine mon. dedicated, 184f; general 
strikes; preparedness parade, 188b; 
epidemics in. 188d. 19U: harbor work- 
ers' strike. 192cSte; parades of 27tli 
and 77th Divs.; Atlantic fleet returns 
to (1919), 192e; 1st Div. parades. 
193b&c: strikes. 193d: statistics, 220, 
162e: Singer Bldg.; Metropol. Life 
Bide,, illusts.. 163. 
-^ (State), hist, outline, 198f; statis- 
tics, 220; area. 221 . Chronology, 199c. 
—Other reis.: Du. surr.; royal pro- 
vince. 167f; development of, 157e; 
joined to N. E.(1686), 15Sc; Sir E. 
Andros rules. 168a. ratifies Constitu- 
tion, 169d: relinquishes claim to Vt., 
200b; gradual emancipation, 170a;law 
on hours of labor annulled by U. S, 
Supr. Court, 181e; Public Utilities 
Commission estab., 132c: capitol de- 
stroyed by Are. lS3d; 54-hour week 
law. 184b: revised constitution re- 
jected. lS7d; woman suffrage, 190c. 

— — Congress(l765).15Sd, 168d;(1789), 
169d. 

^^ Evening Mail, purchased by Get. 
agents, 191d. 

— «-, N. H., £c H. Railroad, malad- 
ministration: prosecuted. lS5e; sys- 
tem dissolved; gives up holdings, i85f: 
trial, 187d&f. 

^^ University, 180e. 

^^r.Miln, Supr. Court decision. 172c. 

— —WorW. charges Ger. officials with 
propaganda, lS7b. 

— Zealand, hist, outline, 76f: govt.; 
industry&labor: religion; educa., 77a; 
defense; area & pop.; island depen- 
dencies, 77b; recint statistics. 222; 
map, 64. Chronology, 77b. — Other 
refs.: disc. 19b. 75d; visited by Capt. 
Cook. 75d; Eng. sovereignty over,55d: 
separated from N.S.W.. 75b; confers 
on federalization, 76a: does not join 
Australian Com., 76b; limited tariff 
preference with Canada. 72d; occu- 
pies Ger. Samoa, 32c, 76e; in 1st Im- 
perial War Cabinet, 60b: 2nd session. 
60f: gets mandate for Samoa, 37f, 
105d; cost of World War, 3Sc. See 
Anzacs. 

^— . battle cruiser, given by colony to 
imp. na\'y. 77d. 

— ^ Company, organized. 77a&c; 
tronble with govt.; settles Wellington; 
Nelson; forces govt, to buy South 
Island; surr. charter, 77c. 

Ney. Marshal, at Quatre Bras. 99f. 

Niagara, French hold: Eng. take fort, 
168c; final campaign (1814). 170f. 

^ Falls, park. 178c; .\ B C conference 
at (1914). 125d. 127f. 

Nicsa. 1st council of Christian ch. at. 
lOd&e; crusaders take. 13b: empire 
estab.. 13f: gets Latin Emp. of East, 
14b; Turks conq., 14e. 

Nicaragua, hist, outline. 79f: organi- 
zation; govt,: industry, 80a: relig, & 
educ; defense; area & pop., 80b: re- 
cent statistics, 222; map. 64. Chro- 
nology, 80c.— Othtr refs.: in Greater 
Repub. of Central Amer.. 79b; & 



Hond. sue Salvador. 80b: becomes 
virtually U.S. protectorate, 79a.l64e. 
183d: Amer. marines in, 184b: Costa 
Rica sues & obtains judgment against, 
80a; U. S. Treaty with, ISoe; ratified 
by Senate, 188a. 209b&c; severs dipl. 
relations with Ger., 35c; enters World 
War. 36c, 38f: relig. relations with 
Guat., 79d. 
— , Lake. disc. 80c. 

— Canal, concession to Louts Napoleon; 
Brit, desire protectorate; crisis over; 
treaties over (1849), SOe: Clayton- 
Bulwer Treaty, 80f ; concessions to Fr. 
company: Dickinson- Ay on Treaty 
(U, S, si Nicar.) ; Amer. Interoceanic 
Canal Commis. report {1376). 81a; 
Interoceanic Canal Co. concession 
(1879); treaty with U.S. (1884), 81b; 
IVIaritime Canal Co. of Nicar.; con- 
struction begua: company fails: work 
never resumed, 81b; route favored: ia 
Hepburn Act, 82d; U. S. gets rights to 
route, 81e; treaty ratified, 80a, 8le, 
188a, 209b&c. 

Nice, Charles V. & Francis I. at. 17c: 
French take; annexed. 9Se: ceded to 
Fr.. 22a; Nap. III. gets, 25b, 1141'. 

Nicene Creed, lOe. 

NicephorusPhocas, reigns; assas..l2e. 

Nicholas I., Pope, Pbotius excommu- 
nicates, 12d. 

— II.. Pope, 12f. 

^ I., of Montenegro, as prince; king; 
agrees to evacuate Scutari, 123a&b; 
appeals to Peace Conf . for protection, 
123a: deposed, I21c. 

— I., of Russia, czar. 137d. 140d; urges 
powers to intervene in Greece, UOb; 
his reign. UOdie: dies. 140e. 

— n., of Russia, czar; weds; crowned. 
141b: Etip. Wm. visits. 107c; calls 1st 
Peace Conference, 141b; manifesto 
(1903), 14lc; son & heir bom; called 
upon to grant concessions, 141d; dis- 
solves 1st Duma;dts3olve9 2nd Duma; 
meets Ger. emperor; receives 3rd 
Duma, 141f: meets Edward VII.; dis- 
solves Finnish Diet; visits Kaiser, 
I42a: Macedonian question; prohib- 
its state sale of alcohol. U2b: takes 
command of Rus. army (1915). 33c, 
142c; proclaims amnesty, 142c; abdi- 
cates, 29d, 142d; retires to Crimea; 
ordered arrested, lUd; & family re- 
moved to Siberia, 142f; & family exe- 
cuted, 143c;hi3 reign, 137e&f, i3Sa5:b. 

— , Grand Duke (1831), 153b. 

^, Grand Duke (1356), Rus. generalis- 
simo, 27e; compels Ger. retreat in 
Pol.. 32c: relieved of command. 28b, 
33c, 142c; sent to Caucasus, 2Sb,142c. 

Nicholson, John, recapt. Delhi, 64c. 

Nicias, attacks Syracuse; executed, 8a. 

^, peace of, 8a. 

Nicobars, descrip., area & pop., 65b; 
Brit, claim acknowl., 56c. 

Nicolet, J<an, explores Wis., 71a. 204d. 

Nicomedes X., Sf. 

— II., 9c. 

^ III. (Philopator), reigns: restored; 
bequeaths Bithynia to Rome, 9e. 

Nicopohs, falls, 153b. 

Niemen. the. Napoleon & Alex, meet 
at. 09d. battle of (1914). 32c. 

"Nien" rebels. 85e. 

Nieuport, battle of, 18d. 

Niger, explor. of, 22a. 

^, Military Territory of the, 96d. 

Nigeria, descrip., 67f; map, 64; begin- 
ning of colony, 56b. 

Nihilists, begin L'l.ivities in Rus., 
137d, 141a; murder Gen. Mezentsov; 
Krapotkin assas.; attempts on Alex. 
11.; attempt on Imperial family; com- 
mission to suppress; Alex. JI. assas.. 
Hta: expelled from Switz.. 149e,150e; 
1500 sent to Siberia, 141b. 

Niihau, ar^. 209d. 

Nijmegen^ A'imiceoCTi. 

Nikolaev, strike (1903), I41d. 

Nikolsburg, peace at (1622), 18f; 
Truce of (1866), 106f. 

Sik&ic & Montenegrins, 153c. 
ile. valley settled. 5b; battle of, 22a, 
54d, 6Sd, 99a; sources disc. 25a. 
Nimwegen (Nijmegen), Treaty of 
(1678-79), 19f, 91b. 97e, 105e. 130a, 
146e. 
Nine Classics, of China, 5f. 
Nineteenth-Century Period of 

World History, 23-26. 
Nineveh, 124e: & Hammurabi, 6e; 
cap. of Assyria, 5d; destroyed, 7d; 
battle of, 12a. 
Ningpo, Treaty port, 84a, 85d. 
Nifio. explurer. 167a- 
Nipissing.Lake. Champlainvisits,70f. 
Nish, Sirbs evacuate. 33e. 
Nlsin. dynasty of. 6e. 
Nitocris, Oueen, era of, 6d. 
Nitrogen, produced in Ala., 202d. 
Nitti ministry, Italy, 117f. 
Niue (Savage Island), 77b. 
Nivelle, Gen. Robert, recovers Fort de 
Douaumont. 34d; succeeds Joffre, 102c: 
begins 2nd battle of the Aisne,- 35d; 
succeeded by Petain, 35e. 102c. 
Nizib, battle of. 68a. 
Noailles. 93f; defeated, 9Sa. 
Nobel peace prize, awarded to Roose- 
velt. 182b; to Elihu Root, 185b. 
Noblling,|lwarl, wounds Wm. I.. 107a. 
Noble State Bank v, Haskell, Supr. 

Court decision, 183c. 
"Noche triste," 125f. 
Nogales, Ariz., fight at, 19Ie. 
Nogi, Gen. and wife, commit suicide, 

120d. 
Nombre de Dioa. fnd., 82a&b. 
Nome, Cape, gold deposits. 209b. 
Nominating conventions. See Na- 

tional conventions. 
Nomination, direct. See under Dirccf, 
Non- Importation Agreements 

(1767). 158i-. IGKe. 
Nonintercourse Act (1809). 159d. 
170d; prnvision3resumed(lS10).170d. 
Nonjurors, b'ii, 53a. 
Nonpartisan League (N. D.). 206e. 
Nootka Sound Convention, I47a. 
"No-popery" riots, 54a. 
Nord Alexis. See Alej:is. 
Nordenskjold, in Greenland, 91f. 
Nbrdlingen. battle of (1633). 19a. 
Nore. The. mutiny of Eng. fleet at 
(1797), 54c. 



Norfolk, Eng., Zeppelin raid, 33f . 
— , Va., Navy Yard seized, 174d; statis- 
tics, 220. 

— & Western Ry. Co. v. W. Va., Supr. 
Court decision, 186e. 

Noricum. annexed to Rome, 10a. 

Norman Conquest, 13a. 

Normandy, granted to Rollo. 12d: 
Robert rules, 13a: Henry 1. restores to 
Esg., 13b; John loses, 13f; Fr. regains, 
15d. 

Normans, in Apulia; & Saracens, I2f. 

Norsemen. See Northmen. 

North, Lord, premier, 53f; resigns; in 
coalition; opposes reform, 54a. 

North America. See vl mer tea. North. 

^ Anna, battle of. 175e. 

^Atlantic Coast Fisheries Treaty.l82e; 
Hague decision, 183b. 

Northbrook, Earl of (T. G. Baring), 
viceroy of India, 64d. 

North Carolina, hist, outline. 199d: 
statistics, 220; area. 221; chronology, 
199e. — Other refs.; Raleigh reaches, 
ISb; 1st settlements, 167f. 220; sepa- 
rates from S. C. 168b; War of the 
Regulation. 16Se; ratifies Constitu- 
tion, 169e; secedes, I61c, l"4d; Recon- 
struction, I76b: readmitted. 176d; 
Democrats regain control, 1761; con- 
stitution with "grandfather clause," 
180e: prohibition, lS2d, 186b. 

Northcote, Lord, gov.-gen. of Aus- 
tralia, 76c. 

—, Sir Stafford (Lord Iddealeigh).chan. 
of the excheq., 56d; for. sec, 56f. 

North Dakota, hist, outline, 206e: 
statistics, 220; area, 221. Chronology, 
206f. — Other refs.: admitted, 178f; 
prohibition in, 178f,186b; pres. prefer- 
ence primary (1912). lS3f; "health 
marriage" law; lS4f, 185a: repeals 
death penalty. 186b: suffrage. 189c. 

Northeastern Boundary dispute (U. 
S.). 172a. 

Northern Interparl. Union. 9Ie. 

^ Manchurian R. R., completed, 141c. 

— Pacific R. R., incorp., 175e; opened, 
178b: control of, ISOf. 

— Pacific Ry. Co. v. N. Dak., Supr. 
Court decision, 186e, 

— Securities Case. Supr. Court decision, 
lG4f, 181d. 

Northern-Star State, 205b. 
Northern TerTitories(Brit.W.Africa), 
I 'descrip., 67f; under Gold Coast, 57c 

— Territory (Australia), under So. 
Aust.. 76a; passes to Commonwealth, 
74f, 76d. 

— War (1699-1721). Den.. Rus.. Pol.St 
Saxony against Sweden, 137b, 148cS;f. 

North German Confederation. See 
Confederation, North German. 

•— Island, 76f ; Brit, suzerainty over, es- 
tab., 77c. 

Northmen, invade Eng., 12c; invade 
Fr., 12c; in Russia. 12c. 137a: colo- 
nize Iceland, 12d, 114b&c, 157a; 
beaten at Louvain, 12d; disc. Green- 
land. 157a; visit No. Amer. (?),157a, 
196e; war galley, illust., 144. 

North Pole, disc. 26e, 182f. 

^ Russia, Republic of, 139c. 

^ Sea, incident (1904). see Dogger 
Bank affair: decl. of powers concern- 
ing (1908). 5Sb. 131b; Eng. fleet in, 
58f: "military area." 31e, 32e. 59a: 
mine barrage. 37d, 

Northumberland, Duke of, & Lady 
Jane Grey, 17d. 

Northwestern Univ.. 202b, 

North-West Frontier Province, India, 
formatmn. fi4e. 

North-West Fur Company, organ- 
ized. 7Ic; explorations, 71c&d: de- 
stroys Red River settlement: absorbed 
by Hudson's Bay Co., 71d. 

Northwest Mounted Police. 70f, 72a. 

— Ordinance, 200e. 

— Passage. 24f. 70f. 167b. 

— Territories, of Canada, 69d&e. 70f: 
organized. 72c. 

— Territory (U. S.), authorized, 169d: 
slavery prohib.. 160e. 169d, 200e: 
settlement begun, 169d. 200e&f.201a; 
ter. govt, erected. 169d. 200eSd:State3 
included, 200e; divided, 170a. 

Norway, hist, outline, 130e; organiza- 
tion; indus. & labor: relig.; educa.; 
defense; area & pop,, 130f; recent sta- 
tistics, 222; map,18, 38, 64;ski runner, 
illust.. 116. Chronology, 131a.— 
Other refs.; Danes invade; Harold 
Hardraade, 12f; united with Sw. & 
Den.. 15b; Swedes invade, 148f; Den. 
cedes to Sw., 90f. 91c. U8c, 149a; 
Sw. & Nor. under one ruler. 22f; Sw. 
acknowl. independ-. 148d, 149b; inde- 
pend, guaranteed by treaty, 58a; pro- 
hibits submarines in her ter. waters, 
34b; effect of submarine warfare, 29f. 

Noske, Gustav, min. of defense, de- 
clares state of siege at Berlin, 109b; 
scheme for home guards. 109c. 

Notre Dame (de Lorette) , taken. 33b. 

Novara. battle of (1821), 116b; (1849), 
44c. !16c. 

Nova Scotia, province, descrip., area 
& pop., 70c; repr. ia Commons, 69e; 
1st settlement, 167c; grant<;d to Alex- 
ander, 70f: ceded to Eng.. 53c, 71b, 
15Sb. 16Sb; name changed, 158b:Brit. 
remove Acadians. 16Sc; assembly & 
separate gort.. 71b: Amer. loyalists 
in; New Brunswick & Cape Breton 
separated from. 71c; demands respon- 
sible govt., 71e; part of Dominion, 71f; 
S: "Better- Terms" Act. 72a; prohibi- 
tion, 73a. See also Acadia. 

Novgorod, Rurikat. 12d. 137a. 

Novibazar , Montenegro gets half, 
123b. 

Novo-Nikolaevsk, 143c. 

Noyades, 9Sf. 

Noyon, Fr. explorer. 71a. 

^, Ger. salient bombarded. 34c; falls, 
30a. 36e. 

Nubia. Thotmes III. conquers, 6f. 

Nubian Ui-^-rt, 68e. 

Nueva Aadalucia, 88b. 

— Toledo. st;ttled, 155f. 

Nullification, policy of, approved by 
N. E,, 170f; theory revived. 171f; ex- 
pounded by Calhoun. 160b&c; Madi- 
son's view of, 213b; S. Car. Null. Or- 
dinance; debate on; repealed, 172b. 

Numantia, 9d. 



Numantine War. 9d. 

Numidia, Jugurtha shares throne of 
war with Rome. 9e. 

Nuremberg.Wallenstein besieges, 19a. 

Nutmeg State, 196c. 

Nyasaland, descrip-. 65f; sphere de- 
limited. 67a&b; Brit, protectorate, 
57b. 67a. 

Nymphenburg, Fr. & Sp. alliance, 
146f. 

Nystad, Treaty of, 20f. 93d, 137c,140a, 
U4b. 148c&i. 



Oahu. area. 209d. 

Oakland, Calif., statistics, 220. 

Gates, Titus and Popish Plot, 52d. 

Oath oi the Tennis Court. 21e. 98c. 

Obaldia, Jose Domingo de, pres. Pan- 
ama; dies, 82e. 

Obolenski. Prince. Procurator of the 
Holy Synod, 141e. 

Obregon, Alvaro, occupies Mei. City, 
127f; drives Convention from Mex- 
city; driven out by Zapatistas, 128a; 
Mex- minister of war, 128b; deserts 
Carranza, 128c. 

Obrenovic family, extinguished, 122c. 
See Michael Obrenovic, Aliloa Obre- 
novic. 

O'Brien, Smith, 55f. 

Ocampo. Sebastian de, circumnavi- 
gates Cuba, 89a. 

Occasional Conformity Act, passed; 
repealed, 53c. 

Oceania. Fr. esUb. in, 97c. 

Ocean Mail Subsidy Act, 179b. 

Ochakov, added to Russia. 140b. 

Ochus= .Ajtaxerxes 111., 8c. 

O'Connor, Feargus, leader of Chart- 
ists. 55c. 

Ocracoke inlet, occupied, 174e. 

Octavianus, Octavius. See AugtLs- 
tus. 

"Octobrists" (see inDict.,Addejida) , 
Russia. 141f. 

Odelsthing, 130f. 

OdeEsa,bombarded(lS54).140e; strike 
(1903), 141d: Jews massacred (1905), 
141e; bombarded (1914), 152b. 154d; 
Bolsheviki take, i43d: capt. by Deni- 
kin(1919); Bolsheviki regain. 143e. 

Odoacer, dethrones Romulus Augustu- 
lus. 6a; king of Rome,10f:Heruli. lie; 
surrenders Ravenna; executed, llf. 

O'Donnell, Leopold, succeeds Espar- 
tero; resigns. 14Tc. 

O'Donoju, Juan, last viceroy of Mex. 
ico, I25c; surr. Mex. to revolution- 
ists. 126a. 

Odysseus, Gr. patriot (19th cent.), 
UOb. 

Odyssey. Qa. 

Oersted, Hans Christian, disc, electro 
magnetism. 24b. 

Oestfriesland, repub., lOSf. 

Ogden u. Saunders. Supr. Court de- 
cision. 171e. 

Oglethorpe, Gen. James, settles Geor- 
gia. 168b, 195f;2nd visit to Ga.. 196a. 

O'Higgins, Gen., dictator in Chile, 
82f. S3c; resigns. 83c. 

Ohio, hist, outline, 200e: statistics. 
220; area, 221. Chronology, 201a. — 
Other refs.: Western claims relin- 
quished. 19Sf: admitted, 170b: floods 
(1913), 184e; franchise extended to 
women, I89c;def eats prohibition, 190c; 
adopts prohib., 191f. 

^ Company, chartered, 168c. 

—•River bridge, 173d; fioods, 184e. 

— valley. 168c. 

Oil Creek. Pa., 1st oil well, 174b. 

— well. 1st. 174b. 
Oise, the. 37a. 

Ojeda.-Alonso de.tracea coast S. Amer., 
16e, 167a; on coast of Colombia. 87f; 
traces coast of Venez., 155d; names 
Venez.. 155f. 

Okinawa Island8(form. Riukiu Isls.). 
China&Japan dispute over: Japan an- 
nexes, 11 8d; China resigns claim, 119e. 

Oklahoma, hist, outline, 203c; statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221; chronology, 20Sc. 
— Other refs.: included in Ark., 208d; 
opened to settlement, 178f; ter. estab., 
179a: Dawes Commission, 179d; Ena- 
bling Act (1906), 181f; constitution 
includes prohibition: admitted, 182c; 
prohibition in, 186b; "grandfather 
clause." lS3b. 187a. 

^ City, Okla., statistics. 220. 

Okubo Toshimichi. Jap, min. of inte- 
rior; assas., 119e. 

Okuma.Count.forms cabinet, 120a&e} 
narrowly escapes bombs: resigns, I20e. 

Olaf, king of Norway, 130e. 

— , St., 130e. 

Old Age & Invalid Pension Act. Aus- 
tralia, 76c. 

— _ Annuities Act, Canada, 72e. 

— ^ Pension Act (Eng.). 58b. 
Pension Bill. lOte. 

^^ Pension law (Swe.), 149b; (Uru- 
guay), 155c. 
^^ Pensions Act, New Zealand. 77d. 

— Bay State. 196e. 

^ Believers, 141f; legalized by Duma, 

142a. 
Old Dominion, origin of name, 198c; 

Wilson 8th pres. from, 218d. 
Oldenburg, Den. acquires, 91b; Den. 

relinquishes, 91c; independ. state, 

106c; republic estab., 108f. 
Old Line State. 197c 

— North State. 199d. 

— South Church, illust., 212. 
Oleomargarine, tax on. 178d. 
Olgierd. 141b. 

Olid, Christobal de, 79e; in Gulf of 

Honduras. SOc. 
Oliva. Peace of, I9e, !39e. 
Olivenza. Port, loses. 135e. 
OUivier, femile, Fr. minister, 94c: 

ministry, 100c. 
Olmo. d'.-It. gov. of Tripoli, 117a. 
Olmstead case= United States v. Pe- 

tera. 
Olmiitz, conference at, 44e. 106e. 
"Olney Doctrine," 179f. 
Oltenita (Oltenitza), battle of, 140e, 
Olustee. Fla., battle of, 175d. 
Olympiad, first. 6c. 7b. 
Olympian games. 1st, 6c: abolished. 



lOe; reinstituted (1896). 26b. 110c. 
149b; Americans win (1906). llOd. 

Olympias, 8e. 

Olympic games. See Olvnpian gamea. 

Olyntbus. 8b. 

Omaha, Neb., exposition. 180c; race 
riots; lynching, 193c: statistics, 220. 

Oman, hist, outline-. 131c: location. 
112b: independ.. 112c: Port, occupy, 
ll2c&d; Brit, influence begins, 112c; 
Sultan cedes Kuria Muria Islands to 
Gr. Brit.. 112d. 

Omar, caliph; defeats Persians at Ca- 
desia; victories; gains Egypt; mur- 
dered, 12a. 

— Pasha, insurr. in Bosnia; quelled; 
campaign against Montenegrins; de- 
feats Montenegrins, 153a. 

Omdurman. battle of. 68b&e. 

Ommiad caliphate of Cordoba, fnd., 
I2b; ends. 12f. 

^dyn.. fnd., 12b: overthrown, 12d. 

Omnibus Act (1866) , readmits South- 
em States, 176d. 

— Bill. See Compromise ojT^ 1850. 
Omri, 7a. 'Z 
Omsk, Siberian govt, formed at. 90d; 

conference; Kolchak driven out. 143e. 

O'Neill. Shane. Irish leader; rebellion, 
I7e: rebellion suppressed; killed, 
17f. 

Ontario, province, repr, in Commons, 
69e; descrip.. area & pop.. 70d;formed 
under Brit. No. America Act. 71f: 
bound, with Manitoba settled, 72b: 
Prohibition Act(1901). 72c; bound, 
extended, 72e; prohib. in effect, 
73a. 

Opechancanough, 158b. 

"Open door" policy. 26d. 84b. 86b, 
87b&d. 118f, 164d, 186f. 

Opequan, Va- battle of. 175f. 

Opium, use of, in China. 84c; China 
forbids importation; stores of at Can- 
ton destroyed, 85d: war over. 24e.64a, 
85d, 62d: emperor's edict restricts; 
agreement with Gr. Brit, restricts, 
84d, S6d; Int'l Conference at Shang- 
hai, 86d: Brit.-Chinese agreement on 
traffic. 64f, 86e: Int'l Conf. at the 
Hague. 130c; Harrison Act regulates 
sales of (U. S.). I86a; Brit.-Chineae 
treaty, 87c. 

— War. 24e, 62d, S4a. 85d. 
Oporto, revolution in, 135e. 
Oppressed (Austrian) Nationalities. 

Congress of, 121c 

Opus Majus, of Roger Bacon. 14c. 

Orange, House of, 20e, 129c, 130b. 

— •. Prince of. 52c. 

^ Free State Province, hist. & govt.; 
religion & educ; industry & produc- 
tion, area & pop., 66e; declared inde- 
pendent. 66f; declares war against 
Eng., 67f; annexed as Orange River 
Colony; responsible govt., 67c. 

^ River Colony, 66e. 67c. 

Orangemen, 54c. 

Orbegozo. Luis Jos^. pres.. I33d. 

Ordinance of 1651, Brit.. 158d, 

— of 1787. 160e. 

^ of Secession. S, C, 174c. 

Oregon, hiat. outline. 205c: statistics, 
220; area. 221; chronology. 205d. — 
Other refs.: disc. 125f; Cabrillo & 
Ferrer in. 125f. 167b; Gray disc. Co- 
lumbia R., 169e; bound, settled. 173a, 
2l4f (see also Oregon Country); ter. 
organized, 173b. 207b&e. 173e: ad- 
mitted. 174b; vote disputed (1877), 
177e; prohibits liquor traffic. I86a: re- 
peals death penalty, 186b; prohibition 
in, 186b. — See also Oregon Country. 

^, U. S. battleship, trip around So. 
America, 164d, 180b. 

— Country-, joint occupation with Gr. 
Brit., 171b: Sp. relinquishes claim, 
207b&d; bound, settled, 171d; Amer. 
settlement, 172a: joint occupation 
with Gr. Brit, renewed, 160c. I71e; 
terminates; south of 49® confirmed to 
U. S.. 160c; Gr, Brit, relinquishes 
claim south of 49° Map. 194. 

"Oregon Plan," 183e. 

— Trail, 172a. 205e. 

Oreste. Michel, pres.; abdicates, Ulf. 

Orford. See /?usse«. Edward. 

Organic Bases. Mexico. I26d. 

Oribe.Mamiel. Uruguayan leader, 155b. 

Oriental railway, occupied by Bulga- 
rians, 153f. 

Oriente, province. Cuba, insurr.. 89f, 

"Original package, "liquor in. 179a. 

^ Package .Act. 17<ta. 

^ Package Law. I33f; declared consti- 
tutional, 179c. 

Origin of Species, pub.. 25b. 

Orinoco, Columbus reaches, IS7a. 

Oriskany. battle of, 169a. 

Orissa (India). 63e. 64a. 

Orkham, Sultan, 14c. 

Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele.'new cabi- 
net; premier: rejects Aust. offer of 
peace, 117e: cabinet reorganized;parl. 
supports; resigns, 117f; in Council of 
Four, 37e, 192d. 

^ Furioso, 15e. 

Origans, Attila besieges, lOf; Eng. be- 
siege, I5c: von der "Tann occ, lOOd. 

•■-, Maid oi = Joan of Arc, I5c. 

^, princes of, e:Ailed, lOOe. 

Orleans, Ter. of. 170b, 201c. 

Orlov, Count A., defeats Turks, 140b. 

Ormonde, Duke of. impeached; im- 
prisoned. 53c. 

Orozco, Pascual, Madero leader in 
Mex., 127d; supports Huerta,.127e; 
leads revolts, 127f. 

Orsini. Felice. 100c. 

Osaka, mint, 119d. 

Osawatomie, Kans., speech of Roose- 
velt, 183b. 

Osborn i'. Bank of the U. S., Supr. 
Court decision. 171d. 

Osborne, Henry, gov. of Newf,, 73e. 

Oscar I., of Sw. & Nor., 131a, 148d, 
149a; son regent. 149a: dies. 131a. 

— II.. of Sw. & Nor.. 149b. 131a: de- 
cides Samoan controversy. I81c: ve- 
toes bill for Nor. sep. consular serv.; 
relinquishes crown. 13la; reign. 148d; 
dies. 148d. 149b. 

Osma, St. Dominic removes from, ISe. 

Osman I. (Othman) the Conqueror 
(1288). 14c. 151b. 

^ Pasha, conquers at Plevna. I53b: 
evacuates Pkvna. 133c. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



245 



Osnabruek, Treaty of. 19c. 

Osorkon. 7a. 

Ossoyetz. falls. 33c. 

Ostend, temporary seat of Belg. govt., 
47e; Germans occupy, 27d. 32e; be- 
comes submarine base, 27e. 32a&e; 
Brit. raid. 37d; blockaded, 30b. 37d; 
Fr. take. 30d, 37a. 

— Manifesto. 25a. S8f. 173e, 215c. 
Ostorius. 10b. 
Ostracism, m Athens, 7f. 
Ostrogothic kingdom, llf. 
Ostrogoths, lU; besiege Rome, llf. 
Ostyak Imt. illust.. 128. 
Otliman=Os77ia«. 

— , caliph, succeeds Omar., 12a:assa5S.. 

12b. 
Otho. See Otto. 

— I., of Greece (see Otto of Bavaria), 
reign; deposed. 109e. UOb. 

— . of Rome CA,D.6S). 10b. 
Otis, James, 197a. 

Ottawa. 70d. 71e&f; Colonial Trade 
Conf,. 72c: Pari, buildings burned. 73a. 

— River. Champlain ascends. 70f. 
Otto, of Bavaria. Prince, becomes king 

of Greece (Otho I.), 109e. llOb; de- 
posed. 107i'. 

— of Brunswick=0«o7V. of Ger.. 13e. 
•^ I., of Ger. (the Great), king, lie, 

12e; jSc Berenger II.; defeats Hung.; 
sovereign of It,. 12e; fnds. Aust., 42c: 
Holy Rom. emp., 12e. 103a: dies. 12e. 
^U., of Ger.. invades Fr.: Saracens Sc 
G ree ks defeat, 12e. 

— m., of Ger.. slays Crescentius. 12e. 
■^ IV., of Ger.. proposed as emperor, 

13e: emp. of Ger.: tries to win Sicilies. 

13f; defeated by Philip Augustus. 14a. 
Ottocar IZ, of Bohemia, gains Styria, 

14b: loses Aust., etc: dies. 14c. 
Ottoman dynasty. 14c. 

— Empire, lib: Bagdad in. 124f. Map 
(164S). IS. See Turkey. 

^rule. in Armenia. 41e;in Greece, 110a. 

— Turks. lib- 
Ottomans in Asia Minor, 14e. 
Oudenarde. battle of. 20d. 97f. 146f. 
Oudh, becomes Brit, province: Camp- 
bell suppresses revolt in. 64c. 

Oudjda. Fr- occupies, lOld. 
Oiircq River, reached by Allies, 36e. 
Outer Mongolia. See Monoolia. 
Outram, Sir James, relieves Lucknow, 

64c. 
Ovampos. African people. 105b. 
Overman Act, 191c. 
Ovid (Augustan Age), 10a. 
Owen-Glass Currency Bill (Federal 

Reserve;. 165c; Act. 185b. 
Osenstiern, Count A.xel. 19a. 148c. 
Oxford, Earl of. in ministry:impeached; 

escapes: South Sea Co.. 53c. 
^. Pari, meets at, 52c. 
^ University, fnd.. 12d: Duns Scotus 

at. 14d: religious test abol., 56c; 

Rhodes scholarships 57e. 
Oxyartes, satrap of Sogdiana. 8d. 
Oxygen, disc. 21d. 
Oy&ma, Prince, bat. of Mukden, ISOb. 



Paardeberg, Cronjesurr. at. 67b. 
Paccard. ascends Mont Blanc. 150b. 
Pacific coast, explored. 167c; demands 
Chinese exclusion, 17Sa. 

— Fleet, formed. 193a. 

^ Islands Laborers Act. Australia, 76c. 

— Mail Steamship Co. Interstate Com- 
merce Com. decis., 186c; sells 5 ships, 
187b. 

^Ocean. Balboa disc, 82a, 157c. 167b: 
Magellan enters, 16f. 167b; first Eng- 
lishman (Drake) on, 167c. 

— R. R. proposed. 173e: completed, 25d. 

— Railway Act. 175a, 

— States Tel. & Tel. Co. v. Oregon. 
Supr. Court decision, 183f. 

Pacifists, 76e. 

Pact of Rome (1918). 90d. 

Paderewski, Ignace. 1st prime minis- 
ter of Pol.. 134b: coalition ministry 
under: Supreme Council recognizes. 
134e: resigns, 134f. 

Pfflonians, Philip II. defeats. 8c. 

Paes, Dr Sidonio. pres. of Port., revo- 
lution; overthrows Costa; arrests 
Machado. 136b: assass.. 135b, 136b. 

P&ez, Gen. Jose Antonio, pres. of Ven- 
ez.; dictator, 155d: 156a; imprisoned; 
leaves country, 156a. 

Pagopago. ceded to U. S., 210c, 

Pahang. 65c. 

Painlevfe, Paul, in war council; min. 
of labor; min. of war; premier; re- 
signs, 102c. 

Pai-Tak Pass. Turks defend. 36a. 

Palacio. Raimundo A., pres.; e.\ile, 
156a. 

Palatinate, Lower (Rhine), electo- 
rate instituted. 19d: Bavaria gets Up- 
per. 19c&d; Turenne lays waste. 97d; 
Louis XIV. invades. 20a. 97e. lOSe; 
Louis XIV. claims. 97e; & Bavaria 
united, 21d; Lower reunited to Bava- 
ria. 106c. 

Palermo, Saracens expelled. 13a: Fr. 
massacred. 14c. 

^. steamer, torpedoed. 117d. 

Pales (see pale. n. 4. mDict.). Jewish 
emigration from. 131d. 

Palestine, hist, outline. 131c: area St 
pop,. 13 Id; recent statistics. 222; 
Chronology, 131d. — Other refs.: 
inci. in Syria. 150f; Egyptian inva- 
sion; Canaanites. 6d; Thotmes 111.; 
Egyptian viceroys: Philistines in. 6f; 
small states; invaded by Shishak. 7a; 
Sennacherib, 7c; Antiochus. 9c; rebel- 
lion in. 10b; Mohammed invades: 
Omar conquers. 12a; Napoleon in- 
vades. 22a; Jewish agriculturists in; 
Fr. & Eng. secret agreement, 131d; 
Brit. (AUenby) in; Jerusalem taken. 
29f. 36a. 152b; rail connection with 
Cairo. 69a; Allenby cap. Jericho. 30c: 
Brit, mandate, 131e. 154f. 152d. See 
also Jeu>9. Zionist Movement. 

Palghat. 63d. 

Pallada, Rus. cruiser, sunk. 32e. 

Palma, Tomas Estrada, pres. of Cuba, 
89d; second term; asks Amer. inter- 
vention; resigns, 89e. 

Palmer, A. M., attorney-gen., 192e; 



house damaged by bomb I92f; & beef 
trust, 193f. 
Palmerston, Viscount, in ministry 
(1830). 55b; for. sec. (1836). 55c; 
(1846), 55e; resigns from Russell's 
cabinet; procures Russell's defeat; 
home sec. 55f; 1st & 2nd ministries, 
*" 56a; dies. 56b. 
Palmetto State. 197e. 
Palmyra, Aurelian. captures. lOd. 
Palo Alto, battle of. 173a. 214f. 215a, 
Falos. Columbus sails from. 157b. 
Pamir, Russo-Brit. agreement on. 64e. 
Pamlico Sound, explored. 167c. 
Panagyurishte, rising at. 77f. 
Panama (city )fnd.: destroyed; rebuilt; 
82b; not in Canal 2one; U. S. control 
of sanitation & policing, 181d. 210e. 
— . Isthmus of. 8Sa; Balboa on. 167b: 
treaty over (1846), 173a. See also ZJa- 
rien. Isthmus of (earlier name) .Pan- 
ama, Repub. of; Panama Canal; 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. 
^ (Republic of), hist, outline, Slf; or- 
ganization; govt.; products; relig. & 
educ; defense, area & pop.. 82a; re- 
cent statistics, 222; map. 64. Chxo- 
nology, S2a. — Other refs.; internat. 
significance, 79b; settlement, 20b; re- 
volts (1S41), 88c; second secession 
(1857), 82c: secedes (1903); Amer. 
troops prevent suppression of revolt; 
U. S. recognizes. 88a. 164d, ISld: U. 
S. control in, 164e, 181d; cedes Canal 
Zone to U. S-. ISld. 210c&d; treaty 
with Colombia, SSc; Colombia recog- 
nizes, 185c; treaty with U. S. (1914),. 
185f; exposition (1916). S2e: declares 
war on Ger,. 35c. 38e: declares war on 
Austria. 35d. See also Canal Zone: 
Panama. I sthmna of.Panama Canal. 
Panama-California Exposit., 186b. 
Panama Canal, hist.. 164d; earliest 
plans & routes; treaty (1846) bet. U. 
S. & Colombia. 82b. 88a. 173a: Clay- 
ton-Bulwer Treaty (see in Index); 
hist, of Colombia's connection with, 
88a: Fr. concession; de Lesseps in 
charge; plan for ocean-level canal. 25f. 
82c, 177f; early hist. of. 25f, 81f, 82c; 
Fr. company begins work; suspends; 
resumes; U. S. buys rights. 25f. S2c. 
178f. 181d; Pres, Hayes states policy 
of Amer. control. .82c: Hay-Paunce- 
fote Treaty (see in Index); Hay-Her- 
ran treaty (see in Index). ISlc; Hay- 
Bunau-Varilla Treaty (see in Index): 
commis. appointed; Fr. concess. 
transf. to U. S., ISld; Roosevelt 
concludes treaty with Panama. 218a; 
commission resigns; new one ap- 
pointed; sea-level canal favored, 82c. 
ISle; Congress authorizes lock canal; 
Roosevelt visits. 182a; Engineer Corps 
of U. S. Army to construct, 182b; act 
for onerating. 184b: tolls protested by 
Gt. Britain, 58e: Nlcaraguan rela- 
tions. 80a; last barrier blown up. ISoa; 
opened to regular barge traffic, lS5d; 
formally opened. 18oe; Culebra Cut 
earthslide; closed temporarily; closed 
2nd time. lS5f; completed, 186b: cost 
of 1st 6 mo. of operation. 186d; 1st 
used by battleships, 187b; closed 
(1915); earthslides, 187c: reopened. 
188b; statistics of. 210d. See also 
Canal Zone; Panama. 

— Canal Act. lS5c&e. 

— Canal Co.. frauds. lOOf. 

^ Canal Zone, 210d&e. See Can a/ Zone. 
•^ Congress, for Pan«Amer. advance- 
ment (1826). S2b. 89b, 133d. 

— Exposition, 82e. 

— Pacific Internat. Exposition, lS6c. 

— R. R.. opened. 25a. 80f. S2b, 173f. 

— R. R. Co., fnds. Aspinwall, 82b. 
Pan-American Congress, 1st (18S9), 

26a. 81b, 92f. lUf. 133c. 178f; 2nd 
(1901),26a&c. 127c, 181a; 3rd(1906). 
26a&d. 49c. 150a. 182a; 4th (1910). 
26a&e. 41b. 183b. 

— Exposition. Buffalo. 26c. ISOf. 

— financial conference. 186f. 

— Scientific Congress (1908). S3d; 
(1915). 187e. 

^ Union, organized. 127c. 128a, 178f; 
building at Washington, cornerstone 
laid. lS2d. 

Panay. 210f. 

Pando, pres. of Bolivia, 48f. 

Panegyricus. published, 8b. 

Pan- Germanism. 27b. U4c. 

Panhandle State. 205f. 

Panic, commt.-n:ial. Argentina (1890): 
Australia (I890j, 25c; Budapest 
(191S). 46b; Eng. (1672), 52d;C1866). 
25c; U.S. (1819), 171b: (1837). 24e. 
160b. 172d; (1857), 25a. 174a;(1873). 
25c. 177c: (1893), 179d: (1901), ISOf; 
(1907). lS2c. See alsoFinanciaiCrwis. 

Panipat, battle of. (1526). 17a- 

Pan-Islamic movement in Egypt. 6Sf. 

Panium. battle of, 9b. 

Pankliurst. Mrs. Emmeline, sen- 
tenced, 5Se; in U. S.. 185a&:b. 

Pannonia. 10a. 12a. 

Panslavic congress, in Prague. 44d. 

Panslavism, 27b. 143f. 144b&c. 

Panslavists. in St. Petersburg, 142b, 

Pan-Syrian Congress. 151b. 

Pantagruel. I6e. 

Panther, at Agadir. 94f. lOle. 

Papacy, disputes with Fr., 14d. See 
Roman Catholic Church. 

Papal States, Napoleon adds to It. 
kdm.. 9yd; Napoleon annexes, 99e; 
French withdraw, 99f; revolt, 24e. 
Map (1648), 18. 

Papen, von. Capt. Franz, recall de- 
manded, 33a&b; recalled. 187e; leaves 
U. S.. 29d. 

Paper currency, in Eng. (1914). 58f. 

Papineau, L. J.. leads rebellion in 
Lower Canada. 71e. 

Papinian, Roman jurist, 10c 
— Age. 10c 

Pappenheim. at Magdeburg. 19a. 

Papua New Guinea, 56e. 75d. 

Papuans. 97c. 

Paraguay, hist, outline: organization; 
govt.; social conditions. 131e;defense; 
indus.; area& pop..l31f; recent statis- 
tics. 222; map. 64. Chronology, 13lf. 
— Other re<s.: revolts against Sp.. 22e; 
war with Argentina. 40d; Brazil at 
war with. 49bScf; intercourse with Ar- 
gentina severed, 4lb. 



Parana, Braz. ship, sunk by Ger.. 50a. 
Parana river. S.Cabot explores; U.S.S. 
Water H'ifi-A fired on :free navig..l31f. 
Parcel post. Can.. 72f, U.S., act au- 
thorizing. 184b; in operation, 184d; 
weight limit increased. lS5b. 
Pardo. Jose. pres. of Peru; again pres.. 

133e; exiled. 133f. 
—, Manuel, pres.. 133d. 
Faredes, Mariano, pres. of Mex.; takes 
field against Americans, 126d:revolts; 
leaves Mex.. 126e. 
Paris, Northmen plunder. 12c; Heru-y 
v. (of Eng.) enters. 15c; massacre of 
St. Bartholomew, I8a; Henry IV. (of 
Fr.) attacks; Henry IV. enters. 18c; 
insurr. (1789); people march to Ver- 
sailles. 98d: prison massacres. 9Sp: 
insurr. (April, 1795): (May 20, 1795); 
royalist rising (Oct. 1795). 98f: allies 
besiege; enter (1814), 22f. 99f; Louis 
XVIII. enters. 99f; allies enter(1815); 
revolution (1830). lOOa; fortifications 
begun; Napoleon's remains brought 
to; rioti'ng(Feb. 1848); workingmen's 
convention; rioting (May, 1848) . lOOb; 
exposition (1867), 25d; besieged: rev- 
olutionary outbreaks (1870), lOOd; 
capitulates; war of Commune, 94c, 
lOOd; repub. gov. forces enter; public 
buildings burned, lOOd; exposition 
(1878). 25f, lOOe: exposition (1889), 
25f&26a, lOOf; anti-German demon- 
stration (1891); cholera (1892), lOOf; 
Int'l E.xposition (1900). 25f. 26c. 
101b; disturbances due to closing of 
relig. insts.. 101b; rioting over separa- 
tion(church) law. 101c; EquallRights 
Congress. lOld; flowds (1910); mono- 
plane flight fr. London to. lOle; lOth 
anniv. of Entente Cordiale; govt. 
withdraiV's from (1914); Germans ap- 
proach; govt, returns. 102a; Zeppelin 
raid, 33f: war conference (1916): Al- 
lies economic conference, 102b. Per- 
shing arrives in, 35c: Allied War Con- 
ference at (1917). 190c; conf erence of 
the Allies at (1917). 102c; Ger. air 
raids; 1st bombardment with 76-mile 
gun; Pres. Wilson enters, 102d; "wave 
of crime" (1919); general strike on 
transportation lines; Bastille Day & 
peace celebration (1919). 102e. See 
also France; Paris Peace Confer- 
ence, Treaties of Paris, etc, below. 
— , Congress of (1856), 116c. 
^, Declaration of (on intern. law).140f. 
— . Treaty (Peace) of (1763). 21c. 44a. 
53e. 71b. 9Sb. 147a, 158b, 168d; 
(1783), see Versatile^ (and Paris). 
Treaty of; (1810). 149a; (1814), 22f. 
54f. 64a, 12Sd. 130b; (1815). 100a; 
(1856). 25a. 56a. 100c. 136c, 137d. 
140f. 151d. 153a. 154e: (1898), 145f. 
164c, 180d. 211a&d. See Versailles. 
Treaty of (1919). 
^ Peace Conference, assembles; repre- 
sentation at; Supreme Council, 30f. 
31a&b. 37e; opens; Clemenceau chair- 
man, 102d: various countries repre- 
sented,37e(list), 41d. 50a, 112a, 112e. 
120f. 121d. 121a. 133e&f. 134e. 136b. 
145a. 155c; Pres. Wilson at: other 
Amer. commsrs., 192a, 218f; council 
of 4; Wilson leaves. 192d; adopts 
Covenant of League of Nations. 31a, 
192e. preparation for treaty with Ger.. 
31a; U. S. Senate investigates prema- 
ture printing of treaty. 192f: Am. del- 
egates leave. 3Sb: recognizes Azerbai- 
jan. 46d; dissolves. 38b. 
Park, Mungo, explores Niger, 22a. 
Parker. A. B. candid, for pre?. (1904). 

ISle; Roosevelt defeats. 217f. 
^, John, nominated. 188c. 
Parliament. Barebone's. 52a. 
— , Brit., composition, etc. 51b&c: Isl, 
14b: struggle with Charles I.. 50aS:b; 
estab. in power. 50b: supremacy of. 
50c; & .^mer. colonies. 158aSi:c; women 
made eligible to (1918). 61a. 
^, Chinese. 1st; failure, 87a; new, S7e; 

dissolved. 87d. 
^, Convention, See Conoenf ion ParZio- 

Tnent. 
— , German. 106e. 
—, Houses of (Brit.), attempt to wreck, 

56f: illust.. 213. 
^, It.. 1st. meets. 116d. 
— , Model. 14d. 
— . Short. 19b. 
— , Turkish, opens, lolf. 
^ Bill, on Lords' veto, 58c. 
^ of Paris, demands calling of States- 
Gen.. 9Sc. 
Parma. Charles of Sp. gets. 116a. 146f; 
Austria gets, 43f . Don Philip (of Sp.) 
gets. 21b. 44a. 114e. 116a. 147a; Tus- 
cany ceded to, 22b; ceded to Fr., 99b; 
insurr. (1831), 116b: union with Pied- 
mont. 25b. 116c. 
•^, Duke of (A. Farnese) . gov. of Neth.; 
besieges Antwerp; ^captures it, 18b; 
(Ferdinand) . son to be ruler of Kdm. 
of Etruria, 99b. 
Parmenio. put to death. 8d. 
Parnell.C.S.. Home Rule Federation; 
Irish Land League, 56d; imprisoned; 
released, 56e; supports Land Purchase 
Act; supports Home Rule Bill ( 1886) . 
56f ; accused of complicity in violence; 
exonerated. 57a; charges of immoraU 
ity against: dies. 57b. 
Parr. Catherine, Henry VHI. marries. 

17c. 
Parral. 12Sa. 
Parramatta. 75f. 

Parsis. m India. 63b; in Persia, 132d. 
Parthenon, completed. Sa. 
Partbenopean Republic, created, 

22a. 116b; expires. 22a. 
Parthia (Parthians). Ale.\anderin.8d: 
emp. fnd.. 9a; conq. Babylon; Antio- 
chus Vll. invades. 9d: defeats Cras- 
sus, 9f; peace with Rome, lOa; Ard- 
shir 1. o\erthrows: Syria invaded; 
Trajan annexes. 10c. 
Parthian Empire. 132b. 
Paschal II., Pope, arrested by Henry 

V. of Ger.. 13b. 
Pashe dynasty=4th Babylonian. 6f. 
Pashic. premier of Serbia. 121c8rf. 
122a. 122d:prem.of Jugo-Slavia.l21c- 
Paskevich. Gen. Ivan F.. enters Adri- 
anople, 140d; leads Rus. troops in 
Hungary. 140e. 
Passamaquoddy Bay. bound., 183a. 



Pasaaro. Cape, battle off. 9Sa. 
Passarowitz ( Pozarevac ) Treaty. 
(Peace) of. 20e. 43e, 122f. 139f, 152e. 
Passau. Treaty of. I7d- 
Passchendaele. attacked, 35e. 
Passenger Cases. Supreme Court de- 
cision (1849). 173c. 
"Passive Revolution. * 'Korea, 120f. 
Passports, .^mer., Russia refuses to 

recogniz.-. 183e; frauds. 186c 
Pasteur's serum, 25f. 
Pastry War. Mexico, 126c. 
Patagonia, boundary dispute. 41b. 
Paterson, fnds, Darien. 20b; Darien 
Scheme. 82b- See Darien. Darien 
ScheTne- 
^, N. J., silk weavers" strike, 184d; 

statistics. 220. 
Pathfinder, Brit, cruiser, sunk, 32e, 
"Pathfinder," (J.C.Fremont). 161a. 
"Patrician ' ' = Odoacer. 
Patricia of Connaught. Princess, mar- 

rK-s. 61b. 
Patriotic Fund, Canadian. 72f. 
"Patrons of Husbandry," organ- 
ized. 164a. 
Paul, Saint, at Rome;martyTdom, 10b. 
See also Saul of Tarsus. 

— XII.. Pope, 17c. 

^I..of Russia. czar: conspiracy against; 

assassinated. 22b, 137c. 140c 
Paul, Rojas. See Rojas Paul. 
"Paul et Virginie," 65e. 
Pausanias. assassinates Philip. 8d. 
Pavia, Francis I. defeated at. 17a. 

— y Albuquerque. Manuel, coup 
d'i'tal, 147d. 

Pavlov. Gen. Vladimir, assas.. I41f. 

Pawtucket. R. I.. 1st cotton factory, 
160a. 

Payer, von. Julius, disc Franz Josef 
Land. 44f. 

Payne. J B.. sec of the interior, suc- 
ceeds Lane. 194e. 

Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, 165a. 182f. 
218c 

Peace. Palace of. 26f. 130c; Perpetual. 
Fr. with Switz. (1515). 16f. 

— Conference (1919). See Paris Peace 
Conference. 

^Congress. International. Bern(lSS4), 
150d;(1892). 150e;TheHague(lS99). 
26c. 14lb: (1907), 26d, 130c; ISth 
Universal. Stockholm (1910). 149b. 
See under place of meeting. See also 
Treaty. 

—Convention. Washington (1861). 174c. 

^ Deniocrats="Cop7'erftcads." 

"Peace without victory" address, Wil- 
son's. 35b. 

Peach Tree Creek, battle of. 175f. 

Peacock. Hornet defeats. 159e, 170e: 
delcats "pervier. 170f. 

Pea Ridge, battle of, 174f. 

Pearl Harbor, 209d. 

Pearse, Padraic H.. shot. 59e. 

Peary. Adm. Robt.E.. (asLt,) proves 
Greenland an isl.. 91f, reaches "far- 
thest north" (1906), 182a; disc. No. 
Pole. 26e. 182f. 

Peasants, revolt. Eng.; Fr.. I5a. 

Peasants* War, Ger.. I7a. 

Pe^anha, pres. of Brazil. 50a, 

Pedraza, Gomez, pres. of Mex.; driven 
out; Santa Anna aids. 126b; installed 
pres., 126c. 

Pedro III., of Aragon. king of Sicily. 
14c 

^ I. (Dom), of Brazil, regent. 49b&e. 
135a; proclaims independ. of Braz.. 
49e: emp., 49b&e. 135a; succeeds John 
\T. of Port.. 135e; abdicates (Port.). 
49f. 135e: abdicates (Brazil). 49b&f: 
returns to Port., 49f, 135f. 

— II, (Dom), of Brazil, emp. under re- 
gent; assumes crown; reign of, 49bSfi; 
visits U. S,. 49f: overthrown & sent to 
Port.. 49b&f. 

— II.. of Port., deposed. 19e. 

— v., of Port., king; dies. 135f. 
Peel, Sir Robert, home sec. (1821); 

criminal law reforms; home sec. 
(1828). 55a: supports Cath. Emanci- 
pation Act. 55b; prime min.; resigns. 
55c: again prime min. (1841); reduces 
tariff duties. 55d: repeal of corn laws; 
Irish relief. 55e. 

Peerage, abol. in Fr.. 100a. 

Pegasus. Brit, cruiser, sunt by KQ- 
niosberg. 32e. 

Pegu, annexed by Gr. Brit., 64c. 

Peb-tang. treaty with U. S.. 85d. 

Pei River, forts captured. 85d. 

Peiwar Pass, battle at. 64d. 

PeixotO. Floriana. pres. of Brazil; re- 
volt against: crushed. 49f. 

Pekab, reigns; deposed. 7b. 

Peking, captured & burnt. 14a; seat of 
govt.. 14c; Eng. & Fr. occupy, S4a. 
85e: "Conventions of," 85e;Treaty of. 
with Rus.. 140f; Christians murdered, 
86b; relief exped., 84c. 86c; palace 
looted, S4c; L'niv. of. opens. 86d; new 
opium agreement signed; Nat. Assem- 
bly meets, 86e; 1st pari. at. S4d, S7a. 

Pelagians. St. Augustine and. lOf, 

Pel§e. M.:.nt. eruptions. 97b. 

PelevF Islands. 105d; Japan captures: 
a-f^igned tij Japan, 105c. 

Pelbam, Henry, prime minister, 53d, 

Pelican, .irous defeats, 170f. 

— State, 20lb. 

Pelissier. Marshal, succeeds Canro- 

bert. 140f. 
Pellegrrini. Carlos, pres.. 41b. 
Pelopidas. Theban leader. 8b: exped. 

into Thessaly & Macedonia; invades 

Thessaly; slain. 8c. 
Peloponnesian War. begins. 8a: ends. 

Sb, m Gr. chronology. 6b. 
Peloponnesus, Epaminondas in, 8c. 
Pemba, 65e- 

Pembina, X. D-. settled. 220. 
Pena, Pedro, pres. of Paraguay. 132a. 
Penal colonies. See Transportation. 
Penang.65d;ceded to E.India Co. ,54b. 
Pezia y Pefia, Manuel de la. acting 

pres. of Mex.. 126e. 
Pendleton. G. H., v. pres. vote. 175f. 
Penguin, sinks the Hornet, 171a. 
Peninsular campaign (Civil War), 

I74f. 

— State. 203e. 

— War (180S-12) . 22e. 54e, 145e. 147b. 
"Peninsulars." 125b. 

Penn, Adm. (Sir William), seizes Ja- 
maica, 74b. 



— , William, gets charter for Pa.. 167f, 
195b&d: settlement begun. 157e.I95d- 
Phila. fnd., I67f. 220; Del.. 195aS:b.' 
167f; grants new plan of govt.; gets 
N. J.. 195e; Del. separate colony un- 
der. 195b. 

Penna. A, A. M.. pres, of Brazil. 50a. 

Pennington. Wm.. Speaker. 174b- 

Pennsylvania. hist, outline. 195b; 
stanstics. 220. area, 221. Chronology, 
195d, — Other refs.: granted to Penn., 
167f; colony fnd., 157e. 167f; Phila. 
fnd., 167f; races among settlers, 157f: 
Del. united with. 167f. 195b: Ger. 
emigration to. 105e; Del. separate col- 
ony. 16Sa: dispute with Md. over 
bound . iy7c&d: gradual emancipa- 
tion. 169b; ratifies Constitution, I69d: 
R. R. riots (1S77). 177f; coal strike 
(1902). ISlb; contractors for State 
Capitol convicted. 183c; Primary Act; 
public service com.. I84f: "health 
marriage" law, 184f&185a; Austro- 
Hungarians warned. I87c. 

^ R. R. Station, N. Y. City, opened, 
lS3b. 

— . Univ. of. fnd.. 168c. 195d. 

^ V. Wheeling Bridge Co.. Supr. Court 
decision. I73d. 

Penruddock. leads uprising. 52a. 

Pensacola. surr,. 169b. 

— Telegraph Co. p. Western Union Tel. 
Co.. Supr. Court decision. 177f. 

Pension Act. U. S. (1890). 179a- 
Pensions, new ministry for, Eng.. 60a; 

Old Age. inFr.. lOle; in U.S. .Arrears 

Act, 178a: Mex. War Pension Act; 

Cleveland vetoes bills: Pension Bill 

(1887). 178d: graduated age, 182b; 

grad. Service Pension Act (1912). 

184a; "widowed mothers'," 185b. 
Pentapolis. Pope Stephen 11., 12b, 
Penthidvre, Jeanne de. wars with 

John ol M^ntfort. 14f. 
Pentland Hills, battle of. 52c. 
Peonage Act. U. S.. 176d. 
People's charter, first published. 55c. 

— party, organized, platform & hist.. 
164a; succeeds Greenback party. 163f; 
in 1892 election. 179c; in Idaho. 207d: 
in Kans..205e; Nebr.. 206b; No. Car.. 
199d: Wyo., 207f; nominates Bryan 
(1896). 164b. 

Peoria, 111., statistics. 220, 
Pepi I., era of. 6d. 
Pepin the Short, dethrones Childeric 
III.; estab. new dyn.; conq. Aistulf; 
fnds. Papal States; dies. 12b. 
Pequot War. 15Sb. 167e. 
Perak. 65c; Bnt. treaty with. 56d- 
Perceval. George, prime minister; as- 
sas.. fi4e. 
Percys. Henry IV. overcomes. 15b. 
Perdicaris, Ion. 128eSd- 
Perdiccas U., of Macedonia, reigns, 

7f; killed. 8a. 
^ III., reigns, Sc, 
^, Gen., regent, 8d; dies. 8e. 
Perdido nver. W. Florida, 170e. 
Pereira ministry, formed; forced out. 

136b. 
Perekop. Dolgoruki attacks, 140b. 
P6rez, J. J., pres. of Chile. 83c. 
— , pres. of Peru; peace with Sp.; over- 
thrown. 133d. 
Pergamum, Attalus I. 9a; Eumenes 
II., 9b; Attains II.. 9c. Attalus III. 
bequeaths to Rome. 9d. 
Periander. tyrant at Corinth. 7d. 
Pericles, in power. 6a. 7f; dies. 8a. 
Perier, Casimir (1831). premier. lOOa. 
Perim. 62b: Brit, occupy, 112d. 
Perlis, 65c 

Pemambuco. Dutch take. 49a&e3 
surr.. 49e; Karlaj^he destroyed near. 
32e. 
Pfironne, in battle of the Somme 
(1916). 28f. 34c&d; Ger- take (1918). 
30a; Allies Uke. 36e. 
Perovski, Gen. Basil A., embassy to 

Khiva, 140e. 
Perry, Commodore M, C. exped. to 
Japan. USb. 119d: treaty. 119d, 173e. 
— , Commodore O. H., victory, 170f; 

centennial. lS5a. 
Perryville. Ky.. battle of , 175b. 
Persepolis. 8d. 

Perseus, rules; defeated at Pydna, 9c. 
Pershing. Gen. John J., leads Amer. 
expedition into Mex.. 125e. 128a&b, 
18Sa; arrives in France. 35c, 189f; to 
receive supplies from Sp.. 191b:place3 
Amer. forces at disposal of Foch. 30a; 
Saint-Mihiel advance. 30d. 36f; report 
on number of troops in Europe, 192a; 
becomes permanent general, 193b; 
welcomed in N. Y., 193bS:c; resolu- 
tion of thanks. 193d, 
Persia, hist, outline. 132b: organiza- 
tion; govt.; relig.: educa.; indus. & 
labor; defense. 132d; area & pop., 
132e; recent statistics, 222; map. 64. 
Chronology. 132e. — Other refs.: 
Before 1648; see Aneient Period. 
Medieiml Period; Phraortes conq.. 
7d; Cyrus king (see Cyrus); Camby- 
ses; Darius L; Ionian Gr. revolt; de- 
stroys Miletus. 7e: defeated at Mar- 
athon; Xerxes I, (see Xerxes I); ex- 
ped. against Greece: loses at MycaleSc 
Plataea; Artaxerxes I.; peace with 
.Athens. 7f; Artajterxes dies; Xerxe* 
II.: Sogdianus; Darius II. (Nothus). 
Sa; Cyrus commander in Asia Minor; 
Artaxerxes 11.; Cyrus the younger 
killed: fleet defeats Spartans; peace 
with Greece. Sb; Artaxerxes III.. 8c; 
Darius III.; conquest by Alexander, 
8d : Ardshir (Artaxerxes ) I . ; fnds. 
Sassanian Emp., 10c; Sapor 1.; Sapor 
wages war against Romans; Cams in- 
vades: Narses; peace with Diocletian; 
Sapor II.. lOd: war with Romans 
(337); Christians persecuted; Jovian 
restores provinces: Sapor annexes Ar- 
menia: war with Rome (365^71); 
treaty with Rome. lOe: Bahram V.; 
peace with Romans (422); religioui 
freedom to Christians; Armenia united 
with. lOf; Chosroes I -;empire divided: 
Chosroes I. invades Syria, llf; Chos- 
roes II. wars against Byzantine emp-; 
Heraclius' campaign; Heraclius de- 
feats Chosroes II. at Nineveh: Caliph 
Omar victorious at Cadesia; passes 
under sway of Islam. 12a; rule of Sel- 
juks estab . ; Seljukiaa Turkomans 



246 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



U 



W 



masters. 13f; contends for Armenia, 
4U-; Abbaa the Great, I8d; gams part 
of Armenia. 41e. 

Fr9m 1648: Nadir Shah, 20f: w-ars 
wiLhRus.(1804-lJ).l40cS!d;(182S-2S). 
140d; cedes Armenian provs. to Rus., 
41e; war with Eng. in Afghanistan, 
5ic'- bound, with Baluchistan. 65c; 
railroads from Turkey, 125a: spheres 
delimited (1907). SSa; resumes dipl. 
relatio:49 with Greece, UOd; & Turk, 
settle boundary dispute, 153f; Gcr. & 
Rus. agree on, HSa; Turks invade 
(1914): withdraw, 33e; Kermanshah 
taken by Russians. 34f; recaptured by 
Turks. 35a; Rus. retire from. 37c; & 
Azerbaijaa, 46d. 

Persia, Brit .steamship, torpedoed, 33b, 
lS7e&f. 

Persian dyruisty in Egypt. 7c. 

— Gulf, railways to; Brit, ascendancy 
in. 125a. 

Perth. West Australia, fnd., 75e. 

Pertinax, emp-, 10c. 

Peru, hist, outline. 133a: organization; 
\ govt.. 133b; educa. St religion: indus. 
St labor: area & pop.. 133c: recent 
BUti3tics,322; map. 64; llama porters, 
illust., 116. Clironology, 133c.— 
Other refs.: Incas of, 48d; Pizarro 
conq., 17b: Quito dependency of,92d; 
Colombia in viceroyalty. 87f: Asun- 
ci6n in, 131f; Buenos Aires in, 401; 
San Martin frees. 40d: joins Bolivia 
inwarwithChile(lS36).83a; (1879). 
48d,83a&c; alliance with Chile against 
Sp , 83a; treaty with Chile, 83c&d; 
bound, dispute with Brazil, 49f; 
treaty, 50a; bound, dispute with Bo- 
livia. 41b: severs dipl. relations with 
Ger.. 35d, 3Sf; Tacna-Arica contro- 
versy, 83e. 

Pesaro, Cesare Borgia gains. 16e. 

Pescadores.cedcd to Japan, 118a. 120ft. 

Pessoa, Epitacio, prcs.-eltct of Brazil, 
visits U. S., 50a, 193a; inaug., 50a. 

Pfetaln. Henri Philippe. Fr. comman- 
der, 34c; succeeds Nivelle, 35c. 102c: 
restores lines before Verdun, 35e. 

Peter I., of Montenegro, dies. 123b. 

— I. (the Great) . of Russia, born; joint 
ruler with Ivan: marries; conspiracy 
of Slretui, 139f;3ole sovereign, 20a8:b, 
139f- wzr against Turks, 139f; visits 
Hol.SiEng.. 20b. 139f; defeated at 
Narva. 139f. HOf; fnds. St. Peters- 
burg 20c&d, 139f; Poltava. 20d.l39f, 
148f: Peace of the Pruth. 20d, 139f: 
loses Azov, 139r. 152e: marries Catli- 
erinc: visits Versailles; son Alexia 
dies, 139f; & Baltic Provinces, H3f; 
assumes title "Czar of all the Rus- 
sias." 20eSJ; war against Persia: an- 
nexes ter. in Caucasus. 140a: dies; 
succeeded by Catherine, 20f. 140a; his 
reign, 137b&c. 

— II.. of Rus., czar, 20f; reigns, I40a. 
^III., of Rus.. czar; supports Fred- 
erick the Great, 21b. 140a;assa3.. 140a. 

— I., of Serbia (Kjirageorgevich), de- 
clared king. I21f. 122c; restores radi- 
cal constitution. 122c; returns, 122d. 

^ the Hermit. 13b. 

— Karageorgevich-Pefcr I. of 
Serbia. 

Leopold of T uscany =I.eopoi<i //. 

of Ger. 

Petermann Peak. 91f. 

Petersburg, Va.. Lee at, 161f, 198d; 
battles before (June. 1864), 175e: 
Crater (July, lc64), 175f: Five Forks 
(April, 1865); evacuated. 176a. 

Peterson, convicted of violating Es- 
pionage Act. 191b. 

Peterwardein, battle of, I32e. 

P6tion. in Haiti. Ulc. 

Petition of Rights, I9a. 

Petit V. Minn.. Supr. Court decision, 
ISOe. 

Petrarch. It. poet, bom, Hd. 

Petrograd (see Saint Petereburo). 
137b: name of St. Petersburg by im- 
perial decree:under martial law. 142b: 
food riots (1917), 142f; Esthoman 
drive on. 93b; disorders. 142d; out- 
breaks of anarchists. 142c: Kornilov 
marches on: Democratic congress. 
142f: Ger. move on. 36c; congress of 
•vDviets, 143a: threatened by Finns & 
Esthoniana (1919). 143d; Yudenich 
approaches, 143e. 

Petroleum* beginning of industry, 
2.ib. 174b; in Texas, 204b. 

Petrolite, Am. steamer, submarine 
attack protested. ISSc. 

Pharnaoes. defeated at Zela, 9f. 

Pharos, the. iHust.. 96. 

Pharsalia, battle of, 9f. 

Phaya Chappri, Gen., 144e; dyn„ 
144£. 

PhertB, 8c. 

Philadelphia, fnd.. 167f. 220; 1st 
Continental Congress; 2nd, l6Sf; in 
early hist, of U. S., I95c; Bnt. Uke 
(1777). 158f, 169a; evacuated. 169a. 
Fed. convention meets at. 169d; tem- 
porary capital. 169e; exposition (1870), 
25e:centenary of framing constitution. 
17Se: contest bet. mayor t poht.cal 
ring (1905), 181c: Navy Dept. Ukea 
control of police. 191b; Independence 
Hall, illust., 212; statist ica._ 220. 

— , U. S. frigate, destroyed. 170b. 

^ & Southern Steamship Co. v. Penn- 
sylvania. Supr. Court decision. 178e. 

— Taaebtalt, editors sentenced for dis- 
loyalty. 192a. 

Philip of Anjou. See Philip V. of Sp. 
^ of Burgundy (the Bold), Duke, ac- 
quires Flanders, 15b. 

— I., of Castile, dies. 16c. 

^ II., Augustus, of Fr., joins crusad- 
ers: retires; & John of Eng.: Richard 
against. 13e: gains Eng. posses, in Fr., 
13f; defeats Otto IV St John, 14a 

— HI., of Fr.. king. 14c. 

— IV., of Fr. (the Fair), 1st SUtcs- 
General; defeated at Courtrai. dis- 
putes with Boniface VIII,. I4d. 

— VI., of Fr.. (Philip of Valois). king, 
14e; defeated at Cr6ry. 14f. 

^11 ., of Macedonia(Macedon), reigns; 
army reforms; defeats Paeonians & II- 
lyrians. seizes Ampbipolis & Pydna; 
war with Athens; seizes Potidjea; 
fads. Philippi; 1st "Philippic"; in 
Thrace; peace with .Athens; at Del* 



phi; lays waste Phocis; oveminfl 
Thrace. 8c: Athenians oppose advance 
against Byzantium; amphictyonic 
gen.; seizes E la tea; victory of Checro- 
nea; assas., Sd. 

^ HI., of Macedonia (.\rrhidccus), 
nominal king, Sd; p«t to death, Se, 

^ v., of Macedonia, reigns, 9a; .Eloli- 
ans; Hannibal: ..Etolia and Rome 
against; conspires with Antiochus of 
Syria; peace with Romans; defeated 
at Cynoacephalse. 9b. 

— of Orleans. Duke, regent for Louis 
XV.: dies. 98a. 

— of Parma, Duke. EezPhilip, Don, of 
Spain. 

— I.,of Sp. = PAifip/. of Castile. 

— II., of Sp.. marries Mary of Eng.; 
king of Naples & Sicily, 17d; sovereign 
of Neth.. l/d. 46e: king of Sp.. Wd; 
defeats Fr. at Saint-Quenlm; marries 
Elizabeth of Fr.; Margaret of Parma, 
17c: forbids Panama Canal plans, S2b; 
Don John of Aust.. 18a: subdues Port.. 
ISb. 134f; Catholic League. 18b; in- 
vincible Armada, ISc. 

^III., of Sp., expels Moriscoe. ISc. 

— IV., of Sp.. king; war with Neth., 
ISf; dies, 146d. 

^ v., of Sp. (Philip of Anjou) .Charles 
II. names as heir, 20c, 97e, 146e;Loui8 
XIV. supports, 20c; powers obj-'ct. 
97e; proclaimed king of Sp., 20c. 146c; 
crown restored to. 97f; powers sup- 
port, 97f. 146f; rccog. in Sp., 20d. 
145c, 116f; reign, 14fic: marries, 116a, 
146f; invades Sardinia. UCa; dis- 
misses Alberoni; abdicates; resumes 
sovereignty; dies, 146f. 

— Don, of Sp., gets Parma, Piacenza & 
Guastalla. 21b. 114e. 147a. 

^ of Svv-abia, Duke, chosen emp.; victo- 
rious, 13e; murdered, 13f. 

— of Valois = Philip VI. of Fr. 

— Augustus = /'Aihp //. of Fr. 
^ the Bold = PAi/tp of Burgundy. 

— theFair=P/a.'ip/y.of Fr. 
Philippe Egalit^ (Orleans), executed. 

98f. 

PhlLippi, fnd.. 8c; battle of, 10a. 
— . W. Va.. battle, lV4d. 

Philippic oration, 1st. Sc. 

Philippics, Cicero's. 10a. 

Philippine Islands, hist. outlinc.210e: 
organization; government: races; 
pop., 211a; educa., 211b: statistics, 
2203:222; map. 64. 104; native dwell- 
ing, illust.. 12S. Chronolor/. 2Uc. 
— Other refs.: Magellan reaches, 16f; 
trade with Acapulco, 126a; insurr. 
(1896). 147c; ceded to U. S., lG4d. 
180d, 217d; war against U. S., 104d, 
ISOd: U. S. commission reports. 180d; 
Civil Com. appointed; amnesty, 130;; 
Congress authorizes civil govt.. 150f; 
civil govt, estab.; events of 1901, ISla; 
Taft civil gov.. 21Sc: tariff rates with 
U. S.; Govt. Act (1902); general am- 
nesty, ISlb; cable to U. S. opened; 
gold standard adopted. ISlc; purchase 
of Friars' lands, lold; 1st bicameral 
legislature meets(190<'). lS2c; charges 
of slavery in. lS4e; Moro rebellion. 
lS4f; anti-slavery act, lS5b; Govt. 
Act (1916), ISSe: delegation from, at 
Washington. 192e. See also iUanifa. 

PhilippopoliB, battle near, 153c. 

Philistines, in Pahstim:. 6f; David 
vassal of: David defeats. 7a. 

Phillip, Arthur, begms settlement of 
Port Jackson. 75e. 

Philocrates, Peace of. 8c. 

Phocians. attack Delphi, 7f. 

Phocis. Philip devastates, 8c. 

Phoenicia, commercial relation with 
Egypt; occupied by Canaanites. 6d; 
devise alphabet, 7a: fifty oared boat, 
illust,, 96; bireme. illust.. 144. 

PhcBnix Park murders, 56e. 

Phonograph, invented, 2oc, 177e. 

Photius, ctcommun, the Pope, 12d. 

Phraortes , reigns in Media; conq. 
Persia & Armenia, Td. 

Phrygia. Greater, ruled by Mithri- 
dates VI., 9d. 

Piacenza, Charles of Sp. receives. 146f; 
AuEt. gets. 43l; battle of, UGa: Aust. 
seizes (1.46), 14;a: Don Philip of Sp. 
gets, 2lb. 44a. 114e, 116a, 147a; ap- 
portioned to Fr., fl9b. 

^, council at, 13a. 

Pianchi, conq. Egypt. 7b. 

Piast dyn. of Pol.. 133f; ends. 15a. 

Piave, line of. It. retreat to, 35f, 115a; 
It. cross (191S). 37b, 117e. 

Picardy. battle of, 30a. 36d; Allies at- 
tack. 36e; Ger. salient wiped out, 36f, 

Pichegru, Charles, invades Holland; 
invades Gar.. 96l. 

Pjchincha, Mount, battle of, 92d&c. 

Picquart. minister of war, lOld. 

PictB, invade Britain. lOe. 

Piedmont, under LoHis XIV,. 114e: 
joined with Sardinia as tndepend. 
kdm. (1720), ll4e; Sardinia & other 
states join to form Italy (1860) , 1 16d: 
(for events in Piedmont bet. 1720 and 
1860. see Sardinia): land tenure in. 
115b; educa. in, 115d. See also Saroi/. 

Pierce, Franklin, life; chronology. 
215b; portrait. 212.— Other refs.: 
19Sb: elected pres., 173d; inaug. .173e. 

Pierola, dictator of Peru. 133d; civil 
war under; pres.. 133e. 

Pierpont, Gov. Francis H., "vest- 
pocket" govt., 19Sf. 

Piez. Charles, on Shipping Board, 190c. 

Piggott, Richard, forgeries, 57a. 

Pike, Z, M.. explorer, 170c; in Rocky 
Mts., 206c&d. 

Pilate. Pontius, in Judea, 10b. 

Pilgrimages to Rome, Fr. stops, lOOf . 

Pilgrim Fathers, at Plymouth, 18f, 
lo7d. 167d. 196c, 197b. 

Pilgrims, to Holy Land. Turks levy 
ta-x on. I3b. 

PiUnitz. Conference of, 21e&f. 106b; 
declaration of, 9Sd. 

Pilsudski, Joseph, leader of Pol.,134d. 
Sd; imprisoned m Gcr.; dictator, 134e; 
pres.. l34b- 

Pinchot. GifTord. chief forester, re- 
moved by Talt. lS2f ; congressional in- 
vestigation of controversy, 183a. 
Pinckney, C C-. 170b. 
Pindar. Greek poet. 7c. 
Pindaris, British subjugate, 64b. 



Pineda, explores Gulf Coast, 107b. 

Pines. Isle of. seeks annexation to U. 
S.. 89e. 

Pine-Tree State. 202e. 

Pingyang. captured. 86a, 118d, 120a. 

Pinkney, \Vm., 19(d, 213d. 

Pinto, Anibal. pres. of Chile. 83c. 

Pinzon. d:EC. ,\ma2on. IG/a; Braz. 
coast, 49a&:e;c;rcumnavig. Cuba, 89a. 

••Pioua fund" case, decided. ISlb. 

Pip3 Line Cases, Supr. Court de- 
cision. ISoe. 

PifEBUS, naval base created at, 7e; in- 
ternat. fleet at. 153f. 

Pirua, dyn.. 48d, 133a. 

Pisa, 114d; council of, 15b, 

Pisistratus, tyrant; dies. 7e. 

Pitcairn Island. 77t- 

Pitt, William, the Elder. Earl of Chat- 
ham, joins min.stry; dismissed by 
Newcastle, 53d; in Devonshire minis- 
try; dismissed by George 11.; in coali- 
tion ministry. 53e; reorganizes army 
& navy. 21b; builds up empire; insists 
on war with Spain; resigns. '53e; prime 
minister (1760); resigns. 53f; worla 
for conciliation to Am. colonies BlSSe. 

— >, William, the Younger, chan. of ex- 
chequer (17S2); bill for reform: op- 
poses India Bill; prcm., 54a: receives 
support of Commons(1784). 54b; l;i- 
dia Act. 54b. 63f; pari, reform bill; 
free trade with Ire.; regency bill, 54b; 
attitude toward Fr,, 54c: union of Gr. 
Brit, and Ire.; resigns, 54d; organizes 
2nd ministry (1S04): dies, 54p. 

Pittsburgh, Pa., settled. 16Sc; riots 
(1877). 162f, 177f; explosion near 
(191S). 19Ic; statistics, 220. 

Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 161d, 
174f. 

Pius II., Pope, 15d, 

— VI..Pope,2ld;flcc3toFr.:die3,116b. 

— VII., Pope. 22b; concordat with 
Bonaparte, 90b; crowns Bonaparte &: 
Josephine. 99c; excommunicates Bo- 
naparte, 99e; deposed, U6b; arrested 
& imprisoned in Fr., 99c. 

^ IX-, Pope; reforms: escapes from 
Rome, 116c; Fr. exped. to aid. lOOb; 
concordat with Francis Joseph, 44e; 
retains Vatican; dies. Il6d. 
^ X.. elected pope, 116f: issues encyc- 
lical against separation law in Fr., 
101c: enc>'clical instructing passive 
resistance; orders clergy not to make 
declarations. lOld; dies, 117c. 

Piutes, conflicts with, 186d. 

Piy Margall, pres. of executive. 147d. 

Pizarro, Francisco, conquest of Peru, 
133c, 48d; completes conquest, li'b; 
fnds, Lima, 133a; ctecutes Almagro; 
assas., 133c. 

— . Hernando, conq. Aymaras. 48dStf. 

Place Bill. Eng.. 53b. 

"Place in the Sun." 27b. 104a. 

Placentia, Ncwf.. French settle. 73e. 

Plague, in London. 19e, 52c. 

Plains of Abraham (Quebec) . battle 
of. 168d. 

Plantagenet, Geoffrey; {.\ngevin) 
dyn. fnd.. 13c. See Henry II.. iiich- 
ard I., John, Henri/ III., Edward 
I.. II., d- ///.. Richard II. 

Plassey, battle of. 21b, 63e, 96b. 

Plata, Rio de la. disc, 15ob; set., 40f. 

Platsea. battle of. 7f;Thebansattack, 8a. 

Plates, development of the merchant 
marine, 96; modes of travel. 116; hab- 
itations of mankind, 123; develop- 
ment of the World's nav>-, 144; aerial 
locomotion, 160; high buildings. 161; 
historic buildings, 212: portraits of 
the presidents. 212; British govt. 
buildings, 213. 

Plato, dies, Sc. 

Piatt Amendment, 88f, 89d. ISOf. 

Plattsburg(N.V.).War Dept. estab. 
camps at, 188c. 

Plauen explosion, lOSd. 

Plautius, Aulus. occupies Britain. 10b. 

Plaza, de la. Victorino. pres.. 41b. 

Pleasant Hills, La., battle of. 175e. 

Pleba, first secession. 7e. 

Plehve, Venceslas de. 137e; min. of in- 
terior. 141c; assas.. 141d. 

Pleiad of France, 17d. 

Plessy i>. Ferguson, Supr. Court de- 
cision. ISOa. 

Plevna, Osman Pasha wi js. I53b:evacu- 
ates. 153c: Russians take. 141a. 

Pliny, the Elder, dies, lOb. 

— , the Younger, proconsul in Bithynia. 
10b; flourishes. 10c. 

Plombidres (-les-Bains). agreement 
of (Cavour & Napoleon), 25a, 116c. 

Plumb plan. 133b. 

Plunkett, Sir Horace, pres. of Irish 
convention, 60c. 

Plutarch, lOb. 

Pluton, Sp. torpedo boat, illust., 144. 

Plymouth, Mass,, fnd., ISf, 157e. 
I67d, 19>. 197b. 220; colony in N.E, 
Confed.. 16<e. 

^ Company, charter. ISd, 167c; grant 
includes part of Canada, 70f; sends 
colony to Maine, 167c; succeeded by 
Council for N. E.. 167d. 

Pneumonia, epidemic (1918) in N. 
Y., 191f. 

Pobyedonostsev, K. P.. Procurator 
of Holy Synod. 141e. 

Pocahontas. 198c. 

Podolia, Poland receives. 151c; Rus. 
acquires. 140b. 

Pcincarfe, Raymomd. premier. 101c; 
pris-; visits Eng., lOlf; in Strassburg, 
102d. 

Poinsett, Joel R., 1st Amer. minister 
to M<^x,. 126b. 

Point Pleasant, battle of. 168f. 

Poitiers, battle of (607). Uf; (732), 
12b; (1356), 15a. 

Poitou. lost by King John, 13f. 

Pola, Aust. naval base, 32d. 43d: It. 
raid, 35b: .^uet. battleship sunk in, 
37d: Aust. dreadnought sunk. 37e. 

Poland (& Poles). See also Russia. 
Hist, outline. 133f;organization; govt.. 
134b; Indus. & labor; relig.; educa.; 
area, I34c, 221; pop., 134c. recent 
Btatistics, 222; map. IS, 38. 64. Chro- 
nology, 134c- — Other refs : Before 
164B; see Medieval Period, Earlu 
Modern Period: Miccislas king, 12e; 
acknow. suzerainty of Fred'k 1 .. 13d: 
Si. Ukraine in Utb cent- 139c3(d; alli- 



ance with Lith.. 144b: Casimir the 
Great dies; Louis the Great of Hung, 
king, 15a: personal union with Lith.. 
124b, 144b; Ladislas Jl,, 15b; gets 
Livon.a, l.e:un.t'.dw.thL.th.(1569j, 
ISa; crow.T elective: Henry of Anjou 
elected king: gives up crown; Stephen 
Bathori elected, 18a: Gustavus Adol- 
phus in, U.. After 1648; decline of, 
19d: Cossacks revoK against, 139c: 
%var with Rus. (165-1), 13-b, 139c: 
u-arwithSw.. lOd. 139e, HSc; Aust. 
aids, 139c; Treaty of Wehlau, 19d. 
139c: yields suzcraiiUy over Prus.. 
105c, lj9c; loses Uliraine. 139c: war 
with Turks, lOi; John Sobicski, 20a, 
139f: Peace of Zaravno, 19.'; defeats 
Turks, 4Jc: Augus.us U., 29b; recov- 
ers part of Ukraine, l"2c: in wcr 
against Sw- 91b, U9f, KCcSif; Poles 
& Saxons d::featcd, \iZl\ Vv'arsaw & 
Cracow occup.ed; Augustus II. d> 
throned, \jJl, 142>': LcszczynEl;i 
elected. 20J. 130f, HCf; Fcace of Al- 
transtldt: Aug. II. renounces throne. 
20d: Success m war. 20.", 140a: Au- 
gustus III.. 201, 91a: Stanislas Ponia- 
towski, 21c; Confed. of Bar. 140b: 
partitions of. l^ic, \tih: 1st parti- 
tion. 21c. 4:d. 44a, 105a, liOb; 2nd 
partition, 2i;. 4:d. 44b. lOob, I'-Ob: 
revolt under llosciusko, 21i, I'lOc; 3rd 
partition. 2li, 4 lb. 105b, l-;Oc: tcr. 
ceded to Prus. (1315), lOCc; granted 
autonomy; revolution (1830); becomes 
part of Rus.: i.isurr. (1846) . UOd: re- 
bellion in Poscn, 23b, 1-lOc; rising 
(1833), 2:d, U4d, 140f: Germanizing 
of Prus. territories in, 107b; granted 
concess.ons by Rus. (1905) . 141b; 
Aust. invade, 32b: Rus. proclaims 
autonomy of, 14i!!b; Aust. retreats 
from. 32b: local sclc-govt.; commis- 
sion for autonomy, llJc; laid waste 
(1915).2Sb.33c;nc^vkd:^^. proclaimed 
103b; Rus.surr., 3Cc. IJSb. 143b;Ger 
proclaims autonomous; attempts to 
check Bolsliev.k power, 13Sc: Ger. 
councils proclaim union with; Ger. 
puts Posen under martial law, 109a; 
in Wilson's 11 points, lOOf; recog- 
nized, 31b; advance in Lith.. I24c: 
guarantees riciits of racial minorities, 
3Sa; sends delegates to Yurcv confer- 
ence, 124c:war with Bolsheviki(l920). 
H3f; number of Poles in Aust., 42(. 

PoUgrnac, premier of Fr., lOOi. 

"Polisli State," proclaimed; project 
dropped, 134d. 

— Succession War. 20f, 98a, 105f. 140a: 
Treaty of Vienna ends. 43c, I05f. 

Political partes, in U. S.. begin to 

emerge {\i'J~), 169e. 
Polk, F. L-. proclaims ratification of 

ISth Amendment, 192d. 
^, James Knox, life, 214e; portrait, 212; 

chronology. 211i. — Other refs.: pres. 

vote, l/2f; inaugurated, li-'i; pres., 

160c: massage on war with Mex..li'3a. 
Pollock, Gen., forces Khybcr Pass,39c. 
^ V. Farmers' Law & Trust Co., Supr. 

Court decision, 179f. 
Polo, Marco, visits China, 83f. 
Polonium, disc. 26b. 
Poltava, battle of, 20J, 139f. I48f. 
Polybius. historian. 9c. 
Poiycarp, martyrdom of, lOc. 
Polycrates, tyrant. 7e. 
Polygam.y, ant. polygamy act. 178e: 

prohibited by const.t. of Utah, 180a. 

20Saib. 
Polynesians, Christianized. 210c. 
Pombal. Marquis of. 135aS:e. 
Pomerania, western part ceded to Sw. 

(1648), 14ScS:e: restored to Sw. (after 

conquest by Fred'k Wm.), 19f; Sw. 

yields most of to Prus. (1720). 1461; 

Sw. gets Swedish P.. 149a: coded to 

Den. by Sw. (1S14). 91c. 149a; Prus. 

gets. 24a. 91c. 105c. 
Pommorn. cruiser, torpedoed, 34a. 
Pompeii, destroyed. 10b. 
Pompeius, Septus. lOa. 

— Magnus. See Pampey. 
Pompay, campaign in Spain; consul 

with Crassus,9e:Gabinian law:against 
Mithridaits; conq. Syria; taiCus Je- 
rusalem, 1st triumv.rate; sole consul, 
attacks Cajsar; leads senatorial party; 
conq. atPharsalia; followers defeated; 
sons conquered, 9f, 

Ponce, P. R., surr.. ISOd. 

^dJ L;6n, in Porto Rico, 21ld: disc. 
Florida. 157c. 107b, 203c. 

Pond, Eng. explorer in Canada, 7lc. 

Pondicherry. Fr. estab. in; center of 
Fr. activity in India, 63e; surr. to Gr. 
Brit.. 53c: restored, 53e, 9Sb; Br.t. 
again take. 63f. restored. 64a. 

Pontiac's War, or Conspiracy, 16Sd, 
203c. 

PontUS, Mithridates VI., reigns, 9d. 

Poor Law (Eng., 1S34). 55c; for Ire- 
land, 55d. 

Pop?. Age of. 20c. 

^. Gen. John, takes IslandNo. 10.174f: 
defeated. l/5a;at biill Ru.i, 1/56; de- 
feated at 2nd bat. of Bull Run. I61d. 

Pope's peace message (1917), ll7e. 

Popham, *jeorge. hiaiiie colony, 107c 

Popisa Plot (see in/)w(.). 19f, 52d. 

Popular sovereignty (see in Diet.), 
16la, i;4aib. 

PopLllatijn, of any country, see Ar^a 
& pop., following hist, outline of that 
country; for various countries, esp. 
Eng. & U. S.. see also Census (in in- 
dex): statistics, various countries. 
220. 222: U. S.. growth of. 160a. 162e. 

Populists. Sd People's parfi/. 

Porcupine region, gold disc. in. 72d. 

Porflristas. 127b 

Porras, Belisario, pres. of Panama 
(twice). S2e. 

Port Arthur. Jap. takes. S4a, 86*, 
llSd, 120a: Jap. forced to relinq., 
84a, Sfla, 120a: Russia gets (leases), 
84b, 86b, USe, 137e. 141b: Jap. at- 
tacks Rus fleet near, 120b; siege of 
begins. 120b; Jap. recaptures, 84c, 
118e, 120b; lease trans, to Jap.. USf; 
court-martial on defense, 141f; opened 
to all nations, 120d; lease to Jap. ex- 
tended. 87b. 

Port-au-Prince, Caperlon lands 
Amer. marines at. Hid, 112a; Caper- 
ton decl. martial law, 112a, 



Porte, or Sublime Porte, the. See 

Turkry. 

Port Gibson, battle of. 175c. 

— Hudson, La., assault on; siege; 
surrenders. W5c. 

^Jackson, disc, 74f; settlement. 75e. 

Portland. Me., 282e. 

^, Ore.. Lewis and Clark Exposition, 

ISlf: statistics, 220. 
— , Duke of, coalition ministry (1783), 

54a: prime min. (1807); resigns, 54e. 

— Bay. settlement. 55e. 

Porto BcUo. Columbus visits. 87f: be- 
comes Atlantic port of transisthmian 
route; sacked, 82b; Vern«n cap., 53d. 
140f. 

— Rico, hist, outline. 211d; educ; 
area Zt pop.. 2Ue; statistics, 220. 222: 
map. 194. Chronology, 21le. — 
Other refs. :disc..l6d: hurricane, ISOd: 
Cen.M.les invades. 164c. ISOd; ceded 
to U. S., 134d. ISOd. 74a, 217d: act 
for civil govt., ISOf; mil. dept. discon- 
tinued; Insular Cases define status; j 
comes within U. S, customs area. 
180f, ISla; U. S. Court decides in- ' 
habitants not aliens, I81d; Pres. 
Roosevelt visits, lS2a; residents ad- 
mitted to citizenship, lS9d. 

Port Phillip, Australia, penal colony, 

75d. 
^Republic, battle of, 175a. 

— Royal, Jamaica. 74c. 

— Royal, Nova Scotia {.'Acadia). Fr. 
post estab. at, 15/d; settled. 70f,167c: 
settlement destroyed, 70f: taken 
(1629), 7la; Eng. takes (1690). 70c. 
71a, 15Sb. 16Sa, 196f: restored. 71a. 
15Sb; Eng. again capt. (1710). 71a: 
renamed (-\nnapolis). 16Sb- See also 
Acadia, Annapolis, NovaScotia. 

— Royal, S. C, Ribault's colony. Fr. 
settlement. lC7b, 197e: capt. (1861), 
174e. 

Portsmouth, N. H,. settled. 220. 

— , R, I., fnd., 199f. 

— , Treaty of. U.-^f. 120c, 181f. 

Port Sudan. 68f. 

Portugal, h.st. outline, 131f: organi- 
zation; govt.; Indus. & labor. 135b; 
relig.; educa.; defense, 135c: area. 
135d, 221; pop., 135d: possess, in 
Africa St Asia. 135d; recent statistics. 
222; map. U, 33. 64. Chronology. 
13je. — Other refs.; in age of discov- 
ery, 157b; Madeira Islands reached. 
15c; begins importation of slaves fr. 
Africa (1444), 15d; mouth of Congo 
River discovered by Pg., 48c; in 
Abyssinia. 39b; expl. & colonizes Bra- 
zil, 49a,b&e: loses Braz, I, 49b&e; 
trade with India, 62e&f: settlements 
in India, C3d; settlements in Ceylon, 
C2d; Madagascar d.sc. 16e: 1st Euro- 
peans to v.s.t Jap.. 119c; Philip II, 
subdues: annexed to Sp., ISb. claims 
Uruguay, 155b: Japan expels Pg .119c; 
regains freedom. John IV. king, 19b: 
driven from Ceylon, i.edes Bombay to 
Eng.. G3e; revolt in Lisbon; Pedro II. 
deposed, lOe; independ.. 135e; ex- 
pelled from Morccco. 12Sf. occupied 
by Fr.; King (lees to Brazil. 22d. Fr. 
pushed back in. 22e; outbreak in 
(1S20), 2:c; treaty dehmiting Pg & 
Br.t. spiur.s 1.1 Sa. Africa. 67a: treaty 
with Eng. ov:ir Africa, 57b. Republic of 
North;:rn Portugal proclaimed, 136a: 
authorizes m.Ltary intervention, 31f: 
seizes Ger. v^^sssls, 34a; Ger. declares 
war on (1910), 34a, lOSa. enters 
World War. 38c; cost in raen. 36f. 

Portuga.sj East Afr:ca, bound, with 
So. Air-can Republic. 67a: with 
Rhodesia, Natal St Nyasaland. 67b; 
rebellion. 135f. Map, 64. 

— West Africa, 13frd; map. 64. 
Portus Galorum, 1341", 
Poru3. AI xandcr conq., 8d. 
Posada H.rrera. Jos^ de. premier. 

14/d; supplanted, 147e. 

PoS2n, rebellion in, 140e: Ru=, front 
(I9U). 2,e: strife bet. Ger & Poles 
in. IJie: Poles gam ascendancy in; 
under martial law, 109a; Ger. cedes 
to Poland. 134c. 

Postag ;, penny in Eng., 55d; penny in 
Brit.Emp..57d: penny (two-cent) bet. 
U.S. 5; Eng.. 58b, 182e: U.S. reduced 
(1851). i;3d; reduced (1883). 178b: 
letter & 2nd class reduced (1685), 
17Sc. 

Postal Savings Bank Act, 183b. 

■^ system, internat. estab., 25e. 

^ Union, Jap. joins, 119e. 

Postmaster-gentral, office created, 
169e; becomes member of cabinet, 
171l; in charg; of telephone & tele- 
graph (19181. 19ld; in control of ca- 
ble lines, 191f, 

Post office, 1st in Amer, colonies. 
IJSb; general, estab. in Japan, 119d; 
U. S.. rural free deliv. estab-. 180a. 

Po3t-offlc3 department, U. S . deficit. 
17ic. ra.ds gel-rich-quick investment 
compan.es, 183c. 

Potidaea. revolts from Athens; sub* 
dued. Sa; Philip seizes. 8c. 

Potomac, Confederates retreat across* 
175c 

— . Army of the, 161d&;e. 

"Potsdam agreement," 125a. 

Pow_ll V. Pennsylvania. Supr. Court 
decision. 178e. 

Powers, the, or the Great Powers (in 
modern d.plomacy before 1915. Gr. 
Brit., Fr,. Ger., Aust . Rus., & It.). 
See the various countries incl. under 
this term; also. Allies (Entente) . 
Cntcntr, and cf. Central Powers, 
Triple Alliance (1882). 

Poyningi's law, 54a. 

Pozarevac. See Passarowitz. 

Pozidres. Brit. take. 34d. 

Prado, Mariano.dictatorof Peru;prea., 
133J; flees, I33e. 

Preetor. office created. 8c. 

Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI , 
issued, 20c; proclaimed: Austria & 
Spain support: Gt. Brit., Fr. 8c Prus. 
oppose, i05f; Fr. guarantees: Fr. op- 
poses. 98a; acknowledged by Elector 
of Bavaria, 21a. 

Prague, Hussites, 15c; taken (1741). 
43f; Belle-Isle withdraws. 98a: Pan- 
slavic congress in:insurrection,(1848). 
14d; occupied (1866), 106£; oatbreaka 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



247 



in (1893), 45a: convention (1918): 
occupied: general atrilce, 90d; martial 
law in. 46a. 90d. 

Prague, battle (1757), 44a. 

^, ConBr<_-s9 of. 22f. 

*-. Peace of (1635), 19a: (1866), 42e. 
44f. 106f. 

Prairie Grove, Ark., battle, 175b. 

^ State. 20Sa. 

Praschak. demands separation of Aus- 
tria from Germany. 45f. 

Preferential Tariff Act, Canada. 72c. 

Premiers, Council of, 3Sb. 

Presbyterian Church, estab. ag 
Church of Scot,. 18c; Pari, supports, 
53a; disrupted. 55e: United, becomea 
part of United Free Church. 57d. 

— General Assembly, U. S.. ISlb. 
Presbyterians. Eng.. unite w.th Scots 

against Cromwell: defeated: members 
driven from House of Commons. 50b. 

Presidjnt, U. S., powers of, 159b; 
6UCcc33ion. 178c: salary incr.. l_82e. 

^, the. V. S. fncate. captured. 1713. 

Presidantialcleciions. See EUctvona. 
Presidencial. 

^ Succession Act, 178c. 

Presidents of V. S., 212-219. 

Presaburgr. Diet of. 42d. 

— , Peace of. 22c&d, 42d, 44c, 99c. 

Presse de Pans. La. 102c. 

Pretsnd^r. the Old. See James Ed- 
ward. Pretender. 

— , the Young. See Charles Edward. 
Pretender. 

Pratoria. lakea. 67c; Brit. govt. build- 
ing, illust.. 213. 

— , Convention of, 67a. 

Prevention of Crimes Act, Enp., 5Ce. 

Prevost, Geo., invades Kew York 
(1814). 170f. 

PriC3, Gen. Sterling, at Wilson a 
Creek; captures Lexington. n4e: de- 
feated at luka; at Corinth, 175b: at 
Jenkins's Ferry. 175e: in Ark. & Mo.; 
defeated at Weslporl. K5f. 

— Fixing Committee, discontinued. 
194a. 

Pride, CoL Thomas, breaks up Long 
Parliament ("Pride's Purge"). 50b. 

Prier, riies from London to Pans. lOle. 

Priestljy. disc, oxycen. 21d. 

Prieto, Gen. Joaquin, pres.. 83aS:c. 

^, Manuel Garcia. Marquis of Alhuce- 
mas: premier; Dato succeeds; forms 
new cabinet (101-); another (1918). 
148a. 

Prigg: V. Pennsylvania, Supr. Court de- 
cision, nse. 

Prilap, Bulgars capture. 33e; Allies 
capture. 30c, 37b. 

Prim, Gen. Juan, insurr. under: takes 
refuge in Port.; revolution under; at- 
tacked by assassin; dies. 14. d. 

Primary, presidential preference. N. 
Dak.. 183f; estab. in 12 States, 184c. 

^ Act. in Pa. S: other States, 1S4I. 

Primogeniturj, law of, repealed in 
Fr,. 9Hd. ,_ 

Prince, The, Machiavelh writes, 16f. 

— Edward Island, province, descnp., 
area & pop., 70d; repr. in Commons. 
69e; separate colony, 71b; enters Con- 
fed., 7l'a. 

— of the Peace, 145d, U.a. 

— of Wales National Relief Fund. 58f. 
Princeton, battle of, 169a, 195c. 

Lniversity. fnd.. lOSb. 195f; WiUon 

pres. of. 2lHe. 
Principe. 135d. 
Pnncipia. Newton's, 20a. 
Pring, Martin. 19Sa. 
Printing, invented. 15c; rotary print- 
ing press invented, 1 (3a. 
Prinz Ii-itel Friedricb, Ger. raider, in- 
terned. 33f. ISoe. , . ..^ , 
Prinzip, Gavrio. assas. of Archdute 

Francis Ferdinand & wife. 45e. 
Pnaoner of me Vatica.i. U4l. 115c. 
ProDUS, enip., expels oermans, lUd. 
Proclaoiation of Amnesty and Re- 
construction. Lincoln's, l'^'^; 
Products of any country. Sec Indus- 
try a^ Labor." under tiiat counlry. 
Proatdering Act, Eng., 61d. 
Progressive party. O.S., luoa&b;Nat. 
Prog. Kepub. League organised. 16dc; 
formed. l«4a; i Koosevelt. 2iSa; in 
19P elftction, lS4b.3ic; Nat. Conven- 
tion at Cmcago (1916) U8c 
ProhiDition, m Canada; Act of 1900 
in Manitoba; Act of 1902 inUnt..<-c; 
in Alberta; Man,; Nova Scot. a. Unt., 
73a: New Bruns.; Bnt. Col.; 1 ukon. 
73b; on importation into Can.. .3c; 
in Ont.. 73d; in England; use of al- 
coholic liquors rcstr.cled during war. 
59a' use in king's houses stopped; 
pledges; amendment to Deiense oi the 
Realm Act. 5^0. act to restrict output 
of beer. 59f; in UTancd: stringent 
regulations, 10'2a; in N^wioand- 
land; in effect. 73f; in New Zea- 
land; defeated. 7/d; in Norway: 
adopted. 131b; in Russia; ciar pro- 
hibits stale sale, U^o; .n U. S.: in 
navy, ISoe, Food Adimn. clos^.^ brew- 
cries; in zones around coal mines.sii.p- 
yards, etc.; of loodscu.is .n manut. of 
malt l.quors. 191e; Food bt.mulatLon 
Act. 192a: I8th Amend., suomuted 
for ratification, lilOd; raui^d. lojd. 
192c; in operal.on. lojd. iy4c; war- 
time, in effect, 193a; Volstead Act. 
193d; in the States drters.: Ala .adopts. 
182c. lS6b; prohib.ts ^dv. of l.quor. 
186c; Alaska. Cong, estao. in. latfc; 
California, rejects. 1911; D.C.manuf. 
& sale prohib.. IStld; Fla.. adopU. 
191f. 19^a; Ga., adopts, lo2c; Hawaii, 
Cong- estab. in. 191c; Ind..act passes. 
189c; Iowa, rejects. 19iJd; ICans.. const, 
amend, estab., l/Sa. 205e: Maine, 
law of 1S51. Wod; Mich., const, 
amend, estab., 191d; Minn., rejects. 
191f; Miss., adopts. lS2d: Mo., re- 
jects. 191f;Nebr.. ratifies 18th Amend., 
192c; N. H.. adopts (1855), 173E; re- 
peals local opt, on law (1918). 191b; 
N. Me.\.. adopts. 190c; Nev. adopts. 
19lf; N. C. ?dopts. 182d; N. Dak., 
const, estab.. l(8f; Ohio, adopts, 19 If; 
Okla., const, estab,. 182c; Porto Rico, 
act imposes, lS9d; S. C. adopts. 197f: 
Tenn.. adopts. 182e; Texas, adopts. 
191b: Vt.. adopts, 173d; Wyo.. adopts, 

igif. 



— party, 1872 election. 177b; 1870 
election. 177e. 

Propertius. lUa. 

Property Qualification .4ct, Eng., 53c. 

Propylffla. begun. Sa. 

Protection. See Tariff. 

Protector, the. See Cromwell, Oliver, 
&: Richard. 

Protectorate. English, estab. (1653), 
lad. 50b. See Cromwell. 

Protestant. See Reformation: also 
the art. "Religion" under each coun- 
try Origin of name, 17a; regime in 
Eng., 17c; missions in Syria, lola; 
mission in Kiang>'in. Chinai attacked. 
Stia. 

^ succession, in Eng., 52f. 

Protestants of Fr. SceZ/ueuenois. 

— of Ger.. Confession of Faith. 17b: 
League of Schmalkalden. lib&cfrec- 
dom of worship, 17d; Evangel. Union, 
!3d; defeated at White Mt.. ISf; de- 
feated at Lutter. 19a; driven out of 
Sahburg: emigrate to Amer.. lO'if. 

Protopopov, min. of interior. I42d. 

ProV3nci, added tr. Fr., 15e. 

Providence. R. I., fnd., Ifi7e. 19«. 
200a: united with R. I., 107e: statis- 
tics. 220. 

^ Bank p. Billings, Supreme Court de- 
cision. 171f. 

Provincetown, Pilgrims touch at, 
167d. 

Prusias I., of Bithynia, reigns. Oa; 
receives Hannibal. 9c. 

^ H. , reigns; killed, 9c. 

Prussia. For hist, outline, etc.. see 
Gerrt,any. 103a. and for chronology, 
sec Germany, chronology. 105d: Teu- 
tonic tCn ights, 1 4a; Teutons conq.. 14c: 
East Prus. hereditary principality. 
17a: fnd. of. 19b; Poland gives up 
sovereignty over. 19d, 139e: Fred. 
Wm.. 148f: in Grand Alliance. 146e; 
Frederick I.. 20c: gets Hither Pomera- 
nia. 14Sf: in alliance against Sp. & 
.^uat.. I46f: Frederick II.. 20f: peace 
of Breslau &Bcrlin; 2nd Silesian War; 
.'Mliance of Ausl., Sax., Eng.. and 
Hoi. against: Peace of Dresden. 21a; 
gets Silesia. 21b;m Seven Years' War. 
21b, 44a; Russian conquests restored 
to, 1st partition of Po!.. 21c, 140b; in 
War of Bav. Succession, 44a; war with 
Aust. against Fr.,21f; 2nd partition of 
Pol.. 21f. 140b: 3rd partit.o , of Pol.. 
21f. I40c; cedes w. bank of Rhine to 
Fr., 22a; war with Napoleon, 90c; 
crushed at Jena; collapse of military 
system; Napoleon in, 22d: peace with 
Fr.. 99d; Stein revives, 22d: rises 
against Napoleon. 22f, 99e&f; su- 
premacy of. in 19th cent.. 23t; gets 
Swedish Pomerania. 91c; Holy Alli- 
ance, 24b; Aust. compels to d.ssolve 
Union, 41e; intervenes in war btt. 
Schleswig-Holstein & Den., 91g; mil. 
system of, 42e; aids Rus. against 
Poles. 25c; demands withdrawal of 
Danish constitution, 91d; Schkswig- 
Holstein war. 25c: storms Diippel; 
occupies Jutland, 91d: gets Schl.swig, 
25c; Treaty of Gastein; allii.3 w.th It. 
against Aust,, 25c. 44e; Seven Weeks' 
War. 25c. 44f, lOSf; annexes Schlcs- 
wig-Holstein, etc., 25d: rise of. since 
1866. 25d, 94bS;c; & North Ger. Con- 
fed.. 106f: Fr. declare war on. 25d; 
Franco-Prussian War (1870), lOOc&d: 
controls Ger. Bundesrath. 104c; af- 
most absolute in Ger. affairs. 104d: 
West Prus. ceded to Pol.. 134e, Sec 
a\so Frederick Wm. of Brandenburg. 
Frederick I.Sill. of Prus.. Frederick 
Wm. I.. II.. III.. & / V. of Prus., & 
William I. & //.of Ger. 

Pruth, Treaty of the. 20d. 152e; Rus. 
&Turk. boundary. 22f. 140c. 151d.l52f. 

Przasnysz. Ger. cap,; reoccupy, 33c. 

Przemysl, Rus. besieges, 27e. 32b: 
siege raised. 32c. Ausl . attempts to re- 
lieve. 33b; Rus. captures, 28b. 33c. 
43a. 13Sa; Rus. evacuates. 28b, 33c. 

Psammetichus. era of. 7d. 

^ III., copq. by Cambyscs, 7c. 

Pskov, captured. 143e. 

Ptah-hotep, proverbs of. 6d. 

Ptolemy I. (Soter), satrap & king ot 
Egi'pt. 8J; takes Jerusalem, peace 
with generals. 8e. 

— II. (Philadclphus), reigns. 8c; Athens 
£: Sparta. 8f. 

■^ HI, (Eucrgetea). reigns; conq. Sy- 
r a; struggle with Macedon. 9a. 

— IV. (Ph.lopator). 9a; defeats Antio- 
chus in.. 9b. 

^ V. (Epiphanes). reigns, 9b; tribute 
of Palestine, 9c. 

— VII. (Ph.lometer). 9c. 

— IX. (Euergetes 11., Physcon), reigns. 
9d; dies. 9e. 

— X. (Soter 11.). reigns, 9e. 

— XI.. reigns. 9c. 

— XIII. (Auletes), obtains throne, 9e; 
recogniied king, 9f. 

^ XIV., reigns; murder of Pompey; 
Caesar conq., 9f. 

^ XV.. reignswith Cleopatra, 9f; mur- 
dered, 10a, 

^, Canon of (see Canon of Ptolemu. in 
Diet.). 6b. 

Public Cred.t Act. U.S. (1SG9). 176e. 

^ Intelligencer, newspaper, 19e. 

— Land Act (IbOO), 170a: (1820). 171c. 
^ lands (U. S-), preemption of. 172e; 

pres. authorized to withdraw from en- 
try, 183b. 

^ Safety, committee of (Fr,),21f. 

^Service Commission in Pa., act creat- 
ing. lS4f. 

— Utilities Commission, in N.Y.. 180c. 
Publick Occurrences, newspaper. 19e. 
Puebla, Me\., church revolts at. 126f; 

Amer. consular agent abducted, 12Sc. 
Pueblo dwelling, illust., 128. 
^Viejo (Caparra), fnd.. 2lld. 
Puerto CabeUo, bombarded, 156c. 

— Cort6s, Hond.. fnd.. 79e. 

^ Plata. U. S. takes customhouse; 

bombarded. 92c, 
^ Principe, destroyed, 89a. 

— Rico= PoTto Rico. 211d. 
Pugachev. El, leads Rus .revolt. 140b. 
Puget Sound. boundary dispute, 177a. 
Puigcerda. Spain, tunnel. 148b. 
Pujo Comihittee. investigates "moocy 

trust." 183f, 184c; reports, 184<i. 



Pulicat, 63d. 

Pulitzer, Joseph, fnds. school of jour- 
nalism, 181c. 
Pullman cars, introduced. 162e. 

— rates, fixed by Interstate Comm. 
Commission, lS3a. 

— strike (1894). 163e. 
Pultuslc, battle of (1703), 14Sf. 
Punic War, 1st. begins. 8f; ends, 9a: 

2i)d begins, 9t ; -Uust. of trireme, 144. 

PunjaD, British protectorate, 64b: an- 
nexed, 64c; irngaliOii projects, 64e; 
home rule disturbances, 65a. 

Pure-food laws, U. S., ta^ on oleo- 
margarine (1886), l.Sd; act for in- 
spection ol pork products, 179a: .■^ct 
passed (1900), 182a; Supr. Court de- 
cision on, 185c. 

Puritan, U. S. monitor, illust.. 144. 

— Age ui Eng. literature. l?f. 
Puritans, settle New England. 157e; 

m Mass.. 19Ge&f. 
Put-.a-Bav. Ohio, centennial. lS5-i. 
Putna-n. Gen. Rufus. 200c. 
Putiik, rfiiits Aust,. 33c. 
Pydna, Philip 11. seizes. 8c; battle. 9c. 
Pyra*nids. bu.lt,6d: battle of the, 22a, 

eSaid. 99a. 
Pyrenees. Hasdrubal crosses, 9b: 

Peace of the, 19d. 97d. 146d: tunnel 

under, 14Sb. 
Pyrrhtis of Epirua. restored to throne: 

rules in Macedonia. 8e: summoned to 

It.; Heraclea; Asculum; in Sicily; 

Beneventum; defeats Antigonus; king 

of Macedon; slam. 8f. 
Pythian games, instituted, 7e. 
Pythodorus, 6b. 



Quadi. 42b. 

Quadruple Alliance (1718). 20e. 9Sa. 
U6f: (1815). 23a. 24b; (1915). 117d. 

— Entente, becomes Quadruple Alli- 
ance. 117d. 

Quakers, movement begins, 19c: in 

Pa.. 167f. 195b&c; protest against 

?:iaver>'. IC'ia. 
Quatre Bras, battle of. 99f. 
Qu^ant-Drocourt line, erased, 26f, 
Quebi-c (city) ind.. 18d. 70t, I57ca£d. 

16/; Eng. capl. (1629), 71a, 167d; 

restored to Fr. (16J2). IGM; Eng. 

capt. (1.59). 53e. 98b. IJ&fa. lC8d; 

attacked by Montgomery & Arnold. 

7Ic: conference on differences between 

U. S. & Can.. 180d: tercentenary. 72e. 
^, province, history, S^b&c; repr. in 

Commons. 60c; dcscr.. area & pop.. 

70d; province estab. (176.(); extended 

byQueb.c Act. 71b: Ohio included in. 

201a: «ind°r Br t. No. America Act 

(1S67), Vlf: Uncava added to. 72e; 

anti-draft riots (lOlS), 73c. 
— , battl' of (1775). IfiSf. 

— Act (1774), 69c. 7IbS;c. 168e. 

— bridge, collapse (1907). 72d: 2nd ac- 
cident (191C), 73a: successfully com- 
pleted (1917). 73b. 

Queen Anne's War, 97f, 158b, IGSa; 
ends, 168b. 

Queen's College (Rutgers College), 
f.id.. ICSd. 

Queensland, 75c&e; separate colony, 
7Ga; Kanakas in. 76a&c; takea pos- 
sess, of Papua, 7Ca; adopts Federa- 
t.on b.ll. 76b. 

Quaenston Heights, battle of. 170c. 

Quetta. 65c. 

Quiberon Bay, battle of. 53e. 

Quintana. Manuel, pres.; dies, 41b. 

Quintilian. 10c. 

Quintuple Treaty, 24bLStc. 

Quiros. Gen. Juan Bautista, prov.pres. 
of Costa Rica. Slf. 

Quito, old name of Ecuador. 92d:conq. 
by Sp. forces fr. Peru. 92dS£e, 133a; 
depend, of Peru; joins Colombia. 92d 
&e;secedes, 92d. SSc; becomes Repub. 
of Ecuador, 92d, 

Quito- Guayaquil R. R., 92f. 

Quitus, of Ecuador, 92c. 



R-34. Brit, dirigible arrives in L. I., 
193a. 

Rabaul. Bismarck Arch.. 105c. 

Rabelais. Francois. 16e. 

Race riots. See under Itiota. 

RadetzKy, Count Johann, defeats 
Ital.ans at Custozza. 44d, 116c; wins 
at Novara, 44e. 

Radicals, in Den., 91e; Finland, 93c: 
Fr.. 94e; Ger.. 107c: Sp., msurr. 
(1836). 147c, cabinet. 147f; in Barce- 
lona. W^h. bwitz.. loOf. Qi.Reda. 

Radio-communication Act, 184b. 

Radisaon, Sieur dc (Pierre Esprit). 
Fr, explorer. 71a. 

Radium, disc. 26b; new process for 
extraciini. 187d. 

Radul Negru, fnds. Wallachia. 13Cc. 

Rafa, Turks defeated at, 69a; Turks 
expelled. 36a. 

Raglan. Lord, in the Crimea; battle of 
the Alma. HOe. 

Ragusa, 122e&i. 

Rahrer, in re, Supr. Court dccis. ,179c. 

Railroad Labor Buard created. 194e. 

Railroads, beginning of. 24b; Africa, 
1st in So. Africa, 66f. 67b: Cape-lo- 
Cairo, 66a. 6;b.c.d&:e. 6Sf: in Sudan. 
68e&f; 1st ,n Australia, 75f; Australia 
transcontinental. lOd; 1st train over, 
76f; 1st in Canada. 71e; in Canada, 
69d, 7(ia; Can. transcontinental. 72a. 
b.d&f, 73a; under govt, control. 73d: 
1st in China. 85f; Chinese Eastern 
R. R.. 86a; 1st in Eng.,.55a&b: Fr. 
govt, to operate Western Railway. 
lOld; 1st in India. 64c; Ist in Mex,. 
127b.cS£d; Newfoundland. 73eSif;Per- 
sia, Bagdad to Caspian S^a. 132i; 
Royal Portuguese fails, 135f; in Asia- 
tic Russia, 141b. Siberia. 141c; govt. 
Ukes over Swiss, 150e; in U. S., B.& 
O. R. R. begun (1828), 17lf: 1st loco- 
motive used in .■\mer., 171f; 1st suc- 
cessful u.se of steam on in U, S,, 172a: 
land grants. 173d; Chicago. N. Y.. & 
Boston connected (1853), 173e; con- 
struction 8: mileage in U. S. (1860- 
1910), 162d: combinatibos. 162c; 



transcontinental, 25d: transportation 
across continent opened (1869):Mass. 
State R. R. commission (1st of its 
kind). I76e; riots in East (1877). 177f; 
regulation of begins. 164f; Interstate 
Commerce Act, 178d; intrastate rates, 
ISOb; 1st train fr. Key West to main- 
land (Florida E. Coast R. R.). 183f; 
right of States to regulate R. R. rates; 
act for construction of m Alaska, 185c; 
demands of employees, 18Sa: under 
Federal control (1917), 190d; unified 
for war period. 190d; increase inrait-s, 
191a: Railroad Control .\cx. (1918), 
I91a; short-line roads turned back to 
private management. 191d: Federal 
control of; Hines director-general. 
192c; cost of govt- operation during 
World W'ar, 192f- expenditures for 
1919. 19Ic: Federal administration 
continues, 194a; crewa f^"**^, q^^""** 
increase in wages since 1916, 19-e: 
ret'd to owners. 194e: modern Amer. 
express train, illust., 116. See 
also Director-General of Railroads: 
Interstate Commerce Commistion. 

^, electric. 1st, 25f. 

Railway, street. 1st opened. 24e. 

Rain, c-at-le of. 19a 

Raisin River (Mich.), battle of. 170e. 

Raisuli, Shcreef. Moroccan bandit. 
128e&f; kidnaps Pcrdicaris, 12Sf;kid- 
naps Sir Harr>' Maclean, 129a. 

Rajputana. 64b. 

Rajputs, 129b. 

Raleigh. Sir Walter, raids Span, com- 
merce. 157d; sends exped. to Am., 
157d. 167c; exped. reaches N. C.lSb: 
attempts to colonize. 157d, 198e; expl. 
Virginia region, 19Sc; attempts to col- 
onize Roanoke Island fail, 157d. I87c; 
alleged conspiraci' of; imprisoned, 18d. 

— . N. C. Sherman enters. 1.6a. 

Rama VI. .of Siam ( Kajiratiud/i) ,145a. 

Ramadie. Turks defeated at. 29f . 36a. 

Ramillies. battle of. 20d. 07f. 146c. 

Ramses 11. , reigns; in Palestine St Sy- 
ria; peace with Hittites: prob. Pha- 
raoh, Israel's oppressor, 6f. 

^ III., reigns. 6f, 

Rancagua, Chilean forces crushed, 83c. 

Hand, the (see fianrf. in Diet,), gold 
disc, 66d, 6;a;strikeof white miners. 
67d. 

"Randolph," or "Virginia." Plan, 
2l3b. 

Ranier II., head of Monaco, 128d. 

Ranjit Singb. 64b. 

Rankin. Jeannette, 189e. 

Rapa Islands. 97c. 

Raphael, born; died, 15c. 

Raphia. battle of. 7c, 9b. 

Rarotonga, 77b. 

Rastatt, Treaty (Peace) of, 20d. 43e, 
124d. 97f. 

Ratisbon. See Reoenabura- 

Rattlesnake, the, cap. by Leander. 
170f. 

Raucoux = rocourt. 

Ravaillac, kills Henr>- IV., ISe. 

Ravenna. Honorius's residence 10f> 
capital of the Heruli, He; Theodonc 
besieges; Odoacer surrenders, Belisa- 
rius Lakes: Natses's capital, llf; 
Luitprand captures, 12b. 

^, battle of, 16c. 

^, e.xarchate of. Lombards destroy; 
granted to Pope, 12b. 

Rawdon, Lord, defeats Greene, I69b. 

tawltnson. Gen., advance of. 30c. 
ay. Cape. Newf.. 73e. 
Raymond, Miss., battle of. l7Sc. 

— of Toulouse. ISb&f. 

Razin. Stenko, Cossack chief. 139f. 

Reading. Pa.. sUtistics, 220. 

Reaper, horse, patented, 172b. 

Reason, worship of. 9Sf. 

Rebellion Losses Bill (Canada). 71f. 

Recall, in U. 5.. 165a; in various States, 
lS4c: of judges, in Ar.z.. 20Sf; in 
Calif.. 204f; Los Angeles invokes 
against mayor. 182e; Calif, amend- 
ment, 183e: in Mich.. 203d; in Wash., 
207c, See Referendum. 

Reciprocity, treaty of. Can. S: U. S. 
(1854), 173e; ended. 176b; movement 
for defeated. 72e. 183d; Hawaii & U. 
S.. 177c. 2lOa: Lat. Amer. & U. S.. 
17yb- Newf. S; U. S. (Bond-Blame 
treaty). 73e; Newf. & U. S. (Bond- 
Hay conventio::). 73f. 

Reconcentrados. of Cuba, 69d. 

Reconstruction, Europe, after Fran- 

■ co-Prussian War, 25e; U. S., after 
Civil War. 161f. 162a, b&c. 176b, 175e; 
Wade-Davia Bill. 175e; Reconstruc- 
tion Act, 176c; Reconstruction Acts, 
supplementary (2). 176d: Supi. Court 
decision on (1869), 176e; completed, 
i;6l; overthrow of policy-; after World 
War, 194a. b&c. Hor Reconstruction 
constitutions, etc., of various South- 
ern Stales, see chronologies of these 
States. 

Redan, stormed by Eng., 140f. 

Red Cross, Amer. Red Cross Steamer 
Red Cross sails for Europe, lS5f; 
.^mer., fights disease in Serbia, 122c, 
lS6e: Montenegro appeals to, 123b; 
expenditures in 1915, 187b: in Arme- 
nia. 42a; Jap. joins Int'l.. 119f. 

^ Cross Convention = Geneva Con- 
vention, 25c, 150d; U. S. ratifies; fur- 
ther convention, 26d. 

Redfield, Wm. C. resigns aa sec of 
Commerce. 193f. 

Red Guards, OScie. See also I7Ai(e 
Guards. 

Redmond, John. Irish leader. 57b: 
leads Nationalists, 57d: & Irish in 
World War, 59a: dies. 60e. 

Red Republicans, control Paris, lOOd, 

^ River Expedition, Banks's. 175e. 

— River Rebellion, 72a- 

— River Settlement, 70c; fnd.; de- 
str..yed. 71d. 

— Russians. 139c. 

Reds (extreme radicals), in Australia. 
76e: in Ger.. govt, in Munich over- 
thrown. 109c; rise (1920), I09d; in 
Finland. 93e; in Rus.. 143eS:f. See 
also Bolaheviki (Bolshevists), Com- 
muniala, I. W. W .. Spartacides. 
Anarchists. 

Reed. Thos. B.. Speaker of Houee, 
163d. 202f: "Reed Rules." 179a. 

Reedtz-Ttaott, Baroo, 91d. 



Reflection of Ministers Act (1916); 
t)Oa: (1919). 61b. 

Referendum, in U. S., 165a: Supr. 
Court decision concerning. 183f; in 
Calif., 204f; Calif, adopts amend- 
ment for. lS3e: in Colo.. 206d: use in 
(Cleveland) Ohio. lS3a; in Ohio. 
200f; in Okla.. 20Sc; in Ore , 205d; in 
S. Dak.. 206f; in Wash,. 207c; in 
Switz.. 150d. See also /rii(ialirtf. 

Reform Act_ i^t (1S32). 23a. 50e, 
55b; 2ad (1867), 56b: 3rd (1884),56c; 
4tli (1918j_ 60d. 

— Acts, for Scot. & Ire.. 56c. 
Relormation, the (see inDicf.). 16a; 

in Ger . I6f; 300th anniversary, 106d; 
inSwitz.. 16f. SeealsoLuf/icr.Cal- 
lin, Zuiny/i. Huauenots. Hussite*. 

Reform Bills. Sei- Reform Acts. 

"Reformed Faith." 181b. 

Reform laws. Mexico (1873). 127b. 

Regensburg(Ratisben), battle of. 99d. 

— (Ratisbon), Diet. 19e. 
— . Truce of, 20a. 

R ggio (di Calabria), earthquake, 

117a. 
Regina Margherita, It. batlluship, 

sunk. 35b. 
Registration, National. Eng. (foe 

labor & mil. data), 59c; U. S. (for 

9el.-ctivc draft). lS9f. 
Rfignier, Mathurin, 17d. 
RegulusM Arthus. in Africa. 8f. 
Regulating Act, for govt, of India, 63f. 
Regulation, War of the, 168e. 
Rehoboam, reigns, 7a. 
Reichsbank (Ger), lOSa; notes cease 

In be l.'cal tender. I09c. 

Reichsdeputationshauptschiusa, 
lOfib. 

Reichsrath, Austrian. 43b. 44f. 46a. 

Reichstadt. Ccnvcntion. 25c. 

^, Duke of => Napoleon II. 

Reichstag, of former Ger. emp., de- 
scribed. 104c; constituted. 106f; of 
Ger. emp. (1871), 107a; of present 
Ger. Repub.. 104d. 

Reld, George H..prem,of Austral ia.76c. 

— , R. G., contract for railroads in 
Newf., 73e3:f. 

^, Whitelaw. v. pres. vote, 179c. 

Reign of Terror, 94a. 

Reims (Rheims). Ger. take; reoccu- 
pied. 32a: Cathedral shelled. 32a,37a; 
Ger. attacks near (1918). 36e. 

Reindeer, the. Wasp destroys, 170f, 

• ' Reinsurance ' ' Treaty. Rus. & Ger., 
141b. 

Relief, European, govt, act for. 192d; 
Hoover appointed to direct. 192e: 
funds for relief of A*mericans in Eu- 
rope. 185e; Belgian relief funds, lS5f. 

Religious freedom or toleration, by 
treaty of Westphalia, 19d; in Austria, 
21d; in Bohemia, 18e. China, practice 
of Christianity allowed, 84a, 85d; 
Fr., Huguenots tolerated, 17c, ISa&c; 
Ger., to reformers during Council of 
Trent; to Lutherans, I7d. For various 
countries, see also art. Religion, fol- 
lowing historical outline of each coun- 
try. See also Christians. 

—•tests, in Eng, universities, abol., 56c; 
forbidden at Irish univorsities, 5$b. 

Relvas ministry, in Port.. 136b. 

Renaissance, lid, 16a: epoch. 14f; in 
It.. 114d: infiuence on discoveries. 
157a&b. 

Rend of Lorraine, slays Cliarles the 
Bold; dies, 15e. 

Renner. Karl, premier. 43a, 46c. 

Rent Restriction Act (Eng.), 61b. 

Reparation question, following World 
War. 37c; Commission on. estimates 
damage done in Fr., 102e. 

Representation of the People Act 
(Bnt.). 60d. 

Republic. Ist Fr., proclaimed. 21f; 
Republican era begins, 98e. 

— , 2nd Fr.. proclaimed. 100b; changed 
to empire, 23c. 

— . 3rd Fr., 24f. 94c&d. 100c. 102a. 

Republican Nat'l Convention. See 
National Convention. 

^ party (Republicans), in anc. Rome, 
10a: Fr., lOOf: Pg., 135f; U. S. (see 
Republican party, inDict.), Antifed- 
cralists adopt name, 169f; controls 
Congress (1800), 170b: name attaches 
to present party, 173e;organized.l61a: 
not revolutionary. 174a; confounded 
with Abolitionists; elects candidates 
(1860). 174b; majority party, I63c; 
lS96campaign. 164b; divided. IGSa&b. 

Republicans. ^3t'l=' Nat'l Republto- 
ans. 160c. 172b. 

Republica Oriental del Uruguay, See 
t ruffuay. 

Republic Oil Co. of N.Y.. ousted from 
Mo., I84a. 

R^publique. La. war balloon. lOld. 

Resaca. Ga., battle of, 175e. 

-de la Palma. battle. 173a, 214f. 2l5a. 

Reservations, U. S,, forest reserves, 
179b. 

Reshid Pasha, 153a. 

Restitution, Edict of, 19a. 

Restoration, the, Eng., 19e, 50^. 

— , Fr.. 1st, 99f; 2nd, 100a. 

Restrepo. Carlos E., pres.. S8d. 

Resumption Act, specie payments, 
177c; efforts to repeal, 177f. 

Reunion (or Bourbon), 96f. 

Reuss. Republic estab., 108f. 

Revel, fnd,. 144a; meeting of czar 8c 
Edw. VII.. 142a; Ger. tbreaten, 35f. 

"RevengSfor Sadowa," 94b. 

Revenue. See Internal RcTienue. Tar- 
iff, Taxes - 

Review-of- Exemptions \a. 60b. 

Revival ol Lear ning . See Renaissance. 

Revolution. Amer. Seeffetoiufionaru 
War. 

— , Eng. (1688), 50b. 

— , Ger. (1918), 108e. 

— , Russia (1905), 137f, 138d, HldSte; 
(1917), 138b. 139c. U2d.eStf. 

Revolutionary War (Amer.), 50d. 
i58c.d.eS£l; begins. 168f: Fr. allies 
with colonies: Sp. aids; Hoi. goes into 
war. 21d; effect on Fr.. 98c. 

Revolver. Colt patents. 172b. 

Reyes. Bernardo, candidate for pres., 
Mex.; revolts; surr. & 13 killed, 127d. 

•^, Gen. Rafael, pres, Colombia; re- 
signs, SSaScc. 



248 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



N 



U 



W 



Rezin. "b. 

Rhsetia, annexed to Rome, 10a. 
Rhalli3(Ralli3). Demetrios. premier, 

llOd. 
Rhenium, fnd., 7b. 
Rheims. See Reims. 
Rheinfelden. battle of, 19b. 
Rhine, Roman frontier advanced 
beyond.lOa; Fr. gain W. bank, 22a, 981: 
99b; Fr. cross (1805). 99c; Napoleon 
crosses; Bliicher crosses, 22f; Amer. 
troops occupy region, 194c. 
^ Confederation. See Confederation 

of the Rhine. 
^ Provinces, Ger., declaration of inde- 
pendence, 109c, 
Rhode Island, hist, outline. 199r: sta- 
tistics, 220; area, 221: chronology, 
200a.— Other refs.: Providence Plan- 
tation; R. 1. Plantation; colonies 
united, 167e; patent for confederate 
, gov., 19c; royal charter, 167f; adopts 
gradual emancipation. 109c; ratifies 
Constitu., 169e: Dorr Rebellion, 172e. 
Rhodes, siege of (305 B. C), 8e; 
Knights of St, John expelled from, 62a; 
It. seizes, 152a: by treaty remains io 
poss. of It., nib, U7f. 
^, Cecil, 66a, 67a: conspiracy of against 

Boer govt,, 67b: death, 57e. 
•^ scholarships, 26c, 57e. 
Rhodesia, 66a; beginning of, 57a: in 
So. African customs union, 67a; sphere 
delimited, 67a&b; boundaries; rail- 
roads; portions placed under Brit. So. 
Africa Co., 67b; map, 64, 
Rhodians, fnd. Gela, 7c. 
Ribault. Jean, colony at Port Royal, 

S. C. 167b. 
Ribot, Alexandre, premierC1892),100f; 
reconstructs govt.; ministry (1895); 
resigna, 101a; premier(1914); resigns, 
102a; min. of finance, 102a,b&c;form3 
new cabinet (1917), 102c. 
Richard, Cardinal, lOld. 

— I. (Cceur de Lion), succeeds Henry 
II.; crusade; &. Saladin; imprisoned 
in Aust.; ret. to Eng.; civil war; de- 
feats Philip; dies, 13e. 

— II., Duke of Gloucester regent; de- 
posed, 15b. 

— III., slain. 15e 

— Plantagenet, Earl of Cornwall, 
leads crusade. i4b; chosen to Ger. 
throne. 14b, 103a: not recognized.Hb. 

Riche, Point. Newf., 73e. 

Rich6, Jean Baptiste, pres, Haiti. 111c. 

Richelieu, Card., organizes company 

to control New France, 70f; premier; 

campaign against Aust. & Sp., 19a; 

dies. 19b. 

^, Due de, ministry; dismissed (1818), 

100a. 
Riohmond, Duke of. SeeHenry VII, 

of Eng. 
— , Ky., battle of, 1 75b, 
— , Va„ statistics, 220; Arnold burns. 
169b; capital of Confed. States. 161cS: 
d, 174d, I98d; Seven Days' Battles be- 
fore; actions before (1862), 175a;But- 
ler advances toward, 175e; evacuated, 
176a; exposition (1915), 187a. 
Rich Mountain, battle of. 174e. 
Ridges, the, battle of, 32c. 
Riego y Nufiez, Rafael del, leads in- 
surrection, 147b. 
Riel, Louis, insurr. (1369); flees to 
Fort Garry, 72a; 2nd rebellion; capt. 
_& executed, 72b. 
Rienzi, Cola di, revolution; assasa.,14f. 
Riesco, German, prea. of Chile, 83d. 
Rif, Er, 129a. 146d. 
Riga, fnd., 144a; bishop of , 144b; Ger- 
mans advance against, 33c; Ger. at- 
tack (1915), 33d; Ger. occupy (1917), 
35e; ceded to Ger., I43b; Bolsheviki 
cap.. 93b, 143d; attack on, 124c. 
^, Gulf of, Rus. defeat Germans io 

(1915), 34a; 2nd action (1917). 36b. 
Right uf search, 21d. 
Rigsdag, Den., 91e. 
Rijswijk. Sf^HLRyawick. 
Riksdag (Sw.). 131a, 148d. 
Riley, James Whitcomb, 201d, 
Rimini, Cesare Borgia gains, 16e. 
Rio de Janeiro, French at, 49a&e; 
becomes capital of Brazil, 49a, b &e; 
Braganza family in, I35a;oaval revolt 
at (1S93). 49f; naval mutiny at 
(1910), 50a: Pan-Amer. Congre£.s.26a 
&d, 49c. 50a, lS2a. 
^ de la Plata, disc.; 1st settlement 
on, 40f, 155b. 

— de Ore and Adrar, 146d. 

— Grande, Texas boundary(Mex.&U, 
S.). 126e, 160c. 172f, 173b, 204a&b; 
Mexicans cross (1915). 187b; Ele- 
phant Butte Dam completed, 188b. 

— Teodoro. disc, 185d. 

Riots, race, Atlanta (1906) , 182a; Chi- 
cago(19I9), 193a;E.St.Louis{1917), 
189f, Houston (1917), 190a: Omaha 
(1919). 193c; Wash. (1919). 193a. See 
also under Labor troubles. 

Ripon, Marquis of .viceroy onndia.64d. 

Riukiu Islands =0/.-inaipa Islands. 

Rivadavia, dreadnought, 41b. 

Rivarola, Cirilo, pres., 131f. 

Rivera, Joi6 Fructuoso, pres. Uruguay; 
in civil war, 155b. 

River i harbor acts (U.S.. 1824). 171d. 

Rivoli (Veronese), battle of, 99a. 

Roads, stone. Era of, 22b. 

"Road to India" (Egypt), 54d, 68d. 

Roanoke Island, settlement, 157d, 
167c. 199d; captured (1862), 174f. 

Robert of Flanders, crusader, 13b. 

^ of Normandy, rules, 13a; Henry 1 , de- 
feated, 13b. 

— 11., of Scot., 15a. 

— College. 78c. 

Roberts, Lord, defeats Afghans; enters 
Kabul, 64d; commander in chief in 
So. Africa. 67b; leaves So. Africa, 67c; 
at Quebec Tercentenary. 72e; against 
forcing Home Rule Bill, 58f. 

— . J. J., pres.. Liberia, 123f. 

Robertson. Sir William, resignation 
as chief of staff, 60d. 

Robespierre, Maximilien de. Reign 
of Terror, 2If. 98e; falls; executed. 

Roca. Gen. Julio, pres.. 41a&b, 
Rochambeau, Count de. at Newport, 

169b; at surr. of Yorktown, 169c. 
Rochester, N. Y., statistics. 220. 



Rockefeller, John D.. gift for higher 
educ.lSlf; to Gen. Education Board, 
182b. 

^Foundation, bill to incorporate. 183a; 
Belgian relief; relief ships, I85f; re- 
port of Commis.(1915), 47f: improve- 
ments in China, 186e; relief in Pol,, 
Serbia. Montenegro, & Albania, 188c. 

— Institute for Medical Research. 
opened. 183b. 

Rockingham, Marquis of, prime min- 
ister (1765), 53f: (1782). 54a. 

"Rock of Chickamauga," I75d. 

Rocky Mountain Nat'l Park, estab., 
186b. 

— Mountains, disc, 71b, 168b. 
Rocourt(Raucoux), battle of, 43f. 98b. 
Rocroi, battle of, 19c. 
Roderick, Tarik defeats, 12b. 
Rodney. Adm., in West Indies. 54a. 
Rodriguez. 65f. 

Roebuck, John. disc, use of pit coal in 

smelting, 50d. 
Roger II.. count of Sicily; duke of 

Apulia & Calabria, 13c. 
Roggeveen, Capt.. disc. Samoa, 210b 

&c. 
Rojas, Liberate, provis. pres. of Para- 
guay; succeeded. 132a. 
— Paul, iosd Pablo, pres., I56a. 
RolEe, John, 198c. 

RoUo, gets Neustria (Normandy) ,12d. 
Romagna, insurr., 116b; armexed to 

Piedmont, 25b. 
— , Duke of. Cesare Borgia becomes, 16e. 
Romiana, Eduardo. pres., 133e. 
Roman Catholic Church (Catholics). 
St. Ambrose champions, lOe; Gregory 
the Great, 12a; Hungary accepts, 12e; 
schism bet. Lat. & Gr. Catholics, 12f; 
celibacy of clergy; simony forbidden; 
struggle bet. Hildebrand & Henry IV. 
(Ger.), 13a; Inquisition esta8., 14a- 
organized, 14b; jubilee (1300), 14d; 
"Babylonian Captivity." I4e: union 
of Lat, & Gr. churches decreed but 
not effected, 15c; in Spain. 145b; sell- 
ing of indulgences decreed. 16f; Refor- 
mation (see Reformation)'. Swiss 
Catholics at battle of Kappel;2wingli 
killed; Henry VIII.; Eng. renounces 
sovereignty of the pope; order of Jesu- 
its fnd., 17b: Christian III. proscribes 
in Denmark. 17c; Huguenots make 
peace with in Fr., ISa; Edict of Resti- 
tution (1629), 19a: settle Md.. 167e: 
in Md., 197c: Cromwell proclaims se- 
vere measures against. 52a: Declara- 
tion of Indulgence (Eng.) ; issued; re- 
scinded; Test.'\ct; Catholics excluded 
from Pari.. 52d; in Eng. under James 
11., 50b, 52f; act against, 53a: laws 
against in Eng. & Ire., 53b; recog- 
nized in Canada, 71b: estab. in Can- 
ada. 69c: in Quebec province, 70e. 
168e; Catholic Penal Act (Brit.) re- 
pealed, S3f; Gordon & "no-popery" 
riots in Eng., 54a; supports monarch- 
ists in Fr.. 94d; restored in Fr.( 1801), 
22b. 99b: Emancipation Act (Eng.). 
55b; in Armenia, 41f; hierarchy rees- 
tab. in Eng., 551; decree of banish- 
ment against in Sweden, 149a; decrees 
against in Mex., 126f; strikes against 
clergy in Belgium, 40f&47c; Ecumen- 
ical Council (1870), 25d: Prus. laws 
against ("May Laws," 1874), 107a; 
Prus. gov. abandons measures against, 
107b: massacre in China. 86c; rupture 
bet. Vatican & Span, govt., 147f; vote 
as organized party for 1st time in It,, 
117f; in Russia, 139b. See also art. 
Religion, following Hist, outline of 
each country; also. Jesuits, Reforma- 
tion, and the following popes and an- 
tipopes; Leo I.. Gregory I., Stephen 
II., Leo III., John XII., Sylvester II.. 
Clement II., Nicholas II.. Gregory 
VII. (Hildebrand) , Urban II., Paschal 
II., Calixtusll., Innocent 11., Adrian 
IV., Ale.'cander III., Innocent III., 
Honorius III., Gregory IX.. Innocent 
IV., Boniface VIH..Clement v., John 
.XXII., Clement VI., Gregory XI.. 
Urban VI.. Gregory XII., Alexander 
V , John XXIII., Martin V., Pius II. 
(.-Eneas Sylvius) , Alexander VI . (Bor- 
gia), Julius 11., Leo X., Clement VII., 
Paul IIL.Gregory XIII., Urban VIII.. 
Alexander VII.. Clement IX., Clem- 
ent X., Alexander VIII., Innocent 
XII., Clement XI., Benedict XIII., 
Clement XII., Clement XIII., Pius 
VI.. Pius VII.. Gregory XVI., Pius 
IX.. Leo XIII., Pius X.. Benedict 
XV.— Antipopes: Clement III., Ana- 
cletus II. .Victor IV. , Clement VII.,- 
Benedict XIII. 

— Empire (jee in Diet.). See Rome. 

Romani. battle of, 35a, 69a. 

Romanones. Count Alvarado de; re- 
signs; forms new ministry; announces 
policy toward Vatican; resigns again; 
forms cabinet; resigns, 147f, 148a&b. 

Romanov. Mikhail, czar. 18e, 137b. 

— dynasty (Rus.), begins. 18e. 

— tercentenary', I42b. 
Roman Republic. See Rome. 
Romanus Diogenes, conq.; captive, 

13a. 
Rome (ancient city. Republic, & Em- 
pire), system of chronology, 6c5jd: 
fnd.,6a&c.7b; Romulus, 7b; patrician 
commonwealth estab, (repub. govt.), 
7e, 6a: treaty with Carthage; plebs 
secede (1st); office of tribune estab., 
7e: Decemviri rule, 7f; marriage of 
patricians & plebeian^; censorship es- 
tab., 8a; Camillus takes Veil; Gauls 
at the Allia, 8b; city captured, 6c; of- 
fice of praetor created; end of military 
tribunes: Lucius Sextius, 1st pleb. 
consul; repels Gauls; Caere, Ist Rom. 
municipium; treaty with Carthage; 
ist Samnite War; great Latin War, 
8c; silver coins issued in Campania; 
2nd Samnite War, 8d: defeat at Cau- 
dine Forks; Appian Way begun; Ap- 
pian aqueduct built; powers of Senate 
assailed; Ciminian forest; defeats 
Etruscans; 3rd Samnite War (298-290 
B.C.); Fabius overcomes Etruscans, 
Gauls, & Samnites; Hortensian law; 
secession of plebs. Se; war with Ta- 
rentum; Greek phalanx & Roman Le- 
gion; Pyrrhus at Asculum; alliance 



with Carthage: Pyrrhus defeated; su- 
preme in Italy; treaty with Ptolemy 
Philadelphus; takes Tarentum; 1st 
silver coins; 1st Punic War begins; 
battle of Mylae; battle off Ecnomus, 
8f: trireme, illust., 144; Regulus in 
Africa, 8f;at ^gades islands:lst Punic 
War ends: Istprovi nee (part of Sicily), 
1st play in;takes Sardinia (2nd prov.); 
Illyrian pirates; treaty with Corcyra; 
Gauls advance on;CisalpineGaul colo- 
nized; all It. Roman, 9a; 2nd Illyrian 
War;2nd Punic War;Hannibal wins at 
Ticinus & Trebbia; at Lake Trasime- 
nus; Cannae; Ital. towns revolt; new 
armies; Isl Macedonian War; Marcel- 
lua takes Syracuse; allied with ^tolia; 
invades Greece; Metaurus; peace with 
Phil!p;peace with Carthage:interfere3 
in Gr.; 2nd war with Macedonia: 
Achian League; Philip V. defeated. 
9b; Antiochus; .Etolian League; gets 
Asia Minor:3rd Macedonian War;En- 
nius; Pydna; gives Delos to Athens: 
treaty with Jews; survivors of Achaean 
League.9c; height of senatorial power; 
Macedonia, a Roman province; Africa 
a province; Corinth destroyed; Achaean 
League dissolved. 9d;Greece subjected. 
9d, 109d: gets Pergamum; Caius Sem- 
pronius Gracchus. 9d: Cimbri & Teu- 
tones; war with Jugurtha (112-105B. 
C); army reforms; Marius consul; 
Ital. allies revolt, 9e: Armenia be- 
comes vassal sUte, 4Ie; war bet. Ma- 
rius & Sulla :M ithridates;restore3 Nic- 
omedes III.; Mithridatic war ended; 
Sulla; reforms constitution; gets Bi- 
thynia; Spartacus; Pompey & Crassus; 
Sulla's constitution overthrown; Ga- 
binian Law, 9e; Manilian Law; Syria 
becomes province; conquest of Gaul; 
Caesar & senatorial party; colonies at 
Corinth & Carthage, 9f; Empire be- 
gins; Senate proscribed; Octavianus & 
Antony; Augustan Age; peace with 
Parthia; frontiers advanced; conq. 
Germany; Varus defeated: Tiberius, 
10a; subdues So. Britain; census: Bo- 
adicea; burned; revolt in Palestine; 
Vespasian; Colosseum; Titus; Domi- 
tian; five good emperors, lOb; empire 
greatest, 10c; map, 10: silver age of 
Roman lit.; Hadrian's wall; revolt in 
Judea:wall bet. theForth & theClyde; 
persecution of Christian3:Commodu3: 
Septimius Severus. emp.; Edict of 
Caracalla; disintegration of empire, 
10c; Goths invade; pestilence; war 
with Sapor I.; Aurelianf unity re- 
stored; Diocletian: Constantine; six 
emperors, lOd; war with Persia; em- 
pire divided (1st) ; treaty with Persia, 
lOe; finally divided, lOe&f; Alaric & 
Goths sack; East. Romans & Per- 
sians: Zoroastrians; Genseric & Van- 
dals; West. Empire overthrown, lOf, 
Seealso Carthage. Hannibal, Casar, 
Britain, Byzantium. See Roman Em- 
pire, in Diet. 
— (city, medieval & modern), loses 
ascendancy north of Alps, lib; Beli- 
sarius enters; Vitiges besieges, Uf; 
Charlemagne overcomes insurr.; Sara- 
cens besiege, 12c; Crescentius 12e; 
Henry IV. advances on, 13a; indul- 
gences to pilgrims. 14d; papal court 
removed. 14e; Rienzi rules; revolts, 
14f: papal court restored, 15a; Con- 
stable Bourbon takes. 17a. 114e; pope 
imprisoned, 17a; Charleg V. emp., 17b; 
status in 1648. 114d; Fr. occupy. 99a; 
(Fr.) republic estab. at, 22a. 99a, 
116a; Napoleon restores to pope, 11 6b; 
Fr, occupy (1808). 99d; part of Fr. 
empire, U6b; "King of" (title), 22e; 
republic estab. at (1849); Aust. take; 
held by Fr., 116c; pope in power; Fr. 
withdraw; Fr. return; Garibaldi at- 
tacks; Ecumenical council. 116d; Fr. 
withdraws; Ital. enter. 25d, 116d; 
union with It.. 25d, 114f, 116d; Vic- 
tor Emmanuel's capital, 114f, 116d; 
strike riots; 1st Women's Congress in 
It.; beatification of Joan of Arc; anni- 
versary of It. troops entering, 117a. 
See Holy Roman Empire, Italy, 
Vatican . 
— , Pact of (1918). 121c. 
Romme, calendar, 98f. 
Romulus, fnds. Rome, 7b. 
Ronins, episode of the 47, 119c. 
Rooke, Sir George, 20d. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, life, 217e;chro- 
nology, 218b; portrait, 212.— Other 
refs.: 199b; "Rough Riders," 164c, 
ISOd; elected vice pres., 180f ; becomes 
pre3,;lst term, 165a, 181a; coal strike, 
ISlb; forbids Ger. to occupy Venez. 
ter., 155e: recognizes Panama, 164d; 
defends Canal & Panama policy; ap- 
points Canal commission, 18Id; & 
Morocco. 128eSff; antitrust legisla- 
tion, 164f; issues invitation to 2nd 
Hague Peace Conf.; elected for 2nd 
term, I81e; events of 2nd term, 164f, 
165a. ISle; treaty with Domin. Re- 
pub.. 91f; initiates peace negotiatons 
bet. Rus. & Japan, 26d. USe&f, 120c. 
164e. ISlf; & Monroe Doctrine, 164e: 
intervenes in Guatemala, 79d, 81c: 
dismisses 3 companies of Negro regu- 
lars. 182a; visits Panama & Porto 
Rico, 82d, lS2a; awarded Nobel peace 
prize, lS2b; against segregation bill of 
Calif,; lays corner stone of Lincoln 
memorial; reviews returned fleet, 182e; 
hunting exped. to Africa, 182f, lS3a; 
visits Europe; welcome at N. Y..lS3a; 
speech at Osawatomie on "New Na- 
tionalism." 183b; forms Progressive 
party, 184a; nomin. for pres., 165b, 
184a; shot at Milwaukee; vote in 
(1912) election, 184b; wins libel suit. 
184f: sails for So. Amer.. 185a; disc, 
Rio Teodoro. 185d; wins Barnes libel 
suit, 186f: Progressive Nat. Conv. 
nominates (1916), 188c: declines 
nomin.. 188d; dies, 192c; Memorial 
Day (Feb. 9, 1919) observed. 192d. 
— Dam. 26a. 

Root, Elihu. sec. of state, 181f; at Rio 
de Janeiro, 49c&50a; exchanges notes 
with Takahira, U8f. 120c, 182e; 
awarded Nobel peace prize, 185b; 
heads commissioQ to Russia, I42e. 



Roquebrune. 128d. 

Rosamunda, 12a. 

Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 40d; becomes 

dictator; defeated, 41a. 

Rose. Sir H. subdues central India, 64c. 

Rosebery. Lord, in ministry (1886), 

56f; (1892). 57b; prem.; resigns. 57c. 

Rosecrans, Gen. Wm. S., at battle of 

luka; Corinth; Murfreesboro, 175b; 

Chickamauga. 161e.t75d; superseded. 

175d. 

Rosenthal, Herman, gambler, killed, 

I84a. 
Roses, Wars of, begin, 15d; end, 15e. 
Roskilde, Peace of, I48e. 
Rossbach, battle of. 98b, 106a. 
Rosshaupter, Bavarian war min,, 

killed. 109b. 
Rostov, strike. Hid; battle of, 143a, 
Rothschild colonies, 131d. 
Rotten boroughs. 54a; in Ireland, 54b. 
Rotterdam, food riots. 130d. 
Rouen, Joan of Arc burned. 15c. 
Rough Riders, 164c, ISOd. 217f. 
Roulers. taken. 37a. 
Roumania, hist, outline, 136b; or- 
ganization; govt.; Indus. & labor, 
136d; relig.; educa.; defense; area. 
136'', 221; pop.. 136e: recent statis- 
tics. 222; map, 38, 64. Chronology, 
136f. — Other refs.: native rulers sup- 
planted, I52e; reforms, 152f: conven- 
tion with Rus.; Rus. invades; war 
against the Porte. 153b; independ., 
151e, 153c; alliance with Aust., 45a; 
joins Balkan SUtes against Bulg.,26f, 
78b&f; gets Danube-Tutrakan-Bal- 
chik triangle, 78f; Ger. commercial 
treaty with(1916), 108a; treaty with. 
Allies, 34b, 114a: promised the Banat, 
12Ib: joins Entente Allies, 29a; de- 
clares war on .'\ust., 34b, 3Se. 45f; in- 
vades Transylvania; driven from Tran- 
sylvania. 34e; conq. of, 29a; driven 
from Bucharest-Constanta, 34e&f; de- 
feated at Turgu-Jiu; loses Craiova; 
Bucharest abandoned: Wallachia; 
Dobruja; retire to Moldavia, 34f; oc- 
cupied by Ger., 29e; accepts enforced 
armistice, 29e, 35d&f; Bolshevist 
(Rus.) govt . breaks off relations with, 
143a; unites with Bessarabia, 143b: 
Treaty of Bucharest, 36c; occupies 
Banatregion, I13c; troops aidagainst 
Bolsheviki, 143d; occupies Budapest; 
ultimatum; Aust. treaty; retire from 
Budapest; withdraw from Tisza.ll4b; 
gets most of Banat. 121e: World War 
statistics. 3Sc-38f; number of Roum. 
in Austria-Hungary, 42f, 121; Ukrai- 
nians in Roum.. 139c. 
Roumelia, Eastern, formed. 78d; rev- 
olution, llOc; unites with Bulgaria, 
26a, 7Se: separated from Bulgaria; 
Bulgaria seizes; Alexander of Batten- 
berg gov. -gen., 78a. 
Rousseau, J. J., 21c. 
Roussillon. Fr. gains, 97d, 146d; Sp. 

campaign in, 98e. 
Rouvier, Maurice, premier; for. min- 
ister; ministry resigns, lOlc. 
Rovereto, battle of (1796), 99a; It. 
occupies (1915), 33d; Aust. evacu- 
ates. 37b; It. occupies, 117e. 
Rove Tunnel, completed, 102b. 
Roxana, .'^le.xander marries, 8d; killed, 

8e. 
Royal Danish Greenland Co., If. 
^ Geographical Society, Venezuela 
boundary, 155d, 

— Niger Company, 56b. 

— Titles Act. Eng. (1876), 56d; (1901). 
57d. 

Rc^alists (Fr.).rising(1792); in Ven- 
dee (1793), 9Se; overcome. 98f. 

Roye. Brit, capture, 36e. 

Rozhestvenski, Adm., commands 
Russian Baltic fleet, 120c; Dogger 
Bank incident. 141d. 

Ruanda, added to Belg. Congo.48b&c. 

Rubber, India, Goodyear vulcanizes. 
172f. 

Rubicon, the, Cssar crosses, 9f. 

Rudini. Marquis di, succeeds Crispi; 
maintains Triple Alliance; over- 
thrown, 116e; premier; resigns, 116f. 

Rudolph, Crown Prince of Aust., sui- 
cide, 45a. 

^ I., of Ger. (Rudolph of Hapsburg), 
emperor; wins .■\ust. & other terrs.; 
sets sons over them, 14c. 

— , of Ger., son of above, 14c. 

— II., of Ger., gives up Aust., Moravia, 
& Hung., 18d; religious toleration in 
Bohemia; surr. crown, I8e. 

^ of Swabia, emp.; dies. 13a. 

Rueil, Peace of. 97d. 

Rugen, island of, Sw. gets control of. 

148c&e. 
Ruhr district. Reds rise in, 109d. 
Rumely. Edward A., indicted, 191d, 
Rump Parliament, part of Long Pari, 

(which see), 19c: dismissed, 52a; 

meets (1659); army expels; restored; 

finally dissolved, 52b. 
Rumsey, James. 169c. 
Rupert of the Palatinate (1400), 15b. 
— , Prince (1643), takes Bristol, 19b: at 

Marston Moor, 19c. 
Rupert's Land, 71d. 
Rural Credits Act, 18Sd. 

— free delivery, U. S., 180a. 
Rurik, at Novgorod ;fnd3. Rus. empire, 

12d. 137a. 

Rurik dynasty, ends. 18c. 

Russell. Edward (Earl of Orford), de- 
feats Tourville; in Junto, 53a. 

•■-, Lord John, leads in repeal of Corpo- 
ration & Test Acts. 55a: in ministry 
(1830); introd. Reform Bill, 55b: 
home sec. 55c; prime minister (1846), 
55e; & Canada, 71e; Irish measures. 
55e5rf; forces Palmerston to resign; 
resigns; for. sec, 55f, 56a; prime min- 
ister (1865); resigns, 56b. 

^, Lord William, in conspiracy with 
Essex; executed, 52e. 

Russia, hist, outline, 137a; govt., 138d; 
Indus. St labor, 139a; religion; educ; 
defense, 139b; area. 139c, 221; pop.; 
former Rus. possess.; the Ukraine 
(Ukrainia). 139c; Siberia. 139d: de- 
pend, in AKia.l39e;former Baltic Prov- 
inces, 143f; recent statistics, 222; 
maps, 18. 38, 64; modes of travel, il- 
lust., 116. Chronology, 139e.— 
Other refs.: Before 164S; see also 



Medieval Period, Early Modern Pe- 
riod; Rurik fnds., 12d; Vladimir the 
Great converted, 12e; Yaroslav; dis- 
E membered; principalities creatsd, 12f' 
Mongols defeat. Ha; Batu Khan de- 
feats, 14h; Ivan the Terrible extends. 
17d; Rurik dynasty ends. 18c; Boris 
Godunov succeeds Feodor I., 18c&d; 
Feodor II.; Pseudo Demetrius; Basil 
IV., 18d: 2nd Pseudo Demetrius; Mik- 
hail Romanov; cedes Karelia & Ingria 
to Sw., 18e. 

1648-1904: see Earlv Modem Peri- 
od-.emh. arrives at Peking; rejected. 
85b; invades Pol.. 134c: war on Sw„ 
19d; Isf war with Turkey, I9f; war 
with China. 19e: Peter "the Greaf 
(se^ Peter I.). 20a&b: war with Sw. 
(1697), 20b. H8c&f:. defeated at 
Narva, 20c, 14Sf; war with Turkey 
(1716), 152e; Peace of Nystad, 20f, 
148f: Catherine I.. 20f; in alliance 
against Sp. & Aust., 146f; Peter 11.; 
Anna Ivanovna; Ivan VI., 20f; Eliza- 
beth. 21a; war with Sw. (1741). H8f; 
settlements in Amer. begun, 168b, 
209a&b; peace of Abo. 21a: in Seven 
Years' War, 44a; Peter III,, 21b: 
Peace of St. Petersburg (1762). 21c, 
106a: Catherine 11.; 1st partition of 
Pol 21c; Peace of Kuchuk Kainarja, 
21c&d, 78d; m Armed Neutrality, 54a 
&d; vrar with Turkey (1787). 21e, 
44b; 2nd partition of Poland, 2If:get3 
Finland: induces Sw. to join Conti- 
nental system, 148c; annexes Georgia. 
102f; Ale.xander I., 22b; interests in 
Armenia, 41e; war with Turkey(1806- 
12), 22d; gets Finland, 22e, 93c&d; 
Napolebn's campaign in, 22eSrf. 99e; 
Pruth boundary; Treaty of Kalish; 
Peace of Kiel, 22f; Holy Alliance.24b: 
claims in No.Amer.. 17lc; treaty with 
U. S., 171d; treaty with Eng. (1825); 
fi.\es boundaries of Alaska, 71d: treaty 
with Eng. & Fr. (1827), llOb; aids 
Aust.. 24f. 44d; driven out of Danube 
Principalities, 44e: Crimean War, 25a, 
153a: China cedes Amur region, 84a- 
serfs freed. 25b: Prus. aids against 
Poles, 25c; Alaska treaty with U. S.. 
176d, 209a&:b; Bismarck supports, 
^Sd&e; convention with Roum.;Turi£. 
war (1877). 153b; Peace of San Ste- 
fano, 25f. 44f; annexes parts of Arme- 
nia, 41f; plans for greater Bulgaria, 
7Sa; Austro-German alliance against, 
ToLH^,' '■«'at'0"s with Eng. since 
1880, 51a; treaty with China, 85f: 
stirs up insurr. in Bulg.. 78a; 3 yrs.' 
alliance with Ger., 26a; alliance with 
Fr.. lOOf; sealing dispute with U. S., 
181b; commercial treaty with Ger. ' 
(1894). 107c; agreement with Eng. 
oyer Pamir, 64e; privileges in China, 
84a&b: agreement with Ger. over Bag- 
dad R. R., 125a: rivalry with Gr.Brit. 
over Pers,. 132c; Ger. commercial 
treaty with (1903). 107d; intrigues ia 
Tibet, 64e. .See also Alexander /., 
//.. ///.. Nicholas I. & //. 
From 1904: Russo Jap. War (see 
below) ; Dogger Bank affair, 57f;with- 
draws from Manchuria, 86d; conven- 
tion with Eng. on Asiatic spheres. 58a; 
entente treaty with Japan (1910), 
/2pd; U. S. treaty abrogated (1911). 
183e: negotiations with Outer Mongo- 
lia, 87a; understanding bet. Austrian 
emperor&czar (1913), 45d: in World 
War. 27b, 43a; mobilizes; Ger. declarea 
war, 27b. 31d: Aust. declares war.Sle, 
45d; actions on Rus. front (1914), 27e, 
32bS£c; Dardanelles closed, 31e; in- 
vades Turk. Armenia. 32d; actions oo 
Rus. front (1915), 28b, 33bS£c; drives 
Turks from Tabriz, 33e; capturesVan, 
33f; actions on Rus. front (1916), 2Sf, 
34d&e; .Armenian campaign; takea 
Kermanshah, 34f; takes Erzeruni, 
Trebizond, Bitlis, Mush, & Erzingan, 
34f, 35a, 42a: control in Armenia,35a; 
driven from Bucharest -Constantsa, 34e 
Sa\ builds forts in Manchuria, 87c; 
retires to Moldavia, 34f; & Mongolia, 
87c; revolution in (1917), 29d: actions 
on Rus. front (1917). 35e8rf; Bol- 
sheviki control. 29d, 35f; Soviets sign 
armistice, 29d, 35d; retires from 
Roum.. 35f: Peace Conf. at Brest- 
Litovsk. 35d: Soviet delegates with- 
draw, 36b; retires from Armenia & 
Persia. 37c: Peace of Brest-Litovsk 
(which see), 29d. 36c; supplement, 
agreements bet. Soviet govt. & Ger. 
(Aug. 1918), 36c; World War statis- 
tics, 38c-38f; problem of, at Peace 
_ Conf., 31b; not in League of Nations. 
li. 37f. See Allies, Bolsheviki. Entente, 

Soviet. World-War Period. 
Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Re- 
public. 138f. 139e. 
Russo-Japanese war. 118e&f.l20bSic: 
other r..'!'^.; S4c. lOlb, 164d&e, 181f. 
See D'-Durr Bank- affair. 
Russo-Turkish war (1877-78), 78a. 

Rutgers College (Queen's College). 
168d, 195f. 

Ruthenians , unite with Ukraine, 134e; 
included in Czecho-Slovakia, 90e; in 
Ukraine (Red Russians), 139c; num- 
ber of, in Aust-, 42f. 

Ruyter, de, menaces London; Fr. de- 
feat. 130a. 

Rye House Plot, 52e. 

Ryswick (Rijswijk), Treaty of, 20b. 
53a. 92a, 97e, lllc&d. 124d. 130a, 
168a. 



Saarbriicken (Speichern), Fr. & Prua. 

at. 100c. 
Saar region, mines assigned to Fr., 38a^ 

95a. 
Sabine Crossroads, battle of, 175e. 
Sabotage Act, U. S., 191b. 
Sacheverell, Henry, 53b. 
Sachs, Hans, born; dies, 16d. 
Saco, Me., settled, 202e. 
Sacred wars, Greece. 7f, 8d. 
Sadowa {or KtSniggratz), battle of 

(1866). 44f. 
Saenz-Pefia, Luis, pres.jresigns, 41b. 
^, Roque, pres.; dies, 41b. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



249 



Safety Appliance Act, 179d. 

SagaB. lUb&c. 130f>. I57a. 

Sagasta, Praxedog Mateo, premier: re- 
signs, 147d; again premier; resigns; 
premier; forma new cabinet, 147e. 

Sage. Mrs. Russell, estab. Sage Foun- 
dation. lS2b. 

Sagebrush State. 206a. 

Sahara, th.;, 96d&e. 

Said Halim, Pr., grand vizier, 154d. 

— Pasha, torms cabinet, resigns; re- 
constructs cabinet, I54a; cabinet re- 
signs, 154b. 

Saigon. 97a. 

Saint Albans, battle of. 15e. 

— Anne. Vt.. settled. 200a. 
^-Arnaud. Marshal, in the Crimea; 

batUe of the Alma, 140e. 
^ Augustine, fnd., I7f. 157d, 167c. 
203ei:f. 220; Eng.cxped. against. 197e. 

— Augustine. Sue AugusCinc, St, 
— Barthfelemy, 97b. 

^ Bartholomew, massacre, 18a. 

— Bernard, the Great, Bonaparte 
passes. y9b. 

— Christopher. 74c: part of ceded to 
Eng.. 52oi ceded to Eng.. 53c. 

— Clair. Gen. A.. 20Uf. 

Cloud, Henry III. stabbed at, ISc. 

— Croix, Virgin Isls.. 211e; Dutch & 
Eng. occupy. 211f: Sp. contj.: pur- 
chased by Den., 211f. See Viruin 
Islands. 

— Dominique, Fr. form of Santo Do- 

Sainte Croix River, Acadia. "Of. 

— Genevieve, Mo., settled. 203a, 220. 
Saint- Germain, Edict of. He 

—"■ Germain (-en-Laye) . Treaty of 
(1570). ISa; (1632). 71a: (1679j.l9f; 
(1919).3yb, 46c. 87f, 90e. 121d, 134f. 

— Qothard, battle of. 43e. 105e.l52d. 

— Qothard Railway Convention, 150e. 

— Qothard tunnel, 25d, 150b&d. 

— Helena, 65f ; settled, 52a; Napoleon 
at. I 00a. 

— Jean. Isle. 70d, 71b. 

— ^John (Bolingbroke), 53c. 

— John (Virgin l3l.).211e; Den. takes 
possess, of, 211f. Sf.e Virgin Islands. 

■^ John, Cape, Newf.. 73e. 
^John's, Newfoundland, 73e. 

— John's River, Fla.. colony. 167b. 

— Joseph, Mo., statistics, 220, 

— Kitts, 74c. 

— Lawrence, Gulf of, explored, I57c, 
167b, 

^ Lawrence River, ascended by Car- 
tier. 17b. 157c: expl., 97d. 157c, 167b. 
^ Lazarus, Islands of, old name of 
I- Philippine Islands.^ 
^ Louis = Louia IX. of Fr. 

— Louis. Mo., fnd., 168d; Gen. Price 
before. 175f; Exposition. ISld: water 
supply, 181f; Dem. Nat'l Convention, 
IS&c; Com. of 48 meets. 193f: statis- 
tics, 220; 3rd Nat'l Bank Bldg., il- 
lust., 163. ^ ^ 

^ Lucia, 74d; ceded to Fr. by Eng., 
S3e; conq. by Eng., 54d; retained by 
Eng., 54f. 

^ Marks, Campanile of, falls; re- 
stored, 116f. 

—Martin, island, 97b. 

^ Marys, 1st settlement in Md.. 167e, 
197d. 220. 

Mibiel, Ger.capt.,32a;Fr.at.33b: 

salient eliminated. 30c; Americans at. 
191e, Germans driveo from, 36f. 

^ Paul. Minn., statistics, 220, 

— Paul's, built, lyf. 

■^ Peters. Church of. 16e. 

^ Petersburg (former name of Petro- 
grad), I37b&:c; fnd.. 20c&d; Russo- 
Chinese treaty, 85f; Pres. Loubet at, 
101b: bicentenary, 141c: massacre 
(1905): under military rule, 14Id; 
strikes (1914); name changed to Pet- 
rograd. 142b. For all entries after 
Sept. 1, 1914. SCO Petroffrad. 

— Petersburg. Baltic province, 143f, 

— Petersburg, Treaty (Peace) of 
1762>. 21c. 106a: (1S81). 85f. 

—-Pierre. Bernardin de. 65e. 

^^Plerre & Miquelon, 97b: Saint- 
Pierre restored to Fr., 53e; ceded to 
Fr.. 73e&l. Sec il/tguWon. 

— Quentin, battle of, 17e; Fr. attack, 
36f: Allies take, 30d. 

^ Sava. Duke of. 123d. 

^ Sophia, cathedral, consecrated, llf . 

— Thomas, island W. Indies. 21 le; 
Den. Ukcs possess, of. 211f. See Vir- 
Oin Islands. 

— Thomas, Pg. island, Gulf of Guinea, 
13od. 

^Vincent island, 74d; ceded to Eng., 
53e. 98b. 

— Vincent. Cape, battleoff. 54c. 147a. 
Saionjl, Marquis, premier, resigns; 

forms new cabinet, 120d. 

Salte dynasty. 1st. 7c; 2nd, 7d. 

Sakhalin, disputes bet. Japan & Rug. 
over. 118d: ceded to Rus.. 119e; di- 
vided bet. Rus. St Japan. 118f. 

Sakurajima. eruption of. 120c. 

Saladin. estab. Ayubite dyn.; Chris- 
tians at Jerusalem; dethrones Guy of 
Lusignan. 13d; Richard I . I3e. 

Salamanca, battle near (1812), I47b. 

— , Univ. of, 15c. 

Salamis, na%-al battle (480 B.C.), 7f; 
Or. ealley, illust.. 144. 

— (Cyprian), battle near(449B. C.),7f; 
battle of (306^.0. 8e. 

Salandra, Antonio, new cabinet, 117b; 
retains office, 117c; resigns. I17d. 

Salaries, U. S. senators, representa- 
tives, vice pres.. etc.. increased. lS2b; 
of pres. increased, 182e. 

Salas, Jose M., pres. Mex., 126d, 127a. 

Salaverry, Felipe, pres. of Peru, 133d. 

Saldanba, Duke de, insurr. under; ad- 
ministrator; insurr.; overthrown, 135f. 

Sale, Morocco, bombarded, 128f. 

Salem, Mass., fnd-, 167e: witchcraft, 
168a: fire, 185e. 

Salic law (see in Diet.) . in Sp., 97d. 

Salih ministry (Turk). 154f. 

Salineville. Ohio, 175d. 

Salisbury. Eng., uprising in. 52a. 

^, Marquis of, sec. for India, 56d; 1st 
ministry (1885); resigns: 2nd ministry 
(1886) ,56f;3rd min.. 57c. resigns. 57e. 

^. Southern Rhodesia, 67b&c. 

Salles, Campos, pres. of Brazil. 49cS£f. 

Salmer6n, Nicolas, premier. 147d. 



Salnave. S., overthrows Geffrard: shot, 
lilt. 

Salomon. Louis Etienne, pres.; de- 
posed, lllf . 

Saloniki, Fr. & Ger. consuls murdered 
(1876), 153b;OttQman bank blo%vn up, 
lo3e: Constant ijio pie garrison surr. 
to troops from (1909), 154a: Abdul- 
Hamid 11. prisoner at. I54a; Greeks 
occupy (1912). 109f. 154b: Alliesoc- 
cupy (1915),33aS:e. 109f, llOc; Allies 
take over control; martial law. llOe; 
revolutionists seize barracks; pro- 
visional govt., llOf: Rus. troops at. 
142c; provisional go\t. at (1916). 34b; 
Bulg.& Allies at; battles (191S).78b. 

Salt Lake City, Mormons settle, 208b, 
220; statistics, 220 

Saluafata, U. S. naval station. 210c. 

Salvador, hist, outline; organization; 
gon.; indu5tr>', 80b; relig. & educ; 
defense; area Si pop.. 80c: recent sta- 
tistics, 222. Chronology. SOc. — 
Other refs.: Alvarado conquers. SOc; 
declares independence; war with Gua- 
temala; withdraw-s from union with 
Me.\ico; under protection of U. S.; 
Mexicans subdue; in Cent. Amor, 
confed.; war with federal govt.isecedes 
from Central American confed.. 80d; 
"Advancement of Peace" Tre.ity 
(1913). ISoa. See also 5an £au'a- 
doT. 

Salzburg, Protestants driven out. 105f; 
restored to Aust.. 44c. 

Salzburgers, in Ga.. 19€a. 

Sam. Guillaume. pre?. Haiti: reign of 
terror. Hid. 112a: slain. 112a. 

— , Simon, pres. Haiti; flees. lUf. 

Samar. island; given name of IslaFili- 
pina, 210f. 

Samaria, built, 7a; Shalmaneser IV. 
besieges: falls. 7c. 

Samaritan Church, 8a. 

Samarkand. Mongols subdue, 14a; 
subdued by Rus., 140f, 

Samarra, Bnt. capture. 36a. 

Sambre. t!ie. 37a. 

Samnite War.lsl.Sc; 2nd. 8d; Romans 
defeated, ends; 3rd begins; ends, 8e. 

Samoa, hist, outline, 210b; map, 194; 
statistics: Amer. Samoa, area, 210b; 
pop.. 210c. 220; Ger. Samoa, area & 
pop.. 105d. Chronology, 210c. — 
Other refs.; Ger. Samoa. 105d; tripar- 
tite agreement on (Ger., Gr. Brit., 
U. S.), 107b. 178f; 2nd treaty: Ger. & 
U. S- divide. 107d. 180d; controversy 
bet. U.S. & Ger. decided. ISlc: Brit. 
(N. Z. troops) occupy Ger. Samoa 
(1914) . 32c. 76e, 77d; mandate for to 
N. Z., 37f, 77d. 

Samos. 7e, 8f. 

Sampson, Adm. Wm, T., blockades 
Santiago. 180c; destroys Cervera's 
fleet, ISOd. 164c. 

^ & Schley Court of Inquiry. ISla. 

Samuel. 7a. 

Samurai, position of, llSb. 

San Antonio, Texas, statistics, 220: 
Amer. troops at, lS3d. 

Sanatogen Case, Supr. Court decision, 
184f. 

Sanballat, Prince.&Pr. Manasseh. 8a. 

Sanchez. Joaquin, premier; succeeded 
by Allende Salazar. 14Sb. 

Sancho, the Great, of Navarre. 12/. 

Sancroft, Abp. of Canterbury, 52f, 

Sanders. von. commands Turksat Gal- 
lipoli. 28c; commands Turks in Dar- 
danelles, 33d, 

San Diego, settled, 126a. 168e. 205a, 
220; statistics. 220; E-xposition. 186b- 

^ Diego, U. S. S.. sent to Mex.. 187d. 

Sand River Convention. 66f. 

Sandwich Islands. See Hawaii. 

San Francisco, mission fnd., l6Sf; 
Midwinter Fair (1S94). 179e; earth- 
quake & fire (1906), ISlf. 204f: Japa- 
nese excl. fr. schools. 182a: U. S. en- 
ters suits against Calif., lS2b; gets 
tract of Yosemite National Park, 
18ob; Exposition (1915). 186c; bomb 
explosion. 191b {seeMooneu. Thomai 
J ■); growlh in pop.. 162e; statistics, 
220. Spreckels Bldg.. illust., 163. 

^ Francisco Ea^. disc, 168e. 205a. 

Sanf uentes. Luis, pres. of Chile, 83e. 

San Ildefonso. Treaty of (1796). 
145d. 147a; (1800). 147a. 

«• Jacinto, battle of. 125c, 126c, 204a. 

^ Juan. Porlo Rico, fnd.. 211d. 

^ Juan del Norte. See Greytown. 

^ Juan de Ulua, 126c. 

— Juan Hill, battleof.lSOd; Roosevelt 
at. 217f. 

^ Juan Islands (mouth Puget'Sound) , 

joint occupation by Brit. & Amer. 

troops. 71f: boundary dispute, 17ra. 

207c: awarded to U. S.. 72a. 177b, 
^ Marino, hist, outline; pop. Sc area; 

chronology. 144c. 
^ Martin. Gen. J056 dc, in Chilean 

civil war, 82f; at Chacabuco. S2f. 83c; 

in Peru; proclaims independ. of Peru, 

133a. b&d; captures Lima. 40d. 

— Miguel. PhJl. Islands, fnd.. 210f. 

^ Remo, agreement bet. It. & Jugo- 
slavia. 121e; Supreme Council meets 
at, lUa. 131e. 151b. 

•— Roman, Miguel, pres-of Peru; dies. 
n3d. 

— Salvador (island), disc, by Colum- 
bus, 74a. 157b. 

^Salvador (republic), in Greater Re- 
pub, of Cen. Amer.. 79b: relig. rela- 
tions with Gu3t..79d. An earlier name 
o( Salvador (which see). 

^ Salvador (city), attempted revolt; 
Morazin captures. 80d. 

— Stefano. Treaty CPeace)of, 25f, 41f, 
44f. /Sa&d, 135c. I37d, 141a, 151e, 
153c. 

Santa Anna, Antonio L6pez de, Mex- 
ican pres. & general. 125c. 126a; starts 
revolts, 126b; dictator; retires. 126c: 
dictator again; pres.; banished; be- 
comes commander in chief; pres. again. 
126d; pres. again (1S47); resigns: leaves 
Mex.; elected pres. (1853) : dictator. 
126e; final departure from country, 
126f: defeated. 173b. 

— Clara, prov. Cuba, insurr.. 89c. 
^Cruz, Andrea.hcad of Bolivian govt; 

plans confederation: exiled, 48f: Peru 
joined with Bolivia under, I33b; pre3. 
of Peru, 133d. 



^ Cruz (de Tenerife). battle off, 52b. 

— F6, 92e. 155f. See New Granada. 

— Fe, N. Mex.. fnd.. 167c. 220; Kearny 
occupies. 173a, 

^ Fe R. R.. opened, 178b. 

— Fe trail. 126b. 171d. 205e. 

— Isabel. Mex.. 12Sa. 

— Lucia. \V. I., ceded to Fr.. 98b. 

— Ma^-ia. Domingo, pres. of Chile.83c. 

— Maria, ship, illust.. 96. 
Santana. Pedro, pres.; commands 

army; again pres.. 92b. 

Santander. Francisco, pre^., SSa. 

Sanf Angelo. castle of. 13a. 

Santiago, early name for Cuba, 8Sd: 
for Guatemala (city), 80c; for Ja- 
maica, 74b. 

— . Chile, fnd., 82f, 83c; Congressional 
army occupies (1891); 1st Pan-Amer. 
Sci. Congress at, 83d. 

^, prov. Cuba, insurrection, 89c. 

— (de Cuba), fnd., SSd; blockaded; U. 
S. army invests; defenses capt.; naval 
battle; Hobson sinks M err imac; surr.. 
Ifi4c. ISOc&d. 

Santo Domingo (city), fnd., 92a. 

— Domingo (colony), so named by 
Span. (1806). 92a. lUd&e: conq. by 
Haiti, 92a: regains independ. (Do- 
minican Repub. estab., 1S44), 92a, 
lllc; annexed to Spain: Sp. abandons, 
92b. Se^ Dominican ReDublic. 

^ Domingo (island), incl. in New 
Spain. 125b: ceded to Fr. (1793) , 22a. 
9W, 14;a. See Haiti. 

-* Domingo (republic) =i>ffmtnieaTi 
Republic. 

Santos. Gen., pres. Uruguay; resigns; 
exiled. 155c. 

Santos-Dumont, Alberto, wins prize, 
101b, 

Santo Tomas. University nf. 2Uc. 

San Ygnacio.Tc-x., Mex. attack. ISSc. 

Sao Thom6 = 5ain( TAomas, Pg. 

Sao Vicente, Brazil. 49e. 

Sapor I., reigns; & Romans; occupies 
Armenia: invades Syria; captures Va- 
lerian. lOd. 

^11. (Shapur). crowned, lOd; Roman 
war: &^ Jovian; annexes Armenia, lOe. 

Sappho, 7c. 

Saracens, obuin Syria. I51a: at Ne- 
havcnd, 12a; in Sp.; at Narbonne; at 
Poitiers, 12b; struggle for Sicily; in 
It.; besiege Rome. 12c; subjugate Sici- 
ly. 12d; (Asian) & Nicephorus Phocas; 
S:Gr. defeat Otto II., 12e; & Normans 
in Sicily. 12f: lose Palermo, 13a. 

Sarai. 137a. 

Saraiva. .\paricio. of Uruguay. I55c. 

Sarajevo, Archduke Francis Ferdi- 
nand assass., 27a. 31c, 42f. 45d, 122a, 
123c. 

Saratoga, 1st battle (Bemis Heights), 
169a: 2nd, 169a, 158f; Burgoyncsurr., 
169a. 

Sarawak. 62c. 55d. 

SardanapalU3='./l8Au/'-6ani-pai, 7c. 

Sardinia, Carthage loses; 2nd Roman 
province, 9a; Aust. gets (1713), 42d; 
Philip V. of Sp. invades, UOa. 146i; 
House of Savoy gets in exchange for 
Sicily, 116a; joined to Piedmont Sc 
becomes kdm. (1720). 114e. 116a: 
ally of Aust.. 43f; Napoleon defeats. 
22a, 114e; peace with Fr.. 22a; Pied- 
mont united with Fr., 99b; Cong, of 
Vienna restores independ. kdm. of 
Sard. (Piedmont). U4e; gets Genoa. 
I16b: controls Monaco. 12Sd; consti- 
tutional revolution (1821), 24c: re- 
volt in Piedmont (1833), 116b; war 
with Aust.. 114f. Il6c; defeated at 
Novara. 44e, 116c; Treaty of Milan. 
44e; reforms; Piedmont basis of It. 
unity, 114f, 116e; in Crimean war, 
25a. 114f, UGc. 140e&:f; war with 
Aust. (lSo9). 44e. 114f. 116c; Treaty 
of Villafrajca. 116c; Treaty of Zur- 
ich. 44e: gets most of Lombardy. 41e. 
I14f: other states of It. join. 114f. 
Il6c&d. See Piedmont, Savoy. 

Sardis. captured: burned. 7e. 

SargOQ I., reigns; conquers North Sy- 
ria, 5b, 6d. 

— II., reigns; defeats Shabaka; invades 
Philistia & (?) Judah; defeats Mero- 
dach-batadan; king of Babylon. 7c. 

Sari-Bahr, .\nzacs assault. 33e, 

Sarmatians, in Thrace. 10c. 

Sarmiento. Domingo F.. pres., 41a. 

Sarrien. J. M. F.. premier, lOlc; re- 
signs, lOld. 

Sara. Le. Brit, capture, 34d. 

Sarto, Guiseppe. 116f. See/'iuaX. 

Sarykamish, battle of. 32d. 

Saskatchewan. descTip..area.&pop., 
70e: rupr. in Commons. 69e: admitted 
to confederation, 69e. 72d; takes over 
telephone sys., 72e; dispensary liquor 
system, 73a. 

^ River, explored. 71b. 

Sassanian Empire, fnd.. 10c. 133b. 

SassanidcB, fnd., 10c. 

Satsuma clan. Il9e. 

Saturninus. Manus crushes. 9e. 

Saul, king of Israel, 7a. 

^ of Tarsus, cccverted, 10b. See also 
Paul. Saint. 

Sault Ste. Marie, Nicolet reaches; 
mission fnd., 71a, 203c&d, 220. 

Saumur, Royalists at, 9Sf. 

Savage, conspires. ISb. 

— Island (Nine). 77b. 
Savage's station, battle of, 175a. 
Savaii, Samoa, 210b. 
Savannah. Ga.. settled. 168b. 196b. 

220: Brit. take. 1693, 196a: Amer. & 
Fr. besiege, 169b: Brit. evacuate. 169c; 
Sherman enters, 161f, 175f; statistics, 
220. 

— , 1st transatlantic passage of steam- 
ship, nib&c; illust., 96. 

Savanna la Mar, earthquake, 74c. 

Savile. Sir George, causes Cath. Penal 
Act to be repealed. 53f. 

Savonarola, repub. govt., 16d: exe- 
cuted, 16e. 

Savoy. Sicily gets, 145c: House of,114e, 
116a; Fr. annexes, 98e: ceded to Fr., 
22a: Napoleon III. gets. 25b. IHf; 
Switz. objects to Fr. annex., 150d. 
See Sardinia, Piedmont. 

Saxe. Maurice. Marshal, at Fontenoy, 
98a: in .A,ust. Neth.. 98b: at Rocourt. 
43f. 98b; at LauSeld, 43l; takes 
Maastricht. 98b, 



"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha," in Eng. 
royal family name, changed to"VVind- 

snr." 60b. 

Sase-Weimar, rep, govt., 106d: re- 
public estab., lOSf. 

Saxons, in Eng.. lOf; subjugated & 
Christianized. 12c. 

Saxony. Henry the Proud; Albert the 
Bear gels. 13c: Henry the Lion. 13c&d: 
Frederick I. divides. 13d: Hussites 
ravage. 15c: in Northern war against 
Sw., 14Sf; Augustus 11., 20d: ally of 
Aust.. 43f; alliance with Aust.. Eng., 
& Hoi., against Prus., 21a; in Peace 
of Hubertsburg, 44a; in league of Ger. 
princes, 106b; radical agitations in 
(1830); govt, made more democratic, 
106d: insurr. (IS48). I06e: sides with 
Aust. against Prus., 1061; republic es- 
tab. (191S), 108f. 

Saybrook, Yale College at, 168a. 

Saye and Sele, Lord, grant in Conn., 
196c. 

Sayville, L. I., U. S. takes German- 
owned wireless plant, lS7a. 

Sazonov, S. D., Rua. for. min., re- 
signs, 142c. 

"Scalawags." 176e. 

Scapa Flow. Ger. fleet interned, 37e; 
ships sunk. 37f. 109c. 

Scarborough, Eng., bombarded. 32f. 

Scarpe, the. Brit, attack near, 36e. 

Schaerer, Eduardo, pres. of Paraguay, 
132a. 

Schamyl. Caucasian leader,surr.,140f. 

Scharnhorst. mil. system. 106c. 

Scheele, Karl W.. disc, oxygen. 21d. 

Scheidemann, Phihpp, Socialist 
leader, 108c; announces program, 
I09a: premier, I09b. 

Scheldt River, 37a: Belg. desires ter. 
at mouth of; commission declares 
against it. 4Sb; treaty gives Neth. & 
Belg. joint control over navigation. 
48b. 130d. 

Schenectady, N. Y., sutistics. 220. 

Schism. Latin & Gr. Catholics, 12f. 

^, the Great, i5a. 

— Act. Eng., passed: repealed. 53c. 
Schleswig, Danes occupy, 12f; possess. 

guaranteed to Den.;acceptsZ.cz regia, 
y91c: annexation proclaimed, 9lc: in- 
surr. (1848), 90i. 91c: incorporated in 
Den.. 90f; (1st zone, northern), favors 
union with Den. (1920). 38c, 91e, 
109c; (2nd zone, southern), favors 
union with Ger.. 91e. 109d. 

Sbhleswig-Holstein (see also Schlea- 
wig), relations with Den. & Ger. 
Confed.. 90f: war against Den. (1S4S), 
90f, 91c; 2nd war (1849); 3rd u-ar 
(1850) : Aust. & Prus, intervene ;Den. 
gets Holstein; Holstein given separate 
adm.. 91c: new constitution for Den. 
& Schleswig, 91c&d; Austro-Prussian 
war with Den. (1S64), 25c, 90i. 91d, 
106f: Den. renounces, 90f, 91d, 1061; 
divided bet. Aust. S: Prus.. 25c; Prus. 
annexes, 25d. lOIJf; repub.. lOSf. 

Schley. Adm. W.S.. at Santiago. ISOd; 
Court of Inquiry; Roosevelt's memo. 
on hndingg. ISla. 

Schmalkalden. League of, I7b; 
Charles V. defeats, 17c. 

Schmerling, Anton von. min. of for- 
eign affairs, i06e. 

Schofield. Gen. John M.. 176a. 

Schomburgk, Robert H., 155d. 

— line. 155e. 

Schonbrunn, convention with Ptus. 
at (1905), 99c. 

— , Treaty of (1809), 99e, 122d8tf. 
Called also Treat j of Vienna. 

Schurz, Carl. 177c. 

Schwab, Charles M., director Emer- 
gency Fleet Corporation. 191b. 

Schwarzenberg, Prince, ministry. 
44d; dies, 44e. 

Schwimmer, Miss, Hungarian min- 
ister to Switz. (1918). 46c. 

Schvryz, 1st league with Uri St. Unter- 
walden, 14d, 149d. 

Science and Health, pub.. 25c. 

Scio (Chios), battle at. UOb; Turks 
massacre inhabitants, 1 10b; annexed 
to Greece, UOd. 

Scipio, Pub]iu3(Africanu3), the Elder, 
St Hasdrubal; lands in Africa; Masi- 
nissa joins; defeats Hanmbal, 9b; 
dies, 9c. 

^. Publius (Africanus), the Younger. 
destroys Carthage; takes Numantia; 
assas.. 9d- 

Scone, Charles (11.) crowned at. 52a. 

Scotland, Scots, hist, outline (Great 
Britain & Ireland). 60b; organization; 
govt. .51b; indu8.5Uabor.51c. religion, 
51d; educ; defense, 51c; area & pop,, 
51f; recent statistics. 222; map, 18.38; 
Sbye crofter's house, illust.. 128. 
Chronology, 51f. — Other refs.: Be- 
fore 1648: Scots & Picts invade 
Britain, lOe; Athelstao defeats, I2e: 
Macbeth, 12f; Wm. the Lion prisoner; 
euzerainty of Henry II.. 13d; Marga- 
ret dies: Robt. Bruce Si. John Baltol; 
Battol & Edw- 1.; Anglo- Scottish war; 
William Wallace leads at Stirling; 
Edw. I. conq.; Wallace put to death, 
I4d; Robert Bruce leads rebellion; 
Bannockburn; war ends; Edw. Baliol 
& David Bruce; Edw. III. invades, 
14e: David Bruce captured, 14f: Rob- 
ert I!.; Stuart dynasty, 15a; lames I.; 
James II.. 15c: j3mes III.; James IV.. 
15f; invades Eng.; at Flodden; treaty 
with Henry VIII., 16f; bat. at Solway 
Moss; James V. dies; Mary Stuart, 
17c:treaty with Eng,,17d; John Knox; 
rebellion against Mary of Guise; re- 
formers* treaty with Elizabeth Si. Mary 
Stuart; Mary Stuart arrives. 17e; 
Damley assas.: James VI.; Mary cap- 
tive, 17f; Eng. invade. ISa; Mary be- 
headed. ISb; church of, ISc; James VI. 
king of Eng. as James I.. I8d; Eng. 
forms of worship in; episcopacy abol- 
ished: Nat'l Covenant: invade Eng. 
(1640). 19b; Solemn League & Cove- 
nant. 19b&:c: invade Eng. (1644); de- 
liver Charles I. to Pari.; aid Royal- 
ists. 19c, Unionof Scotland with Eng. 
(1707). 20d. 50c, 53b. Sse England. 

Scott, Capt. Robt. F., reaches South 
Pole. 58d. 

— , Gen Winfield. in war of 1812, 170f; 
Ukes Vera Cruz. I25c, 173b; defeats 



Santa Anna,173b:occupieg Mex. City, 
125c,17.3b:pres. candidate,173d.215b. 

^ Act (local option). Canada, 72c. 

Scranton. Pa., statistics. 220. 

"Scrap of Paper." action of Russia 
(1870). 25d; episodeof 1914. 27c. 31e. 

Scrutin de liste. adopted. l(K)e. 

Scutari, Montenegrins alUck. 154b: 
siege of. 45d. 123a. 154c: Aust. sends 
ultimatum regarding, 45d; powers 
blockade. 45d. 123a&b: powers to in- 
corporate in autonomous state. 154c: 
surr. to Montenegrins. 123aS:b. I54d: 
capture celebrated in St. Petersburg, 
142b: Nicholas agrees to evacuate, 
123b; given up to powers, 45d.l23a&b. 
I54d; Aust. occupies (1916). 29a, 34e: 
It. occupies. 37c, 

Scjrthians in West Asia, 7d. 

Sealing dispute. U.S. & Russia. 181b: 
U. S. & Gt. Brit.. 179c: treaty bet. 
U. S.. Japan, Eng., St Rus., i83d. 

Search, right of. Eng. claims. 15yd. 

Seas, freedom of, one of "14 points." 
190e. 

Seattle, Wash.. Alaska-Yukon-Paci6c 
Expos., 26e, 182f; Nat'l Conservation 
Congress at, 182f;generaJstrike,I92d: 
statistics. 220. 

Sebastopol, siege of, 140e: bombard- 
ment: falls. 1401. 

Secession (U. S.) of Southern States, 
161b&c; Buchanan denies right of, 
174b; Cotton States bent on; Ordi- 
nance of. in S. C: other Cotton States 
follow, 174c; Lincoln denies right; 
Border States secede. 174d: Ordi- 
nanc.-i .if, r.-scinded, I76b. 

Second Ballot Act, New Zealand, 77d. 

Sedan, bjttl..- of (1870), 94c; Ameri- 
cans reach (1918), 36f. 37a. 

Sedgemoor, battle of. 52f. 

Sedition .\ct (U.S.. 1918), 191c. 

Segauli. Treaty of. 64b. 129b. 

Seim. Transcaucasian Diet. 102f. 

Sejanus. 10b. 

Selangor, 65c. 

Selbourne, Lord, high commissioner 
for So. Alrica, 67c. 

Selective Draft Law Cases, Supr. 
Court decision, 190e. 

Seleucia, fnd., 8e; dynastic war. 9a: 
Carus conquers, lOd. 

Seleucids (Seleucids), Era of the. 6c. 
Se, 132b; Arsaces revolts against, 9a. 

Seleucus I. (Nicator), Babylon occu- 
pied; defeats Antigonus; fnds. cities, 
8c; defeats Lysimachus; dies, Sf. 

— II. (Cailinicus), 9a. 

— IV. (Philopator), 9c. 

Seiim I., Sultan of Turkey, conq. 
Egypt, 6Sb, li2c: receives keys o£ 
Medina Si Mecca, 112b. 

— II., at Sziget, 17f. 

— III., reign: dethroned, 151d. 
Seljuks, in Persia; masters of Persia; 

suzerainty of Bagdad. 12f; conq. Sy- 
ria, 151a; capture Romanus Diogenes; 
inSyria&AsiaMinor; emp. disrupted, 
13a; Mongols destroy, 14b. 

Selkirk. Lord, founds Red River Set- 
tlement. 71d. 

Sellasia, battle of, 9a. 

Selle, line of the. Haig attacks, 37a. 

Selling of Joseph, The. pub.. IGfia, 

Semeaov, Oen-.scts up govt, in Trans- 
baikalia. 14.3c; invades Outer Mongo- 
lia. S7e;i:f; succeeds tColchak, 143e. 

Semgallen. passes to Teutonic 
Knights, 144a. 

Seminoles, war (1818). 203e; war 
with, over removal (IS30); in Indiaa 
Ter., 172a. 

"Semiramis," queen of Assyria, 7b. 

"Semlramis of the North," 15b. 

Semitic peoples,overthrow Sumerians, 
5b; in Assyria, 5d. See Jews. 

Semlin. occupied by Serbs. 32c. 

Sempach, battle 01. 149d. 

Senate, U. S.. bow made up. 159b; 
powers of. 106c; popular election of 
senators (17lh amendment), 184a&f; 
closure applied in, lS9e. 

Seneca, put to death. 10b. 

Senegal, hist, outline. 96c: areaStpop.. 
y6cS;d; ceded to Eng.. 53e. 98b; ceded 
to Fr.. 54a, 98c: valley region an- 
ne.xed by Fr., 94e. See UpperSenegal^ 
Niger. 

Senla.c= Hastings. 13a. 

Senlis, treaty of, 16d. 

Sennacherib, reign of (705-681B.C .), 
5d, 7c; defeats Merodach-baladan; in- 
vades Palestine; defeats Tarkaka; ar- 
my smitten with pe3tilenceiretire3,7c. 

Sens. Council of, 13c. 

Sentinum, battle of, Se. 

Senussi, invade Egypt. 33f, 69a. 

Seoul, polit. riots, 119f: rioting in, 120c. 

Separation law (church Sc state ia 
France). lOld. 

Sepoys, mutiny, 64c: enlisted, ISSc. 

Septennial Act, Eng., 53c 

Septuagint Bible, made Sf. 

Serapis, worship abol., lOe. 

^, John Paul Jones captures. 2Id.l69I>. 

Serb -Croat-Slovene kingdom. I21a. 
See Jugo-Slavia. 

Serbia. Serbs, hist, outline 121e: or- 
ganization; govt.; industry & labor, 
122a; relig.; educ; defense, area 8c 
pop.. I22b; map. 64. Chronology, 
122b (bef. 19th cent., see Sufpana & 
Turkey: since 1019. see Jugoslavia, 
121a.b,c&d). — Other refs.: conq, by 
Magyars. 112e: status in l648;"Privi- 
leges of the Serbs" issued in Hung* 
(1690). 122c; Aust. gets part of. 20e, 
43e, I52e: Turks regain ter. in. 152e; 
revolt (1804); independ.; Turk, rule 
reSstab.; 2nd insurr., 152f .in Belgrade, 
war with Turks; Turk, troops with- 
draw, 153a: declares war on Turkey; 
defeated. 7Sd,153b; peace with Turk., 
153b; Turkish war (1877). 25c. 153c: 
enlarged by Treaty of San Stefano. 
153c: independ., 151e. 153c: Aust. al- 
liance with, 45a: war with Bulgaria 
(1885); defeated. 26a, 78a&e; Aust. 
jealous of. 42f: agrees to annex, of 
Bosnia & Herz. by Aust., 45c: in Bal- 
kan League, 109e. 152a, 154b; claims 
seaports on Albanian Coast, 45d: oc- 
cupies Durazzo. 154c; forbidden to 
control Albania. 26f; desires to unite 
allSerb3.42f;gain3by Treaty of Bucha- 
rest; atucked by Bulgaria, 7Sb; de- 



250 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



R 



U 



feats Dulgariang; territorial demandg, 
7Sf; Aust. eend3 ultimatum (1913). 
45d; held responsible by Aust. for as- 
sag. of Archduke Ferdinand (1914), 
27a. 31c, 42f, 45d; exoneration of, 
supDressed, 31c; Austria's ultimatum, 
2ia. 31c, 43a, 45d; practically sub- 
mits to Aust., 27a, 3Ic, 43a; Aust. 
declares war on, 27b, 31d. 43a, 45d: 
Aust. attacks. 32c; Montenegro, a ids, 
27e,31e, 123b; Greece allied with, 109f, 
llOe; Aust. 2nd inTaaion rcpulacd. 
27e, 32c, 43a; occupies Semlin, 32c; 
invades Bosnia, 27e. 32c; 3rd Aust. 
invasion; abandons Vajjevo; Aust. 
evacuate; reoccupies Belgrade, 32c; 
typhus in, 136e: seeks Bulgaria's sup- 
port. 33a; campaign of Ccn. Powers 
against, 33e; Greece declines to aid, 
llOe; evacuates Nish; retreat to Alba- 
nia; retire to Gr. ter.,33e; vanquished. 
28d. 43a; copper minea turned over to 
Ger.. 108a; forces reconstructed, 34e; 
occupies Monastir, 34f; Aust. driven 
out, 37b; Bosnia & Herzegovina join, 
121c; in Jugo-Slavia (see Juoo-Sla- 
via. 121a-e); indemnified by Treaty 
of Neuilly (1919), 79a: World War 
statistics, 38c-f, 123b; Serbs in Jugo- 
slavia, 121a&b, 122e, 123c; in Hung., 
42f. S^eBalkan Statet. Balkan Ware. 
Serbo-Croatian language, 122f. 
Serbo-Croats, 122f. 
Serbs, Croats, & Slavenes, Kingdom 

of. See Juoo-Siavia. 
Seres. Greece gains, 109f. 
Serfdom, abolished in Prussia, 106c- 
Serfe, freed in Baltic Provinces. 144b; 
in Ru3., 137d.l40f; in Caucasus. 142b. 
Sergeant. John. 172b. 
Sergius, Grand Duke, assas., 141d. 
Serlngapatam, stormed, 64a. 
Serrano, revolution (1868); pres. pro- 
visional govt.; regent; again head of 
govt., 147d. 
Sertorius, 9e. 

ServetUB. Michael, burned, 17d. 
Service Pension Act. U. S. (1912). 

lS4a. 
Servile War, in Sicily, 9d. 
Sesostris— ftaTTwca //. 
Seti I. -II., era; Ssti I. in Palestine & 

Syria; overcomes Libyans, 6f. 
Settlement, Act of, Eng., 53b. 
^, Ist on N. Amer. mainland, SOc. 
— , Ist permanent Eng. in Am-, ISd; Ist 
within present limits of U. S., 157d. 
Settlements, oldest on S. Amer. con- 
tinent, 155f. 
Seven Days' Battlen, 175a. 
^ Laws, Mexico, proclaimed, 120c. 
"Seven Missions," to Brazil, 15&a. 
Seven Pines, battle of, lT5a, 198d. 
•^ Weeks' War, 25g. 42c. 
^ Wise Men of Greece (see under 

aeven. in Diet.). 7d. 
^ Years' War (see under seven, in 
Diet.). 21b, 44a; begins, 42d, 44a, 
53d, 98b, lOCa; Rus. in. 140a; Sp. in. 
145d;inAmer., 15Sb 168c; ends. 106a. 
Seventy-seventh Divisioii (Metro- 
pol. Natl. Army troops), parades in 
New York (1910), 192e. 
Severus, Alexander, emp., 10c. 
^, Septimius. emp.; Septimius takes 
Byzantium; protects Jews; estab, 
court at Eboracum (York); dies, 10c. 
Sevier, John. 200d. 
Seville, Spain, ashes of Columbus re- 
moved to Cath., 147c. 
— , Treaty of, 98a, 146f. 
Sewall, Arthur, candid, for vice pres. 

(1896), 180a. 
— , Samuel, pub. antlslavery tract, lG8a. 
Seward, Wm. H., sec. of state, 174d, 

215f. 
Sewing machine, patented, I73a. 
Seychelles, G5f; occupied by Eng., 

64e; retained by Eng. (1814), 54f. 
Seydler, von. premier. 45f, 46a&b. 
Seymour, Adm. Sir Edward, Peking 

relief exped., SOc. 
^, Horatio, pres. vote, 176e. 
— . Jane, 17c. 
Sforza, Ludovico, regains Milan. 16e. 

— dynasty, restored, 16e; ends, 17b. 
Sforzas(LcagueofCognac),aidFr.,17a. 
Shabaka,king; defeated by Sargon II.; 

deposes Bekenrenf, 7c. 

Shabataka, 7c. 

Shackleton, Lieut., exped. in Antarc- 
tic, 58b. 59f. 

Shadrach, fugitive alave, 173d. 

Shatter, Gen. W. R., at Santiago. 
180c&d. 

Shaftesbury, Earls of. See Cooper, 
A, Ashley, and Aehlev. Lord. 

Shah Jahan., 19a. 

Shaiba. Turks defeated. 33f. 

Shalftespeare, Wm., era &: works. I8c; 
dies. 18e, 

Sbakho River, battle of, 120b. 

Shalmaneser II., reigna; defeats 
Hadadezer & Ahab; defeats Hazael; 
tribute from Jehu, 7b. 

— HI., 7b. 

— IV.. 7c. 

ShamanisTn, in Fiii lels., 77e. 
Shamash-Shumukin, king, 7c: dies. 

7d. 

Shanghai, Treaty port. 84a; Brit. 
eeize; Taiping rebels take; customs 
collections; imperial forces retake, 
85d; Internat. Opium Conf. (1909), 
80d; revolutionists capture (1911), 
84d; peace conference: Isl trial by 
jury in China at, S6f; Cliinese-Amer. 
bank at, 87b; peace cong. (1919) , 87e. 

Shannon, Chesapeake surr. to, 170f. 

Shantung, prov., pop., 83e; Weihai- 
wei leased to Gr. Brit., 65d; Jap. gets 
dominant place in, 119a; Supreme 
Council yields to Jap on, 120f; Pe- 
king students organize demonstration 
against "settlement " S7e; Ger. cedes 
right in to Jap. byTreaty of Versailles, 
31a, 38a. S4f; Chi. delegates refuse to 
sign Treaty because of Shantung 
clauses, S7e; China adheres to Treaty, 
except Shantung clauses, 38b; Jap. 
annoui-cesauccessiontoGer. rights in& 
demands direct negotiations with 
China. 120f . 87f ; strong opp. to trans- 
fer to Jap.m Li. S. Senate. 165e, 193c 
&d. See Kiaochow, Taingtau, 

Shapur=<Sapor. 

Sharpe, Abp.. 52e. 



Sharpsburg, battle of. See Antietam. 

Sharuhen, taken, 6f. 

Shays'a Rebellion, lC9d, 197a. 

Shelburne, Lord, in ministry (1782); 
premier; forced out, 54a. 

Shenandoah, Confed. privateer, IGld. 

— Valley. Early's campaign (1864), 
161f, 175f; Sheridan devastates, 175f. 

Shepherd kings, 6eSd. See UykBOB. 

Shere All Khan, ameer of Afghanistan, 
39c. 

Shereef, Grand, of Mecca, 112c. 

Sheridan, Gen. P. H., defeats Early, 
175f; in Shenandoah Valley. 176f. 
161f: with Grant at Appomattox, I61f. 

Sherm.an, James S., elected vice pres. 
(1908), lS2e:renom.vicepre9., lS4a; 
dies; vote in (1912) election. 184b. 

— , John, 177e. 

^, Roger, 196c. 

— , Gen. Wm. T.. takes Port Royal, 
174e; defeated at Chickasaw Bluffs, 
175b; in command Army of the Tenn.; 
goes to Chattanooga; reinforced; re- 
lieves ICuoxville. 175d; in command 
in the WesHrepulsed at Kenesaw Mt., 
175e; Atlanta campaign, 161f, 175e&f; 
"March to the Sea." 161f. 175f, 196a; 
enters Savannah, 175f: march through 
the Carolinas, burns Columbia, S. C; 
forces evac. of Charleston, I76a, 197f; 
marches northward; defeate Johnston, 
161f, 176a; joins Scholield; enters Ra- 
leigh; Johnston surr. to, 176a. 

— Act (1890). 163d&:l: repealed, 163e, 
217a. See Siloer Purchase Act. 

— Antitrust Act (Law), 163d, 179a; 
Supr. Court limits, r/9f; Supr. Court 
decisions under, 180b&e. 181d. Dan- 
bury Hatters' Case, 182d, scope & in- 
terpretation of. in 1910, lS3c; Stand- 
ard Oil Co. of N. J. violates; Amer. 
Tobacco Co. violates, 18<Jd; summary 
of actions & decisions under (1912), 
184c; cornering a commodity a viola- 
tion of; Nat. Cash Register Co. vio- 
lates, 184d; directors N. Y., N. H., 8t 
H. charged with violating. lS7d. 

Shields, Gen., at Kernsto\vn, 174f. 
Shiite sect. 132d. 

Shiloh. battle of,161d, 174f, 200d.216c. 
Shimonoseki, Treaty of. 120a: re- 
vised by powers, 141b. 
Shinto, religion, 119b. 
Shipjagin, Rue. min.of interior. 14lc. 
Shipka Pass, Rus. in. 153b; Turks 

capt.. 153c. 
Shipping (Amer.) in early 19th cen- 
tury, 160a: in 1915, 187e; in 1S19, 
194b (see also Shippina Board); 
(Brit.) Eng. merchant marine (19 16), 
59e: losses of Eng. merchant marine 
(1917), 60c; (Ger.) merchant marine 
Bwept from sea, 27f. 
— Act (U. S., I'JIG). 183e. 
^ Board (U. S.) Denman. chairman, 
resigns; Hurley takes place, 190a; 
requisitions veS3els(1917),iy0b;plans 
for 1918, 191a; puts merchant marine 
into war service. 192b; continues, 194a. 
"Shipping combine trust," 181b; in- 
vestigation, 184d. 
Ship Purchase Bill. 186c. 
Ships, development, illust., 96. 
Shirvan, ceded to Russia, 140d. 
Shishak, rules Egypt; invades Pales- 
tine, 7a. 
Shogunato, estab., 118a; overthrown, 

118c: abol., 119d. 
Shoguna, 20e; position of, 118b;power 

of, 119c. 
Shore. Sir John,gov.-een.of India, 64a. 
Shortt, Edward, chief see. for Ire.,60f . 
Shoshonean family of Indians, 166b. 
Shrewsbury, battle of, 15b. 
Shuiski-= Basil IV of Russia. 
Shumla, Rus. besiege, 152e. 
Shun-chi, emp. of China, 85b, 
Shuster, V\'. Morgan, treas.-gen, in 

Pers.. 132c: dismissL-d, 132c&f. 
Si (West) River, 135d. 
Siam, hist, outline, 144d; organiza- 
tion; govt.; reiig.; educa., 144e; pro- 
duc, Indus., & commerce, 144eaif ; de- 
fense; area Si pop.. 144f ; recent statis- 
tics, 222; map, 64; travel in, illust., 
lie.Chronology , 144f . — Other rets.: 
treaty with Gr. Brtt., 144e; commer 
cial treaty with Jap., ll'Jf; Eng, S:Fr. 
in convention over, 5i'c; Fr. & Brit. 
agreement includes STf; Eng. treaty 
with (1909). 58b; yields rights over 
Malay States to Eng., 65c; declares 
war on Ger., 35c; enters World War, 
3Se. 
Siasconiet, wireless telegram from 

Lucania, 131a. 
Siberia: Before 1917: conq. by Coa- 
sacks. 18b; banishment to; ban. partly 
abol., Hlb:famine (1901), Hlc; rail- 
roadB.142a; illiteracy in. 1390, l('rom 
1917; Independ. Repub. of Siberia 
proclaimed; descrip., l<J9d; autono- 
mous govt, formed (191b), 90d, 143b 
S:d: Gen. Horvath forms anti-Bol- 
shevist govt.: U. S, to send troops to 
aid, H^ic; comes under directorate; 
Jap. troops in Irkutsk; Kolchak suc- 
ceeds to power; Kolchak supported by 
Allies; Kolchak retreats to border. 
H3d: Amer. troops & engineers in; 
Kolchak driven back in; railway con- 
trolled by Bolsheviki, 143e: Amer. 
troops St engineers withdrawn from; 
Czecho-SIovaks & non-Russian Slavs 
leave; Japan decides not to withdraw 
from, 143f; Jap. accepts Am. interven. 
proposals, 36c, 120f; Am. troops with- 
drawn, 194e. — Reindeer caravan, il- 
lust,; travel in. illust., 116; Ostyak 
hut, illust.; Kirghiz tent, illust., 128. 
Sibutu, purchased, 181a. 
Sicilian Vespers, 14c. 
Sicilies, the Two, Kingdom of (see in 
Gaz.)\ Hohenstaufen rule, 13eSd; Ot- 
to IV., 13f; under Charles V., 16f: 
Austria loses, 43f; Charles III. king, 
146f, 114e,U6a; Ferdinand king, 147a; 
rezolutlonsin, 24c; join Sardinia, 114f 
See also Naplea, Kingdom of. and 
Sieiiy. 
Sicily (see xnGaz.), Gelafnd.(688 B. 
C), 7c; Dorian & Ionian cities, 8a; 
Hannibal invades. 8b; Timoleon, 8c; 
Pyrrhus in, 8f; Carthaginians (Hamil- 
car) in; 1st Rom. prov., 9a; Cartha- 
ginians driven from, 9b; Servile War 



9d; slaves revolt, 9e; Ostrogoths lose 
llf ; Saracen campaign against Byzan- 
tines for possess, of, 12c; Saracens sub- 
jugate, 12d; Robt. Guiscnrd; Nor- 
mans & Saracens, 12f; Roger Guis- 
card (Roger 1.), 13a; Roger II., 13c; 
Alanfred, 14b; massacre of Fr.; Pedro 
III. king. He; Philip II. king, T/d; 
Victor Amadeus (Savoy) gets, 115f; 
Sp. invades, 98a, 146f; Victor Ama- 
deus exchanges for Sardinia; conq. by 
Sp,, 116a; Bourbon court in, 22d; de- 
clares independence (1848), 116c; 
Garibaldi leads insurrection, 114f, 
116d; Sardinia annexes, 116d; earth- 
quake (1008), U7a; illiteracy in. 
115d: Sicilian charrctte, illust., 116. 
SIcyon, 8f. 

Sidmouth, Lord. Sa^ Addington. 
Sidney, Algernon, in conspiracy with 

Essex; executed, 52c. 
Sierra Leone, colony of. 67f; protec- 
torate of, 68a; settlement begins, 54b: 
bound, treaty with Liberia, 123f. 
Sigel, Gen. Franz, 174e. 
Sigisinund,king of Bohemia:dics,15G. 
— , king of Hungary (1387-1437), 112f. 
^ II. Augustus, of Poland, 134c; at- 
tacks Duke of Kurland: gets Livonia, 
17e; dies. 18a. 
— III. Vasa, of Poland, tries to estab, 
Catholic relig. in Sw.; deposed, ISd. 
Sikhs, 63b; 1st Eng. war. 64b; 2nd Eng. 
war, 64c; reman loyal in Mutiay, 
64c. 
Sikkim, descrip., area & pop., 65b: 
Gurkhas withdraw from, C4b; boun- 
dary; Brif protectorate; trade with 
Tibet, 64c. 
Silesia, Fred, the Great demands ;Fred. 
invades, 43f, 105f; begins 1st Silesian 
War C = War of the Aust. Succession). 
21a, '42d, 4^f, lOOf; Peace of Brcslau 
ends war, 21a; Aust. cedes part of 
Prus., 43f; 2nd Silesian War begins; 
Treaty of Dresden ends war, 21a; 
ceded to Prus., 21b, 42d. 44a, 106a: 
Austrians occupy, 44a; Frederick in- 
vades, 106a; finally ceded to Prus. 
(1763), 44a, 106a: (German). Bol- 
fihevist republic in, 109a;part of, ceded 
to Czecho-Slovakia. 90e. 
Sillstra, occupied, 34e. 
Silva, ministry. Pg.. formed, 136b. 
Silver, disc, in Ontario, 72d; disc, in 
Ncv., 206b; in U. S., ratio to gold; 
demonetized, 163f, 177b; price de- 
clineG; govt, purchase of bullion, 163i; 
Bland-Allison Law, 11 lU Silver Pur- 
chase (Sherman) Act, 163d&f. 179a; 
repealed, 163eM, 179e, 217a; free 
coinage demanded, 179e: campaign 
issue (1896J. 180a: (1900), 18Uf. 
^ Age of Rom. lit., lOc. 
^ coinage, 1st in Campania, 8d; 1st at 
Rome, 6f. For free coinage in U. S,, 
see under Silver. 

— Men. 16-to-l. 163f. 

— Purchase Act, 163d&f, l79a, 217a; 
purchase clause repealed, 163e^,179e, 
217a. 

— State, 206a. 
Simla, 64b. 

Simnitza. See Zimnicea. 
Simon, pres., Haiti: dees. lUf. 
Simonides, 7c. 

Simon Maccabsus, 9d. 

Simony, forbidden, 13a. 

Simplon tunnel, completed, 25d, 116f: 
1st tram, H6f. 

Sims, Adm. Wm.S., in war zone, lS9f: 
refuses Distinguished Service Medal; 
controversy with Sec. Daniels, 193f. 

Sinai peninsula, mines worked in. Od; 
Ramses 111. has mines in, 61; assigned 
to Egypt (1915); occupied by Turks. 
68f; Turks attack in; driven from; 
railway across, 69a; Brit, control, 36a. 

Sind War, 64b. 

Singapore, area & pop.; has adminis- 
tration over Cocos. Cliristmas, fii La- 
buan islands, 65d; Eng. acquires, 54b. 

SinHa. Lord, landersec. for India in 
new coalition mm. (1919), 61a, 62f. 

Sinking Fund Act, Eng., 54b. 

Sinn fein (Sinn Feiners), 50f; leads 
rebellion in Dublin, 59e: in Australia, 
76e; refuses to participate in Irish 
convention (1917), 50c; cap. Kilta- 
magh, 60e: agitators arrested, 60t; in 
1918 election; constituent assembly at 
Dublin issues Decl. of Independ. ,bla; 
demonstrations in Limenck, 61b; 
proclamation for suppression of; make 
gains in munic. elections; seditious 
acts, 61e; Mayor of Cork assas.; pris- 
oners on hunger strike, 61f. 

Sinopa, battle of, 140e. 

Siouan family of Indians, 166b. 

Sioux City. Iowa, sUti3tic8,220. 

— Indians, dwellings, illust., 128; 
massacres (1862), 205b; massacre of 
Custer's force. 177d. 

Sippar, 6d. 

Siraj-ud-Daula, Nawab. 2Ib. 

Sirius, Amer. steamship, 172d. 

Sisson documents, 143c. 

Sistova, Peace of, 21e, 44b, 152e. 

Sitka, settled. 21a, 168b; climate,209b. 

Sitting Bull, leads Sioux at rnassacre, 
177d. 

Six Acts, Eng., 54f, 

"Six Powers Group," 80f, 

Sixtus de Bourbon, Prince, letter of 
Emp. Charles to. 46a. 

Size.comp.. U.S.S: other countries. 221. 

Skierniswice, conference at. 45a, 
107b. 141a. 

Ski runner. Norway, illust,, 116. 

Skouloudis. Etienne, premier, llOe; 
resigns, llOf. 

Skulski, premier of Pol., 134f. 

Sfcupshtina, 121c, 122a. 

"Sky scraper," illust., 12S. 

Slankamen, battle of, 152e. 

Slater, Sam., 1st cotton factory, 160a. 

Slaughterhouse cases (see inDicl.). 
177b. 

Slava, battleship, Rus. abandon. 36b. 

Slavery, trade abolished (1814-50), 
gen. summary, 24b; in Arabia. 112b: 
in Brazil, 49a, b&f ; in Central Amer.. 
80c&d; in Cuba, S9a; abolition de- 
creed. 89c, 145e. 147d; Eng. secures 
monopoly by assiento, 53c; controls 
slave trade to Span. Amer., 40c; abol- 



ishes trade, 22d, 54e; aboL in Brit, 
colonies. 55c; France, abol, in colo- 
nies, 100b; Haiti, trade begun in, 
Ulc: revolt; abol., lUe; Jamaica, 
revolt, 74b. abol., r4b&c; Mex.abol., 
126b; Port, trade begun (1444), 15d: 
in Rus, (see Serfs): So. Africa, abol.. 
66f; Tripoli, abol.. 117a; U. S.: orig- 
in, ISf, 157e, 167d: problem, gen. 
resum^; statistics: Federal legislation. 
160d: Abolition movement. 160e&f, 
161a: Sellino of Josep'i, antialavery 
tract, pub. (1700). 168.-1; Penn. Abol. 
Society. 168f; abol. in Vt. (1777). 
I69a; Mass. against, 169b; N. H. 
against, 169c; Ordinance of 1787 pro- 
hibits in N.W. Ter.. 169d; 20Ie.205c-, 
extension of, in South, 160a: foreign 
trade prohibited (1807-9 j), 170c: 
growing problem of, 171a; .A.mer.colo 
nization Society organized;Liberia es 
tablished, 123e&f; prohib. by Mis- 
souri Compromise. 159e. 171c. 207a; 
controv. in Cong. over, in Dlst. of 
Col., 209c; controversy over (1831- 
1861), 172a-174c; Amer. Antislavery 
Society organized, 172b; struggle over 
extension in i.ew ter,, 173c; new Fugi- 
tive Slave Law ( -1850); Under- 
ground Railroad. 173d; forbidden in 
Dist. of Col., i;3d, 209c; Uncle 
Tom'a Cabin pub., U3d: Kansas-Ne- 
braska Act, l/3c; Oetend Manifesto. 
88e, 173e; antislavery movements, 
173e; Helper 'a Impending Crisis. 
173f: Drod Scott decision; Lecompton 
Constitution; Lincoln-Douglas de- 
bates, 174a: John Brown's raid. 174b; 
declared "contraband of war," 174d 
&e: abol. in territories, 175a; abol. in 
Dist. of Col., 209c; Emancipation 
Proclamation. 25c, 161e, 175b; 13th 
Amendment. 25c, IBlcSif. 162a, 176a 
&b;aboI. in Porto Rico, 211d; charges 
of. in Phil. Isle.. 184e;U.S. (States): 
see Chronology under each Slate, 195- 
208, for dates when slavery was pro- 
hibited or abolished, or when State 
was open to slavery. For number of 
slaves in U. S., see under Census. 
Venez., abol., 156a: West Indies, in- 
trod. into, 74a. See also Aboiition. 
Emancipation, Garrison, W. L . , 
Negroes . 
Slavonia. See Croatia & Slavonia. 

Ceded to Aust. crown. 42d, 
Slavs, in Austria-Hungary. 121a; Nat, 
Council of Aust.. 121c: in Czecho- 
slovakia, 90a. See also under Bohe- 
mia. Bosnia, Bulgaria. Dalmatia, 
Herzegovina, Montenegro, Moravia, 
Poland. Russia, Rutheniana, Serbia. 
See Pan-Slavitm. 
Slavs, Southern. See Jugo-Slavia. 
Slideil. John, Amer- minister to Mex., 
126d, 173a: Confed, commissioner. 
16Ic; (i Mason), seized, 174e. 
Slivnica, battle of, 78e, 122c, 
Sloat, Com., occupies Monterey, 173a. 
Slovakia. See Czeeko-Slovakia. His- 
torical Outline & Chronology. 90. 
Slovaks (see Slovak, in Diet.), 90a: 

number of, in Hung., 42f. 
Slovenes, number of, in Austria, 42f; 
in Croatia & Slavonia, 122eicf; in 
Jugo-Slavia, 121a&b. 
Slovenia, in Jugo-Slavia, 121d. 
Small Holdings Act, Eng., 57b: 

amended, 58a. 

Smith, Adam. 21d. 

^, Gen. G. W., invades Ky.; retires to 

Tenn., 175b: defeats Banks: at battle 

of Jenkins's Ferry, !75e; surr.. 176a. 

^. Jedediah, explorer, 17Ie: in Nevada, 

20flb. 
— , Capt. John. 198c: explores N. E. 

coast, 167d; names it. 107d, 196e 
— , Joseph, killed, 172f. 
— , Ross, makes 1st Eng.-Australia air- 

plani- flight, 61c. 
Smithfield, executions at, 17d. 
Smithsonian African Exped,. 2I8a. 
Smolensk, Rus. defeated at, 99e. 140c. 
Smuts. Jan Christiaan. commands So. 
African troops against Ger. East 
Africa, 67e, 105b; becomes member oi 
war cabinet, 60b, 67e: delegate to 
Peace Conf, ; draws up plan for League 
of Nations: becomes premier, 67e. 
Smyrna (Aidin)'. hist, outline; govt.; 
area & pop., Ula. Chronology, Ilia. 
— Assigned to Greece, Ilia. 

— (city), Amer. squadron at, I53e: 
Turks fire on U. S. S. Tenncsaee.lSGa: 
Greece occupies; Greece given author- 
ity over, 111b, 

Smyth. Gen. Alex., campaign (1812), 

^ V. Ames, Supr. Court decision. ISOb. 
Smythe. Sir Thomas, 157d. 
Sneferu, era of, 6d. 
Snowden, Adm., military charge of 

Haiti, 112a. 
Sobieski, John=/oAn III., king of 

Pol.; at KhoCin, 152d; becomes king. 

I39f; defeats Turks at Vienna, 20a, 

42d. 43e. 152d: dies. 20b, 139f. 
Sobranjs of Bulgaria. 78b. 
Sobraon, battle ot. 64b. 
Social Democrats, in Ger., 107c: in 

Russia=So73.^i?ui7ciI(which see), 138b, 

142f; in Sweden. 149c. 

— Revolutionary party, Russia, 142f. 

— Science Congress, Internat ional.lSOd. 
-War (220-217 B. C), 9aS:b. 
Socialism, Bolshevist, in Aust., 46b: 

in Belg., spreads among laborers, 47d; 
in France, development. 101b; in 
Ger., 107c; in Rus,, (1917-20), 138b, 
c&f; in Switz.. spread of. 150d, See 
Social Democrats. Socialist party. 
Socialists. 
Socialist Labor Congress, meets at 
Brussels, 47d- 

— Labor party (Laboritas), U.S. .164a: 
has candidates in pres. elections, 179d. 
ISOaiif, 181e, lS2e. 184b. 188f. 

— * party, in Ger., fnd.; early hist.; de- 
mands, 103d; in U. S.. 164a: has can- 
didates in pres. elections, 165b, 180f, 
ISle. 182e, 184b, 188f ; repr. in Cong., 
62nd, 183d: 64th, 187e: 65th, 189e. 

Socialists, in I9thcent., 23f; in Aust,, 
45c: in Belg., 47d&;e, 48a&b: in 
Czecho-Slovakia, SOe; in Den., 91e; 
in Fr., 94e, 102e: in Ger., legislation 
against, 107b: Bismarck's oolicy to- < 



ward; growth of party, 103e; gains in 
elections. 104a, lU/Coid; lu Berhn de- 
mand universal auilrage; suppressed. 
107d; elected to Prus, Cliambcr of 
Deputies for 1st time; demand electo- 
ral reform in Brunswick; Congress at 
Jena (1901J; oppose war, lO/c' suc- 
cessesin Ger. (1912-14), 27b. lO/e; 
hold red week" throughout Ger- 
many (1914), lO/f: Ger.; Scheide- 
mann leader, lOSc; in Reichstag, 108d- 
in Ger cab.nct (1918); demand abdi- 
cation of Kaiser; Soviets formed; form 
cabinet, lOie; govt, in Berlin. lOSf- 
general str.ke; Independent, I09a' de- 
feated in Bavaria & Wurttembcrg- in 
MnVm°".'?n'^'"'='' ^O^'': Scleral str.ke 
(1919). 109c: in Hungary, 114a: in 
Italy growth of, 1155; in Rus. cabi- 
"^t (191/); forc2 Prince Lvov to re- 
sign, 14-c; hjld congress at Petro- 
grad, 14:f; m.ii:stry in Sw„ 149c; in 
i.w.tz., gan. against; demands of. 
loUe; in U. S., Borger & others found 
gu.ltyund-r Espionage Act. l92c.See 
Also Socialism. Socialist parta^Spar- 
tacidca. I IV. ir, 
Soci,3ty Islands, descnp., 97c' Fr 
annexes, lOOcr. 

— of Jesus. See Jesuita. 
Socrates, put to death, 8b. 
Sofia, surrenders. 153c. 
Sogdiauua, Sa. 

^*^'^/^''?;, P''o<^-8<^n- of Finland. 

k.Iled, 141d. 
Soiasons. battle of (486 A. D ) llf- 

^p^"';M^^^^^^'23^>:C;er.take(1918); 

36d; Allies retake. 36e. 
— , Synod of. Ab^iard before. 13b. 
Sojcotra, 62c; Bnt. protectorate. 57a. 
bolarecl.pse (76,J B. C). recorded, 7b. 

— monotheism in Egypt 6f i 

Soldiers' and Workmen's Council, See 
Soviets. 

Sola Bay, battle of, 52d. 

Solemn Leaguc&Covenant, subscribed 

to, 19bii;c, 

Solf.Dr-W.S.,colonialsec,:for.sec..lOSe. 
bollririno, battle of. 114i, Ufic 
"Solid South," i;7e 
Solis, Juan Diaz de, disc. Rio de la 

Plata. 40r. 155b. 
Solomon, king: dies. 7a. 

— Islands descnp., 105c; Eng. annexes 
part 5<b; oc. by Austral, forces, 32c, 
/6.% 105c; assigned to Australia, 105c. 

DOlon, id. 

Solotnurn. aristocracy of, I49d 
Soloyijv. attempts to kill czar. 141a. 
Soltikov Count Peter, at Kunersdorf, 

44a. 140a. 
Solway Moss, battle of. 17c 
Solymanll., of Turkey (thcMagnili- 
/1^V«' eolden age of Turk. Empire 
(1520 60). 151c; conq, Belgrade, 17a; 
invades Hung.. U2f; Mohacs, I7a, 
113a; obtains part of Hungary. 42c- 
seizes Buda: attacks Vienna; i John 
Zapolya, l<b: in Hung, (1541), 17c- 
in Huncary (1566): d.cs, 1-f, 

— Pasha, in Shipka Pass, 153b; Philin- 
popohs, 153c. 

Somali Coast, French, 96e 
Somaliland, Bnt. See British So/no- 

lUand. 
— , Italian, descrip.; area S: pop., 115f- 

protectorate begun, 115a. 
Somars, John, in Junto. 53a. 
Somerset, Duke of, lord protector. 

17c; e.vccuted, 17d. 
Somervillj, Mass., statistics. 220 
Somjia, the, battle of, 2iei;f. 34cS:d: 

Ger. attack along (iyi8j. 36d; Ger 

retreat, 36f. 
Sondjround. formed; demands, 150c: 

war. Il9c, loOc; submits, 150c. 
Songka, the. 100c. 
Sonnino. Sidney, prem.of Italy, 116f;re- 

signe; new ministry; caoinet wrecked. 

U/a; foreiga minister, 117e: at Peace 

Congress, 102e. 
Sontai, Fr. capture, lOOe. 
Soocilow, Gordon takes, 85e, 
Sophi, dyn.; declines, 132e. 
Sopnia, regent of Russia; directs 

Streltzi conspiracy, 139f. 

— of Hanover. 20e, 53b&c. 
Sophocljs, dies, 8b. 

Soto. Marco ABreho, pres., 79e. 

Souchez. Fr. capture, 33b. 

SouKiioailiaov, Gen., med for trea- 
son & found guilty, 142f 

Soulouquj. c.Tip. Haiti. 'lUf. 

Souit, Nicolas Jean, IMarshal, minis- 
try (lijj), tOOa: premier (1839); 
premier (1840); resigns, 100b. 

Sousa, .Martim Alfonso de, 49e. 

Soutn. the. cotton growing, 159f,160a; 
slave system, 160a&d: secession, 161b; 
Reconstruction. 161f, 162j-d; eco- 
nomic development of. alter Civil 
War, 163a. See also Southern Stales. 

^Africa, Union of, govt.; religion &. 
educ, 6ob: industry & production; de- 
fense; area & pop,; Provinces; Cape of 
Good Hope, 66c; Natal; Transvaal, 
66d: Orange Free State, 66e: recent 
statistics, 222; map, 64, Chronol- 
ogy, 66e.— Other refs.: troops occupy 
Ludentzbucht. 32d; 1st Imperial vVar 
Cabinet, 60b; 2nd session. 60f ; cost of 
World War, 3Sc,~See also British 
South Africa Company. 

— Africa, British, 57a. Sec South 
Africa, Union of. 

— Africa Defense Act, 67d. 

^ African Republic (former name of 
Transvaal prov., S. Africa), fnd., 6ijf; 
bound,; Brit, claim; revolt (1880); 
secures sclf-govt.; practical indepen- 
dence; disc, of gold, 6/a: Jameson 
Raid: declares war against Eng., 6/b: 
& Orange F'ree State, 66e; annexed as 
Transvaal, 67c. 

— African War (1S99-1902), 67b8:c: 
Orange Free State in, 66e; Australian 
troops in, 76b; report on, 57e, 

^Amboy, N. J., explosions of T. N. T., 
191f, 

— America, SeeAnwrica, South. 
Southampton, Va., Nat Turner's 

Insnrr., 172a. 
South Australia, 75c; province 
formed; settlement, 75e; copper disc; 
repr. govt.; Torrens Act, 75f; admin- 
isters Northern Territory, 76a; adopU 
woman suffrage; approves Common- 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



251 



wealth bill; labor dispute act. 76b. 

South Bend, Ind.. statistics. 220. 

^Carolina, hist. 6utline, itiTL-; statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221, Chronology. 198. 
— Other refs.: 1st colony; fails. I67b& 
f; settlement begun: & N. C. sepa- 
rated; royal provinces. 16Sb; ratifies 
Constitution. 169dL tariff S: nullifica- 
tion, 160f: Nullification Ordinance; 
Force Act (1833); repeals Nullifica- 
tion Ordinance, 172b: Ordinance of Se- 
cession; battery fires on Star of the 
n'esM74c: secedes, ISlb: Reconstruc- 
tion, 176b; readmitted. 176d; Demo- 
crats organize legislature; vote dis- 
puted (1877): Federal troops with- 
drawn, 177e; adopts new constitution. 
130a; Expositibn at Charleston. 26c, 
ISla; Gov. Blease pardons convicts, 
184c; adopts prohibition, 138b. 

^ Dakota, hist, outline. 21)6f; statis- 
tics, 220; area. 221. Chronoloev, 207a. 
—Other rcfs.: admitted, 17Sf; repcah 
death penally. lS6b; adopts equal suf- 
frage, 19lf. * 

Southern Paciflo R.R.. opened. 178b: 
land grant in Calif.. 170c: nierger 
with Union Pac. dissolved, I84c: de- 
hied permission to keep Pacif. Mail 
S- S. Co-. lS5c. 

— Sibsriau Railroad. H2a. 

^ States, war debts repudiated; ports 
opened, 176b: refused readmiltance to 
Union, 176c: Enforcement Act (1870). 
170f; Republican Reconstruction end- 
ed; "Solid South," 177e. See also 
^oiiCi, the- 

"South in the Saddle," 179e. 

South Island (N.Z.). 76f: settle- 
i»ent: purchased. 77c. 

— Mountain. Md.. battle. 1.5b. 

— Pols. Amundsen disc. 26f, 131b; 
Scott reachea, 5Sd. 

— Sm Company (1711), 53c. 

^ Slavs (sae Jugo-Slavia), uprisings 

among (1914). 45e. 
SouthW3at Africa. German. See Ger- 
man Southwest Africa. 
Southwold Bay, battle in. 52(1. 
Soviet, All-Russian. publishes consti- 
tution. 13Sf. See So[>if(s, below. 
^ Republic, Russian, constitution 

adopted. 143a. See also Russia. 
Soviets (sec 5opie(, in Dic(.. Addenda J, 
in Rusa., functions, powers. & or- 
ganization, 133cif. 139a; supreme 
authority recogniied. 29d: congress 
ofat Petrograd (1918). 143a: congress 
of at Moscow (1918). 143b: in Ger., 
organized at Kiel. I08e: Soviet govt, 
proclaimed for Bavaria. 109b;congress 
at Berlin: govt, in Brunswick .Sc Mu- 
nich overthrown. 109c: in Huag., 
Ii3c, 114a. See also Botsheviki, 
Ruaaia. 
Spain, hist, outline, 145b: organiza- 
tion; govt., 145f; industry & labor, 
146a: religion; education, 146b: de- 
fense; area & pop.. H6c. 221; recent 
statistics. 222; colonies, 143c: map. 
18. 3S. 64: battleship, illust., 144. 
Chronology. 146d-— Other refs.: 
Before lli4S: Carthaginian power in. 
9b; Numantine War. 9d: Pompey's 
campaign m. 9e: Franks invade. lOd: 
Vandals invade. lOf; Saracens in; Om- 
miad caliphate. 12b; Charlemagne, 
12c; Alfonso the Great: golden age of 
Arabian power in. 12d: Almohade 
ascendancy. 13f; Fcrd. & Isabella 
married. 15e; in .■Vrc of Discovery, 16a; 
Moorish war; dominion of Moors in 
ends; Jews expelled, 15f: Franco-It. 
wars (1494). 16d; cUim to America, 
167a: misrule of in Cen. Amer..79e&f; 
in Cuba. 88d; war with France 
(1502); in Holy League, 16e; under 
Charles V.. 16f; conquers Mexico, 
125b: controls Monaco (1524-1641). 
128d; conquest of Coeta Rica. 79b: In- 
vasion of Chile, 83c; Chas. V. abdi- 
cates crown, 17d: Peace of Caleac- 
Cambrfeis. 17e: fnds. St. Augustine. 
17f; colonies in America. 157d; in 
West Indies. 74a: method with Amer. 
Indians. I58a; war with Eng. (105G). 
52b; Moriscoa rebel.. 17f: era of de- 
cline: in Holy League: conq. Haar- 
lem; Leiden: Pacification of Ghent: 
Neth. provinces res st Span, domin- 
ion. 18a; Neth. provinces renounce 
authority of; annexes Port.: alliance 
with Cath. League of Fr.. ISb: .Ar- 
mada destroyed; at Turnhout; treaty 
with Fr. (1598), ISc: & Eng. in 16t!i 
cent., 157d: peace with Eng,. ISd; 
peace with Neth.; Moors driven out, 
18e: Philip IV.: war with Netli. re- 
newed (1621). ISf; Richelieu cam- 
paigns against: Du. defeat (1639): 
battle of the Downs; Catalonia re- 
volts. 19b: defeated at Rocroi; ac- 
knowl. indcpend. of Neth,. 19c: Peace 
of Westphalia (which see under West- 
V'lalia). 
From 1648, Peace of the Pyrenees, 
19d; claims to Span, succession. 19e, 
20c; Treaty of Madrid (1670); recog- 
nizes Eng. colonies. 52d: Treaty of 
Ryswick; cedes part of Haiti to Fr.. 
92a: 1st treaty of partition of. 20b; 
2nd treatyof partition;Philipof Anjou 
(Philip v.), 20c: War of Spanish Suc- 
cession (see Spania'i Succession); 
Grand Alliance ends; grants assicnto 
to Eng.: Philip V. recog.. 20d; Neth. 
5: Belgium atUched to, 46e5:47b; 
Austria renounces claim to, 43e; Tri- 
ple Alliance: invades Sicily; q ndi- 
ple Alliance defeats off Cape Passaro; 
Treaty of Seville; & Sardinia join Fr.. 
98a: war with Eng, (1739). 53d; in 
Seven Years' War. 21b. 9Sb; family 
compact (Bourbon). 98S: war with 
Eng. (1762), 53e: loses Cuba (1762): 
regains, 88e. 89a;Treaty of Paris. 98b: 
gets Louisiana from Fr,.Io8b:in Peru; 
organizes depend, nf Charcas (Bo- 
livia): driven out, 4Sd: aids Am. col- 
onies in war. 2]d: & Fr. blockade Gi- 
braltar. 9Sc; declares war on Gr. Brit, 
(1779), 169b; loan to U.S. (1781-82). 
169c;Peaceof Versailles&Paris(1782): 
gets Minorca&Florida. 21e. U. S. ne- 
gotiates with for free navig. »f Miss. 
R., 169c; ia coalition against Fr.; 



campaign in Roussillon, 98e: Peace of 
Basel (1795), 22a, 9Sf: Span, part of 
Haiti ceded to Fr., 92a. Ule; treaty 
with U.S. (1795). 21f. I69f; war with 
Eng. (1796-97), 54c, 99a: secret retro- 
cession of Louisiana to Fr.; Peace of 
Amiens (1S02). 99b; Murat enters 
Madrid. 99d: Ferdinand VII. and 
Charles IV. renounce claims to throne 
to Napoleon: Joseph Bonaparte pro- 
claimed king: capt. Fr. army at Bal- 
lon. 99d, 22e; constitution, 22e; Fr. 
yield most of (1813); Bourbons re- 
turn, 22f; war with Chile, S3c: Argen- 
tina separates from. 41a; war with Ar- 
gentina. 40d; Treaty with U. S. 
(1819): U. S. gets Florida: bound, of 
Me.t. (Tex.) ist Louisiana Purchase 
settled. 1 71b, 20id; revolutions (1820): 
absolutism restored; attempts to re- 
gain colonics in Am ., 24c: recognizes 
independ. of Mex., 126c; treaty with 
Ecuador (1840), fl2c: recog. Chile's 
independ. ■ 83c: recognizes independ. 
of Costa Rica; loss of suzerainty over 
Central America. 80f; Santo Domingo 
incorp. with. 92b: invades Mex. 
(1861). 125c: decides to enforce claims 
in Mex.; withdraws. 127a; abandons 
Santo Domingo, 92b; Chile & Peru 
allied against. 83a: Ecuador, Peru, S: 
Chile allied against, 92f; Virainiut 
affair, l/7c: promises reforms in Cuba: 
sends army to suppress rebellion in 
Cuba. 89c: cruel measures in Cuba. 
164c: U. S. demands withdrawal fr. 
Cuba, SSf: U, S. m nister dism ■ssed; 
minister leaves Wash., 180c; war with 
U. S., 161c, IgOc&d; Treaty of Pans; 
accepts peace terms, 104c, iSOd: gives 
up Caoa, j9d, 104c; cessions li 1 1, .., 
164d.&Mp.\ico, estab. "Pious Fund." 
ISlb; war with Morocco, 12SeScf;ioint 
control of Morocco with Fr., 128e; 
Pershing receives supplies from, 191b. 

Spanish-American War, 164cS:d, 
ISOc. See also Spain. 

Spanish March. Charlemagne an- 
nexes. 12c. 
— Succession. 20c, 145c. 146e; War 
of the, 42d, 43e. 46e. OTf, 105f. 130a. 
135e, 145c, ICSa. 

Sparta, revolt of Messenians (G30-600 
B. C), 7d: Messenians revolt (464- 
456 B. C); Athenians at Tanagra; 
Jiostilities renewed, 7f; thirty years' 
peace; surr. to Cleon; Athenian alli- 
ance: defeats Argives; troops occupy 
Attica, S3; Athenians d'--s:r^y fl^-ct; 
peace with Athens (404 B. C); war 
with Persians; Agesilaus commanding 
army; Athens. Thebes. Corinth & Ar- 
gos against; Conon defeats; L-lynthus. 
Sb; Athenians defeat near Naxos: 
peace with Athens (374 B. :.); at 
Leuctra, 8c; treaty with Athens & 
Ptolemy. Sr. Cleomenes III-; at Lao- 
dicea; Sellasta, 9a; Nabis, 9b: Achaean 
League. 9^, 

Spartacides (seeinDicf.. Addenda). 
103f: disorders in Berlin; revolt 
spreads; defeated. 109a: in Bavaria; in 
Bremen: Saxony; suppressed- lOSb&c. 

Spartacus. 9e. 

Speaker of U. S. House of Representa- 
tives, power reduced, 183a. 

Specie Circular. Jackson issues, 173c. 

^ payments, U. S.. suspended, l/4e; 
Public Credit Act. UOe; resumed. 
177c, 17Sa. 

Spt;e, von, Ger. Asiatic fleet, 32eS:f. 

Spake, & Grant, explorations, 2oa. 

Sphacteria, Cleoc, at, 8a. 

Spinning:, inventions for; frame; jen- 
ny. 21c. 

Spion Kop, battle of, 67b. 

Spires, Diet of, 17a. 

Spitbsad, matiny in Eng. fieet at 
(1797), 54c. 

Spoils system, 160b, 171f, 199a. 

Spokane. Wash., statistics. 220; L W. 
W. orticials arrested, 190a. 

Spoonar Amendment. 180f. 209d- 

Spottsylvania Court House.battlc of, 
175e. 

Springer v. U. S., Supr. Court de- 
cision, 17Sa. 

Springfield, Mass., statistics, 220. 

^, Mo., battle of. 203a. 

' ■ Spurlos versenkt ' ' C "sunk without 
trace"), 35c, 41c, 190b. 

Spurs, battle of the, IGe&f. 

Squatter sovereignty. See Popular 
sovercigntj. 

Squiar, Ephraim George, treaty with 
Nicaragua; canal concession, 80e. 

Staafl. Karl A.. 149b. 

Stadhold ^frship ,abol.: restored, 129c. 

Stahlberg. Prof. K. J., pres. of Fin- 
land. 93cS:e. 

Stahremberg.Count.defends Vienna, 
lo2d. 

Stair, Master of. causes massacre at 
Glcncoe. 53a, 

StambuloS, Stephan, starts counter- 
reT. in Bulgaria; regent: premier; as- 
sas,, 7SaS:e. 

Stamford Bridge, battle of, 12f. 

Stamp Act (1V05). loSd&e, lG3d&e, 
19Sd. 

Stamp-Act Congress, 158-. lGSd.l99a. 

Stampalia, It. seize, 117b. 

Standard Oil Co.. chartered. I7Gf; 
trust or8anized(lSS2), 162f; (of Ind.) 
convicted at Chicago of rebating & 
fined. 182b; decis. reversed by U. S. 
Circuit Ct. of Appeals. lS2e: ousted 
fr. Mo.. 184a: (of N. J.) dissolved. 
IGSa, 183d: concessions in China, 87a. 

— Oil Co. r. Missouri, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 184a. 

^ Sanitary Mfg. Co. v. U. S., Supr, 
Court decision, 184c. 

Stanislas I. Leszczvnski. kin^ of 
Poland, 20c. 14Sf. 139f; resigns. 20d: 
king (17331, 105f. 140a; abdicates, 
HOa; gets Lorraine. 20f. 98a. llOa; 
d>s. 9'!c. 

^11. Augustus, king of PoIand;kine- 
dom after Ist partition, 140b: abdi- 
r.H'-5. MOc. 

^ PoniatOWSki, king; dies, 21c. 

Stanislau, .\ust. takes, 33c; Russ. oc- 
riii.ips, 3.Ht-- 

Stanley. Sir Arthur, in coalition min- 
istry (1919), Ola. — 



^, Henry M.. explores Central Africa; 
source of Congo R.. 25e. 48b&c. 

^, of Preston. Lord (Earl of Derby), 
gov, -pen. of Canada, 72b. 

Stanton, Edwin M., sec. of war, 162b, 
i;4d,removed by Johnson. 162b. 176d. 

Star Chamber, abol.. 19b. 

"Star of the west." fired on. 174c. 

"Star-S^anglad Banner. '■170f.l97c. 

State, Ui.T'i of (Foreign alf airs), cre- 
ated, llJ'Jd; building, illust.. 212. 

^ Banks, tax on circulation. 176a. 

— Freight Tax Case, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 177b. 

^rights (sovereignty), 170a, 198d, 
213b. See Nullification. Secession. 

— Ta.\ on Railway Gross Receipts. 
Supr- Court decision, 177b. 

States (U. S. A.). 195-208; statistics, 
220-221. See also under name of each 
State. 

^, modern European, beginning of 
Nufl hist.. 12c. 

— . Papal. 12b. 

States- General (Fr.) 1st summoned. 
14d: at Blois, ISc; demanded; at Ver- 
sailles. 98c. 

Statas- General (Hoi.), governs, 20e: 
Liberal success, 130b; women eligible. 
130d. 

Statas of the Church. 114d&e. 

Statistics, recent, of principal nations. 
222; of U. S.. various, for 1915. 187a: 
States, cities, etc.. 220; comparative 
areas of Sutcs & for. countries. 221; 
of World War. 38c-f. 193a. See also in 
Chronoloou (1914-19) of countries in 
World War. For general statistics, 
see topics. Religion, Defense, Pro- 
duction, etc.. in Organization of each 
country': also Census. Debts, Exports, 
Immigration, Imports, ^ oans. 

"Statue of Liberty," 17Sd. 

Steam, 1st successful use in U. S. in 
R. R. transportation. 172a. 

Steamboat, trials on Delaware & Po- 
tomac, 169c: Clermont, 1st on Hud- 
son. 23d, l?Oc; 1st on Miss.ssippi R., 
170e; Savannah, 1st to cross ocean, 
171bS:c; Great Western & Sirius 
cross Atlantic, 172d; Great Eastern, 
1st large steamer of iron. 25a: illusts.; 
Clermont, Savannah. Ohio or Miss. 
R. steamboat. L-1. Sound boat .whale- 
back iS: ocean greyhound. 96. 

Steam engine, invented. 2Ic. 

Steamships, requirements for. after 
loss of Titanic. IS4a. 

Steele, Gen. Wm.. takes Little Rock, 
175d: at Jenkins's Ferry, 175e. 

Steel Trust, Supr. Court decides does 
not violate antitrwst laws, 194c, 

Stein, Baron, 22d: reforms. lOJc; Na- 
poleon forces to flee. 22c, 100c. 

Stsnbock, Count Magnus von, Swedes 
under; surrenders, 14Sf. 

Stephen of Blois. in 1st Crusade. 13b; 
& Matilda; treaty with Henry Plan- 
tagenet: dies. 13c. 

— the Great, of Moldavia. 136c. 

— II., Pope. 12b. 

— (I.). St., crowned king of Hung., 
12e, Hie. 113e. 

— VII. (Dushan). of Serbia, 121e. 
Stephens, Alexander H.. 190a; prov. 

V. pres.. C. S. A.. 174c: elected vice 
pres.. 161b, 174e. 

Stephenson, George, locomotive, 55a. 

Stethoscope, invented. 24b. 

Stevens. J. F., chief engineer of Pan- 
ama Canal. ISle; Amer. engineer in 
Siberia. 143e. 

— , J.L., .'^m. minister to Hawaii. 209e. 

— , Thaddeus. opposes Johnson, lG2b. 

Stevenson. Adlai E.. v. pres. vote, 
179c: candid, for v. pres. (1900), 180f. 

Stawart Island. 76f. 

Stigmata, miracle of. 14a. 

StillchD. lOf. 

Stirling, battle of. 14d. 

^, Adm. Sir James, exped. to W. Aus- 
tralia. 75e, 

^, Lord. See AleTander, Sir William. 

Stock Exchange. London, closes 
(1914). 5Sf; reopens. 59b: N. V.. 
closes. 1 ^5e; reopens. 186a, 

Stockholm. Treaty of (1672); Trea- 
ties of (Feb. 20, 1719 and Feb. 1, 
1720). 148f; Congress of Intern. Pa- 
tent Union; 18th Universal Peace 
Congress: Olympic games. 149b: Brit, 
commission in. 149c: Intern. Labor & 
Socialist Conference (1917), 60c: Sw. 
Congress of Independ; Socialist, 149c. 

Stockton and Darlington railway. 55a. 

Stockyards. Chicago, closed. lS6a. 

Stoic. 9a. 

Stokes. Rose Pastor, sentenced; ap- 
peals. 191c. 

Stolbova, peace of. ISe. 

Stolypin, P.A.. premier; bomb thrown 
into residence, 14lf: killed, 142a. 

Stona, Miss Ellen M.. 153e. 

— Age (Early. Middle, Lat-r) . 5b. 

— River, battls of. 175b. 200d. 
Stony Point, captured. 169b. 
Storag9 batteries. 1st used. 25f. 
Stormberg, battle of, 67b. 
Storms, cyclon' on Atlantic coast 

(U. S.), 179e; gales in Tex. & La., 
178d: hurricane in Porto Rico. 180d: 
at Galveston. ISOo; severe storms in 
Middl- West & Great Lakes (1913). 
1 S5b: tornadoes on Gulf Coast ( 190S) , 
l?3d: typhoon in Japan (1912). 120d. 

Storthin?. 130r: admits women to of- 
fice; abol. royal veto. 131b. 

StbS8?l. Gen. A. M- surr. Port Ar- 
thur. 120b; condemned. 141f. 

Stowe, Mrs- H. B.. Uncle Tom's 
Cabin. 160r. 173d. 

Strafford. Earl of. 19b. 

Straits Convention. 24e. 

— ■ Settlements, descrip.; area Jfe pop., 
65d: beginning of Eng. control. 54b: 
man, 64. 

Stralsund. Fred'k Wm. I. takes. 14Sf. 

Strassburg, French occupy. 2na, 97e, 
105e; Fr. retain (1697), 97e; surr. 
(1370). lOOd: Pres.Poincar^in. 102d. 

Strauder p. W. Va.. Swpr, Court de- 
cision, 178a. 

Straus It. American Publishers' Assoc., 
Supr. Court decision, l^Sb. 

Street cars, electric trolley in Kans, 
City, 25a, 178c, 



Streltzl, conspiracy. Rus,. I39f. 
Strikes, 23f, Arg.. R. R. & general, 
(1917-19-20), 41c; Australia, sheep 
shearers, etc. (1890), 76a; Austria, ri- 
ots & labor strikes (1890). 45a; in 
Vienna (1918); general strike. 46a; 
Belg., of miners. 4"d; by Socialists. 
47e; Bohemia, 10,000 munition work- 
ers (1916), 45f: Canada, Industrial 
Disputes Investigation Act, 72d; in 
Winnipeg (1918); in Toronto; Mon- 
treal; Winnipeg (1919). 73c: Cuba, 
general strike in Havana (1919); dock 
workers Strike, 89f; Czecho-Slovakia, 
general strike in Prague (1918), 90d: 
Egi'pt. general (1919). 69a; Eng., la- 
bor (1890); Lancaster cotton spin- 
ners, 57a; general R. R. (1911) 58c; 
great coal (1912); London dock labor- 
ers. 58d; R,R. employers in No. Fng,; 
Irish transport workers in Dublin. 
58e; Yorkshire coal miners, 58f; for- 
bidden by Munitions of War Act 
(1915); coal strike in SoutU Wales in 
spite of act, 59c; munition workers 
(1918). 60f: Lancashire cotton opera- 
tives. 61a; & general unrest after 
World War; prevented by Defense of 
the Realm Act: general strike in Lim- 
erick. 6lb; police, in London. Liver- 
pool, etc.; railway. 61d: France, gen- 
eral (1909). lOld: coal. (1910); rail- 
roads (1910). lOlc; general (1919). 
102e;Ger,. Hamburg dockyards (1897). 
lOTc; miners in Westphalia (1905). 
107d: shipyard strike (1910) , 107e; 
coal strike in Westphalia (1912). 
10;f; in various parts of Ger, (1916), 
103c; gen, strike in Berlin (1918), 
lOSe; gen. strike in Ger. (1918), 109a; 
in Berlin (1919). 109b&c; Hungary, 
in Budapest (1912). 45d: (1918), 46a: 
Italy, general (1914), 117b: (1919), 
railway (1920), llTf; on state rail- 
roads; Neth., of slate employees made 
criminal, 130c: dock (1920), 130d; 
Peru, at Lima & Callao. 133e: at 
Lima (1919). 133f; Russia, in cities 
(1903): in St, Petersburg (1905), etc.. 
141d: general (1905), 137f. 141c; in 
St. Petersburg (1914). 142b: So. 
Africa, miners in Rand; Indian work- 
ers in Natal; railway in So. Africa, 
GTd: Spain, general strike at Barce- 
lona (1913). 1 4 7f: general (1916-17). 
14Sa; lockout affects over a million 
workers (1919). 148b; Sweden(1909), 
149b; U. S., 1st R. R. strike (1877), 
162f: Chicago (188G); R. R. in Mo., 
178c; strikes & general unrest (1892). 
179c: Pullman (1894), 163e, 179c: 
Pa. coal miners (1900), 180e; steel 
workers (1901). 180f; coal (1902), 
181b. 218a; meat packers (1904). 181d: 
Fall River textile workers (1904). 
181e; Pa. coal miners (1906). 181f; 
coal miners (1908). 182d; at Lawrence 
(1912), lS3e; garment workers, in N. 
Y..184c; in Boston; at Paterson. N-J.; 
184d; copper miners at Calumet, 184f; 
in 1913, 185b: coal (1914), 185c&:d; 
1st in U. £. postal service, i87d; coal 
(1916). lS8a; in N. Y. City (1916). 
188b; nation wide R. R. threatened 
(1916). 189e; again threatened (1917), 
189e; at Bisbee, Ariz.; & I. W. W. of- 
ficials at Spokane. I90a;ia 1918, 191d: 
general, at Seattle, 192d; N. Y. har- 
bor workers, 192c; 2nd harbor workers, 
192e;railway shopmen. 193a&:b;street- 
railroad in Brooklyn 8c N. Y.; actors, 
193b; police in Boston; Steel Corp, 
employees (1919), 193c: printers in 
N. Y. City; longshoremen, 193d; soft- 
coal miners (1919). 193e; Wales, mi- 
ners (1913). 58e. Sec/. H''.n^'..I-afeor 
Troubles, Riota. 

Strobsl, .^mer. adviser to Siam, 144e. 

Struenaee, Count, premier; executed, 
91c. 

Strumnitaa. Allies occupy (1915), 
33e; reoccupy (1918), 30c, 37b. 

Strypa, Russian victory on. 138b. 

Stuart. Arabella. 18d. 

^. Henry, Lord Darnley, 17f. 

^, James. See Murrau, Earl of. 

^ dynasty , fnd-. 15a, 17e. 

Stuarts, on Eng. throne, 18d. 50b. 

"Student moveiiient,"in China.87f. 

Sturgas V . Crovvninshield, Supr. Court 
decision. 171b. 

StUrgkh. Count Karl, premier, 45c; 
assas. . 45f. 

Stllrm::r, Boris, premier. 142c. 

Stuyvesant, Peter. 195e. 

Styr, Ru5. halted at the. 28f. 

Styria, Ottocar II., gets, 14b. 

Su (Tatar tribe), 9d. 

Su^rez , Marco Fidel, pres. of Colom- 
bia, 88d. 

•— . Pino, vice pres. of Mexico, 127d; ar- 
rested & shot. 127e. 

Submarins warfare, in World War. 
see Naval & air operations, 32d, 33f. 
35a,36a.37d; al3o(iyi4), 28a: (1915). 
23d: (191G), 29b; unrestricted (1917), 
29f; statistics (1917), 191a: (1918), 
33bS:e: failure of Ger.. 30b. See also 
under the names of ships sunk, as 
Lusitania, Sussex, etc. 

Subtreasury Act. U. S.. 172d. 

— Plan. 214c. 

Subways, N. Y. City. 26c. 181e. 182c. 

Suchet. takes Valencia, 99e. 

Sucker State, 202a. 

Sucre. Gen., 48d&f. 

Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian, descrip., 68c; 
Mahdi revolt in: Gordon in; aban- 
doned: campaigQ renewed. GSb&e; ad- 
min, of. 68f; Abyssinian bound. 
(1902). 57e. 
Suez Canal, concession for: construc- 
tion begins, 68d; completed, 25d; 
opened, 25d. 68a8:d; Eng. buys con- 
trol, 25d. 56d. 68d; Convention; neu- 
tralization. 26a. 6Se: use of, refused 
to Central Powers. 26a. 68f: Turks 
attack. 33e. 68c&f, 151a: Turkey surr, 
all rights to Gr. Brit.. 69a. 
Suffrage. Belg.. universal demanded; 
manhood granted. 47d; universal, 
promised by Albert; adopted, 48a; 
Canada, Domin. Franchise Act. 72b; 
Eng,, enlarged by 1st Reform Act 
(1832) .50e. 55b; 2nd Reform Act. 5Gb; 
extended in Scot. & Ire.. 56c; 3rd Re- 
form Act. 56e; extension of by Reform 



Act of 1918, 60d; Finland, nniversal, 
93e; Ger.. gives power to nobility itt 
Prussia (1850), 106c; Socialist de- 
mands, 103d; in 1867. lOGf; BerlinSo- 
cialists demand universal (1908), 
107d; demonstration in Brunswick 
for electoral reform. 107c: equal man- 
hood suRrage defeated in Prussian 
diet. 108c; Hungary, universal suf- 
frage bill introd., 113f: Japan; trouble 
in Tokyo over. ]20f; Neth.. extended 
in 1893. I29d: Inter. Suffrage Con- 
gress at Amsterdam. 130c: universal 
granted. 12'Jd. 130d; Norway, univer- 
sal male. 131a; in Soviet Russia, 139a; 
So. Africa, problem of. 67d; Sweden, 
universal. 149b: U. S., in Amer. colo- 
nies, 157f: in Hawaii, 209f. See also, 
the art. Government, under Organiza- 
tion of each country-. See Ballot: Suf- 
frage, Negro; Suffrage. Woman; &: 
Suffragettes. 

^, Negro, & 14th Amendment in the 
South, 176c; Negro. Reconstroction 
Act provides for. 176c; 15th Amend- 
ment, I76e: Supr. Court decision on 
15th Amendment. 177d: Negro vote ia 
South repressed, 177e; restricted in 
Miss,, 179b. See Aegroes, "Grand- 
father Clause." An endmcnt. 15th. 

^, Woman, in Australia. S. A.. W. A., 
& N.S. W. adopt; adopted for federal 
elections, TGb; Canada. 73b; China, 
66f; Den., 91d8:e; Eng., campaign of 
"suffragettes" (which see), 57f, 5Sa, 
b.d&e; controversies suspended by 
World War, 58f; granted by Reform 
Act of 1918, 60d; Finland, universal 
(1906), includes women, 93e: France, 
Intern. Congress at Paris, lOld; Hun- 
gary, reform bill proposes (1917), 46a; 
Italy, adopted for national elections. 
llTf; Luxemburg, 124e; Neth.. Elec- 
toral Reform Act, 130d; New Zea- 
land, 77c; Norway, granted to taxpay- 
ers. 131a; extended. 131b; Sweden, 
granted (1919). H9c: U. S,, House 
rejects amendment. 18tb; constitu- 
tional amendment for initiated (1918). 
191a; Wilson urges, 191f, 192a: Sen- 
ate rejects, lOIf; amendment again 
defeated by Senate, 192d: passed 
& submitted to States, 192f; 19th 
Amendment passed, IGSe; U. S., ia 
the States: adopted. Ariz. .20Sf; Calif., 
183e: Colo., 179e. 20i:d; Idaho. I80a, 
207d; III., 184f; Ind., 189d; Kans., 
205e; Mich.. 191f: Mont.; Nev., 185f: 
N. Y., 190c, 199b; N. Dak.; Ohio. 
189c; Okla., 208c; S. Dak.. 191f; 
Utah, 179f. 20Sa&b; Wash., IKSc; 
Wyo., 176f. 207f; rejected in Ark.. 
20Sb: La,, 19If; Maine, 190b; Mass., 
187d: Mo,; Nebr., 185f; N. J.; N. Y.. 
187d; N.Dak., 185f; Ohi, 186f, 190c; 
Pa.. 187d; S. Dak., ISSf; State law in 
Ind. declared unconstitutional. 190c, 

"Suffragettes, " 67fS[ 58a; riot (1906)i, 
58a; further agitation. 5Sb; vio- 
lent demonstrations (1912); many 
arrested, 5Sd; violent tactics of io 
1913; hunger strike;"Cat-and-Mou9e'* 
Act; Mrs. Fankhurst, leader, sen- 
tenced. 5Se. 

Suffragists, Eng. miliUnt. See "Suf- 
fragettes." 

Suffren, Fr. battleship, sunk. 35b. 

Sugar, frauds (1909). 182f; allowance 
reduced (U.S. 1918). 19Id. 

Sugar Act (1764). 158d, ICSd. 

— E(iual:zation Board, continues, 194a, 

— Trust Case. 179f. 
Sulgrave Manor, 58f. 

Sulla, L. Cornelius, war with Marius; 
massacre of partisans; storms Athens; 
dictator: reforms constitution; abdi- 
cates;diea ;constitution overthrown. 9e. 

Sullivan, Ccn., 169b. 

Sulzer, Gov. Wm., imi cached; re- 
moved, lS5a. • 

Sumatra, 120f; Du. war in, 130b; 
map. 04; native hcuse. illust.. 128. 

Sumerians, 5b. 6d. 

"Sumtna Theologiae," 14c. 

Summer Time ("daylight-saving") 
,\ct, Eng.. 69£. See ZJci//j(j/(( sauino. 

Sumter, Gen.. 214a. 

Sunda IsUs. 129f. 

Sunday closing. Supr. Court decieioa 
on. ISOe. 

Sunflower State. 205e. 

"Sunk without trace" ("svitTlos ver- 
senkt") . Sec Spurloa versenkt. 

Sunnites, 63b, 132d. 

Sunset State, 205c. 

Sun Yat Sen, provisional pres.. 84<f, 
86f; inaug.; adopts Gregorian calen- 
dar, S6f; resigns provis. presidency. 
84d, S6f; revolts. £7a: com. in chief; 
attacks Peking; resigns as com. in 
chief, E7d; resigns chief directorship 
of mil. govt, in Canton, 87e. 

Superior, Lake, Radisson & Groseil- 
liers explore: Allouez explores; Dii- 
luth explores, 71a, 

Supreme Council, at Paris Peace Con- 
ference, SOf; gives way to Council of 
Four. 37e; demands Ger. sign treaty 
without qualification. 37f; mandates 
to Eng. & Fr-, 61c; points out failure 
of Ger. to carry out terms of armistice, 
3Sb: assigns mandate for Mesopota- 
mia to Eng.. 125a; recognizes Pade- 
rewski'g govt. in Poland, 134e: adjusts 
trouble bet. It. & Jugo-Slavia, 121d: 
vetoes secessions from Aust., 150f; 
places ban on separatist movements 
in Austrian provinces. 46d; grants 
Belg. priority in reparation. 48a; rat- 
ifies transfer of portion of Ger. E. 
Africa to Belgian Congo, 48b; par- 
tially recognizes KoIchak,143d;Erants 
Norse sovereignty of Spitzbergen. 
131b: recognizes Georgia & Azerbai- 
jan. 38b, 143e: permission to trade 
with Rus,, 143e; assigns Banat to 
Roumania. 121e; meets at San Remo. 
131e; assigns mandate for Syria to 
Fr., 151b; asks U. S. to accept raan.- 
date for Armenia. 42b. 

— Court (U.S.). descrip. & hist.: 159b. 
163b8:c,166d: Marshall. 170b: Taney: 
decisions tend toward a stricter con- 
struction of Fed. authority; 3 deci- 
sions (1836) mark retirement fr. ex- 
treme nationalism, 172c; Chase. 175f; 
Act for reduction of justices (1866), 



252 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



I76c: Waite. 177c; Fuller, 178E; cen- 
tennial (1890). 179a. Various deci- 
Bions; tax on carriages (1796), 170a; 
State may be sued in Federal courts, 
169f: prohibition on State «j post 
/aeto laws, 170a; maintains indepen- 
dence of judiciary. 170b; upholds su- 
premacy of Federal courts; Yazoo 
claims; State cannot repeal law cre- 
ating contract rights. 170d; defines its 
appellate power over State-court de- 
cisions, 17la:Dartmouth College case; 
State cannot pass laws impairing 
obligation oi contracts; upholds right 
of Congress to charter Bank of U. S.. 
17lb; reasserts its appellate jurisdic- 
tion over State-court decisions, IFlc; 
Congress's exclusive control over in- 
terstate commerce; decl. right of U.S. 
to protect Bank of U. S., 17ld; presi- 
dent the final judge as to necessity for 
calling out militia; State tax on im- 
porters an interference with Fed. con- 
trol over imports; State insolvency 
laws; Federal right to annex territo- 
ries. 171e; State loan certificates un- 
constitutional; right of a State to tax 
a bankchartered by it; State may dam 
a creek navigable fr. the sea, 171f; 
Fed. control over tribal Indians. 172a; 
Fed. courts without jurisdiction over 
State impairment of civil rights under 
Ist 8 amendments. 172b; State laws 
contrary to Fugitive Slave Law void; 
a State cannot tax salai y of a Fed. offi- 
cer. 172e: License casesC1847); SUle 
license to sell liquor; State right of 
eminent domain; a State govt, polit. 
fie not judicial, 173b; Passenger cases 
(1849); State cannot demand pay- 
ment for each alien landed; conquest 
gives a valid title to annexed ter,, 
173c; State regulation of pilots;bridge 
across Ohio R., 173d; civil govt, in 
conq. ter., 173e: Dred Scott decision 
(1857); a slave cannot be a citizen, 
161a, 174a; decision reversed by 14th 
Amendment. 102b; Fugitive-Slave 
Law constitutional. 174b; mil. trial 
illegal where Fed. courts arc open; at- 
torney cannot be excl. fr. practice be- 
cause unable to take "ironclad" oath; 
License Tax cases; requirement of a 
Fed. license tax not a reg. of com- 
merce within a State, 17(ic; defining 
jurisdiction in Reconstruction, 176d 
&e; upholds Federal tax on Slate bank 
notes; greenbacks not legal tender, 
176f; rivers as navigable water; sala- 
ries of State olhcials not taxable; 
greenbacks legal tender (reversal), 
177a; a State cannot tax freight in 
' interstate commerce; Slaughterhouse 
cases, beginning interpretation of 14th 
Amendment, lT7b; a State may refuse 
to license *omanpractitioner of law; 
right to sell liquor not guaranteed by 
Constitution, 177c; 14th Amend, does 
not require a State to grant woman 
suffrage; a Stale may not tax sale of 
goods from other States only; 15th 
Amendment confers no right of suf- 
frage; 14th Amendment protects fr. 
State action only; trial by jury not 
necessarily the "due process of law," 
177d; Granger Cases; State laws to 
regulate warehouse charges & inter- 
state rates are legal. 177e; equal ac- 
commodations in interstate travel; 
interstate commerce include9 tele- 
graph; police power of a State to re- 
strain a nuisance does not impair the 
obligation of a contract, 177f; Negroes 
cannot be excl. fr. juries; Federal in- 
come tax (of 18G2) constitutional. 
178a; State tax on interstate telegrams 
void; Civil Rights Act unconstitu- 
tional, 178b; municipal ordinances 
against Chinese laundries, 178c; State 
long-and-short-haul act a regulation 
of interstate commerce; Granger cases 
leconsidered. 178d; upholds antipo- 
lygamy act (1887); a State cannot tax 
receipts of a steamship co. derived fr. 
interstate commerce; State prohibi- 
tion act not contrary to 14th Amend- 
ment; State law forbidding importa- 
tion of liquor void; State law prohib. 
mfg. of butter & cheese substitutes is 
legal; workmen's compensation, be- 
ginning import, series of interpreta- 
tions of 14th Amend., 178e; sale of 
liquor in "orig. package," 179aStc; 
income tax (1894) unconstitutional, 
I63e; power of Interstate Commerce 
Law (1S87) to regulate rates denied, 
164f: Sherman Antitrust Act does not 
apply to monopolies in mfg., 179f; 
"Grandfather Clause" (Okla.) uncon- 
stitutional. 162d, 20Sd; income tax 
unconstitutional (1895); strike in- 
junctions in interstate commerce le- 
gitimate, 179f; "Jim Crow" cars, 
180a; combination in restraint of in- 
terstate commerce illegal; a Stale 
regulation for an 8-hour day not con- 
trary to 14th Amend.; a corporation is 
a "person"; courts shall decide 
whether intrastate R, R, rates are 
adequate, 180b; native citizenship is 
without respect to race or color, ISOc; 
an agreement not to compete violates 
Sherman Antitrust Act, 180e; State 
regulations on Sunday closing consti- 
tutional: Federal inheritance tax 
(1898) constitutional. 180e; Insular 
decisions (1900). 180f. 217d; avoids 
passing on constitutionality of Negro 
disfranchisement in Ala.. ISlc; Porto 
Ricans not aliens; Northern Securi- 
ties Co. illegal. ISld; "Beef Trust" 
illegal; compulsory vaccination not 
unconstitutional; N.Y. State law pro- 
hibiting bakers from working beyond 
60 hrs. a week unconstitutional, 181e; 
Chicago sewage & St.Louia water sup- 
ply, 181f; right of a State to take 
water for irrigation, 182c; Employ- 
ers' Liability Cases; discrimination 
against union laborers contrary to 
14th Amendment; boycott by labor 
organizations illegal, 182d; commodi- 
ties clause of Hepburn Act, lS2f; bank 
deposits; Ala. contract labor law, 
183c; affirms State workmen's com- 
pensation act; sustains decree dis- 
solving Standard Oil Co. of N. J.; or- 



ders disintegration of Amer. Tobacco 
Co.. 183d; upholds amended Employ- 
ers' Liability Act; interstate shipment 
of liquor & Original Package Law; 
questions of initiative Si referendum 
for Congress not courts to decide;own- 
er of patent operation (Mimeograph 
Case), 183f; upholds antitrust laws of 
Mo., 184a; dissolves "BathtubTrust;" 
dissolves Harriman merger, 184c; cor- 
nering a commodity violates Sherman 
Antitrust Law; sustains constitution- 
ality of Mann Act, 184d; principle of 
decision on liquor shipment reversed, 
184dS:e; State regulation of inter- 
state R. R. rates must be riuisonable, 
lS6e; Sanatogen Case: patentee cannot 
fix price; right of a State to regulate 
intrastate R. R. rates; newspaper pub- 
licity law, 184f ; a State may tax a for- 
eign corporation to do local business; 
Macy Case; combination of publish- 
ers refusing to sell to cutrate retailers, 
185b: on Pure Food & Drug Act; a 
State ifiay regulate insurance rates, 
185c; constitutionality of punishment 
of labor leaders for contempt; Slate 
antitrust laws not contrary to !4th 
Amendment; a legal order by the I. 
C. C, on interstate rates releases from 
inconsistent intrastate rates, lS5d ; 
Danbury Hatters' case; affirms judg- 
ment against union; Stale statute pro- 
hibiting employer fr. requiring an em- 
ployee should not be a member of a 
labor union unconstitutional, ISGb; 
W. Va, must assume share of public 
debt of Va.,186f;" grandfather clause" 
in Okla. constitution unconstitution- 
al, 187a: Arizona antialien law uncon- 
stitutional; N. Y. law against em- 
ployment of aliens on public works 
sustained. lS7d; income tax constitu- 
tional (1916), 188a; municipal ordi- 
nance prohib. erection of billboards 
sustained, lS9b; "Blue Sky" Cases, 
right of States to guard against fraud- 
ulent securities upheld, I39c; S. S. 
Appam returned to Gr. Brit., 189d; 
Adamson Law const ilutional; 10-hour- 
day law upheld. 189e; Employment 
.•\gency Law of Wash, unconstitu- 
tional (1917), 189f; segregation of 
Negroes unconstitutional, 190c; at- 
tempt to unionize a mine & cause 
strike where workers are under con- 
tract illegal, 190d; compulsory mili- 
tary service constitutional, 190e; de- 
clines to review Mooncy case, 19If; 
Federal Child Labor Law unconsti- 
tutional. 191c; upholds war-time pro- 
hibition act; State police powers sub- 
ordinate to constitutional amend- 
ment. 194c; Stei-1 Trust does not vio- 
late antitrust laws; stock dividends 
not ta.xable as income, 194e. — For 
specific cases in which decisions have 
been rendered, see names of these 
cases in alphabetical places; as, Cher- 
okee Nation v. Georoia; Hammer v. 
Daoenhart. etc. 
Supremo Court of Canada,estab..72a. 
^ Court of D. C sentences Gompers, 

Mitchell. & Morrison, 182e. 
^ Court of Errors, of Conn., decides 
"closed shop contrary to public pol- 
icy," 184e. ' 
^ Court of Judiciary Act (Eng.), 56d. 
^ Court of Mo., fines Inter. Harvester 

Co., 184b. 
—• War Council (Interallied), created, 
117e; Ist meeting, 35d: controv. over , 
power, 60d; sympathy with Jugo- 
slavia, 121c. 
Surat. Eng. factory at, 63d; becomes 

subordinate agency, 63e. 
Surface location on oil & gas lands, 

authorized, 184b. 
Surinam, Eng. cedes to Dutch, Ide, 

52c. 
Surplus revenue. U.S.. 172b; distribu- 
tion of . 172c6:d; Act (lS3(i). 172c. 
Susa, Alexander enters, 8d. 
Suspected, Law of the. 98f. 
Sussex, channel packet, torpedoed, 29c. 
34a. 165e. 188a; U. S. sends note to 
Ger.. 188b. 
Sutanati (Calcutu), 63e. 
Sutri, council at. 12f. 
Suttee, in India, suppressed, 63b. 
Sutter's Mill, Calif., gold disc. ,173b, 

204f, 205a. 
Suvalki, under Rus. admin.. 144b; 
Hindenburg occupies, 32b; again oc- 
cupies, 33c, 
Suvaron, Count Aleksander. at Foc- 
sani, 44b; victories in Switz. & It., 
%4b; defeats Moreau, 140c. 
Suy dynasty. 83f. 

Svatopluk II., rebels against Louis 
the Ger.; fnds. Great Moravia; Mag- 
yars defeat, 12d. 
Sveaborg, mutiny at. 141f. 
SviatopoLk-Mlrski, Pnnce. min. of 

interior. 141d. 
Swabia, Peasants' War (1524). 17a: 

Bavaria receives, 99c. 
Swan River, settlement. Ist in W. 

Australia, 74c. 
Swartz cabinet, resigns, 149c. 
Swaziland, descnp., 66b: in So. Afri- 
can customs union, 67a; transferred 
to crown admin., 67c. 
Sweden (Swedes), hist, outline, H8b; 
organization; govt.; industry; labor. 
148d; religion; education; defense, 
148e; area, 14Se, 221; pop., 148e; re- 
cent statistics. 222; map, 18. 38, 64. 
Chronology, 148e. — Other refs.: 
Before 1648: conq. Finns, 93c&d; 
united with Norway & Den., 15b; 
Christian II. in; Gustavus Vasa, 16f; 
controls Esthonia, 93b, 144b; Sigis- 
mund Vasa. 18d; gels Karelia & In- 
gria. ISe; conq. Livonia, 144b: Gus- 
tavus Adolphus, 18f; war with Ger- 
many; Christina succeeds Gustavus, 
19a; settle in Del., 167e, 195a&b; 
Christian IV. (Den.) attacks; Peace 
of Westphalia; receives Ger. Baltic 
ter.. 19c. From 1648: Charles X. 
king. 19d; invades Pol.. I'Jd. 139e; 
war with Rus. & Den.; lose posses- 
sions in N. A., 1 ?d; Den. cedes ter., 
19e; Peace of Oliva. 19e, 139e; Triple 
Alliance; Fehrbellin; treaties of Nim- 
wcgeD;retain3 Pomerania.lSf; Charles 



XII.. 20b: war with Den., Rus.. & ( 
Pol.. 91b, 137b, 139f. 140a: defeats 
Rus. at Narva, 20c; peace of Altran- 
stadt; loses power in E. Europe; 
Charles XII. returns. 20d; Peace of 
Nystad, 20f; war with Rus. (1741). 
I40a: Adolphus Frederick, 21a; retires 
fr. Seven Years' War, 44a, 106a; in 
Armed Neutrality, 54a&d; war with 
Russia(1787), 21a. 140b: Bernadotte; 
Peace of Fredrikshamn, 22e;lo3es Fin- 
land, 93c, 140c; Den. cedes Norway, 
90f, 91c; union with Norway under 
one monarch, 22f; peace of Abo. 21a; 
Norway becomes separate kdm.. I31a. 
See Norway, Stockholm. 

Sweyn, 12e. 

Swift Co. V. United SUtes. Supr. 
Court decision. ISle. 

Swinemunde, meeting of czar & Ger. 
emp. at, 1411. 

Swiss Guard, massacred. 98e. 

"Swiss system," ISOd. 

Switzerland, lust, outline, 149c; or- 
ganization; govt.. 149f; industry & 
labor. 150a; educa.; relig.; defense, 
150b; area, 150b. 221; pop.. 150b; re- 
cent statistics, 222; map. 18, 38, 64. 
Chronology, 150b.— -Other refs.: 
Before 1648: Swiss League of Con- 
federation. 14e; League of the Eight 
Old Places, 14f ; Charles the Bold, de- 
feated, 15e: war with Maximilian 
(Ger.); independence, 16e; Francis I. 
defeats; Perpetual Peace; becomes re- 
cruiting ground for Fr. army; Refor- 
mation, 16f; Catholics rout army of 
Zurich, 17b: union of Heilbronn; 
Nordlingen, 19a; independ. of Ger., 
19c. From 1648: Swiss guard mas- 
sacred, 98e; revolutionized; Geneva 
added to Fr., 99a; Act of Mediation, 
22c; neutrality guar. (1815) . 24b. See 
Baael. Bern. Geneva, Helvetian Re- 
public. 

Syagrius, at Soissons, lleSd. 

Sybaris, fnd., 7c. 

Sydney, Australia, settlement, 74f, 
75e; demonstrations against convicts: 
R. R. to Parramatta, 75f: National 
convention (1891). 76b; Common- 
wealth inaugurated (1901), 74f; Aus- 
tral, navy arrives at, 76e. 

—, Australian cruiser, destroys Emden, 
32e, 76e. 

— Cove=Si/<in«i/, 75e. 

Syedlets, Jews massacred, 141f. 

Sykes, Sir Percy, reorganizes Persia's 
gendarmerie. 132f. 

Sylvester II., crowns Stephen I.. 12e. 
112f. 113e. 

Syndicalism, in Port.. 136a; in Sp.. 
148b. 

Synod. Holy, of Russia. 139b: Procu- 
rator of the, 141e. 

Syracuse, fnd., 7c; Lamachus falls be- 
fore; Athens against; Athenian e\ped. 
destroyed, 8a; Dionysius, 8b; Diony- 
siustheVounger; Dion.Sc;Agathocle3. 
8e; Hiero. 8f; Marcellus takes, flb. 

^,N.Y., jury returns verdict for Roose- 
velt, 186f; statistics, 220. 

Syria, hist, outline; area & pop., loOf; 
recent statistics, 222; map. 18, 38. 
Chronology, 151a, — Other refs.: 
Before 1648: Egypt trades with,6e: 
Thotmes 111. conquers, 6f; loses Is- 
rael; S; N. Israel against Judah, 7b; 
Alexander in, 8d; under Greek con- 
trol, 6a; Antiochus I.; Antiochus II., 
8f: Ptolemy III. conq.; Selcucus II.: 
Antiochus III., 9a; Antiochus makes 
treaty with Egypt; Seleucus IV.; An- 
tiochus IV.; Antiochus V.; Demetrius 
Soter; Alexander Balas, 9c: Deme- 
trius Nicator; Antiochus VII.; Deme- 
trius N icator restored ; Ant iochus 
VIII., 9d: Antiochus IX. reigns in 
Ccele-Syria; Grypus at Antioch; Anti- 
ochus X., 9e; Antiochus XIII.; Pom- 
pey conq., 9f; Roman prov., 6a. 9f; 
legions prod. Vespasian emp., 10b; 
Parthians invade (162 A. D.). 10c; 
Sapor I, invades, lOd; Belisanus in, 

' Uf; Chosrocs II. conq.; Abu-Bekr in; 
Omar conq., 12a; Moawiyah gov.. 
12b; Seljuks in. 13a. From 1648: 
Ali Bey in control of, 6Sd; Bona- 
parte repulsed from, 68d, 99a; Me- 
hemet Ali & Turkey contend for. 6Sa 
Sid; ceded to Egypt. 152f: Ibrahim 
driven out of. 68d. 152f; Fr. troops 
in, 153a; Turks massacre Syrians at 
Damascus & Beirut (1916). 154e; 
Turks routed, 37c: Anglo-Fr. agree- 
ment, 38b; French mandate, 152d;Tur- 
key recognizes independence, 154f. 
See Damaacua. Paleatine, Tur- 
key. 

Syatema Nature, 20f. 

Szapary, Gyula, premier, 45a. 

Szdchenyi, Count Istvan, Hung, lead- 
er. 113a. 

Szent Istvan, Aust. battleship, de- 
stroyed, 37d. 

Sziget, siege of, captured, 17f. 



Taafle ministry, falls, 45a, 

Taal (Boer dialect), 67c. 

Table Bay (Capetown). 66f. 

Taboo, system of. abol., 209e. 

Tabriz. Rus. occupy (1911), 132c&d: 
Turks take (1915); driven out. 33e. 

Tacitus, 10c. 

Tacna, Chile occupies province, 133b; 
& Arica question; riots over. 133e; 
controv. to be submitted to League of 
Nations (1920), 83e. 

Tacoma. Wash., statistics, 220, 

Tacon, Miguel, gov. of Cuba, 89b, 

Tacubaya, Bases of (1841), Mexico, 
I26c; Plan of (1857). 126f. 

Ta& Vale Case, 57d; decision, re- 
versed, 58a. 

Taft, William Howard, life, 218b: 
chronology, 2l8d; portrait, 212. — 
Other refs.: 200l; Ist civil gov. of 
Phil. Isls.. 181a. 211aS:c; negotiates 
purchase of Friars' lands in P. I.. 
211c; provisional gov. of Cuba. 89e: 
sec. of war (1908) , 218a; elected pres., 
165a, 182e; inaug., lS2f; events of 
term, 165aSi:b; visits Panama, 183c: 



rejects ocnstitution of New Mex., 
208d; vetoes admission of Ariz., 208e; 
vetoes wool tariff bill. 183e: proclaims 
Amer. neutrality in Mex. troubles; re- 
fuses to accept amended arbitration 
treaties: prohibits export of arms & 
supplies to Mex., 127d. 183f: breaks 
with Roosevelt, 165b, 218a; renomi- 
nated (1912), 184a; defeated in elec- 
tion, 184b; vetoes literacy test for im- 
migrants, lS4d: speech on League of 
Nations at N. Y., 192e; presents 
"mild" reservationsfor League of Na- 
tions, 193a. 
Taft-Walsh Boa.vA= National War 
Labor Board. \\'ilh&ic. 

Tagalogs, 211a. 

Tagliamento. It. attempt stand at, 
35f. 

Tahiti. 97c, 209e. 

Taiping rebellion. 84a: begins; Hung 
Siu-tsuen king; victory over Lou's 
army; Nanking taken: Amoy; Shang- 
hai; siege of Canton, 85d; Fr. & Eng. 
aid govt- against; Gordon overcomes 
rebels; power broken, 85e. 

Tajes. Gen., pn-s. Uruguay, 155c. 

Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan builds, 19a. 

Takahira Kogoro. peace commissioner; 
e.\changes notes with Sec. Root, 118f, 
120c, 182e. 

Taku, European warships attack, 8Cb. 

Talaat Bey, ministry; retires, 154e; 
sentenced to death, 154f, 

Talien or Talienwan (Dairen), Jap. 
capture, 1 ISd; Rus. obtains, S4b, 
S6b. SeeCairen. 

Tallard, 93f. 

Talleyrand, directs Fr. senate, 99f. 

Tamasese, 210b. 

Tamatave, bombarded, lOOe. 

Tamayo, Dr. Jose Luis, pres.. 93a. 

Tamerlane (Timur Leak; Timour; 
Timur), revives Mongolian emp.; 
campaign against Khorassan: capt. 
Balkh, 15a; invades Armenia, 41e; 
conq. Afghanistan, 39c; crushes 
"Golden Horde," 139e; descendants 
in India, 62e. 

Tammany, defeated, 185b, 

Tampioo, Mex., Amer. naval men ar- 
rested at, 127e&f, I85c. 

Tanagra, battle of, 7f. 

Tancred, 13b. 

Taney. Roger B.,8ec. & Bank of U.S.. 
172b; chief justice. 172c; decision in 
Dred Scott case. 162b,174a;condemns 
suspension of habeas corpus. 174d: 
Chase succeeds, 175f. 

Tang, dynasty, 83f. 

Tanga, Brit, repulsed at. 32d. 

Tanganyika Territory. 105b. 

Tangier, Amer. squadron at. 128eS:f; 
German emp. at. 26d, 101c, 12Se; de- 
clared international, 128e.l29a. 146d. 

Tang Shao-yi, premier, 86f. 

Tanitic dynasty. 21st, 7a: 23rd. 7b. 

Taujore, added to Madras pres.. 64a. 

"Tanks." Ist appearance. 2Sf, 34d. 

Tann. von der, occupies Orleans, lOOd. 

Tannenberg, battle of the (1410), 
134a; (1914), 32b. 138a, 

Taoism, S5a. 

Taou-kwaug, emp. of China. 85c. 

Tarabosh, takin, 154c. 

Tarapaca, celled to Chile. 83c. 133b. 

Tarentum, war with Rome; Pyrrhus 
comes to aid; surrenders, 8f. 

Tariff. Australia. Excise Act (1906); 
Customs Act with So. Africa; Act of 
1908. 76c; (1915). 76e; Canada. Pro- 
tective TariiT Law (1879), 72b; Pref- 
erential Act, 72c; limited preference 
with N. Z., 72d; Eng. revision 
(1842) , 55d; preferential bet. Canada 
& United Kdm., 57c; Chamberlain's 
preferential (1903). 57e; imperial 
preference (1917). 60b; Ger., Bis- 
irmrck's policy, 103e; bill of 1902, 
107d; Sweden, protective duties, 14Sd: 
U. S., 1st act, 169d; question (1812- 
28). 159e, 160a: act of 1816. 160b. 
171a; (1824). 160b. 171d; of Abomi- 
nations (1828), 160b. 171c; (1832), 
160b, 172b; Compromise Tariff Act 
(1833), 172b: (1841); (1842), 172e: 
(1846). 173a; (1857). 173f; Morrill 
Act (1861). 174c; duties increased by 
law of 1864, 1 75e; reduction prevented 
(1866). 176c; (1870); reduced: re- 
funding act. 176f; duties on tea & cof- 
fee removed (1872), 177b; decreased 
(1872), I77b; (1875), 177d; (1883), 
178b; Cleveland's message on (1887), 
17Se; issue in 1888 campaign: McKin- 
ley, 163d, 179b, 217c; Wilson-Gorman 
Act. 163e. 179e; Dingley Act. 164e. 
180b; rates bet. U. S.&Phil. Is.. 181b; 
Payne-Aldrich Act, 165a. 182f. 218c; 
on wool, Taft vetoes bill rednciug, 
183e; countervailing duty on flour & 
peas from Ger., 184b; Underwood 
Act. 165b. 185a. 

^ and Internal Revenue Act, U. S. 

(1872), 177b; (1883). 178b. 
Tarik, leads Saracens into Sp., 12b. 
Tarkaka, king of Egypt; Sennacherib 

defeats, 7c. 
Tarnow, captured. 33c. 
Tashkend, capt., 140f. 
Tasman, Abel J., disc. Tasmania, 19b, 
75cS:d; disc. N. Z.. 19b, 75d, 76f, 77b; 
disc. Fiji. 77d; Tonga Islands. 77f: 
explores Australia; names it New 
Holland, 75d. 
Tasmania (formerly Van Diemen's 
Land), hist, outline. 75c; area 8c pop.; 
disc. 19b. 75d; repr. govt.; transpor- 
tation of convicts ceases: renamed 
Tasmania (IS53); responsible govt.. 
75f; approves Commonwealth Bill, 
70b. 

Tatar-Bashkir Republic. 139c. 

Tatars, Bactria succumbs to, 9d:raids 
in China, 83f; invade Syria. 151a; in- 
vade Pol., 133(: in Russia. 137a&b; 
Ivan the Terrible defeats, 17d; pro- 
claim Crimean Republic, 143a. See 
also Genahia Khan, Mogul, Mongols, 
Tamerlane. 

Tatra region, 90a. 

Ta-Tsing ("Great Pure"), dyn., 85b. 

Tatsu Maru, Jap. vessel, 120c. 

Tauride Republic, 139c. 

Taxation, in Amer. colonies before 
Revolution, 158d&e; in U. S.. in 
World War. 165e. 190b. 



Taxes. See Income. Inheritance. 
Land, etc. See Internal Revenue. 

Taylor. Gen. Richard, defeats Banks. 
175e; surr., 176a. 

— , Zachary. life, 214f: chronology, 2 153: 
portrait. 212. — Other refs.: 201b:sent 
to Texas. 172f; on border; crosses Rio 
Grande. 173a: occupies Monterey. 
125c, 173a; wins at Buena ViaU.l.'oc. 
173b; nominated for pres.; elected. 
I60c&f. 173b: inaugurated. 173c; his 
admin.. 160f: opposes extension of 
slave territory; dies. 173c- 

Taza, Fr. occupy. 102a. 129a. 

Tea, taxed in Amer. colonies, 158e, 
168e; duty not repealed. 168e; cargo 
destroyed at Boston Tea Party, 158e, 
168e. 

Teachers' unions, in Fr., lOle&f. 

Teck. family given Eng. title. 60c. 

Tecoac. battle of. 127b. 

Tecumseh, defeated, 170e, 201d. 
214d. 

Tegucigalpa. 79f. 

Teheran, crisis at. 132f. 

Tehuantepec, Isthmus of. canal pro- 
posed (1529); (1S25), 82b; (1H51), 
126e; riglit of transit granted U. S., 
12ra; railroad across, 127d. , 

Teignmouth, Lord. See Shore, Sir 
John. 

Tekke-Turkomans, yield to Russia, 
141b. 

Tekrit, occupied, 29f. 

Telegraph, invented; first practical 
use. 172f; estab. bet. Eng. Si Fr., 55f; 
communication across U. S.. 174c: in 
interstate commerce. 177f; under govt, 
control (1918). 191d; returned to 
owners. 193b; in Japan. 119e&J. 

^, wireless. Sec Wireless. 

^ Co. V. Te.xas, Supr, Court decis., 
178b. 

Tel-el-Amarna letters (see inDict.). 
6f. 

Tel el Kebir, battle of. 68e. 

Telephone, invented. 25e; patented. 
177d; direct communication bet. N. 
V. & Denver opened, lS3d; 1st trans- 
continental, I'ifib; under govt, control, 
lyid; returned to owners. 193b. 

Telescope, invented, ISd; reflecting, 
made by Newton, 19f. 

Tell. William, 149d. 

Teller resolution, on Cuba, 180c. 

Telles, S., forms cabinet. 135f. 

Telloh, 6e. 

Temesvar, Turkey holds. 20b; ceded 
to Aust,. 151c; Hung, defeated at. 44e. 

Temple (at Jerusalem). 1st, fnd., 7a; 
2nd. fnd.; completed, 73; Antiochus 
IV. defiles, 9c. 

^ built on Mt. Gerizim. 8a. 

^ of the Sun, built. 6d. 

"Ten. The." Council of (Venice). 14f. 

Ten, Council of (1919), becomes Coun- 
cil of Four, 37e. 

Tenasserim. ceded to Eng., 64b. 

Tennessee, hist, outline, 200d; statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221. Chronology, 200e. 
— Other refs.: explored, 168d; 1st set- 
tlement, 168e; territory authorized 
(Ter. So. of the Ohio), 169e; admit- 
ted as State, 170a;8ecedes, 161c, 174d; 
Hood invades, 175f ; abolishes slavery, 
176a; readmitted, 176c; Democrats 
regain control (1869), 176f; adopts 
prohibition, 182e. 186b. 

— , U. S. S., relief ship (1914), 185e; at 
Smyrna, 186a. 

Tennyson, Lord Hallam, gov. -gen. of 
Australia, 76c, 

Ten l?oiiits= March Laws (Hung.). 
113a5cf. 

^ Thousand, retreat of the. 8b. 

Tenure-of-OfHce Act. 162b. 176c: 
repL-alod. 17,Si-. 

Teplitz-Schbnau, allies (of 6th co- 
alition against France) unite at, 22f. 

Terauchi, forms ministry, 120e; re- 
signs, 120f. I , 

Tercentenary (Tercentennial). James- 
town. 182c; Quebec. 72e; disc, of 
Hudson R.. lS2f; Champlain, 184a; 
Romanov dyn.. 142b. 

Terpander. Greek poet. 7c. 

Territorial growth of U. S.. 160c: 
map. 194. 

^Ordinance. 1st (Jefferson's), 169c. 

Territories and Dependencies(U. S.), 
209-211; statistics, 220. 222. 

Territory Northwest of the Ohio. Sea 
Northwest Territory. 

Terror, Reign of. begins. 21f. 98e; ef- 
fect on Eng.. 54c; ends. 98f. 

Teschen, Treaty of (1779). 21d, 44a, 
106b; Czecho-Slovaks desire; Poles 
cede, 90e. 
TestAct.Eng., 52d&f;repealed(1828), 

55a. 
Tetricus. lOd. 

Tetuan. Sp. captures, 128f, 147c. 
Teutones, war with Romans, 6a, 9e: 

Marius overcomes, 9e. 
Teutonic Knights, Poles call to their 
aid; estab. slate on lower Vistula, 
133f; conq. E. Prus., 14a; in Baltic 
Provinces, 143f; Riga refuses alleg. to; 
gain Kurland & Semgallen; protect 
Lith.. 144a; Pol. 8: Lith. wage war 
against. 134a, 144b; conquered at 
Tannenberg. I34a. 
Teutons, conquer Prussia. 14c. 
Tewflk, khedive of Egypt, 68b&e; dies, 
68e. 

^ Pasha, grand vizier; forms new cabi- 
net (1909). 153f: again (1918). 154e, 

Tewkesbury, battle of , 15e. 
Texas, hist, outline, 203f; statistics. 
220; area, 221; annexation, map, 194. 
Chronology, 204b. — Other refs.; Ist 
colony; Fr. claims, 167f; beginning of 
Sp. settlement; Anglo-Amer, settle- 
ment. 12Sa; revolts from Mexico. 125c: 
declares independence, 125c, 126c, 
160c, 172c: receives recognition of U. 
S., 126c; Annexation Treaty signed: 
Senate rejects, 172f; annexed to U. S., 
125c, 126d, I60c&e, 172f; admitted: 
claim to Rio Grande, 172f; claims 
portion of Wyo,, 20(f; cedes claim to 
E. portion of N. Mex., 173c. 208d; 
secedes, 174c; Reconstruction, 176b: 
required to ratify Constitution, 176e: 
readmitted. 176f; gales&floods(1886), 
178d; Mex. raids on (1915). 187b&c; 
race riot at Houston. 190a; Gov. Fe^ 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



253 



guson impeached, 190b: adopts probi 
bition. lyib. 

Texas, Umv. of. 204a. 

— Pacific R. R.. I77a. 

^ V- White. Supr. Court decision. 176e. 

Tezcoco, Lake, 125b. 

Tbakombeau, Fijian chief. 77e. 

Thales, 7e, 

Thames, battle of the. 170f, 214d. 

Thapsus, battle of, 9f. 

Thasos, r<.-volt of; suppressed, 7f. 

Theban dynasties, 11th; 13th; 17lh.6e. 

Thebans. St-e Thebes. Greece. 

Thebau, king of Burma, deposed, 64d. 

Thebes, Egypt, rise of, 6c. 

— , Greece, battle of Coronea, 7f;PIat£ea 
attacked; alliance with Sparta, 8a; 
unites with Athens. Corinth. & Ar- 
gos; under Epaminondas & Pelopi- 
das; oligarchy overthrown. 8b; Leuc- 
tra; ascendancy; exped. into Thessaly 
and Macedonia, 8c; Chaeronea; Alex- 
ander razes, 8d. 

Themistocles, leM. 

Theocritus, 8f. 

Theodore, of Abyssinia. 39b, 56b. 

Theodore, Davilmar. pres. Haiti; ab- 
dicates; flees. 112a. 

Theodoric (the Great), takes Ra- 
venna; estab. Ostrogolhic kingdom; 
executes Boethius; dies. llf. 
^. son of Clovis. llf. 
Theodosius 1. (the Great), emp.; pro- 
hibits paganism; excommunicated; 
triumph; death. lOe. 

— II., reigns. lOf. 

Thera, colony from fnds. Cyrene. 7d, 
Thermopylaa, battle of. 7f. 
Thferouanne, Fr. loses, 16f. 
Thessalonica, massacre of, 10e;Turks 
I capt.. 14f, 
Thessaly. Pelopidas invades. 8c; part 

annexed to Greece (1881), lIOc. 
"They shall not pass! "See "Ha nepaa- 

scTonl pasV , 2Se. 
Thibaud. leads crusade. 14b. 
Thiepval, Bnt. capture. 34d. 
Thiers, Louis A., in Soult's ministry. 

100a; forms cabinet (1836); resigns; 

ministry (1840); ministry resigns; 

new ministry (1848). 100b: chief of 

the e.xecutive; pres. of France (1871); 

resigns. lOOd. 
Thinffvalla, 114c. 
Thinite dyn , 1st. 2nd. 6d. 
Third Estate, in France (1789). 98c. 
Thirty Tyrants, 8b. 

— Years' War. era of , 18d; begins. 18e. 
90aic; in Austria, 42c; Sweden in, 
14Sc; ends. 19c. 

Thistlewood, executed. 55a. 
Thomas, Gen. Geo. H., defeats Zolli- 
L coffer. 174e: Chickamauga: supersedes 
Rosecrans. 175d; Nashville. 175f. 

— Albert, mm. of nat'l industry, 103c. 
Thompson, Canadian explorer, 7ld. 
— , Sir John, premier, dies, 72c, 
Thomson. John, builds 1st experi- 
mental railroad in U. S.. 170d. 

Thorn, left to Poland. 140b. 
Thotmes I. -IV., rule Egypt. 6f. 
^III., reigns; conq. Palestine & Syria; 

conq. Nubia. 6f. 
Thrace. Amphipolis fnd.. 8a; Philip 
overruns. 8c; Lysimachus receives, 8d: 
Goths overrun. lOd: Sarmatians settle 
in, lOe; Attila invades. lOf; Bulgaria 
conquers, 77f; Turks lose battles in 
(1912). 26f; Turks reconquer; Bulga- 
ria retains part. 78f ; Bulgaria gives up 
ter. in; Greece gains in, 79a, Ilia; 
Greece gets. 152d. 
Thrasybulus. 7d. 
Three Emperor's Lea8ue=Dr€iA:ai- 

serbund. 
"Three F's." 56e. 
^ Rivers, Can., fort built at. 71a. 
— Rivers, province. 69b. 
Thrift Stamps. 38e. 
Thucydides, historian. 6b. Sa. 
Thuggee, m India. 63b. 
Thurii, founded. 8a. 
Thurman. Allen G..v. pres.T0te.I78f. 
Thurn. Count von. leader of Bohemi- 
ans. ISe. 
Tiahuanaco. ruins at. 133a. 
Tiberius, adopted by Augustus; suc- 
ceeds Augustus, lOa; withdraws to 
Caprese. lOb. 
Tibet, submits to Kien Lung. S5c; 
boundary: trade with India. 64e: 
Vounghusband's invasion, 64e. 86c; 
Brit, treaty with China on bounda- 
ries. 64e; Brit, treaty with, 86c; Eng. 
& Rus. agree to keep out of. SSa; Chi- 
nese occupy. 86d; Gr. Brit, forbids 
Chin, exped. into, 86f; treaty withGr. 
Bnt. (1913). 87a: Brit. min. in Pe- 
king demands autonomy of (1919), 
87e.— Map. 64: travel in. illust.: Yak 
caravan: Mongol on dromedary, 116. 
Ttbullus, lOa. 

Ticino. cantMo Switz.. 150a&e. 
Ticinus. th.-, battle of. 9b. 
Ticonderoga. See Forr Ticonderoga. 
Tientsin, Christians massacred. 85e; 
capt., 84c. 8Gc; mutiny, 86f; provi- 
sional govt, at (1917), 87c; provis. 
govt, dissolved. 87d. 
— , Treaty of. S5d. 
Tierra Firma(prov,). 82a, 88b. 
Tiflis. city in Transcaucasia; strike 
(1903). 141d: Diet.orSeim. meetsat 
(1918). 102f; Azerbaijanians. Geor- 
gians. & Armenians meet at, 46d. 
^. province. 102f. 
^. Treaty of. 140d. 
— . University of. 102f. 
Tiglath-pileser I., estab. Assyrian 

emp,. 7a. 
Tiglath-pileser III. .reigns. 7b; Gali- 
leans captive; takes Damascus, 7c 
Tigranes II. (the Great), reigns in 
Armenia. 9e; Lucullus defeats. 9f.41e. 
Tigre Island. Honduras cedes to U. S.; 
British fleet seizes; Brit, give up. 80e". 
Tigris river. Brit, occupy Kurna on. 

33f; Marshall advances east of, 37c 
Tigris-Euphrates, the. valley. Sd 
Tilden, Samuel J., Dem. candidate for 
pres., 162c. 216d: pres. vote for; de- 
feated. 177e. 
Tilly, defeats Christian IV. ; storms 
Magdeburg: at Brcitenfeld: defeated 
at Rain; entere Munich; falls atLiit- 
2ea, 19a. 



Tilsit, Treaty (Peace) of, 22d. 99d. 
lOac, 137d. 140c. 

Timber and Stone Lands Act. 177f. 

^ Culture & Coal Lands acts, l77b. 

Timoleon, 8c. 

Timor. 135d. 

Timour or Timur (the Great). Ti- 
mour. or Timur. Lenk. See Tamer' 
lane. 

Timur Khan, ameer of Afghanistan. 
39cS;l'. 

Tincbebrai, 13b. 

Tine. Adm-. surr. to Jap.. 120a. 

Tinguianes. 21la. 

Tinoco Granados. Frederico. prea., 
Sle&f. 

Tippecanoe, battle of. 170e, 201d. 
214d, 

Tipperary. martial law in. 61b. 

Tippermuir, battle of. 19c. 

Tippoo, Sultan, rajah of Mysore, in 
Ist Mysore Wat; defeated in 2nd My- 
sore War. 63f; killed, 64a. 

Tirah campaign, 64e. 

Tirard. Pierre E.. premier (1887); re- 
signs; again premier; resigns. lOOf. 

Tiraspol, outbreak against Jews. 14lc. 

Tiridates II.. restored to throne, lOd. 

Tirol, reverts to Austrian crown. 43e; 
Aust. loses. 42d; Bavaria gets. 99c: 
Aust. regains, 42e, 44c; wishes to join 
Germany (1919). 46d. 

TirpitZ, von. resigns as min. of marine. 
108a. 

Tiryns, rjse of. 6f. 

Tisza. Kalman. premier, resigns, 45a. 
^. Count Stefan, resigns, 45b: strike 
against election of; forms cabinet. 45d: 
protests attack on Serbia. 31c; ten- 
ders resignation. 45f: resigns, 114a; 
declares shortage of food in Hung., 
46a: assas., 114a. 

— line. 114a. 

— (Theiss) river. Magyars settle in val- 
ley of (S93) . 12d; Roumania promised 
Hung, east of (1916). lUa: Rouma- 
nian troops stop at; troops withdrawn 
from. 114b. 

Titanic, steamship, sunk. lS4a. 

Titicaca, 4Sd&e. 

Tittoni, Tommaso, min. of foreign 

affairs. 117a. 
Titus, partly destroys Jerusalem; suc- 
ceeds Vespasian; succeeded. 10b. 
T. N. T., explosion of. at Pittsburgh, 

191c; at S. Amboy. 191f. 
Tobacco, in Va.. 157d. 15Sd. 167d; 

state monopoly in Sweden. 149c. 
Tobago. 74d: ceded to Eng., 53e. 98b; 
ceded to France, 54a. 9Sc: retained by 
Eng. by Peace of Pans. 54f. 
Togo, or Togoland. 105a; Fr. & Brit. 
enter; surrenders, 32c; joint mandate 
to Fr. & Gr. Bnt.. 61c. 
— . Adm.. defeats Rus. Baltic fleet. 120c. 
Togrul Beg. estab. rule of Seljuks in 

Persia; over Bagdad, 12f. 
Tokugawa dyn.. 20e. 118b. I19c. 
Tokyo, becomes name of Jap. capital. 
119d; nat'l exhibition of arts &. sci- 
ences (1877); min. of interior assas.; 
mutiny of troops, 119e; Imperial univ. 
at. 119f; riots in (1905). 120c; riots 
(1914). 120e: Korean emp. dies in, 
120f; Jap. police fire at Chinese stu- 
dents in (1919), 87e; demonstrations 
over universal sulTrage (1920). 120f. 
— Bay. Com. Perry at. USb. 
Tokyo-Yokohama R.R.. opened, 119d. 
Toledo. Ohio, statistics. 220. 
Tolentino. battle of. 99f. 
Toleration Act. 52f. 
Tolstoy. Count Dmitri. Rus. min. of 

interior. 141a. 
^, Count Lev Nikolaevich, Rus. novel- 
ist. 24d; excom.. 141c; dies, 142a. 
Tompkins. D. D., vice pres., 171a&c. 
Tomsk, 139d. 
Tone, Wolfe, 54b: capt. &comniit8sui- 

cide. o4d. 
Tonga Islands. 77e, 57d. 
Tonkin (Tonquin), 97a: annexe.l to 

Fr-. 94f, lOOe. 
^ War, begins. lOOe. 
Tdnningen, Stenbock (Sw.) surr. to 
Russ., Danes, & Saxons (1713). USf. 
"Too proud to fight." speech. 32f, 

186e&;f. 
Topeka, Kans.. 1st free-sUte constitu- 
tion framed. 205f. 
Torbay. Wm. of Orange lands at. 52f. 
Tordesillas. Treaty of, 49e, 167a. 
Torgau. battle of. 44a, 106a. 
Toro. Manuel Munllo. 8Sc. 
Toronto, Ontario. 70d: fnd.. 71d; 
strike of postal employees; of police. 
73c: strikes (1919). 73d. 
Torrens Act. South Australia (see 

Torrcns ayaCem. in Diet.), 75f. 
Torreon Conference (1914). 127f. 
Torres. Span, navigator, 73d. 

— Strait. 7od&e. 

— Vedras, Wellington retires beyond 
lines of, 99e. 

Torricelli. invents barometer. 19c. 

Torture. judicial, loses ground in Ger., 
105e: abolished in Prus,. 106c. 

Tory parly, origin of, 52e. 

Tostig, 12f. 

Totila (Baduila). slain, llf. 

Totleben, Count E. 1., defends Sebas- 
topol. I40e. 

Toul. Fr. acquires. 19c; sur.. lOOd. 

Toulon, besieged. 97f; capitulates; 
taken from Bnt.. 98f; Rus. fleet vis- 
its. 141b; battleship La Libert^ de- 
stroyed at. lOle. 

Touraine. lost by King John. 13f. 

Tournai. Eng. take (1513), 16f: Brit. 
take (1918). 37a. 

Tours, proclamation at. lOOd. 

Tourville. Count, wins at Beachy 
Head; defeated at La Hogue. 53a. 

Toussaint I'Ouverture. leader of blacks 
in Haiti; expels Brit, forces; dictator; 
demands independ.. 111c; Napoleon 
sends exped. to subdue; taken; pris- 
oner in Fr.. 99b. lUc&e. 

Tower of London, attempt to wreck. 56f, 

Town meeting, m New Eng., 15Sa. 

Townshend. Charles, leader of the 

Commons. 53f. 
— , Charles V. F., Sir. cap. Amara. 33f; 
retreats to Kut-el-Amara. 125a: sur.. 



125: 



, 34f. 



— Acts (1767), 158e. 168e; repealed, 
exc. duty on tea, 168e. 



Trade Acts (Canada) , 71d. 

— conference. Colonial.at Ottawa ( 1894) 
72c; Montreal (1903), 72d: U. S. & 
i\U-x. (1920). 12Sd. 

Trade-marks Act. Australia. 76c. 

Trades Disputes Act (Eng.). 58a. 

Trade-Onion Congress. Eng,. (1915), 
59c;(iyi7;.60c:C19).61d;C20).61f. 

Trade-0aion party. Eng.. movement 
for separate. 60d. 

Trade-unions, organized in U. S., 
162f . See Labor unions. 

Trafalgar, battle of. 22c. 54e. ■99c, 
147b. flagship Vtclory. illust.. 144. 

Training camps (U. S.). 190b. 

Trajan, emp., lOb; persecutes Chris- 
tians; Dacia; column reared; annexes 
Parthia. 10c: boundaries of Rome ex- 
panded under. 6a. 

Tramways, Isi used. 20a. 

Transcendental movement in New 
England. 24d. 

Transatlantic voyage, Ist, 171c. 

Transbaikalia. 143c. 

Trans-Caspian railway, opened. 141b. 

Transcaucasia. 139c:Turks in (1914) . 
32d: Turks advance in. 37c; Turks 
gain ter. in. 36c; Repub. of, 42a. I02f. 
132f, 113b. 

Transpacific cable, opened. 181c. 

Transportation, in U. S.. 23b, 24b. 

— of criminals, penal settlement estab. 
at Botany Bay (1788); other settle- 
ments estab. in Australia. 74f: Tas- 
mania. 75d; to South Australia for- 
bidden (1834), 75e: demonstrations 
against in Australia; to Van Diemen's 
Land ceases. 75f; to Brit, colonies 
overseas abolished, 55f; to West.Aus- 
tralia ceases. 76a, .Andaman Isl3.,65b, 

Transports & importations, director- 
general created (Fr.), 102b. 

Trans-Siberian Railway, 137e; be- 
gun, 141b: under Amer. engineers; 
Bolsheviki control. 143e. 

Transvaal Province (Union of South 
Africa), hist. & govt.; religion&educ. 
66d; industry & pioduction; area St 
pop.. 66e. — Other refs.: as Brit. coL. 
revolts (1880); self-govt guaranteed 
to. 56e: negotiations with Bnt. govt. 
(1895), 67b; becomes part of So. 
Africa; coolie question; responsible 
govt,; language question. 67c. Trek- 
king in, illust.. 116. — See also South 
African Republic & South Africa, 
Union of. 

Transylvania, peace with Ferdinand 
II.. ISf; ceded to Austria. 42d; Turks 
& Germans contend for. 43e; Leopold 
1. gets. 152e; Roumania invades. 29d. 
34e. 136d; Roumanians attacked in; 
retire. 34e.l36d;National Council pro- 
^:laims union with Roumania. 114a: 
represented in Roumanian "cabinet 
of generals," 137a. 

— Company (U. S.). 200c. 

Trasimenus. Lake, battle of, 9b. 

Travel, modes of. illust.. 116. 

Travendal. Peace of, USf. 

Treasonable CorrcspondenceAct. 54c. 

Treasury, Independent. Act. or Sub- 
treasury Act (1840). 172d: repealed. 
172e; act reestablishing, HSa. 

^ Department, created. 169e; Authorizes 
Bureau of War Risk Insurance. lS5f; 
Treasury Dept. bldg., Washington, 
illust., 212. 

— notes. Confederate. 175a. 

Treaty Ports. Five, of China 84a. 1 19d. 

Trebbia. battle of the. 9b. 

Trebizond, emp. of Ind.. 13d&f: Rus- 
sians occupy. 2Sf, 34f. 42a; Turks re- 
occupy. 37c. 

Trengganu, 65c. 

Trent (S. S.). Confederate envoys on, 
161c. 174e. 

^. Cadorna advances against, 33d: oc- 
cupied. 37b. 117e: Council of. 17c. 

Trentino. 25d; Germany presses Aus- 
tria to cede to Italy, 45e; Aust. drive 
in (1916). 117d. 

— Front (1915). 33d. 
-offensive (1916). 34e. 
Trenton, N. J., statistics, 220. 
— . battle of. 169a. 195e. 

Trepov. Gen., dictator in St. Peters- 
burg, I41d; premier of Russia, 142d. 

Treves (Tner) . Fr. take; Fr. lose. 20a. 

^, "holy coat" of. 106d. 

Triballi. the. Alexander subdues. Sd. 

Tribunal of Justice, new, estab. by Fr. 
revolutionists. 9Se. 

Tribunes. military. with consular pow- 
ers, end of period of. 8c. 

^. of the people, office estab , 7e: last 
of. 14f. 

Tricoupis. Charilaos, ministry over- 
thrown:again premier; defeated, UOc. 

Triennial Act, 33a. 

Trieste. 25d: Austria cedes, 122f: 
promised to It., 121b; It occupies, 
37b, 117e, 121c; enters, 117e; Aust. 
battleships torpedoed. 36b: Jugo- 
slavia claims. 121c; becomes Italian, 
115b. 

Trinidad (Cuba), fnd., 88d. 

— (W. Indies). 74d: disc. 16d: Brit, 
capt. from Sp.. 54c: retained by 
Treaty of .■\miens, 23b. 54d. 

^(island off Brazilian coast), seized by 
Bnt.; Brazil protests; Port, arbi- 
trates: surr, to Brazil, 49f. ^ 

Triplane, illust,, 160. 

Triple Alliance (1668: Eng., Hoi.. Sc 
Swe.), 19f. 53d, 97d, 130a: (1717: 
Eng,. Fr., & Hoi.). 98a. 130a: (1725; 
Aust.. Rus.. & Sp.), 140a: (1787: 
Eng.. Hoi.. & Prus.). 21e; (1872: 
Aust.. Ger.. & Rus.). see Dreikaiser- 
bund; (1882: Aust.. Ger.. & It.), 25f. 
26f. 31c. 45a. 94f. lOOe. 103e. 107b. 
114a. U5a. 116d; renewed (1887 & 
1913).116e.U7b; It. denounces. 114a, 
115a. 117c. 
^ Entente. See Entente Cordiale. 

— League, 7d8:e. 

Tripoli (see Tripolitania, USf); 
Blake attacks. 52a: declares war on 
U.S. (1801). 170b; peace treaty with 
U.S. (1803), 170c; It. & Turk, at war 
over, 26f, 115a. 117a: Italy conquers, 
115a. 154a;d'Olmo. 1st It. gov, .117a: 
It. occupies Zoara. 117b; Turk, gives 
up. 117b. 152a: Arab outbreaks. 117b. 

— Annexation Bill, signed, 117b. 

Tripolitania, ll5f. 



Tristan da Cunha. 65f, 54f. 
Triumvirate. Ist. formed; renewed. 

9f, 2nd. lOa. 
Trocadero. fort near Cadiz, taken by 

Fr,. Aug, 31. 1823. 147c. 
Trois-Riviferes. fort -See rftr^eRiwers. 
Trojan War. begins. 6f. 
Trolley cars. 25e: illust.. 116. See also 

Electric trolleu cars. Street cars. 
Tromp, Adm. Martin, defeated by 
Blake. 32a; defeats Eng. (under 
Blake). 129f. 
Troppau, Congress of, 24c. 
Trotski. Leon. Russ. min. of for. af- 
fairs. 138b&c. 142f ; said to have close 
relations with Ger. govt.. 143c. 
Troy, anc. city, destroyed. 6f. 
^, N. Y., statistics, 320. 
Troyes. Treaty of. 16c. 
Truax V. Raich, Supr. Court decision. 

187d. 
Trujillo (Truxillo). fnd.. SOc. 
Trumbic, pres. Jugo-Slav Committee, 

121c. 
Trumbull, Jonathan. 196c. 
Trusts, formation of. in U. S.. 162f. 
164f; Roosevelt & the, 21"f; in Can- 
ada, legislation, 72e. 
Tryphon, usurper in Syria, 9d. 
Tsai Ao. leads rev. in Viinnan, 87b. 
Tsai-tien = A'uani7-A3U, 
Tseng Kwo-fan. takes Nanking. 85e. 
Tsilka. Mrs., 153e. 
Tsin dynasty. 83e. 
Tsingtau, besieged; taken. 32d, 105c. 

119a. 
Tso Tsung-tang. 85e. 
Tsushima Island, battle off. 118e. 

120c. 
Tuamotu Archipelago. 97c. 
Tuan Chi-jui. premier (1916): dis- 
missed. 87c; premier (1917); resigns; 
director general European War Par- 
ticipation Council; premier (1918), 
87d; resigns, 87e. 
Tubuai, 97c. 

Tuckey. explores lower Congo, 48c. 
Tucson, Ariz., settled. 220. 
Tudor dyn.. estab., 15f; ends. 18d. 
Tuileries, attacked, 9Se. 
Tukulti-Ninib II., reigns, 7a. 
Tulsa. Okla.. statistics. 220. 
Tumwater, Wash., settled. 220. 
Tung-chi. emp. China; dies. 85e. 
Tunis, hist, outline, govt.; indus. & 
labor. 96b; relig,; educ; area & pop.. 
96c; recent statistics. 222; map. 64; 
Arab tent, illust,. 128.— Other refs. 
Charles V. subjugates. 17b, Adm. 
Blake attacks, 32a: Fr. occupy. 115a. 
116d; Fr. treaty with; Fr. protecto- 
rate. 94e, lOOe, 153c; protectorate 
recognized in treaty (1920). 154f. 
Tunnels, under East River & Hudson 
at New York. 182c&d; Mont Cenis. 
St. Gothard. & Simplon. through 
Alps. 25d; St. Gothard. 150b&d: Sim- 
plon, 150e; under Pyrenees. bet.Fr.&: 
Sp.. 148b; Rove, Marseilles-Rhone 
canal. 103b, 
Tupac Amaru, leader of Peruvian In- 
dians in revolt against Sp.. 133a&d.i 
Tupper, Sir Chas.. premier; defeated'. 

72c. 
Turanians, 62e: settle in valley of 

Hwang Rivw. 3f. | 
Turco-Russian War. UOc: Treaty of 

Berlin. 107b. 
Turenne, Viscount Henri de, marshal 
ol. Fr., 93f; overcomes forces of the 
Fronde; in Palatinate: at Turkheim. 
97d. 
Turgot, Fr. min. of finance. 98c. 
Turgu-Jiu, Roum. defeated at, 34f. 
Turin, Victor Amadeus attempts to re- 
gain. 116a; battle of. 20d, 146e. 
Turkestan (see in Gaz.). Mongols in. 
I4a: ind. in Chinese emp.; Kien Lung 
invades, 85c: Rus. conquers. 132e; 
boundary settled. 141b. Map, 64. 
Turkey (Turks), hist, outline, 151b; 
organization; govt., 152b: indus. & 
labor; relig.; educ; defense; area & 
pop.. 132c: recent statistics, 222; for- 
mer possessions, 152d; map. 18. 64. 
Chronology. 152d. — Other refs.: 
CBeforel.663; (see Turks) ;emp.inA3ia 
Minor estab.. 14c; Ottoman dyn. es- 
tab.. 14d: conquests of OttomanTurks 
begin; extent of empire, lib; ravages 
Bulgaria; Bulg. czar becomes vassal; 
massacres Bulgarians. 77f: conq. Ni- 
cia; strength n empire. 14e;cap.Gal- 
lipoli; controls Dardanelles; Adriano- 
ple; Thessalonica: conq. greater part 
of Balkans, 14f: conq.Sc occupies Bos- 
nia. Herzegovina. Croatij.&Slavonia, 
122d; cap, Adrianople; becomes a Eu- 
topean power, 15a: Constantinople 
taken (1433); Athens&Gr. taken. ISd; 
QBcendancy in Black Sea; subdues Cri- 
mea, 15e; Greece part of empire (1483 
to 1830). lODd: Durazzo & Albania. 
39f:supremacyin Albania estab. (1502- 
1912). 40a: r le in Armenia. 41e: be- 
sieges Malta,62a iHolyLeague against; 
battle of Lepanto (1571). 18a: Abbas 
the Gr, overcomes. 18J; contends with 
Ger. for control of Transylvania, 43e: 
war with Ger.. lOoe. 
From 1663: defeated by Germans 
(Montecuccoli)at St -Gothard (1664), 
43e, 105e; takes Crete. 19e; war on 
Poland (1672). 19f: Hung.. Molda- 
via, & Wallachia subjugated; Isl war 
with Rus. (1678). 19f: recognizes 
Rus. in Ukraine. 139f; invades Aus- 
tria, 43e; loses Buda; loses W. Hung.; 
ascendancy in Hung, overthrown. 20a; 
Peter the Great (Rus.) wars against. 
139f; Pr. Eugene (Ger.) defeats at 
Zenta, 43e. 103c; Peace of Karlowitz; 
yields Hung., exc. Te^iesvar; cedes 
Morea to Venice; loses Transylvania, 
20b. 43e, 105e; recovers Azov. I39f; 
war with Venice, with the Emperor; 
conq, Morea; defeated at Peterwar- 
dein, 20e: loses Belgrade, 43e: Venice 
cedes Morea to: loses Hung., 20e; war 
of Rus. & Aust. against (1736). 140a: 
Austria loses previous gains to, 43f: 
resumes rule in Egypt. 68d; Peace of 
Kiichtik Kainarja. 21c: renounces su- 
zerainty over Crimea; other Black Sea 
regions; gives Rus. right to protect 
Orthodox churches in Turk, empire, 
21d; war with Catherine 11. uf Russia 



(1768-74); another war (1787-92). 
140b. 21e; Austria in war with. 44b; 
I37c; defeated at Focsani, 44b; peace 
(Sistova) with Aust., 21e. 44b: in co- 
alition against Fr.; seizes Ionian Is- 
lands. 99a: peace with Fr.. 99b; war 
with Russia (1806), 22d, 140c- ex- 
pelled fr. Serbia. 121e: reconquers 
aerbia; forced to withdraw; Serbia de- 
clares war on (1812); forced to accept 
Serbian terms; expelled fr, Balkans. 
121f; Peace of Bucharest (1812); 
Pruth nv. made bound, with Rus.. 
Tnnj^'"^'*'" *^'"cek3 in civil service. 
109d: privileges to Greek clergy ;Greek 
revolution, 109e. llOa.b.c&d; war 
with Greece. 24c, 109e: battle of Na- 
vanno; Greece independent. 109e war 
with Rus.(lS2S-29); helped by Rus. 
against Mehemet Ah. UOd; cedes Ar- 
menian ter. to Rus.. 41e; accepts Lon- 
don protocol. llOb; contest over Sy- 
ria. 68d; integrity of empire guaran- 
teed (1833), 24.; saved by Swers. 
t)8d; Convention of London (1840) to 
check advance of Mehemet Ali 
against. 24e: retains control of Egypt. 
68a: Rus. demands on. UOe; vrar with 
Rus. (1853-56), 25a. 140e; aided by 
f"nce& Eng.. UOe; Peace of Paris. 
I40t; admitted to European concert; 
territorial integrity guaranteed. 25a* 
permits Bulgarian exarchate. 78d;war 
with Russia (1876); war with Serbia 
& Montenegro, 25e: Bulgarian massa- 
cres. 78d; Rus. insists on reforms; war 
with Rus. (1S77-78), 137d. 14Ia; 
Treaty of San Stefano (1878). 44f, 
/Sa&d: promises reforms in Armenia, 
41f; convention with Eng. over Cy- 
prus 56d, 62d: Bulgaria a dependency 
of. 7Sa: Congress of Berlin (1878); 
Macedonia ret'd to, 78d; independ. of 
Montenegro recognized. 123a: cedes 
Dobruja, 136b: concessions to Eng. & 
Ger, in Mesopotamia, 125a; Ger. 
intrigue in, 26b; war with Greece 
(1897). 26b. llOd; recognizes Fr. pro- 
tection of Catholics in the East. 151a- 
convention for construction of Bagdad 
Railway; under Ger. influence, 26c; 
Ger. influence in, 27e&f; revolution 
(1908); sells rights of suzerainty m 
Bosnia & Herzegovina to Aust.. 45c: 
Bulgarian relations with.7Se:warwith 
It. over Tripoli (1911-12). 26f. 115a. 
117a&b: Balkan Wars (1913-13). 26f. 
121f. 109f: loses fortifications in Mac^ 
edonia & Thrace. 26f; Balkan allies 
defeat. 45d; Bulgaria grants armi- 
stice to; accepts peace terms. 78a&b: 
loses European ter., 26f; regains Adri- 
anople & part of Thrace. 78bS:f; re- 
conquers Thrace; occupies Adriano- 
ple. .8f; Treaty of peace with Serbia, 
123c; buys Ger. warships; annuls ca- 
pitulations; bombards Rus. Black Sea 
port (1914); Rus. considers this an act 
of war. 31e; Eng, declares war on. 59a' 
enters World War. 27e&f. 38e: joins 
Ger. & Aust. against Allies. 42b. be- 
gins campaign against Suez Canal & 
Egypt; routed at Sarykamish. 32d- 
suzerainty over Egypt ceases (1914). 
31f; invades Persia; reaches Suez Ca- 
nal. 33e: attacks Suez Canal; retreats. 
33e, 68f; attacks Tussum; withdraws 
ir. Persia. 33e; It. declares war on 
(191o). n7d;Turko-Bulgarian agree- 
ments (1915), 78f: defeated at Kupri- 
keni; retreats fr. Erienim; loses Ker- 
manshah. 34f; recaptures it. 35a' se- 
cret agreement bet. Fr. & Gr Brit 
for partition of(1916). 131d; Hussein, 
of Mecca, declares independ. of, 29a 
34b; Medina & Jedda revolt, 29a: 
troops driven fr. Sinai. 69a: attacks 
Bnt. at Romani; defeated; retreats, 
33a: Maude attacks lines south of 
Kut, 35f: driven from Rafa. 36a; re- 
treats toward Bagdad; makes stand, 
but defeated; loses Kut-el-Amara; 
Bagdad; Ramadie, 29f: again retreats; 
defeated near Gaza. 36a; severs diplo- 
matic relations with U. S. (1917). 
35c. 189f; loses Jafl^a & Jerusalem. 
29f; regains control of Armenia. 42a; 
evacuates Jerusalem. 36a; attempts 
to occupy Batum, &c. 143b: gains 
(1918). 138b; reoccupies Trebizond; 
surprise attack on coast of; retreats 
east of Jordan; army loses organiza- 
tion; pursued into Syria; defeated at 
Mosul; surr,, 37c; collapse of Turk, 
armies. 30c&d; signs armistice, 30e, 
36c. 42b. 37c,112e; terms of armistice, 
37c; withdraws from World War, 30d: 
demobilized. 30e; treaty of peace 
(1920), 43b, 693; Egypt entirely sepa- 
rated fr,. 31f; recognizes independ. of 
Hejaz. 112e; Gr. Brit, gets mandate 
for Palestine, 13Ie; cost of World War 
to. 3Sc; cost in men. 3Sf.— See also 
Armenia. Balkan. Balkan Wars, 
Bosnia hHerzegooina. Central Pow- 
ers. Janizaries, Ottoman, Turks. 
Youno Turks. 
Turkheim. battle of, 97d. 
Turkmanchai. Treaty of. 41e 132e. 
Turkomans (seeTurAoman. in £> ter). 
151b, See also Turks. Mode of travel. 
illust.. 116. 
Turks, the. 151b: in posses, of Jerusa- 
lem (1095). I3b; capture Jerusalem 
(1248). lib. Se^ Jerusalem. Turkey. 
^ Islands. 74c. 
Turner, Nat, leads slave insurr. in U. 

S., 160e. 172a. 
Turnhout, battle of, I8c. 
Turpentine State, 199d. 
Turtuk.a.i= Tutrakan. 
Tuscania, transport, sunk, 37d. 191a. 
Tuscany. It. state. 114d: goes to Fran- 
cis of Lorraine; retained by Aust,, 
114e; Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle;Aust. 
retains (1748); Peter Leopold gets- 
Ferdinand. 116a; ceded to Parma 
(1801). 22b: Treaty of Madrid(180I); 
to become "kingdom of Etruria."99b; 
with Venice becomes kdm. of Etruria 
(1804). 116b; expels rulers; votes for 
union with Piedmont. 116c; atmexed 
to Piedmont. 25b; earthquake in 
(1919). 117f; land tenure in, 115b. 
Tuscarora War. I38b. 
Tuskegee Inst., fnd.. 203d. 
Tussum, Turks defeated at. 33e. 



254 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



Tutrakan (Turtukai). Germans take, 

34e. 
Tuttlingen, battle of. 19c. 
Tutuiia.island. 2I0b&c; U. S. receives, 

ISOd. 
Tuxtepec, Plan of. 127b. 
Tvrtko. Stephen, 123d. 
Tweed Ring, overthrown, 176f. 
"Twenty-one demands." Japan pre- 
F sents to China. Ue. 87b&e. llSf. 
Twenty-seventh Division (N. Y. 

Nat. Guards), parades in N. Y. 

(1919). 192e. 
Twenty-sixth Division (New Eng. 

Mat. Guards), parades in Boston 

<1<)I9). 192e. 
Two Sicilies, Kingdom of the. See 

Sicilies. Kingdom of the Two. 

Tyler, John, life, 214d; chronology, 

'aaftt: portrait. 212. — Other rets.: 

/ 1983; pres. vote for. 172di vetoes 

■ '"Fiscil Bank" bill; vetoes "Fiscal 

<-Cori)oralion" bill; cabinet resigns, 

J72e; vetoes tariff bills <1842). 142e; 

-prevents reestablish ment of a Federal 

bank, 172e-. favors annexation of Do- 
minican Repub,, 92b. 
— , Wat (Walter). 15a. 
Typewriter, Remington. 177c. 
Typhoid, epidemic, Serbia (1915). 

122c. 
Typhus, epidemic in Montenegro, 

123b; Serbia (1915). 122c, 186e. 
Tyre, Alexander destroys. 8d. 
Tyrol. See Tirol. 
TyrtEeus, Greek poet, 7c. 
Tzu ChSng Yuan, National assem- 
bly of China, 1st raeeting- (1910). 

S6e. 
Tzu Hsi An, Empress Dowager of 

China. 84b, 85e; coup d'etat, 86b; 

diiea. S4d, 86d. 



U. 



XT-boats. See Submarine warfare. 

X7-63, Ger. war submarine, lS8f. 

Uccialli treaty, 39b. 

Udine, Central Powers occupy. 35f; It. 

occupies, 37b- 
■^, Prince, heads It. mission in U. S., 
189f. 

"Uganda Protectorate, descrip., 65e; es- 
tab.. 5"a; map, 64. 

Xliffhur Turks, estab. in Kansu, 85c. 

"Uitlander" controversy, 6.a&:b. 

Ukraine (Ukraima). hist, outline, 
139c: area Si. pop.. 139d; recent statis- 
tics, 223; map. 38. Rus. intervenes in, 
137b; Poland loses (1667). 139e;Tur- 
key recognizes Rus. in, 139f; recovers 
part of (1699). 139i. 131c. 152e; Rus. 
acquires Polish. 13/c. 140b; Rus. ad- 
vance in (1916). 34d: severs relations 
with Rus.. 142e; separate state; 
Ukrainian Republic recognized by 
itroops, 143a; signs treaty witbCentral 
Powers. 36b, U4e. 143a; independ.. 
36b; gets Polish Kholm, 134e; Rus. 
Sives up claim to (1918), 36c. 13Sb. 
143b; treaty of peace with Rus.; inde- 
pend. recognized, 138c, 143c: Rouma- 
nian agreement with. 13 ia; unites 
-with Ruthenians. 134e: at war with 
Bolsheviki (1919); appoints minister 
<Df Jewish affairs, 143d: hinders Deni- 
kin's advance, 143e; sends delegate to 
Ynrev conference. 124c; aids Poland 
against Bolsheviki. 143f. 

TTkrainian People's Republic, 139d. 

Ulfilas, bishop, lOe. 

Ulm, surrender of, 22c. 99c. 

Vlpian,. jurist; becomes pratorian pre- 
fect. 10c. 

Ulrica Eleonora, queen of Sw., 148c&f ; 
reign; abdicates, 148f. 

Ulster, organized by Carson; against 
Home Rule: demonstration under 
Carson; Volunteer Force, 58d; As- 
iqnith 'a plan for ; controversy sus- 
pended by World War, 5Sf; National- 
ists & Home Rule Act. 59f; proposal to 
exclude from Home Rule. 60b; dele- 
gates at Irish Convention (1918); & 
conscription, 60e: new Home Rule 
Bill (1919) provides separate Pari. 
for. 61e. 

XTltramontane party. 150d. 

Xllundi, battle of, 67a. 

XJxabsrtD — Humbert I. 

"Umbria. joins Piedmont, 25b; land 
temiTc in. 115b. 

"Umm-el-Hanna. taken, 34f. 

■"Uncle Tom's Cabin," pub., 160f, 
173d. 

Undaunted, Brit, cruiser, sinks 4 
Ger. destroyws, 32e. 

"Underground Railroad (see in 
Did.). i73d- 

ITnderwood Tariff Act. 165b, lS5a. 

Vngava, added to Quebec, 69d, 72e. 

"Uniformity, Act of, in force, 52c. 

Union-Central Pacific R. R. opened. 
S76e. 

Unionists. See Constitutional Union 
■party. 

— , ID Venezuela. 156a. 

Union jack, adopted. 53b, 54d. 

— of New England colonies. 167e. 

— of South Africa. See South Africa, 
Union of. 

— of Uuecht. 18b. 

•^ Pacific R. R., Credit Mobilier ex- 

Ijosure. 177b; merger with So. Pacific 

jdissolved, 184c. 

party (U.S.), 175f. 

"Unitarians, ' 'Argentine polit. party, 

■4ia. 
United Evangelical Church, formed in 

Ger.. lD6d. 
— — Farmers party, Canada, 73d. 
-^ Free Church, of Scot., formed, 57d. 

— Irishmen, Society of. 54b&c. 

— Kingdom (Gr. Brit. & Ire.), area 
& pop,, 51f; recent statistics, 222. 
See Enoland. 

— Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and 
AJgajT^e, 49b&e. 

■^Mine Workers, call off strike in Colo., 
I85d. 

— Mine Workers c. Coronado Coal Co.. 
Federal district court decision, 192e. 

^ Provinces (India), become Brit., 

64a&c. 
^ Provinces (Netherlands), map, 18. 

See. Vnitm of Uir-eebX. j 



UnitedStatea of America, Historical 
Outline, 157-165: discov,-ry. 157a; 
colonization, I57d: colonial growth. 
157e; govt, of colonies. 157f; Indian St 
colonial wars. 1 58a: intercolonial 
wars; movements toward union. 158b; 
revolutionary era. 158c: revolution, 
158f; critical period, 159a: organiza- 
tion of the govt., 159c: War of 1812, 
159d; social & economic development: 
industrial development, 159f; politi- 
cal issues St parties. 160b; territorial 
e.xpansion, I60c: problem of slavery, 
160d; Abolition movement, 160e; se- 
cession. 161b: Civil War. I6Ic;eman- 
cipation. lOle; Reconstruction. 161f: 
economic revolution, 162d: develop- 
ment of the West; economic develop- 
ment of the South; changes in politics 
& law. 163a; judicial review, 163b; 
parties & party issues from 1377 to 
1895. 163c: minor parties, 163e; cam- 
paign of 1896, I64a; U. S. as a world 
power, 164b; Panama Canal, 104d; 
prosperity St discontent. 164e; U. S. 
in the World War. 165d. Tha Land, 
165-166: the country, 165e: tempera- 
ture & climate; physical characteris- 
tics. 165f: natural resources; aborigi- 
nal people, 166a. Organization, 
166: national govt.. I66b; state govt.; 
production & industry. 166d: religion; 
educ, 166e; defense. 16Sf: area. pop.. 
& recent statistics. 220-232; maps. 64. 
194;illu9t3.: dwelling: business house. 
128; high buildings, 161; historic 
buildings. 212. Chronology, 167- 
194: discoveries. 167a; colonization, 
le'c; Revolution & Constitution, 
168d: early Federal Republic, 169d; 
nineteenth-century period. 171a: slav- 
ery controversy. 172a;Civil War, 174c; 
Reconstruction. 176b: economic de- 
velopment. 177f; U- S- as a world 
power, ISOa: World-War period. 185e: 
America in World War. 139c. States 
of the Union.l 195-203. Territo- 
ries and Dependencies, 209-211. 
Presidents, 212-219; portraits, 212. 
Other refa.: Origin of slave trade. ISf. 
1775-1914; Rev. war: independence 
decl.; 1st official use of term U.S. A., 2 Id: 
Fr. recognizes, 9Sc; Ist decisive naval 
victory. 21d;& Armed Neutrality. 2le: 
Peace of Versailles & Paris, 21e. 9Sc; 
nations recog.; Oriental trade opens 
to; Constitution: Washington, pres., 
21e; neutrality proclamation. 21f: Jay 
treaty, 21f, 71d; treaty with Spain, 
21f. 147a: international commerce 
opens to. 2 If; naval war with Fr.. 22b; 
war on Algerines. 96a: gets Louisiana, 
22c, 9Dc: relations with Europe (1S07- 
12): Embargo act. 22d; fishing rights 
in Newf., 73eSif; Sp. cedes Fla. to, 
147b: era of emigration, 24c; trade 
with Canada, 71d; Monroe Doctrine, 
24c; bound, treaty with Mex., 126b; 
commercial treaty with Turk., 152£; 
dispute with Mex. over Texas. I20c: 
commercial panic. 24e;war with Mex., 
. 125c; treaty with Colombia (1846), 
8Sa: attempts to buy Cuba (1848), 
83e, 89b; lilibustering expeditions, 
88e; sympathy with revolutions in 
Europe. 21f; treaties with Nicar. re- 
garding Canal, 80e: Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty; bombards Greytown, 80f; Oe- 
tend Manifesto: Ist Atlantic cable; 
commercial panic (1857) . 25a: 1st 
treaty with China, 84a; draft treaty 
with Mex., 127a: debate over pur- 
chase of Cuba. 89c: Ist Jap. mission 
to: Civil War, 25b; slavery abol., 25c: 
1st treaty of amity with Haiti, lllf; 
demands withdrawal of Fr. from 
Mc-x., 127a; purchases Alaska from 
Rus.. 209a: Dickinson-Ayon Treaty 
with Nicar. (Canal). 8Ia; Ist Chinese 
mission to, 2od; draft treaty with Co- 
lombia (1869). 82c; conventions with 
Mex.,127bS:c;draft treaty with Nicar. 
(1884), 8lb: 1st participation in Eu- 
ropean congress, 26a; Brussels Con- 
vention, 26a&b; reciprocity with 
Newf.. 73eSif; in Venez. bound, dis- 
pute. 155e; rejects general arbitration 
treaty with Eng. (1897), 57c: war 
with Spain (1898), 88f. 89d, 145f: 
annexes Hawaii. 209f; recognizes in- 
depend, of Cuba; assumes mil, con- 
trol. S9d; gets Phil. Isls.. 211c: gets 
Porto Rico. 2ne: in West Indies. 74a: 
negotiations & treaties regarding Pan- 
ama Canal (1900-04); recognizes in- 
dependence of Panama, 82d; Plait 
Amendment, 8Sf. 89d; treaty with 
Cuba (1903), 88f. 89d&e; attitude 
toward coercion of Venez. by Euro- 
pean powers, 156c; acquires Canal 
Zone & jurisdiction over cities of Pan- 
ama & Colon; treaty terms, 82a; at 
Algeciras Conference. 128c; constructs 
Panama Canal (1907-14), 82e: gen- 
eral Arb. Treaty with Eng.. 58a; 
treaty with Colombia (1909). 88c; 
loan convention with Hond. (1911): 
with Nicar.; virtual protectorate. 81d: 
S: Haiti (1911). Ulf; Rus. Duma de- 
clares tariff war against. 142a; em- 
bargo on arms to Mex., 127d; treaty of 
1832 with Rus. ceases, 142b; treaties 
with Nicar. (1913), (1914). 81e: 
recog. Chinese Repub.. 87^; refuses to 
recognize Huerta; "watchful wait- 
ing" policy with Mex.; marines at 
Vera Cruz, 125d. 127e; celebration of 
peace centennial with Gr. Brit., 58f. 
1914-1920: proclam. of neutrality. 
31e; protests war zone; munitions dis- 
cussion with von Bernstorff, 32f; Lu- 
sitania notes. 29b. 33a; Ger. replies to 
Lusitania notes; protests Brit, ad- 
miralty decisions; requests recall of 
Aust. ambassador, 33a: protectorate 
over Haiti. Hid. 112a: warns Mex.; 
recognizes Carranza, 125e. 128a; re- 
call of von Papen & Boy-Ed de- 
manded. 33a&b; note on Ancona. 33b; 
protests to Allies on mail seizures; & 
Ger. on submarine warfare, 34a; pro- 
tests doctrine of continuous voyage, 
29b; trouble with Villa; sends Per- 
shing with punitive exped. into Mex., 
125e, 128a; ultimatum to Ger. on sub- 
marine warfate; Ger. reply; 2nd mail 
protest to Allies, 34b; refuses to with- 



draw troops from Mex., 12Sb; protests 
blacklisting of Amer. firms by Gr. 
Bnt., 34b; purchases Virgin Isls., 91e. 
21lf; protests to Ger. on deportation 
of Belgians; peace note (1916), 34c; 
severs diplomatic relations with Ger.. 
29d, 3dc: troops finally withdrawn 
from Mex.. 125e. 128b; note to neu- 
trals. 35c; Zimmermaan note, 35c. 
128b; declares war on Ger., 29d, 35c; 
Aust. severs diplomatic relations. 3Jc; 
destroyers reach British Isles, 36b: 
aitls in fighting submarines. 35a; 1st 
troops arrive in Fr.. 3Jc: Root com- 
mission to Rus.. 142;; r^ply to Pope's 
note, 35c; embar^j on tradt; w.th neu- 
trals, 35ij; Liaslng-Ish.i nstcs, 84;, 
87d, IHl, 12Je; d.-clares war on Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 35d; ar.-ny placed at 
Foch's disposal, 30a; troops at Can- 
tigny, 33;; army in Fr. (U13), 30b: 
treaty With Gr. Brit, over co.iscr-p- 
tion of citizens, 60i; troDps at Cha- 
teau-Thierry, 30b. 36die; on Murma i 
Coast, 143c; ban to China. 8fc;troop3 
in Foch's drive, 362; Ger. submarines 
operate off coast. 30b. 3/d; to aid S.- 
berian govt, with small f^rce, 36c, 
138c. 143c; troops land at Archangel, 
143c; at Saint-Mihiel, 30c. 3Gf; g.ves 
out Sissan documents, 143c; inMeuse- 
Argonne offensive, 30d, 36f: repl.cs to 
Ger. peace notes; Aust. peace notes. 
30e. 36c: loan to Cuba, 89(: policy as 
to reparation. 37e; recognizes Repub. 
of Finland, 93c3id; Amer. marines 
landed in Costa Rica (1919), 81f; 
troops leave Archangel, 143d; Angln- 
Franco-.\:nerican treaty of Alliance. 
signed; not ratified by Senate. 3Sa. 
61c; further troubles with Mex.. 12Sc; 
troops S: R. R. engineers in S.beria. 
143e; Amer. marines land in Hondu- 
ras, Sir; Jenkins incident (Mex.). 
128c; & Mex. Trad- Conference 
(1920) .12Sd; withdraws from Siberia. 
143i: senJs note to tnils on Bolivia- 
Peru-ChiU dispute. 43f; Supreme 
Council asks to accept mandate for 
Armenia: refused. 42b; World-War 
statistics. 33c-f. See also Allies (En- 
tente). American, Constitution, In- 
dians, Slavery. World War, etc. 

— Statas. U. S. frigate, captures A/ac- 
edonian, 159d, liOe. 

— Statss Bank. See Bank, U. S. 
^ States Express Co., retires. 185c. 

— Statas M.l.tary Academy. 199c. 

— Stat3S Naval Academy, 197d. 

— Stat33 Steel Corporation, organized. 
ISOf; held a lawful combination. Uuf. 

^ States 0. Cruikshanks, li'7d; d. D-1. 
St Hudson Co.. lS2f; o. Knight, l/9f; 
V. Lexington Mill Co., lS5c; c. Pat- 
ten, 134d: p. Peters. 170d; d. Rcsse. 
177d; V. Trans-Missouri Freight As- 
soc, ISOb; V. Union Pacific R. R. Co., 
lS4c; V. Wong Kim Ark. ISOc;— Su- 
preme Court decisions. 

^ States of Brazil, proclaimed. 49f. 

Universities, Irish, act for founding 
(1903). 58b. 

— Act (Ind.a). 64e. 
University Test Act. Eng., 56c. 
UnJiiar-Slcelessi, Treaty of, 140d. 

152f. 
Unterwalden, first league with Uri St 

Schwyz. I4d. 149d. 
Upolu. See Samoa. 210b & C. 
Upper Peru. See Choreas. 

— Senegal-Niger, 96d. 

— Volta, 96d. 

Upsala, University of. 148e. 

Ur, 1st dyn., 6d. 

Ural Regional Council, orders execu- 
tion of ex-czar Nicholas & fam., I43c. 

Urban II., Pope, counc.ls of Piacenza 
& Clermont, 13a; crusade, 13b, 

— VI., Pope. 15a. 

— VIII., Pope, Jansen, 19b. 
Urbino, papacy acquires, 144c. 
Ur Engur. 6d. 

Uri, 1st league with Schwyz & Unter- 
walden. 14d. 149d. 

Uriburu, Jos6. pres., 41b. 

Urmia. Lake. 46d. 

Urquiza. Justo Jose de. defeats Rosas; 
pres., 41a. 

Urriola. CiroLuis. pres. Panama. 82e. 

Uruguay, hist, outline; organization: 
govt.; relig.; education, lo5a; indus- 
try; defense; area St pop., 155b; recent 
statistics, 222; map. 64. Chronol- 
ogy, 155b. — Other refs.: revolt ag'nst 
Sp., 22e; treaty of peace with Para- 
guay, 132a; severs diplomatic rela- 
tions with Ger.. 35d, 38f. 

Urumiah. See Urmia, Lake, 46d. 

Urundi, added to Eelg. Congo, 48bS:c. 

Usbags. 139c- 

Usartjsen I. -III., 6c. 

tJskiip, Serbians take (1912), 154b; 
Allies occupy (1918), 37b. 

Usuri River. 140f. 

Utah, hist, outline. 20Sa: statistics. 
220; area. 221; chronology. 20Sb.— 
Other refs.: territory erected. lOOf, 
173d; Ter. includes Nev.. 206b: in- 
cludes Colo., 206e; woman suflrage, 
179/; admitted. 180a. 

Utica, N. Y.. statistics. 220. 

Utopia. 16f. 

Utrecht. Treaty of. 20d. 43e. 46e. 47b. 
53c. 69b, 70c, 7Ib, 73e. 97f, 105f, 
IHe, nSf, 124d, 130a, 135e, 146f, 
158b, 168b. 

— , Union of. 18b. 

Uzziah (Azariah), reigns, 6b, 7b; dies, 
7b. 



V. 



Vaal Krantz. battle of, 67b. 

Vaccination, introd.. 22a; compul- 
sory. Supr. Court decision. ISIe. 

Vacouf (Waki). 153d. 

"Vagrant Acts," U. S.. 162b. 

Vaida-Voeved, Roumanian premier, 
137a. 

Vaitolano, Gen,, premier of Roum.. 
137a. 

Valais, Swiss canton, 149e. 

Vald6a, Ramon, pres. Panama, 82e. 

Valdivia, Pedro de. 82f. 

Valencia, Suchet takes, 99e; revolu- 
tion (1873), 147d. 



^. Gonzalez, pres. of Colombia, 88d. 
Valenciennes, Canadians take, 30d, 

3?a. 
Valens, defeated: slain. lOe. 
Valantina StatJ, 208e. 
Valentinian, Risman emp., lOe. 

— IXI., Roman cup., lOf. 
Val3 of Chile. 63d. 

Yalarian, emp.. Sapor I. cap., lOd. 

Valjjvo. Seros abandon, 32c. 

Vallandlgnaja, Clement L., con- 
victed of s>5dition: banished to Con- 
federacy. 175c. 

VallS3 dJ3 Dapp33, Fr. in; treaty, 
150d. 

Vallitta. 62b. 

Valoay, battle of. 98e, 

Valois dyn.. fnd.. He; ends. ISc. 

Valparaiso, bo.nbarded. 83c; Con- 
gress, party occupies. 83d: mob at- 
tacks A.nerican 3a.l:)r3, l/9c; earth- 
Quaiie.dJb-idiall-ra.l connection w,th 
iBue.133 A.res. 41b. 

Van. Rus, capture. 33f. 

^Barja, Mart.n. l.fe, 214b: chronol- 
ogy, 214c: pjrtta.t, 212. — Otiier refs. 
193b; elected v.ce pres., l/io; elected 
pres. (I3]d); inaug.. 17ic: vote for 
pres. (1340). I/2d: nomin. by Free- 
soil par:y (131J), 130f, 173b. 

Vancijjro. Me.. H^r-i's attempt to 
blow up br.d^e. li>3c, 

Vancoavjr. George, e.'splores Brit. Co- 
lumbia. 70b, 71c; sa.ls up Columbia 
R., nOe. 

— (city), fad., 7If; terminus of trans- 
cant. R. R., 72b; rioting against Jap., 
72d; Hindu r.ots (1911), 72f; 1st 
through train from Quebec over Can. 
No. R. R., 73a. 

^ Island, post (Victoria) started; 
granted to HudsoT's Bay Co.. 71e: 
coal beds d sc, 69d; colonial govt, 
author zed; surr. t^crowa, 71f;uQited 
with Br. Columbia. 70b, 71f. 

Vandals, in Sp.; invade Africa (429 
A. D.); take Cartha^je; take Rome, 
lOf; Belisarius leads army against, 
Ilf. 

Vanderbilt, Cornelius, activities in 
Nicaragua. 80a. 

Van DiViater. Gen-, ia Ger. East 
Africa. 67e. 

^ Dijoien. 7oc. 

^ Diamen's L.\nd, See Tasmania. 

— Dorn, Gen Earl, at Pea Ridge, 1 74f ; 
at Corinth; at Holly Springs, 175b. 

Varanss (Balira.Ti) V.. lOi. 
Varangians, lid. 
Vardar River, 37b. 
Var,;la, Dr., pres. Uruguay. 155c. 
Var3nn33, 98d. 
Varus, Armiiiius defeats, 10a, 
Vasi. Gustavus. SeeGusfjuus /. 
VaaconcJllos, Port, prime min. ,136a. 
Vasvar, Treaty of (16'j4), 43e. 
Vatican. See /^OTTian Cj.t .otic Churc't. 
Rupture of relations with Ger. (1872) . 
107a: E;lg. suspends dipiom. inter- 
course w.t'i. 4.c: Ge.-. cjnil.ct with 
(188/). U7b; d plom. relations with 
Fr. ceas5,101c;c3ntests with It. g:)vt.. 
117a; ruptures w thSpi n; relation re- 
suTied, lirf: legatio.i from Port. 
abol., I33a; Sir H°nry Howard, Brit. 
ambassador to (1U4), ll,c. 
Veazia Bank v. Fenno, Supr. Court 

decision, 176f. 
Vega, Ar.nijo de la, premier, l-17e; 

cabinet resigns, 147f, 
Veil. Ca-nillus takes, 8b. 
Vaint3aailla. l3nac.od3, revolt3:pres. 
Ecuador: becomes dictator; exiled, 
921. 
Velaaquaz, Diego, begins conquest of 

Cuba. 89a; gov. (1519), 125f. 
'Val33=K'6priU. 37b. 
Venaisain, Fr. absorbs. 98d. 
Vendej, the. royalist r.sing, 9Se; vic- 
tories; overcome, 98f. 
Ven3oai3. Duke of, defeats Charles of 

Austria. 97f. 
Venitia (see also Veriice), restored t^ 
Austria (1815). 44c: liberated by 
Pru3., Il6d: It. g^ts, 25d, li6d; Aust. 
hoUs (1918), 30b; land tenure ia, 
I15b. 
Vdnetlan Republic. See Venice. 
Venetians. See Venice. 
Venezuela, hist, outline, 155d; organ- 
ization; govt,, 155e: industry; reli- 
gion; education; defense; area St pop., 
135f; recent stat.stics. 222; map, 64. 
Chronology, I55f. — Other refs.: 
meaning of name. 155dif; Ojeda & 
Cosa visit. 167a; in New Granadi. 
8Sc; revolt against Sp.. 22e; in Repub. 
of Colombia: secedes. 83c: bound, 
dispute With Colombia, 88aS!c:bound. 
dispute with Br. Guiana (see below) ; 
conflict with Colombia, SSaStc; at- 
tempted coercion by Ger. '(190il). 
26c; Neth. dispatches naval force to 
(190S),129d: joins League of Nations. 
38e. 
Venezuelan boundary, dispute with 
Br. Guiana: gen. summary, 155d&e. 
164c. 71e: Pres. Cleaveiaud's mes- 
sage, 179E. 217b; U. S. commission to 
decide. 179f; Gr. Brit. S: U. S. reach 
agreement, 130a; arbit, treaty bet, 
Gr. Bnt. & Venez. (189?). 156c. 
ISOa. 
Venice (Venetians), doge procl, duke 
ol Dalmatia; dominant power of Med. 
Sea, 12e' transports crusaders. 13e; 
oldsailey, lUust.. 96; galleass. lUust.. 
144; war with Genoa (1258), 14b; 
(1354); Marino Falien, 14f; fight for 
supremacy of sea; defeats Genoese at 
Chiogg^a, 15a; League of Cambiai 
against; defeated at Agnadello; in 
Holy League, 16e: aids Francis 1. 
(1515), 16f; (1527). i;a; driven from 
Greece, 151c; loses ascendancy. 114e; 
in Holy League against the Turks 
(1571). 18a; in 1648. 114d; map, IS; 
loses Candia (Crete) to Turks, 19e, 
1I5[, 152d; against Turks. 152e; gains 
Peloponnesus; a.scendancy in Ionian 
Isis.. I15f; takes Athens. lS2c: re- 
ceives the Morea & Dalmatia (1699). 
20b. 151c. 152e; war with Turks. 20e: 
loses the Morea. 20e, 151c. 152e:keep3 
part of Dalmatia (1718). 20e, 122d, 
152e: repub. falU, 22a. 122f; ceded to 
Aust., 22a, 42d. 44b, 116b: & Tuscany 



become kingdom of Etruria (1804). 
116b; Aust. loses (ISOJ). 22c. 42d, 
114e; Aust. regains. 42e, lUe. llflb; 
rebels against Aust.. 41d, 116c; estab. 
repub..44d; Aust. retakes, 116c; ceded 
to It.. 44f. 1141; campanile of St. 
Marks, I16f: Aust. bombard (1913), 
37d; Aust. fleet surr. at. 37e. See Ve- 
netia. 
Veniz3l03, Eleatherios. Cretan leadar. 
his career. 109eicf; forms Gr. cabinet, 
UOd; forms Balkan League, I09e. 
152a: re3ig.is as premier; reelected, 
UOe; seeks aid of All.es. 33a; forced 
out of oBce, 3ia, UOe; dispute with 
Zaimis, llOe; provis. govt, in Crete, 
34b: provis. govt, at Saloniki, 34b, 
llOf; govt, recognized by Allies; de- 
clares war on Ger.. ItOf; forms minis- 
try (131/), 35c. IlOf; convokes dis- 
solved pari, of 1915; shows Gr. might 
have occupied Constantinople, lUa. 
VjraCrjJ.fnd., 125f: Spaa, trade ceo 
ter in Mei., I26a: capt. by Fr., 126c; 
ctpt. by Scott, 125, 1/31>; occupied by 
Eng., Fr., & Sp. forces (1861). 127a: 
R. R. to Mex.co City opened, 127b; 
Amer. marines occupy. 12od, 127e. 
161e, 135d; Amer. army takes over 
from navy, 12if, 18jd; Amer. army 
withdrawn. 12/f. 18i>a. 
Varagaa, Columbus vis.u, 87f. 
Verc3il,B. battle of. 9e. 
VJrdjn. bishopric of. Sw. gets control 

of. HScSte; ceded to Hanover, 14Sf. 
V3rd3r, Germans at, 35f. 
Verdan. Fr.aciutres (1648), 19c: bat- 
tle of (1916), 28eif. 34c; Fort de 
Douaumont recovered by Fr.. 34d; 
lines restored. 35e; & Meuse-Argonne 
oiTensive. 38f. 
— , Treaty of (843 A. D.), 12c. 
Veraeniging, peace of, 67c. 
Ver^la. Peace of. MOb. 
Verandrye brothers, first to see Rocky 

Mts-. 16Sb. 206f. 
Vargara, Spain. I47c. 
Vergil. 10a. 

Vermoat, hist, outline, 200a; statis- 
tics. 220; area. 221. Chronology. 200b. 
— Other refs.: slavery abol., 169a: ad- 
mitted. 169e; adopts prohibition; lo- 
cal option, 173d. 
Vernon. Adm.. takes Porto Bello, 53d, 

I46f; attacks Cartagena. 53d. 
Verona, Congress at, 24c. 147b. 
Verraaino, voyage of exploration, 
157c. 16rb; visits Mass. coast, 196e: 
N. Y. bay. l^il. 
VsrsaillJS, Franco-Aust. alliance 
formed at. 93b; Ger. Empire pro- 
claimed at (1371), 25e, lO/a; 1st 
Interallied Counc.I meets at. 35d. 
— (and Paris). Treaty of (1/83), 21e, 
fill. 71c, 73e, 80c. 93c. 147a, 158f, 
139c; as a^ectlng regions (States) of 
U. S.; 200cJle. 201a. c.eM. 202bS£d. 
203dif. 201;2, 20oc; (1371), prelim., 
lOOd.lO/a; (3326), general terms,37f. 
33a: ter.-na for Belg., 48b: Czecho- 
slovakia. 90e; Den., 91e; Ger., 104f; 
Latvia, 123o; Liberia, 124a: Luxemb., 
Uid; Morocco, 129aSib: Pol., 134e; 
Slam, llJi; ratified by various na- 
tions, 33aib; also, by Australia, 76f; 
B;lg., 45b: Braz.l. 50a; Canada. 73d; 
Cuba, 83f: Fr., 102e: Ger., 104b: Gr, 
Bnt.. 61d; Guat.. 81f; It., U7f; Ja- 
pan, 120f; N. Z.. 77d: Peru, 133f; So. 
Africa, 6'e; Uruguay, 155c. — Other 
refa,: China refuses to sign, 38b, 84f. 
87e; becomes operative in Ger., 109c; 
Japan & racial eciuality in, 120f: 
Newf. not treated as party to, 73f; 
U. S.. Pres. W.lson signs, 165e, 193a. 
213f; presented to Senate; opposition 
develops. li)3a; reported in Sen. with 
amendmentsireservations. 193c: Sen. 
rejects amends,, further reservations, 
193d: 1st meeting of Intern. Labor 
Coaf. under: Sen. rejects amends.; 
adopts reservations, 193e: Sen. refuses 
to ratify, 1 J3eM; Viscount Grey's let- 
ter on reservations, 194c; Sen. recon- 
s.ders; ajain rejects. 194e. See League 
of Nations. 
VerulaJa, Baron=5oco7i, Francis. 
Vervins. taken, 37a. 
— , Treaty of, ISc. 
Vesls River, Ger. retreat to, 36e. 
Vespasian, emp.; begins Colosseum; 

Titus succeeds, 10b, 
Vespucci, Amerigo, traces coast of S. 
Amer..l0e, 155d. 167a; names Ven z-, 
155dif; on coast of Brazil; letters 
pub., 107a; America named aftCTi 
157c. 167a. 
"V33t-pockat" govt., 108f. 
Vesuvius. Mt., eruption of (79A.D.), 
10b; (1906). 117a; Prof. Malladra de- 
scends into. 117b, 
Viborg, Finland, ceded to Rug., 20f; 
members of 1st Du;na meet at, 141f; 
Red govt, overthrown. 93e. 
Vicanza, Papal forces surrender at, 

44d. 
Vicksburg, Grant's advance on; Grant 
commands operations against (1863), 
175b; Fed. fleet runs batteries of: siege 
of, 175c; surr., 161e. 175c. 201e, 216c. 
Victor !>/., Antipope. 13d. 
^Amadeus (of Savoy). Sicily, Mont- 
ferrat, St Alessandria assigned to: 
king. 115f; exchanges Sicily for Sar- 
dinia; overthrown; imprisoned; abdi- 
cates. U6a. 
^ £mailliuel II., of Sardinia & It.. 
king, lllf, 116c; encourages national 
spirit. 116c; against Rus.. U6c. UOe; 
with Garibaldi. 116d; kingof It..ll4f. 
116d; declares govt- not insensible 
to condition of country. 116c; dies, 
116d. 
^ Emmanuel III., of Italy, marries 
Princess Elena, I23b; king; confers 
with iKaiser William; Pres. Loubet 
visits, UOf; Kaiser visits. 107f: enters 
Trieste (li)18), 117e; relinquishes 
domains for benefit of peasants, 
Ulf. 
Victoria, province of Australia, 75b: 
settlement of, 75e; repr. govt.; gold 
disc; revolt of miners; leads in labor 
reform, 75f; restricts Chinese immi- 
gration. 76a; approves Commonwealth 
Bill. 76b: compulsory voting, 76d. 
•-• (Hongkong), 62e. 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



255 



Victoria (Vancouver Isl.) fnd.t "le. 

^ [Alexandrina), queen of Eng., be- 
comes lueen. 55c; weds Prince Albert, 
55d; Empress of India. 56d. 6-ld; 
golden jubilee, S.'a: d amond jubilee. 
Sic; diw. 5.d; proclaims Commoa- 
weaUh of Australia, lii- 

^.Gen. Guad.ilupe,126a; revolts; prea.. 
i26b. 

— Falls. Rhodesia. 67c. 
■—Louise, marries, lOTf. 
^ i\yaiiza, 25a. 65e. 

— of Batlenberg, Princess, marries Al- 
fonso X 11 1.. U5f. 147e. 

Victory Lod.n (u. S.), Senate passes 
measure. lOJj; raised. 19-f. 

Vidal. L»r., prc3. Uruguay, 155c. 

Vienna, r.sc of. 42c: Solyman attacks, 
17b; ICara Mustafa besieges (1G&3). 
20a, 43c. 152d; French advance on. 
44b; Murat occupies, 99c: Napoleon 
occupies; surrenders, 44c; Napoleon 
enters. 99d; revolutions in (1S48); 
stormed oy Wmdischgr.tz. 44d; Prus- 
sians advance on (1800). 106f; exposi- 
tion tl8(J). 25e, «f; W.ll.am II. 
v;sits. I07c: Turk, representatives re 
call-d, 15Jf: food riots (1911), 4jc; 
miniBrerial councl at, 31c; bread r.- 
ots in (I9i:i); meatless days in; food 
crisiG. 45e; food cr.eis in: strikes. 4Ca; 
Bolsheviem in. 4Cb&c; revolution 
(1918). 43a. 

—.Congress of (Sept.. IGU-June.lOi;;) , 
descript.airesuks. 24a. — Gtiier rcfs.: 
Ifjd. 22f, 2Jc^d, 2-li'(pa8sim), 42e. 
44c. 90f. 99i. lOob. \0^. n4e. I2:f. 
128d, 129c. 130j. lo4aS;c, 140d. 144c. 
117b. U8c. 149aS:c, 150c; general act. 
24a. 99f, 106c. 

^, Treaty (Peace) of, preliminary 
(1735), i^c. 93a. HOa; (1/3S; ratify- 
ing that of 1 ;,;^) . 2Ui". 98a. 105f, 14Cf; 
(1778). IJiia; (1609; called also 
lreatyof.Sc 9n:)ruTin).22e,44c.l22d; 
(1815; see Vit/ina. Congress of). 116b. 
122e. lJ4d: (1SG4), 91d. 106f; (1860), 
44f. 

^, Univors'ty of, 15a, 43d. 

Vienna, council of (1312), 14e. 

Viera, Fehciano. prea., 155c. 

Vigilancia, Amtr. steamer, sunk, 

isye. 

Vigo, battle of. 130a. 

ViKing, trading ship, illust., 96: boat, 
illust.. 144. 

Vilagos, Hungarianscapitulate, 113b. 

Villa, Gen. l-rancisco, Mex. rebel lead- 
er; conflict With Larranza, 125d. 127e 
&:f, 12Sa. 104e; refuses to retire: holds 
northern Mcx., 12, (; kills Americans, 
12S^; atucks U.S. post at Columbus, 
N. M., 125c, 12Sa. ISSa: I'.S.exped. 
to capture. 125c. 128a, ISSa. 

Villacoublay. Fr., review of airplane 
armada at. lOU. 

Vlllafranca, Treaty (Peace) of, 114f. 
116c. 

VlHalobos. Span, explorer, 210f. 

Villars, Marshal Claude de. 93f: at 
Malplaquct. 97f. 

Villav^rda, Fernandez de, premier, 
147e. 

Villazon, pres. of Bolivia, 4Cf. 

VillSle, Count Jean de, premier; min. 
ends. 100a. 

Villerol, Duk« Francois de. at Ramil- 
lies, 9;f. 

VilUstas, 128a,bS:c. 192f. 

Vilno, Ru8. province. U3f; 144b. 

^, city, Germans take (1915), 33c, 
13*a 

— , Treaty of, 139e. 

Vimy Ridge, Canadians take, 29c. 
35d: Germans fail to take, 3Cd. 

Vincennta. fnd.. ICSa. 201e, 220; 
Clark cai.t., 169a. 

Vinci, Leonardo da, 15d, 117b. 

Vinegar Liill, battle at, 54c. 

Vlnland, 130-. lo.a 

Virgil. Sec Vcrsjii. 

Virginia. h;st. outline. lOSc; statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221. Chronology, lySc, 
Other refs.: B.rmudas attached to, 
73f; named.l8b.l6(C; origin of name, 
8?ttli"m.n[, 15(d: Fr. & Sp, claims 
in, 10. c; Jamestown sctti ^d, lSd.l67c: 
boundaries extended to Pacific. 167c; 
charter iacl. Ohio. 201a: Mich, in- 
cluded in2 d cliarter; clai n relinq., 
2J3d: 2nd c' arfjr includes Wis.; claivn 
relinquished. 204e; claimsMmn., E.of 
Miss.,l;u b; relinquishes claim. 205c; 
2nd chart'?r includes III.; relinquishes 
claim, 202b; 2Qd charter includes In- 
diana irel in uishcsclaim.201e; tobacco 
1st planted in, lC7d; 1st legislative 
assembly elected in Amer..lSf. lC7d; 
slavery introduced. 16i"d; cultivation 
of cotton begun. ISf ; charier annulled 
(1C24), 167d; becomes royal province. 
ISf. 167d: assembly continues to be 
representative, 16i'd; Bacon's Rebel- 
lion, 167f; Indian Wars, 158b; assem- 
bly asserts sole right to lay taxes, 158c; 
cxped. into Northwest of Geo. Rogers 
Clark & Virginian force; conq. of HI.; 
basis of claims, 169a, 202b: Cornwal- 
lis in, 16Ud; relinquishes claim to 
Ohio, 201a: cession of western claims, 
169c; calls Annapolis Convention; 
ratifies Constitution, 169d: secedes. 
17 4d; joins Confederacy, 161c: rc- 
duired to ratify 15th Amendment, 
ITtie; readmitted: Democrats in con- 
trol. 17lji; new constitution (1902) 
reduces Negro vote, 181b; prohibi- 
tion in. 18Gb. See Jamestown. 

^, ship- Sec M erriTniic. 

"Virginia" or "Randolph" Plan, 
213d. 

Virginia. University of, fnd.. 198e. 

^ Co;Tipany. 167c, 198c. See also Lon- 
don C'lunpany. 

^ Kesolulions, 170a, 213b. 

Virgin Islands, hist, outline. 2lle; 
area& pop.. 21 If; statistics, 220&221; 
chronology, 211f. — Other refs.: Co- 
lumbus names. 21If; (British), 74a; 
acquired, 52c; (of U. S ; formerly 
Danish Weat Indies') pup.hase treaty 
rejected (1867), 176d; tru-aty with U. 
S. for purchase rejected by Den., 
ISla: purchased by U. S., ISSdSte. 
189d. 

Virginius, filibuster ship, seized, 89c, 
177c. 



VirlbuS TTnitlS, Aust. dreadnought, 
sunk, 37e. 

Visayans, 211a. 

Visigoths, slay Valens, lOe; Clovia 
wars with, lib; Saracens conq., 12b. 

Vistula, battle of the. 27e. 

Vitellius, emp. of Rome. 10b. 

Viterbo, trial of Camomstsat, llTa. 

Vitiges, king of Ostrogoths; besieges 
Rome; in Ravenna, llf. 

Vitoria (Sp.), battle of (1813), 22f. 
99f. 147b. 

Vittoria (It.), entered (1918), 37b. 

Viviani, Rene, forms cabinet; cabinet 
reconstructed; still premier, 102a; 
min. of for. alTairs: ministry resigns; 
min. of justice. 102b; arrives in U. S., 
102b. 

Vizcaya, Sp. cruiser, illust., 144. 

Vladimir (the Grf^t) converted. 12e. 

Vladivostoic, yielded to Rus. (1360), 
140f; ra.lroad projected. S6a; con- 
nected by rail with Moscow. 141c; 
Rus. fleet badly damaged by Jap. 
(1904). 120b; mutiny among Rus. 
reservists (1906). 141e; held by 
Crecho-SIovaks. 90d; Amer. &: other 
troops m (1918). 138c: Jap- & Bnt. 
troops at. 143b; Chinese & Fr. troops 
land. H3c: seized by Jap.(1920),143f. 

Vodena, Greece gams, 109f. 

Vogorides, Alexander, gov.-gen. of E. 
Roumeha. 78e. 

Volhynia, Russia acquires part of, 
140b. 

Volosts, 13SeSJ. 

Volstead Act, 193dS:e. 

Voltaire. Age of. 20bie. 

Volunteer Army Act. 185d. 

— State. 200d. 

Von, (or Ger. names with this element, 
as von Billow, see the specif, family 
name, as Biilow. 

Vorarlberg:, wishes to unite with Swit- 
zerland (1919J, 46d. 150f. 

Vortigern, reigns in Britain. lOf, 

Vranja, Bulgarians occupy, 33e. 

Vukcic, Stephen. 123d. 

Vulcan Pass, captured, 34e. 

Vulgate Bible, lOe. 



W. 



Wabash. St. Louia. & Pac. R. R. Co. 
ti. Illinois. Supr. Court decision, 

irsd. 

Wadi HaUa, eSe&f. 

Wages Act, Eng., 61a. 

Wagram, battle of, 22e, 44c, 94a, 99e; 
meeting at. lillc. 

Wababi empire, overthrown, 112b; re- 
vived. ii:d. 

Wahabiism (see inZ)ic(.), n2c. 

Waitangi. Treaty of. 77c. 

Waite, Morrison R., chief justice, 
177c. 

Waizeru ZauditU, empress of Abys- 
sinia, 3ilb. 222. 

Waka Island, 210c: map, 194. 

Waldock, republic esub.. lOSf. 

Waldeck-Riusseau, 94d, 101b. 

Wales, hist, outline (Great Britain St 
Ireland), 50b: area Sc pop., 5lf: re- 
cent statistics, 222; map. 33. Chro- 
nology, Slf. — Edward I. subdues. 14c; 
repr. in Pari., 1/b; Eng. church in, 
51d. See Welsh Church Disestablish' 
mcnl Hill. 

^, Prince of. See his title as king. See 
also Cornwad oc York, Duke of. Ed- 
ward Vn.(as Prince of Wales, 1S41- 
1901) , v.sas Canada fit U. S., 56a. 71i; 
vista Ind a. 64d. 5Cd: George V. (as 
Prince, ldt,5-1910), visits India, 64f; 
I dward Albert, visits Canada (1919). 
(Jld. 73d; U. S., 61e,- 193e; Australia 
&N. Z.. 61f. 

Walfish Bay. 33e. 

Walker. William, in Nicaragua, 80a& 
f ; Cornel. us Vanderbilt supports. 80a; 
Bilrr., 801: sent back to Amer.. SOa&f; 
in Costa Rica, 7'Jb: attempts another 
e-xped., 80f; in Honduras, 81a; exe- 
cuted. 80a. 81a. 

^ p. Sauvinet. Supr. Court decision, 

:77d. 

Wall, Chinese, built, 3rd century, B. 
C, 5f, 83e: Hadrian's in Brit.; built 
by Romans bet. the Forth S; the 
Clyde, 10c. 

Wallace. J. F., appointed engineer in 
chief for Panama Canal, ISld; re- 
signs, 181c. 

— , Lew, 201d. 

^, William, at Stirling; at Falkirk; 
death. 14d. 

Wallachia, hist, outline: see under 
RouTnania, 130b; ceded to Aust., 
151c: Turks lose part (Little Walla- 
chia). 20e, 43e, 151c, 152e; Russians 
in, 140b: Rus. protectorate. 140d; 
Rus. occupies, 136c: Aust. replaces 
Rus. in, 140e; evacuated by Roum. & 
Rus.; Central Powers occupy, 341'. 
Sec also Danubian Principalities. 

Wallenstein, besieges Nuremberg; at 
LiJtzen; killed. I9a. 

Wallingford, Treaty of. 13c. 

Wall Stroet (see in Diet.) , Black Fri- 
day (1S69). 176e. 

Walpole, prime minister, 50c, 53c; 
administration, 53c; falls, 53d. 

Walter the Penniless. 13b. 

War Appropriation Act, U. S., 1st, 
lS9f: 2. id. 190b. 

— Army .A.ct, V. S., lS9f. 

^ Cabinet, Eng., Lloyd George's na- 
tional ministry (1916), 60a: Gen. 
Smuts in; Sir Edw. Carson in, 60b: 
under new coalition ministry (1919): 
composition, 61a: small, replaced by 
large. 61d. 

^ cabinet (or conference) . 1st Imperial 
(1917). 60a; India at. 65a; 2nd session 
(1918). 60f. 

— Chest, U.S., I92c. 

^ Committee (of Eng. coalition cabi- 
net) , 5yd. 

— Credits Board, U. S. (191S), 192b. 
^ Department, U. S., created. 169e; 

investigated (1917). 190d: criticized; 
defended, 191a; status of war con- 
tracts (1919). 192f; bldg.. illust.. 
212, 
"- Finance Corporation, U. S., 191b, 
192b, I94a. 



— Industries Board, U. S.. 190b, 192b; 
discontinued, I94a. 

— Labor Administrator. U. S., 192b. 

— Labor Board. See National War 
Labor Board. 

— Measure Act. Canada (1914), 72f. 

— of 1812. 159d&e. 170c. 

— • of Independence. See Revolutionary 

War. 
War-profits ta.\, Canada (1916), 73a: 

increased, 73b. 
War Revenue Act. Canada (1915), 72f; 

(1918). 73c: U. S. (1S98), 180c; 

(1917). 190b; (1919). 192d. 

— Savings Stamps, U. S., 38e. 

— Tax Act. U. S.. lS5f. 
Wax-Times Election Act. Canada 

(1917), 73b. 

War Trade Board, U. S. (1918). 192b, 
91e: discontinued, 194a. 

^ 2one. Ger. decrees. 32f; U. S. warns 
Ger.: Ger. replies, lS6c; \J. S. sug- 
gests modification, lS6d: Germany's 
further decree (1917). 2yd, I39c. See 
Submarine warfare. 

Ward, Gen., ends Taiping rebellion, 
84a. 

Warehouse Act. 188e. 

Warsaw, capt. by Charles X. (1655): 
battle of (1656), 139e; Charles XITs 
campaign inproT.of,139f,14Sf;contin- 
uesasakdm.,140b;surT.(l794).140c; 
Prue. gets. 106b, 140c; duchy fnd.. 
22d. 99d. 134a&c. 140c: capitulates 
(IS31), 140d; Hmdenburg reaches, 
27e; Rus. evacuates, 33c: Cent. Pow- 
ers occupy. 2Sb. 33c. 134d, 13Sa. 

^. University of, 134c. 

Wartburg. the. student festival. 106d. 

Warwick, Earl of, restores Henry VI.; 
killed. 15e. 

Wasatch Range. 208a. 

Washington, D. C, city planned. 
209c; 1st meeting of Congress. 170b; 
act for incorporation, 209c; burned by 
Brit.. 159d. 170f. 209c; Confederates 
before. I75f; charter annulled. 209d; 
let Pan-Amer. Congress, 26a; Grand 
Army parade. lS7c: 2nd Pan-Amer. 
Scientific Congress, lS7e; race riots, 
193a: First (regular) Division pa- 
rades, 193c; Industrial Conference. 
I93d; statistics, 220; Dept. bldgs., il- 
lusts., 212. 

— , Treaty of (1371). I64b. 177a. 

^ (State), hist, outline, 207c; eUtis- 
tics. 220; area. 221; chronology, 207c. 
Other refs.: tcr. organized. 173e: 
Tcr. includes part of Mont.. 207b&c; 
includes Idaho. 207e: admitted. l7Sf: 
adopts woman suffrage, lS3c: prohib- 
its li luor traffic. lS6a; prohibition, 
lS6b: Employment Agency Law, 189f; 
I. W. W. o;Ticial5 arrested. 190a. 

— , Booker T., 203d. 

^, George, hfo. 212a; chronology, 212c; 
portrait, 212.— Other refs.: I98d: 
birth. ISSb: in Ohio valley. 168c: in 
Fr. St Indian war, 21b; surr. Fort Ne- 
cessity, 168c :commander in chief. 158i. 
16Sf: takes command; defeated at 
Long Island, 16Sf: N, J. retreat. 
169a: Cornwallis surr.; resigns com- 
mission. 169c; pres.. 21e, 169d; inau- 
gurated. lG9d; bis administration, 
lJ9c; again prcs., 169e: proclamation 
of neutrality, 21f. 98e, 169f: lays 
corner stone of capitol, 109f; Farewell 
Address, 159c. 170a; centennial of in- 
auguration, l7Sf. 

^, Martha (Mrs. Martha Custis).2I2a. 

— family, ancestral home of. 5Sf. 

^ Monument, corner stone laid, 173b: 

dedicated, 178c. 
Wasp, the, destroys the TJeindcer, 170b: 

defeats the Frolic, 159d, 170e: sinks 

the Avon, I70f. 
Watauga, Tean., settled, ICSc, 200e, 

220. 
"Watchful waiting" policy. 125d. 

127e. ISOb. 
Waterbury, Conn., statistics, 220. 
Waterloo, battle of. 94b, 9af. 
Waterways Commission, Roosevelt 

appoints. 132b; Conventional Mem- 
phis, lS2c; Intern. Treaty with Gr. 

Brit.. lS2f. 
Water Witch incident. 131f. 
Watling lsland=truan(iAan». 
Watson, John Cpremier of Australia, 

76c. 
■^, Thos. E., candid, for vice prcs. 

(189G). ISOa. 
Watt, James, invents ?team engine, 

21c. 50d. 
Wattisnies, battle of. 9Sf. 
Wayne, Gen., captures Stony Point, 

16db: defeats Indians in Ohio, 169f, 

200f. 
"Wealth of Nations." pub.. 21d. 
Weather Bureau, act for. 179b. 
Weaver, JamL-s B., candid, for prea,, 

lG3d. 179d. 
— . John, maydr of Philadelphia. ISle. 
Webb Act, 191b. 

— Liquor Shipment Act. lS4d. 
Webfoot State, 20,5c. 
Webster, Daniel. 197a. 198b: opposes 

tarirt act of 1S24, 171d: debate with 
Hayne, 171f; debate on nullification. 
172b; leader of Whigs, 160c; sec. of 
state, 172d; Ashburton Treaty, 160c; 
Compromise of 1850, 160(. 

— . Noah. 21d: dictionary. I71e. 

Wehlau. Treaty of. 1yd, 105e. 139e. 

Wehrverein. German. I07e. 

Weihaiwei. descrip., area & pop.,65d; 
Japanese take. 86a. 118d, 120a; Japan 
occupies. llSe; Or. Brit, leases, 57c, 
84b. 

Weimar, Ger. Nat. Assembly meets at, 
109b. 

Wekerle. Alexander, premier (1906). 
45b; (1917), 45f; directed to reorgan- 
ize, 46a: resigns, 46b. 

Welland Canal, opened. 71e; attempt 
to blow up. 187e. 

Welles. Gideon, sec. of navy. 174d, 

Wellesley ,Sir Arthur. See Wellington, 
Duke of. 

^, Marquis (Earl of Momington), 
gov.-gen. of India, 64a. 

Wellington. Duke of (Sir Arthur 
Wellesley). in India (1803-5). 64a: 
campaign in Portugal. 22e. 54e. 99d: 
repulses Ma5s6na at Busaco: Torres 
Vcdras, 99e; Spaniards support, 145e; 



besieges Ciudad-Rodrigo, 99?, 147b; 
Btorms Badajoz: defeats Marmont; 
enters Madrid. 99e, 147b; at Vitona, 
22f, 99f, 147b: Waterloo, 99(: urges 
powers to intervene in Greece, UOb; 
prime minister, 55a; supports Cath. 
Emancipation Act; resigns. 55b; in 
Peel's 2nd cabinet, 55d. 

— , N. 2., settled; becomes capital, 
77c. 

Welser family, explore Venezuela, 155f. 

Welsh Church Disestablishment Bill. 
58e; passes St becomes law (1914), 58f; 
royal assent suspended. 59a. 

Walton u. Missouri. Supr. Court de- 
cision. 177d. 

Wsmyaa, Sir Roselyn, becomes First 
Sea Lord. 60c, 

Wenceslaus, of Ger.. deposed. 15b. 

Wendan. Livonia. 144a. 

Wends, 144a. 

Wentworth, Benning, Gov. of N. H., 
200a. 

Werner, Louis, Philadelphia pro-Ger- 
man editor sentenced, 192a. 

Wesley, Charles, 8: Methodist move- 
ment, 50e; in No. Amer., 20f; sec, to 
Oglethorpe in Ga.. 196a. 

^, John. St Methodist movement, 50e: 
in No. Amer., 20f; missionary to In- 
dians in Ga.. 196a. 

* ■ Wesleyan ' ' (nonconformist church) 
20f. 

West, the (U. S.). development. I59f, 
1 63a. 

^Africa. See British. French. Si Por- 
tuguese Africa. 

Westengard, Am. adviser to Siam. 
144e. 

Western Australia, descrip. ,75c;set- 
tlement of. 75e; land sales: transpor- 
tation of convicts. 75f; Bnt. govt, 
ceases to send convicts to; given legis- 
lative council: gold disc; resnons. 
govt,. 76a; adopts woman suffrage; 
ratifies federation; labor disputes act, 
76b. 

Western front. World War (1914), 
27d, 3If: (1915). 33b: (1916), 23e. 
34c; (1917J. 25e. 35d; (1918), 30a, 
36d. 

— Reserve, 169c, 196c&e, 20la. 
Westfalen, Ger. battleship, sunk. 

35b. 

West India Company, Dutch. See 
Dutch West India Co. 

^Indies, British, dcicrip., 74a: colo- 
nized: base for further exploration, 
I67a: Gr. Brit, St Hoi. secure footing 
in, SSe; Eng. make reprisals in(lG55), 
52a; Eng. conq, Jamaica. 52a, 167e; 
Eng. win naval battle in (1782). 54a; 
disturbances over abolition of slavery, 
55c: trade with Canada, 72e. 

^Indies. Danish. See Virgin Islands 
(U.S.). 

^Indies, Dutch. 129e. 

Westminster, Treaty of (1654). 52a. 
129f: (1674). 52d. 130a. 

^Assembly. 19b. 

-™ Confession of Faith. 19c. 

— Hall, attempt to wreck, 56f. 

Westphalia, duchy of, falls to Co- 
logne, 13d; kingdom created. 22d,99d, 
106c; dissolution of, 99l. 106c. 

— , Peace of (1648), 19c, 42c, 43e, 4Ge. 

47b. 90c. 97c, 103a, lOod, 129c, 146d. 

14Sc. 149d: map of Europe at lime of, 

13. 
■^ prov: of Prussia, strike of miners in 

(1905), 107d; coal strike (1912). 107f. 
West Point Military Academy, cen- 
tennial. ISlb. 
Westport, Mo., Gen. Price defeated, 

175f. 
West Prussia, given to Prussia, 105a. 
^ River Bridge Co. v. Dix, Supr. Court 

decision, 173b. 

— Virginia, hist, outline. 205f: statis- 
tics, 220; area. 221; chronology. 206a. 
—Other refs. 1 State formed, 198d: ad- 
mitted, 175c: prohibition in. IStib; 
Supr. Court decision, 186f & 187a. 

Wethersfield, Conn., settled, I67c, 

196c. 220. 
Weyler y Nicolau, Valerian©, in Cuba; 

policy: recalled. 89d. 
Weyprecht, Karl, 44f. 
Whaleback. illust., 96. 
Wharton, Thomas, in Junto, 53a. 
Wheat, in U. S., highest price since 

lS98.1S6b: highest price (1916), lS8f; 

price fixed (1917). 190b; (191S),191b; 

minimum price (19iS), 191d; price 

fi.'ced (1919). 191e. 
^ Stabilization Act, U. S., 193a. 
Wheeler, W, A., v. pres. vote, 177e. 
Whseling, W. Va., settled. 220; loyal 

govt, at. 206a. 
Whigs (English), origin of; conspiracy, 

52e: lose prestige (1760). 21b. 

— (U.S.). origin, 160c, 171f: party vote 
in 1832, 172b: nominating convention 
(1840): in 1840 election, 172d: party 
divided. 172c; in 1844 election. 172f: 
elect Taylor, 173b: defeated in 1852. 
173d; party dies out (1856) , 173f. For 
Whigs in Congress, see Congress. 
25th-34th. 

Whisky Insurrection, or Rebellion, in 

Pa.. 169f. 
^ Ring, 177d. 

Whitby. Eng.. bombarded. 32f. 
White. Edward D.. chief justice. lS3c: 

award on Costa Rican-Paaama boun- 

darj'. 81e. 
^, Henry, U. S. commissioner to Paris 

Peace Conference. 192a. 
— . Sir Thomas, 72f. 
"White Australia" movement, 7Ga 

&b. 
White Hill, battle of. 90c. 

— House, burned. 170f: illust., 212. 
^ League, I77c, 
^Mountain, battle of , 18f. 
^Plains, battle of. 169a. 
^Russia, Republic of. 139c. 
Whitefleld. George. Sc Methodist 

movement. 50e: in No. Amer., 20f; 

visits Ga., 196a. 
Whitelocke, Gen., 40d. 
"Whites, "army, Russia, 143e:guard3, 

Fin land. 93cS:e. See Reds. 
"White-slave" Act. Mann. 183b. lS4d. 
Whitlock, Brand, U. S. minister to 

Belg., triea to save Edith Cavell, 

48a. 



Whitman, Gov. C.S., signs "work-or- 
fight." bill. 191c, 

^. Dr. Marcus, 205'!. 207c. 

Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 2lf, 
160a. 169f, 

Wichita, Kans.. statistics. 220. 

Widowed Mothers' Pension bills, 187f. 

Wieng Chan. 144d. 

Wieringen, Crown Prince Frederick 
goes to, lOSf. 

Wiesbaden, Fr. in charge; indepen- 
dence proclaimed, 109c. 

Wilberforc-3. slave trade in the colo- 
nics, 74b. 

Wilderness, battle of the. 161f. 175e, 
198d. 

Wilhelm, Ger, form of William. 

Wilhelmina, queen of Neth.: Queeo 
Emma regent; enthroned, 129d. 130b: 
weds; daughter born. 130c. 

^, Amer. steamer, Brit, seize cargo of, 
32f, IS6c. 

Wilhelmshaven. Ger., naval muti- 
nies (1917-18). lOScStd. 

Wilkes, Capt. Charles.explores Samoa, 
210b: seizes Confederate commis- 
sioners, 174e. 

— , John, arrested: expelled from Com- 
mons. 53e; member from Middlesex: 
expelled; thrice reelected St rejected; 
supported by Letters of Junius: Lord 
Mayor. 53f. 

Wilkes-Barre. Pa., statistics. 220. 

Wilkinson. Gen. James. St. Lawrence 
campaign, 170f. 

Willcocks, Sir Wm.. irrigation schema 
fi3r Ottoman govt., 154d. 

William I., of Eng.. 12f: invades Eng.: 
defeats Harold: king; completes sur- 
vey of Eng.; dies, I3a. 

— II. (Rufus), king, 13a. 

^ III. (Orange-Nassau), of Eng.. as 
Wm. of Orange, made leader ol Du.; 
forces Fr. to abandon designs, I30a; 
defeated in Flanders, 97e: marries 
Mary, I9f. 52d, 130a; sUdholder of 
Hoi.. 20a: invited to Eng., 52f; lands 
in Eng.. 20a, 52f ; becomes king(ioint 
sovereign), 20b. SObStc. 52f. 129c. 
130a: Scot. declares for: in Ireland. 53a, 
54a: battle of the Boyne, 53a. 97e; 
sole sovereign, 20b, 53a; plot to assas., 
Louis XIV. recognizes, 53a, 97e; dies, 
20c. 53b. 129c. 130a. 

— IV,, of Eng.. king, 55b; dismisses 
ministry: dies. 55c. 

^ I., of Ger.. as King Wm. of Prussia, 
conference with Fr. ambassador 
(1870), 107a: proclaimed Ger. emp,, 
103c. 107a: attempts on life. 107a: 
confers with emp. of Austria & czar of 
Rus. (1884). 107b; dies. 103f, 107b. 

— II., of Ger., becomes emp., 103f, 
107b; personal. ty; dismisses Bis- 
marck: reign: mil. & naval program, 
103f: visits Leo XIII.. 116f: recon- 
ciled with Bismarck: breaks with 
Caprivi; congratulates Pres. Kruger: 
visits emp. of Austria; Czar visits, 
107c: visits Consuntinopie St Holy 
Land, 107d: 2nd visit to Sultan. 153e; 
confers with Victor Emmanuel III., 
116f: speech at Tangier; declares ab- 
solute independ. of sultan of Morocco, 
26d; dissolves ReichaUg (1906). 107d: 
interview (friendship for Eng.); de- 
bated in Reichstag;IC6nigsbcrg speech 
("divine right"). 107e; meeting with 
czar, 142a; daugliter married: "a- 
bem" aiTair; visits Francis Joseph; 
meets king of It.; opens Kiel Canal, 
107f ; receives letter from Emp. Fran- 
cis Joseph, 31c: promises changes ia 
electoral system, lOSb; approves trans- 
fer of rights to people: refuses de- 
mands for abdication; decides to ab- 
dicate, 103e: abdicates. 108f; flees to 
Holland, 104b, 108f, 129d, I30d; re- 
nounces rights as king St emp.. lOSf; 
.'Allies demand of Hoi.. 33b; under 
guard in Hoi. (1920), 130d. 

•^ II,, of Hesse-Cassel, issues new con- 
stitution. lOGd. 
^ I., of Hoi., count. 5th crusade, 14a. 

— II,, of HoL, count, opposes Conrad 
IV.: slain. 14b 

— I., II. Si III., of Holland. See Wit- 
Ham /., //. S: ///., of Netherlands. 

— II., of Luxemburg, Grand Duke, 
124d. 

— I., of Neth.. king. 129d, 130b: abdi- 
cates, UOb. 

— II.. of ,\'eth., king. 129d:dies. UOb. 

— III. of Neth., king; dies. UOb. 

— of Normandy. Duke^ William I., ol 
Eng. 

^ of Orange. Prince. See William of 
Orange-. Vassau. 

— of Orange. Prince (1772-1343) =- 
William I., of Neth., 129cStd. 

— IV. (Friso) of Orange, stadholder, 
129c. UOb. 

— V. of Orange, stadholder; succeeded* 
UOb. 

^ I. of Orange (-Nassau), Prince^ 
William III. of Eng. 

^I. (the Silent) of Orange-Nassau, war 
with Sp. under. ISa; made hereditary 
stadholder of HoL; murdered, 18b. 

— of Prussia, Prince, regent; king of 
Prussia as William I., 1036. 

-^ (the Lion) of Scot,, king, prisoner; 
acknowledges Henry II., 13d. 

— of Tyre, Archbishop, preaches 3rd 
Crusade. 13d. 

^ of Wied. chosen sovereign of Alba- 
nia; abdicates. 40b. 

— Hanry, Prince of Orange=Tri"Ktani 
///.. of Eng. 

— Rut\l3=Wiiliam II. of Eng. 

— theConqueror=Wi/Ziant /., of Eng., 
lid. "---, 

— the Silent=iri;iiam I. "^of. Orange- 
Nassau. ^-;,^ 

^and Mary College, fnd., I683 , ^'^s..^,,^ 

— P. Frya. ship, sunk, 32f, 186b:Ger. 
note on, 187c. 

Williams, Roger, fnd. Providence, 
167e. 199f: secures patent, 19c; char- 
ter, 199f. 

Williamsburg, Va.. battle. 174f. 

Williamstown, Mass., centennial of 
Hiystack meeting. lS2a. 

WiUioian, Claudio, pres., 1.5.ic. 

WiHson p. Blackbird Creek Marsh Co., 
Supreme Court decision, 17lf. 

Wiliain^on, Del., settlement near. 



256 



INDEX TO THE REFERENCE HISTORY. 



167e; settled, 220; port closed. 176a: 
Du Pont explosions (1916), 187f; sta- 
tistics. 220. 

^, Earl of, prime minister, 53d. 

Wilmot Proviso, I60e&f. 173a. 

^ Proviso men, I73b. 

Wilson, Henry, v, pres. vote, 177b. 

^, Sir Henry, becomes chief of staff, 
60d: in Supr. War Council. 117e, 

— , Wm. B.. Ist sec. of labor. lS4e.I92b. 

^, Woodrow. life. 21Sd; chronology, 
218f ; portrait,212. — Other refs.: nom- 
inated (1912). 184a; elected pres.. 
165b. 184b; inaug., !84e; 1st term. 
165b&c; disapproves Taft's policy on 
loan to China: delivers message orally 
to Cong.. 184e: denounces lobbying. 
184f; sends Lind to Mex., 127e; policy 
of* 'watchfulwaiting," 123dS:e, 127e; 
proclaims neutrality between U. S. S: 
factions in Mex,; blows up Gamboa 
dike, lS5a; declines to recognize 
Huerta, 127e; estab. permanent govt. 
in Canal Zone, lS5c; lifts embargo on 
arms to Mex., 127e. 185c; & Panama 
Canal Act, 185c: restores embargo on 
arms, I27f, 185d; accepts ABC me- 
diation, 127f; proclaims Mother's 
Day, lS5d; sends personal commission 
to Domin. Repub., 92c: offers to pro- 
mote peace (1914). 31e; defends Mex. 
policy, lS6b; R. R. in Alaska. 186e; 
"too proud to fight" speech, 32f,186e 
Sd; & Mex. (1915). 128a; correspon- 
dence with Ger., 29b&c; requests re- 
call of Boy-Ed & von Papen; message 
to Cong. (1915); marries Mrs. Gault, 
187e; Roosevelt criticizes, 218b; & 
Carranza, 188b: orders out militia of 
border States. 12Sb; mobilizes Nat. 
Guard: renom. for pres., 188c: joint 
commission with Mex.. ISSdScf; Adam- 
son Act, 18Se; reelected pres., 188f: 
appeal for discussion of peace. 189a; 
Allies reply to peace note; "peace 
without victory" address, 35b: advo- 
cates independ. of Pol.. 134d; world 
federation, 189b; empowered to arm 
merchantships: 2nd inaug., 189d: 2nd 
term. 165d&e: address to Cong, (.\pr. 
2, 1917). 29d: creates committee on 
Public Information. 189e; fixes price 
of coal (1917), 190a: reply to popt's 
message. 117e; permits advance iu 
coal; advises war on Austria-Hungary. 
190c: proclaims railroads under Fed- 
eral control, 190d; "Fourteen points." 
190e. 30d; attacks Chamberlain; de- 
fends Baker; again formulates peace 
principles; places foreign trade under 
govt, control, 191a: rebukes shipyard 
carpenters; fixes min. price of wheat, 
191b; sends message to congress of So- 
viets, 143b; asks clemency for Mooney, 
19Ib; peace suggestions discussed by 
Aust,, 46aScb; urges passage of new 
revenue bill. 191c; prod, doctrine of 
Pan-Americanism, 12Sc; Mt. Vernon 
speech, 36c: vetoes Agric. Appropria- 
tion Act. 191d; prohibits use of food- 
stuffs in mfr. of malt liquors, 191e; 
speech on basis for League of Nations, 
36c; on peace with Cen. Powers. 191e; 
urges woman suffrage, 191f: 1st peace 
proposal from Ger., 30e; appeals for 
continuation of Dem. control, 19If; 
sends Allied reply to Ger., 36d; an- 
nounces purpose to attend Peace Conf.; 
leaves Washington, 192a; in Paris: re- 
ceives gold medal, 102d; in Eng.. 61a; 
cables in regard to N. Y. harbor work- 
ers" strike, 192c; at opening of Peace 
Conf., 102e; one of Council of 4 at 
Paris, 37e, 192d: sails for Amer.; 
speech at Boston; explains proposed 
League of Nations, 192d: charges 
Cong, with filibuster; speech on 
League of Nations in N. V.; sails 
again for Fr.. 192e: cables message to 
Cong, from Paris. 192f; visits Bel- 
gium, 48a; offers to arbitrate Arme- 
nian bound., 4 Id; Franco-Anglo- 
Amer, treaty of alliance, 38a, 102e. 
193a; returns from Peace Conf.; pre- 
sents treaty to Senate, 193a: Siberian 
policy. 143e: & H. C. L.; conference 
with Sen. committee on foreign rela- 
tions: nation-wide speaking tour on 
League of Nations. 193b: tour ends at 
Wichita, Kan.; paralysis. 193c&d; at- 
tempts to prevent coal strike. 193e; 
message to Cong. (1919). 193f; policy 
of (1919). 194b&c: forces resignation 
of Lansing. 194e: demands voice in 
sf/ttlemrnt of Adriati- aroblem, 121c. 

— Rill. S-.-C Wilson Tariff Bill. 
Wilson- Gorman Tariff Act, 179e. 

See Wilson Tariff Bill. 
Wilson's Creek, battle of, 174e,203a. 

— Tariff Bill (1894). 163e. 217a. 

— V. New, Supr. Court decision, 189e. 



Winchester. Va.. battle of. 175a&f. 

Windhuk. Allies cap., 28d. 33f, 67e. 

Windischgratz , Prince Alfred, puts 
down insur. at Prague; storms Vienna; 
defeats Hungarians, 44d. 

— ministry falls (1895), 45b. 

Windom.Wilham, sec. of treas. ,205b. 

"Windsor," becomes Eng. royal fam- 
ily name, 60b. 

Windsor, Conn., settled, 167e. 196c. 

Windward Islands, 74b. 74d. 

Winnipeg, fnd.. 71f; strikes (1918 & 
■19), 73c. 

^, Lake, region explored, 7lb, 

Winter Palace. St. Petersburg, 141a 
&d. 

Winthrop, John, leads Mass. colo- 
nists. 167d, 196e: granted charter to 
Conn., 196c. 

Wireless telegraphy, bet. Eng. & Fr,. 
26b; message from S.S. Lucania to 
Siasconset, 181a: 1st across Atlantic, 
26b; message sent from Arlington, 
Md.. to Paris, 184e; estab. between 
U. S. & Ger., 185c; between moving 
trains, lS6c; between Arlington, Va. 
& Canal Zone, 186c; communication 
between U. S, & Japan, 187b. 

^ telephone, lS7c. 

Wisconsin, hist, outline, 204d; statis* 
tics, 220; area, 221. Chronology, 204e. 
—Other refs.: Black Hawk War. 172a: 
territory, Iowa incl. in, 204d; Minn. 
incl. in, 205c; part of N. Dak. in.206f: 
S. Dak. in, 207a; Territory set up. 
172c; admitted, 173b: forest fire, 
(1894), 179f; "health mamage"law, 
185a. 

^, University of, 204e. 

^& Minnesota Rate Cases. Supr .Court 
decision in, 184f. 

Wishart, George, burned. 17c. 

Wisniowiecki. Michael, elected king 
of Poland. 139e: dies, 139f. 

Witchcraft, in New Epg.. 20b. 168a; 
in Ger., 105e, 

Witte, Count Sergyey Y.. persuades 
czar to grant concessions; premier; 
resigns. 141e. 

Wittelsbach, Bavarian house. 13d. 

Wittenberg. Luther's tlieses. 16f. 

— , University of, 15a. 

Wolf , Ger. cruiser, raids commerce. 37d. 

Wolfe, Gen. James, Canada; Quebec, 
98b; killed, 168d. 

Wolseley, Viscount Garnet, in Can- 
ada, 72a; defeats Cetewayo. 67a; sent 
against Arabi; sent to relieve Khar- 
tum, 68e. 

Wolsey, Cardinal, lord chancellor; de- 
prived of oftices. 173. 

Wolverine State. 203c. 

Woman suffrage. See Suffrage. 

Women, act making women eligiblr 
to Brit. Parliament, 61a; workers in 
U.S.. 191f. 

^, International Congress of, at the 
Hague, 130c. 

Wood. Gen. Leonard, in Cuba, 88f; 
mil. gov. of Cuba. 89d, 180c transfers 
govt, to Palma, 89d; declares martial 
law at Gary, 193c. 

Woodbury. Levi. 215b. 

Wool, tariff on (U. S.). 176d. 

Worcester, Eng., battle of. 52a. 

— , Mass., statistics. 220. 

^, Dean C, charges that slavery exists 
in Philippines, 184e. 

^ V. Georgia, Supr. Court decis.. 172a. 

Wordsworth, Age of, 22b. 

Workingmen, insur. laws (1st. 2nd, 
3rd). Ger., 107b; internal, conference 
at Berlin (1890), 107c. See also In- 
surance; Workmen. 

Workmen's & Soldiers' Councils, in 
Ger.. 108e&f. 109a. 

^ and Soldiers' Delegates, Council of. 
to appeal to world; addresses world 
labor organizations; abolishes Duma 
& Council of Empire; invests Keren- 
ski with unlimited powers, 142e: has 
final authority, 142f: Congress of 
Councils of, adopts constitution of 
Russian Soviet Republic (1918), 143a. 
See Soviet. 

^ compensation, U, S., 17Sf. 

^Compensation Act. Eng. (1897). 57c: 
(1906), 58a: So. Africa. 67d: U. S., 
188e. 

"Work-or-fight" bill (N. Y.); or- 
der (U. S.), 191c. 

World Columbian Exposition, 179d. 

^ history, begins, 5b: ends. 38f. 

World's Fairs. S<:i: Expositions. 

World War, outbreak; causes, 27a: 
campaigns of 1914, 27d; campaigns of 
1915, 2Sb; 1916. 28e; 1917, 29c: 1918, 
30a; peace negotiations. 30f. Chro- 
nology, outbreak, 31c:Western front. 
1914. 3lf; Eastern front, 32b; Balkan 
front. 1914; DUtlyiag operations, 1914, 



32c; naval & air operations. 1914, 32d: 
diplomacy & declarations, 1915, 32f; 
Western front, 1915; Eastern front, 
1915. 33b; Italian front. 1915: Balkan 
front, 1915, 33d; outlying operations. 
1915, 33e; naval & air operations. 

1915. 33f; diplomacy & declarations, 

1916. 34a: Western front, 1916. 34c; 
Eastern front. 1916. 34d; Italian & 
Balkan fronts, 1916, 34e; outlying 
operations, 1916. 34f; naval S: air 
operations. 1916, 35a; diplomacy & 
declarations, 1917. 35b; Western 
front, 1917, 35d; Eastern front. 1917. 
35e: Italian & Balkan fronts. 1917: 
outlying operations. 1917, 35f: naval 
&|air operations. 1917. 36a: diplomacy, 
declarations & negotiations. 1918, 
36b: Western front. 1918, 36d: East- 
ern, Italian. & Balkan fronts, 1918. 
37b; outlying operations, 1918. 37c: 
naval & air operations. 1918, 37d; ne- 
gotiations & treaties. 1919, 37e; sta- 
tistics. 3Sc. 

Belligerent countries: Australia, 
chronology. 76e; Aust., 42f , 43a; chro- 
nol.. 45d; Belg., 46f; chronol., 47e; 
Brazil, 49c, 50a; Bulg., TSb; chronol., 
78f; Canada, chronol.. 72f; Central 
American States. 81e&f ; China. 84eii:f; 
chronol., 87a; Cuba, chronol., 89f; 
Egypt. 68b&c; chronol.. 68f; England 
(Gr. Brit.). 50f, Sla: chronol.. 58f; 
France, 95a; chronol.. lOlf; Germany, 
104a&b; chronol., 108a; Greece, 109f; 
chronol., UOe; Haiti. lUf, H2a; 
Hungary, 113c; chronol.. 114a: India, 
chronol.. 65a: Italy, 115a: chronol., 
117c; Japan. U9a: chronol.. 120e; 
Liberia. 123e. 124a; Montenegro, 123a 
&b: Newfoundland. 73f; New Zea- 
land, chronol., 77d; Panama, 82e; 
Portugal. 135b; chronol., 136a; Rou- 
mania. 136d; chronol.. 136f; Russia. 
i38a, b. c&d, 144a; chronol., 142b: 
Serbia. 122a; chronol., 122c: Siam. 
145a; South Africa, Union of. chro- 
nol., 67d; Turkey, 152a; chronol., 
I54d; United States, 165c,dSie; chro- 
nol.. 1914 to Feb., 1917, 185e-189c; 
Feb., 1917 to March, 1920. 189c-194e. 
Neutral countries: Afghanistan. 39e; 
Albania, 40a&b; Argentina, 41c; 
Chile. 83e; Denmark. 90f; chronol., 
91e; Luxemburg. 124d&e; Mexico, 
125e; chronol., 127e; Morocco, 129a; 
Netherlands, 129d; chronol., 130c; 
Norway. 130f: chronol., 131b: Persia. 
132f; Spain. 145f; chronol.. 148a:Swe- 
den, U8d; chronol., 149b: Switz.. 
149e; chronol., 150e: Venezuela. 155c. 
States created by World War; Ar- 
menia, 41d; chronol., 42a&b; Azerbai- 
jan. 4fld: Czecho-Slovakia, 90b; chro- 
nol.. 90d; Esthonia,93b; Finland, 93c; 
chronol., 93e; Georgia, I02f: Hejaz, 
112b; chronol., H2d; Jugo-Slavia, 
121a&b. 123c; chronol., 121b; Latvia. 
123d&e; Liechtenstein, 124a; Lithua- 
nia. 124b; Mesopotamia, 124f, 125a; 
PalStine, 131d&e; Pol.. 134b: chro- 
nol.. 134d;Syria, 150f; chronol., 151a. 
Statistics: belligerents&dates of en- 
try into war. 38e; countries that sev- 
ered diplom. intercourse with Ger. 
without declaring war, 38f; estimated 
money cost; private loans(in U. S.) to 
belligerent countries, 38c: Amer. loans 
to Allies, 38d; Amer. war debt (June 
30, 1919), 38e: cost of war in men, 
38f. For further statistics, as loans, 
war credits, debts, appropriations, 
number of troops, expenditures, so- 
cial & industrial figures, etc., see un- 
der chronology of each country (ref- 
erences given above); also under De- 
fense, in "Organization" of each 
country. See also Tables, pp. 221 & 
222, Map of Europe, showing Peace 
Conf. boundaries, 38, See also Leoffuc 
of Nations, Mandates, Paris Peace 
Conference, Supreme War Council, 
Versailles. Treaty of (1919). 

Worms, Henry IV. "s council, 13a; 
Henr>' V.'s council; concordat, 13b; 
Diet. 1 7a. 

Worth, battle of. 100c. 

Wrangel, Gen., campaign against Bol- 
sheviki. 138d. 

Wren. Christopher. St. Paul's. 19f. 

Wright, Wilbur, flight at Le Mans, 
lOld. 

^ brothers, demonstrate success of fly- 
inc mriclnn<_"5. 182c. 

Writing, ^'n- Alphabet. 

Wuchang, rebels take. 86e. 

Wurttemberg. sides with Austria 
against Prussia (1866), 106f; repub- 
lic estab.. lOSf; extreme Socialists 
d'-feated in. 109b. 

Wiirzburg, joined to Bavaria, 106c. 



Wusterhausen. Tn-aty of. 105f. 

Wu Ting Fang. for. minister, 86f. 

Wyclifle.John. trans, of Bible. 15b, 15c. 

Wyoming, hist, outline, 207e; statis- 
tics, 220; area, 221; chronology, 207f. 
— Other refs.: ter. established. 176e, 
207f; admitted, 179a: adopts woman 
suffrage, 176f: prohibition, 191f. 

— , Pa., massacre, I69a. 

Wyse, Lieut. L. N. B., Panama Canal 
concession, 82c. 

Wytschaete, British lose, 30a, 



Zavier, St. Francis, in Kagoshima; 

visits Kyoto, 119c. 
Xenophon, 8b. 41c. 
Xerxes I., of Persia, 6a; invades 

Greece, 6c; r^ign of; conq. Egypt; 

as,sas., 7f, 
— II., 8a. 
Xoite dynasty, 6e. 
X Y Z mission (see X Y Z Corresvond- 

ence laDict.). 22a. 170a, 212d. 



Yakub Beg. S5f. 

^ Khan, ameer of Afghanistan, 39c. 

Yakutsk Republic. 139e. 

YaIeCollege,fnd..l68a;university,196d. 

Yalu River, naval battle of, 118d. 

i20a; Japanese cross. 120a; Kuroki 

crosses, 120b. 
Yamagata. Prince, cabinet; ministry 

gives way to Ito, 120a. 
Yamamoto. premier; forms coalition 

ministry. 120d. 
Yamassee struggle, 158b. 
Yancey, William L., 202c. 
Yandabu. Treaty of, 64b. 
Yang Kian. 83f. 
Yangtze river, floods. 86e, 
Yap (island). 105d. 
Yaqui Indiana, treaty with Diaz. I27c; 

rebel, 125d. 
Yarmouth, Eng., Ger. bombard3,32e. 
Yaroslav, gains throne. 12i-. 
Yass-Canberra, 76d, 74f, 75b. 
Yaunde, captured, 34f. 
Yeddo, capital at;becomes Tokyo, 119d. 
Yellow fever. New Orleans epidemic 

(1905), 181f. 
"Yellow peril." 31e. 
Yellow River=//ican£7 River. 
Yellowstone Lake. 207e. 

— Nat'l Park. 177b. 207e. 

— River. Mont., settlements on. 220. 
Yemen, province. 112b; rebellion 

(1884), I53d: insur. of Asirs (1891), 
153d. 

Yesid, besieges Constantinople. I2b, 

Yick Wo V. Hopkins, Supr. Court de- 
cision, 178c. 

Yonkers, N. Y., statistics, 220. 

YOT)'i= Eboracum, 10c. 

^, Canada = roron/o. 

^, Duke of (James) . See James II. of 
Eng. 

— , Duke of (Richard) Si Henry VI.; 
war with Lancaster. 15d. 

^, House of. united with Lancaster, 15f. 

^ and Lancaster, war, 15d&e. 

Yorkists, at St. Albans; ascendancy, 
15e. 

Yorkshire, coal strike (1914), 58f. 

Yorktown, siege (1781); capt., 158f: 
Cornwallis surr.. 169c, 198d; siege 
(1862): capt., 174f. 

Tosbihito, becomes emp. of Japan, 
120d: crowned, 120e. 

Yoshimune, 20e. 

Young, Brigham. 172f, 208a. 174a. 

— . Sir John (Lord Lisgar), gov .-gen. of 
Canada. 72a. 

Younghusband, Col., in Tibet, 64e, 
86c. 

"Young Italy," society of. 116c. 

Youngstown, Ohio, statistics. 220. 

Young Turks, 153f; in power. 27e; 
revolt, 151f; & Balkan War. 152a; 
seize power, 154c; denounced by Hus- 
sein, 112d. 

Ypres, remains in Belg, control 
throughout World War, 47f; threat- 
ened (1918). 36d. 

— , batlleof (lst).27d,32b; (2nd), 28a, 
33b; (3rd), Ist stage; 2nd stage; Pas- 
schendaele Ridge attacked. 35e. 

Ypsilanti, Aleksandros. UOa. 

^, Demetrios. llOb. 

Yuan Shih-kai. 86b; recalled; viceroy 
of Hupeh & Hunan; premier (1911), 
86e; forms cabinet; provisional pres.; 
inaugurated; advisory Council, 86f; 
agreement with "Five-Powers "banks, 
87a; elected pres,; inaugurated. 84d, 
87a; orders dissolution of the Kuo 
Ming Tang, S7a: becomes dictator, 



84d. 87a; dissolves parliament, S7a; 
accepts throne: coronation postponed; 
restores republican regime, 87b; dies, 
84d. 87c. 

Yucatan, explored, I25f; declares in- 
dependence, 126e; Indian rising, 127c. 

Yudenich, organizes new govt,; drives 
back Bolsheviki; White army gets to 
Petrograd, but has to retreat; army 
collapses, 143e. 

Yuen dynasty. 14c. 

Yukon, district of Canada; Territory, 
organized. 69d&e, 72c; descrip.; area 
& pop.. 70e; repr. in Commons, 69e: 
prohibition. 73b. 

— River. 209a. 

Yiinnan revolution. 87b. 

Yurev (Dorpat). fnd.. 144a; region oc- 
cupied by Rus.; university closed, 
U4b; conference (1919). 124c. 

— , Peace of, 93b. 



Zabern affair, 107f. 

Zahle, premier, 91d: king dismisset 

ministry. 91e. 
Zaimis, Alexander, premier; resigns. 

llOe; forms new cabinet; resigns; 

aKain pr-mier, llOf. 

Zaidivar, i.res., 81a. 

Zaldumbide, Freile. pres.. 92f. 

Zama, battle of, 9b. 

Zambezi, 66a, 67a. 

Zamor, pres. of Haiti, lUf: flees. 112a. 

Zanardelli, Giuseppe, prime minis- 
ter. 116eif. 

Zaflartu. See Errdsuriz Zanartu. 

— . vice prea. of Chile, 83d. 

Zanzibar Protectorate, descrip.. 65e: 
becomes Eng. protectorate. 57a. 

Zapata, Emiliano. Mex. rebel leader, 
127die: occupies Mex. city, 127f; 
killed. 128c. 

Zapatistas. 12Sa. 

Zapolya. John, 17b. 

Zara, d'Annunzio seizes; It. to hold. 
12Id. 

Zaravno, Peace of. 19f. 

Zechariah, 7e. 

Zedekiah, 7d, 

Zeebrugge, Ger. submarine base, 27e, 
Sia.-^. , lint, raid, 30b, 37d; Ger. lose, 
30d, 37a. 

Zela, battle of, 9f. 

Zelaya, Jos6 Santos, pres. of Nicara- 
gua. 81b; forced to resign. 81d. 

ZemstTOS, 138e&f: instituted,} l^Of; 
conference (1904). 137f. 141d; system 
extended; congress in Moscow (1905), 
141d; & peasants. 142c. 

Zeno, emperor, lie. 

-^, philosopher, dies, 8f. 

^, Venetian brothers, tradition of voy- 
ages to No. Amer,, 157a. 

Zenobia, in Egypt; at Rome, lOd. 

Zenta, battle of. 43e. 105e, 152e. 

^, .^ust. cruiser, sunk. 32e. 

Zeppelin. Count Ferdinand von. in 
successful dirigible flight (1900). 26c; 
12 hours in the air (1908); nat'l sub- 
scription for; remains in air 34 hours 
(1909), 107e. 

Zeppelins, 1st raid over Eng.; over 
Pans, 33f; over London (1915), 34a: 
5 raids in Eng. (1916). 35a; statistics 
of raids (1916). 35b; over London 
(1917). 36b; raids (1918). 37d. See 
.^irs'ii;). 

Zhordania, Noah, pres., 102f. 

Zimmerman, Alfred, min. of for. af- 
fairs, 10>:b; note to Mex., 35c, 189d; 
resigns, 108b. 

Zininicea(bimnitza), Rus. cross Dan- 
ube, 153b. 

Zionist movement: Intern. Cong.;Brit. 
sympathy with, 131d. 

Ziska, Jan. 15c- 

Zoara, Italians occupy, 117b. 

Zola, "J" accusel"; condemned; im- 
prisoned, 101a. 

Zollicoffer, Confed. leader. 174e. 

ZoUverein (customs union), organ- 
ized, 24. ■. I03c. 

Zone^ Canal Zone. 

Zoroastrians. lOf. 132d. 

Zorndorf. battle of. 44a, 106a. 

Zulfikar Pass. 141b. 

Zulla, It. takes, 116c. 

Zuloaga, Felix, revolutionist, 126f. 

Zululand. annexed to NaUl. 57a, 66d. 
67a. 

Zulus. 66b. 

Zulu War. 67a. 

Zupelli, Vittorio, war minister. 117e. 

Zurich, army of. 17b. 

— , Treaty of (1859). 44e. 

Zuyder Zee. reclamation bill, 130c; 
law. l.'lOd. 

Zwingli. Ulrich. 149d; Reformatioa 
among Swits, 16f: killed. 17b, 



EMINENT AUTHORITIES WARMLY COMMEND 

WEBSTER'S New International Dictionary 



HARVARD UNIVERSITY, 

Cambridge, Mass. 

H. Langford Warren, A. M., 
Professor of Architecture. 

In the first place I should like to ex- 
press my satisfaction at the extremely 
convenient form and arrangement of 
the dictionary, which makes it the best 
for ready reference with which I am 
familiar. As a glossary of architectural 
terms I find it very complete and accurate. 
Ralph Barton Perry, Ph. D., 
Assistant Professor of Philosophy. 

I have been especially interested in 
examining it with reference to its treat- 
ment of philosophical terms, and have 
found a completeness and exactness in 
this matter which is, so far as I know, 
quite unparalleled in general dictioa- 
aries. 

YALE UNIVERSITY, 

New Haven, Conn. 

Charles C. Torrey, Ph. D.,D.D., 
Professor of the Semitic Languages. 

I can only express the strongest admi- 
ration for the range, accuracy, and 
conciseness of the etymologies and 
definitions in this Dictionary, in the 
field where my chief interest lies. No 
other of the smaller dictionaries of the 
English language can compare with it 
in these respects. The work of 
revising has plainly been done 
with great care by specialists. 
E. P. Morris, Litt. D., 

Professor of the Latin Language and 
Literature. 

Then I looked for the terms of 
grammar, which is also a hobby 
of mine. I happened first upon 
parataxis, about the definition of 
which I have been obliged to _^_^ 
differ with some of my philological 
friends, and lo! there was my own 
definition! You will understand that I 
am now ready to vouch for your accuracy 
from cover to cover. 



PRINCETON UNIVERSITY, 

Princeton, N. J. 

Geo. M. Harper, Ph. D.; 

Holmes Professor of Belles Lettres and 

English Language and Literature. 

The editors, I think, have coped very 
successfully with the rising tide of new 
words. They have also brought forward 
to a position of usefulness far ahead of 
the earlier apparatus the means of 
utilizing in the dictionary and through 
the dictionary the results of philological 
and statistical science. 

Fred Neher, A. M.J 
Professor of Chemistry. 

It was distinctly a surprise to find the 
new "Webster" actually supplying, in 
fairly full measures, what for some years 
has been one of chemical literature's 
greatest needs, the lack of a modern 
encyclopedic dictionary of the science. 
Clear definitions of terms, lucid state- 
ments of laws and theories, brief but 
accurate and up-to-date information 
supplied regarding the sources, prepara- 
tion, properties, chemical relationships 
and uses of an astonishingly large number 
of substances, combine to make the work 
of positive value alike to the novice and 
to the advanced student. 



The New International 

HAS BEEN TESTED, APPROVED, 

AND ACCEPTED BY LEADERS 

IN THE WORLD'S THOUGHT, 

ACTION, AND CULTURE 



BROWN UNIVERSITY, 

Providence, R, I. 

W. H. P. Faunce, D.D., President. 

Webster's New International Dic- 
tionary is a small encyclopedia, covering 
the entire territory of the world's knowl- 
edge and the world's action. The hori- 
zontal division of the page is a feature 
which attracts instant attention and 
produces very valuable results. The 
mechanical execution seems faultless. 



HAMILTON COLLEGE, 

Clinton, N. Y. 
M. Woolsey Stryker, D.D„ LL.D., President. 

The type and arrangement are ideal. 
The discriminating hospitality shown to 
newer words reflects the elasticity and 
persistent growth of our verbal riches. 
The expansion of this volume is a dis- 
tinct increase of our knowledge. It is a 
triumphant indispensability. 



CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF 
AMERICA, 

Washington, D. C. 
Rt. Rev. Thomas J. Shahan, S.T.D.; Rector. 

Webster's New International Diction- 
ary stands in the front rank of modern 
lexicographical works. 



COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, 

New York, N. Y. 

Nicholas Murray Butler, LL.D., Ph. D., 
President. 

Both in contents and in arrangement, 
it marks new advances even upon its 
excellent predecessor. This familiar 
volume will remain my constant desk 
companion. 

UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER, 

Rochester, N. Y. 
Rush Rhees, D.D., LL.D., President. 

I believe the new dictionary to be a 
distinct advance upon the earlier edi- 
tions and that in my opinion is a unique 
accomplishment. 

BOWDOIN COLLEGE, 

Brunswick, Maine. 

Wm. DeWitt Hyde, D.D., President. 

It was a happy thought to divide the 
page, placing the more usual words in 
the upper part, and the less familiar words 
in the lower part. The New International, 
as a whole, is evidently thoroughly up 
to date, and embodies the results of the 
latest developments in science. 

VASSAR COLLEGE, 

,_ - Pouchkeepsie, N. Y. 

Jas. M. Taylor, D.D., LL.D., President. 

The New International is a remarkable 
piece of bookmaking. One is filled with 
surprise as one thinks of the amount of 
learning condensed in this single volume. 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 

Ithaca, N. Y. 

J. G. Schurman, LL.D., President. 

What impresses me most, is the change 
wrought by the horizontal division of the 
page and the relegarion to the bottom of 
the obsolete and unusual words. It at 
once facilitates reference to the ordinary 
vocabulary and it is quite as easy to find 
the obsolete, unusual words when grouped 
together as they are here. 

E. W. Kemmerer, Ph. D., 
Professor of Economics and Finance. 

The task of defining the economic 
terms has been a difficult one. Under 
each word most of the diflferent meanings 
which have received any considerable 
acceptance are given, and the definitions 
are clearly and concisely stated, while 
the illustrations are well selected. 
Joseph 0. Adams, Ph. D., 
Asst. Prof. English Language and Literature. 

I have no hesitancy in saying that 
for the ordinary user of a dictionary, the 
New International is the best. With com- 
pleteness in vocabulary, sound linguistic 
scholarship, and encyclopedic informa- 
tion the editors have combined two very 
important features of a dictionary — 
conciseness and convenience. 

ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF 
TECHNOLOGY, 

Chicago, III. 

F. W. Gunsaulus, D.D., President. 

The New International Diction- 
ary is a marvelous and apparently 
complete monument of skill, schol- 
arship, and the genius of practical 
service._ The definitions are made 
interesting while they are concise 
and accurate. The quotations have 
been determined upon with wis- 
dom and with an eye to the highest 
uses of the student. The range of needed 
learning, which comes in sight with this 
noble achievement of intelligence and good 
sense, is immense. 



UNION COLLEGE, 

Schenectady, N. Y. 

Chas. Alexander Richmond, D.D., President. 

When I look for a word I find enough 
but not too much, a rare quality in dic- 
tionaries. The division of the page put- 
ting the more uncommon words in a 
section by themselves seems to me 
entirely sensible. The historical treat- 
ment of definitions also appeals to me 
very much. 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Fred W. Atkinson, Ph. D., President. 

I have no hesitation in asserting that 
the Webster's New International is the 
most serviceable and the most authori- 
tative dictionary in the English language. 

BATES COLLEGE, 

Lewiston, Maine. 

George C. Chase, D.D., LL.D., President. 

The changes and additions have been 
made with excellent judgment and with 
a fine practical adaptation to the needs 
of the reader. The New International 
seems to me as nearly ideal for the 
ordinary student, the general reader, the 
business man, and the careful, con- 
scientious scholar, as a work of the kind 
can be made. 



Hundreds of similar testimonials are on file with the publishers. 



Webster's New International Dictionary contains the pith and essence of an authoritative library. 



EMINENT AUTHORITIES WARMLY COMMEND 

WEBSTER'S New International Dictionary 



UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, 

Urbana, III. 

B. H. Bode, Ph.D., 

Professor of Philosophy. 

It is an excellent piece of work, in 
arrangement as well as in contents. 



UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, 

A.NN Arbor, Mich. 

James B. Angell, LL.D., President Emeritus. 

At first I was doubtful about the wis- 
dom of making the divided page. But 
after testing, I find my doubt removed. 



UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, 

Minneapolis, Minn. 

Norman Wilde, Ph.D., 
Professor of Philosophy and Psychology. 

I have taken pains to look up phil- 
osophical and psychological terms as J 



the page to the other. 



vilt'^rni^r °i n^ ?^^.^ '^^"' *° ""^ ^ The efreTsily l^as^seTfrom o"nrp7rrof happened to be u'sing information given 
very commendable feature. fh^ ,,/„» t„ ti,» „t),„r ^ in regard to them. I am especially 

pleased with the unusually complete 

historical treatment of the subjects and 

T> 1 r T 2. • • with the number and representative 

?°LP'?!!.^ll!^,^[5°^!i'=^°T°2*A"^^.S?°= character of the de.lnitions quoted. 



Alfred H. Lloyd, Ph.D., 
Professor of Philosophy. 



UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, 

CuicAGO, III. 

W. D. MacClintock, A.M.; 

Professor of English Literature. a more serviceable book. I have been 

I am all praise for the new Webster, surprised at the amount of both general 

It seems to me the work of the very best and technical information which has been 

scholarship and practical lexicon-making included in clear and concise form, 

of our time. It is especially successful 



in the compactness, the vigor, and the 
acumen of its definitions. It is wonder- 
fully comprehensive, especially in new 
words and recent thinking. 



UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, 

Iowa City, Iowa. 

Elbert W. Rockwood, Ph.D.; 
Professor of Chemistry. 



PURDUE UNIVERSITY, 

L.\FAYETTE, InD. 
W. E. Stone, LL. D., President. 

It is an encyclopedia in its character, ,, ^ . , ^ ^i i , 

accurate in its treatment and a wonderful t^e most important of the latest ones, 
book in its mechanical make-up. There _C-.F- Ansley, B.A, 

is no other work like it, nor any that can be 
substituted for it. 



LELAND STANFORD Jr. UNIV., 

Stanford University, Cal. 

David Starr Jordan, LL.D., Chancellor. 

I am very much pleased with the 
thoroughness of the revision, and the 
compactness and accuracy of the defi- 
nitions. The device of placing technical 
and unusual words at the foot of the 
page is a very useful feature. It is a 



I have been particularly interested wonder that publishers of lexicons have 
in the treatment of chemical terms and not used it before, 
astonished at the number contained in 



the book as well as at the inclusion of 



R. L. Wilbur, M.D., President. 

It is certainly a remarkable book. I 
have taken occasion to look up a number 
of scientific terms just to see how exact 



OHIO UNIVERSITY, 

Athens, Ohio. 
Alston ElUs, Ph.D., LL.D., President. 

The New International shows 
that the publishers have spared 
neither pains nor money in bringing 
it up to date and making it a work 
not only of special value to the 
scholar but to the general reader. 

UNIVERSITY OF 
CINCINNATI, 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Charles W. Dabney, LL.D., President. 

The New International is a marvel of 
perfection in text, arrangement, paper, 
illustrations, and binding. It seems to me 
that it is as good as it can be made. 

UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME, 

Notre Dame, Ind. 
John Cavanaugh, C.S.C., President. 

The New International is a triumph in 
bookmaking. It is a monument to Ameri- 
can scholarship and enterprise. I am 



Professor of Englisli. 

To do so much so well in one volume it is and I have been surprised with the 

is an unparalleled achievement, the fruit thoroughness with which the ground has 

of long and most honorable experience, been covered. 

UNIV. OF WASHINGTON, 

Seattle, Wash. 

Thomas F. Kane, Ph.D., 
President Emeritus. 

The New International is very 
attractive in every way. This 
edition seems to have taken advan- 
tage of all of the good work that 
has been done on this dictionary 
previously and to have made an 
advance upon the ground gained 
by this previous work. 



The New International 

IS A NECESSITY IN 

EVERY WELL-EQUIPPED SCHOOL, 

CULTURED HOME, 

AND UP-TO-DATE OFFICE 



DR. C. H. PARKHURST, D.D., 

New York, N. Y. 
Pastor Madison Square Presby'n Church. 

There is no matter of land, sea, or sky, 
that does not come within its purview. 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, 

Boulder, Colo. 
James H. Baker, LL.D., President. 

The New International Dictionary, 



and every topic is handled by a master always of the highest standard for 
in the art, science, profession, etc., to reference, is greatly improved in con- 
which the topic pertains. - . . - . . - . - 



HENRY VAN DYKE, D.D., LL.D., 

Princeton, N. J. 
I find it a most serviceable and trust' 
familiar with all of the dictionaries and the worthy dictionary. 
New International is the best of them. 



TULANE UNIVERSITY OF 
LOUISIANA, 

New Orleans, La. 

E. B. Craighead, LL.D., Ez-Presldent. 

The New International is, in my judg- 
ment, much the best one- volume diction- 
ary published in any language. 

VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, 

Nashville, Tenn. 

J. H. Eirkland, LL.D., Chancellor. 

There is no work in one volume that 
approaches the New International in 
fullness, accuracy, and value of material. 

GEO. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, 

Washington, D. C. 

Chas. W. Needham, LL.D., El-President. 

An intellectual worker can not afford 
to be without Webster's New Inter- 
national Dictionary. 



.TOSIAH STRONG, 

New York, N. Y. 
Pres. Americau Institute of Social Service. 

I have several of the best dictionaries 
at hand, but turn most often to Webster's 
New International. 



tent, and in the plan of its pages which 
furnishes supplementary matter in the 
most convenient form. It would be 
impossible to do more within the compass. 

RAY STANNARD BAKER, 

New York, N. Y. 
Webster's New International Dic- 
tionary seems to be a great improvement 
over the older editions and I am sure 
that I shall find it highly serviceable 
in my work. 

WASHINGTON GLADDEN, 

Columbus, Ohio. 

Senior Pastor, First Cong. Church. 

I am finding Webster's New Inter- 



GEORGE W. CABLE, 

Northampton, Mass. 
Allow me to express my great pleasure 
in the use — ■ the almost hourly use — of 

Webster's New International Dictionary, national Dictionary a very serviceable 
The "division of page" is to my mind book. The arrangement of the page is 



specially acceptable. 



ERNEST THOMPSON SETON, 

Wyndygoul, Cos Cob, Conn. 

The scope and authority of the New 

International are such that no student 

or business man can afford to be without 

it, while its exterior as a book will make 



convenient, and all the new features are 
well contrived. 



HAMILTON W. MABIE, 
A.M., LL.D., 

New York, N. Y. 
Associate Editor, The Outlook. 

I am much impressed by the complete 
it an ornament of the choicest libraries and scholarly way in which it covers the 
de luxe. whole field. 



Hundreds of similar testimonials are on file with the Publishers. 



The Principals of the leading State Norraals throughout the country indorse the New International. 



Subscribers Commend 

SPECIAL FEATURES OF REFERENCE HISTORY EDITION 



COMBINES ADVANTAGES OF 
DICTIONARY AND ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The New International combines 
more successfully than any other contem- 
porary work the leading features of both a 
word book and an encyclopedia. Frances 
G. Richard, Ass't Professor of English, 
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. 



FACTS AND DATES OF ALL HISTORY 
MADE READILY AVAILABLE. 

I have had the Century Dictionary for 
several years, but I prefer the New Inter- 
national to all others, not only because it 
is thoroughly reliable but also because it 
is new and especially convenient for use. 
The New International Dictionary is used 
in the schools of Portland. This is 
evidence that in this city the book is 
highly appreciated. I especially recom- 
mend the edition with Reference History 
as the important facts vnd dates in all 
history can be so readily and certainly 
obtained. T. T. Davis, Principal Lin- 
coln High School, Portland, Ore. 



REFERENCE HISTORY GREATLY EN- 
HANCES THE VALUE. 

I have tested Webster's New Interna- 
tional in a number of places and for a 
variety of reasons and have always found 
it entirely satisfactory. 

The Reference History feature of the 
book will greatly enhance the value of the 
Dictionary as a book of ready reference. 
W. O. Thompson, Pres. Ohio State Univ., 
Columbus, Ohio. 



COMBINES 
TIONARY 



ADVANTAGES OF DIC- 
AND ENCYCLOPEDU. 



The Reference, or Encyclopedic, Depart- 
ment is a valuable addition found in the 
New International. This combines the 
excellence of the Dictionary with that of 
the Encyclopedia. The Historical Refer- 
ence brings to the general reader, to 
the student, and to the teacher, a wide 
scope of knowledge. Hiram R. Wilson, 
Prof, of English, Ohio Univ., Athens, Ohio. 



SUPERIOR WEARING QUALITY OF 
BINDING. 

Among the features which make this 
dictionary particularly desirable for gen- 
eral use in schools, libraries, and homes, is: 

1. The corapreiiensiveness of its 
vocabulary; its encyclopedic features; its 
valuable supplementary matter, of which 
the Reference History is the most impor- 
tant part. 

2. The general physical make-up of 
the book which is far superior to anything 
yet offered in a general dictionary com- 
prised in a single volume ; the paper which 
is thinner but of a stronger quality than 
that used in former editions of Webster's 
Dictionary; the binding of Full American 
Russia Leather, which has wearing quali- 
ties that have proven better than those of 
the Full Sheep binding found on the trade 
edition of this Dictionary. Julia H. Gulli- 
ver, Ph.D., LL.D., Pres. Rockford College, 
Rockford, 111. 



THE REFERENCE HISTORY A STRIK- 
ING FEATURE. 

On examination, I am impressed with 
the scholarship, accuracy, clearness 
and exhaustiveness of the work. 

The new plan of page division, 
the Reference History of the World, 
and the treatment of new words 
and of old words which have gained 
new uses and new meanings are 
striking features. A. Burnett 
Rhett, M.A., Supt. PubUc Schools, 
Charleston, S. C. 



INVALUABLE TO THE SCHOLAR AND 
THE STUDENT. 

I desire to commend in the highest terms 
the Reference History Edition of Web- 
ster's New International Dictionary. 



This Edition Excels 

As a Reference Library. 

It answers questions in all departments of knowl- 
edge, including History, Biography, Geography, 
Fiction, Foreign Words and Phrases, etc. 



GREAT REFERENCE LIBRARY. 

The public is familiar with Webster's 
Dictionaries, but one must see the New 
Edition with the Reference History of the 
World to appreciate what a really great 
reference library this work has become. 
The Reference History Depart- 
ment has added so much that this 
work will take the place of many 
other Reference books. No student, 
no family should be without it. 
John W. Zeller, Ohio State School 
Commissioner, Columbus. 



THE MOST USEFUL WORK. 



HISTORY MADE READILY ACCES- 
SIBLE TO ALL READERS. 

During the past two years, I have used 
your Reference History Edition of Web- 
ster's Internationa! Dictionary, and in 
accuracy, convenience of arrangement, 
and comprehensiveness, believe it to be 
without a peer in any language. The 
appendix contains a compendium of the 
most important and interesting events of 
ancient and modern history, making it 
readily accessible to all classes of readers. 
G. T. Surface, M. Sc, Ph.D., Ass't Pro- 
fessor of Geography, Sheffield Scientific 
School of Yale tfniversity, New Haven, 
Conn. 



The work is invaluable to the scholar 
and the student. Every intelligent father 
and mother, able to purchase it, should 
place it upon the center table of the sitting 
room for frequent use by the boys and 
girls of the family. 

I wish every child in Atlanta had a copy 
of the book. Wm. M. Slaton, Supt. of 
Schools, Atlanta, Ga. 



Of all English Dictionaries, for gen- 
eral use, Webster's New International holds 
the lead. For many reasons we find it the 
most useful work of its kind on our refer- 
ence shelves. It retains the valuable and 
attractive features of former editions. It 
surpasses all previous editions and is in 
every way worthy of this new century. 
C. B. Galbreath, Librarian, Ohio State 
Library, Columbus. 



A DICTIONARY AND ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

It might well be called a Dictionary 
and Encyclopedia. 

In my opinion no single book has ever 
been published which should prove to be 
so comprehensively instructive in the 
school, in the library, in the ofuce, and in 
the homes of all classes, as Webster's New 
International Dictionary, Reference His- 
tory Edition. James L. Hughes, Ex- 
Chief Inspector, The Board of Education, 
Toronto. 



REFERENCE HISTORY GREATLY EN- 
HANCES THE VALUE OF THE WORK. 

The value of the Reference History is 
greatly enhanced by an index referring to 
all persons, places, events, and periods 
treated i n the work. For a public speaker, 
who frequently is called upon to verify 
historical allusions, the historical section 
is one of the most useful portions of the 
New International. James A. Kelso, 
Ph.D.,D.D.,Pres. of the Western Theo- 
logical Seminary, North Side, Pittsbm-gh, 
Pa. 



NEEDED BY EVERY LIBRARY AND 
HOUSEHOLD. 

The New International with Reference 
History is the kind of book which the 
largest as well as the smallest library must 
contain and every household needs as a 
part of its equipment for culture. I know 
of no other reference work which compares 
with it for extent, combined with compact- 
ness, accuracy, and usefulness. W. E. 
Stone, LL.D., Pres. Purdue University, 
Lafayette, Ind. 



MOST RELIABLE WORKING TOOL. 

To my mind the New International 
more nearly represents the usage of the 
best educated people throughout the 
English-speaking world than any other 
book. RcUo A. T^Ucott, A.B., Instructor, 
Hiram College, Hir^m, Ohio. 



APPROVES THE SUPERIOR WORK. 

The New International Dictionary is 
much superior to the International. I note 
with pleasure the improvement in defini- 
tions. It is a very fine piece of bookmak- 
ing; the print is excellent, and the paper 
is exceptionally good in that it is both thin 
and strong. I express my approval of the 
work. Luther L. Wright, Mich. State 
Supt. of Pubhc Instruction, Lansing. 



AN ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The New International is not a diction- 
ary but an encyclopedia; it is more than 
an encyclopedia, it is a history; and to the 
element of exact history it adds the charm 
of romance. Surely the art of dictionary 
making has reached its climax. After this 
all others must be imitators. Here is the 
history of the World reduced to micro- 
scopic dimensions, and yet, for the pur- 
poses of the student and man of affairs, 
it is sufficiently full. Rev. Philip Stafford 
Moxom, Springfield, Mass. 



The New International with Reference History is a complete Reference Library in Dictionary Fc 



EMINENT AUTHORITIES WARMLY COMMEND 

WEBSTER'S New International Dictionary 



NEW YORK HERALD, 

New York, N. Y. 
Beyond its special province of lan- 
guage the new dictionary supplies much 
knowledge of a miscellaneous character. 
It is not only a guide for the student of 
language, but it is the handbook of the 
common man, woman and child, as they 
read the newspaper, book of travel or 
novel. 

NEW YORK AMERICAN, 

New York, N. Y. 
The word "Webster" has come to be 
almost a synonym for dictionary, but in 
this new edition it is hard to recognize 
the old friend, the changes have been 
so numerous. Perhaps the first inno- 
vation to catch the eye is the division 
of the vocabulary into two sections, the 
more important and familiar words 
being given above, while the less impor- 
tant or unfamiliar are given below, in 
smaller type. 

BOSTON GLOBE, 

Bo3TON, Mass. 

One of the wealthiest mines of infor- 
mation in the world is the just-out issue 
of Webster's New International Dic- 
tionary. The advance over the old 
International will easily be realized when 
it is known that the number of 
terms defined is more than double. 



LAVAL UNIVERSITY, 

Quebec, Canada. 
Rev. A. E. Gosselin, Rector. 

The horizontal division of the pages, the 
amount of new information, the clearness 
of the definitions, the practical arrange- 
ment of the volume as well as its illus- 
trations, printing, and bookbinding, all 
proves that nothing has been spared to 
render the New International not only a 
very useful but also a very attractive 
work. 

ARCHBISHOP OF MONTREAL, 

Montreal, Canada. 
Most. Rev. Paul Bruchesl. 

That the Webster's New International 
Dictionary is an unqualified success 
cannot be gainsaid. After a rapid 
though careful perusal of the volume I 
have come to the conclusion that it is 
up to date :u\d first class in every respect. 
As far as the tenets and practices of the 
Catholic Church are concerned their defi- 
nitions are most exact and reliable. I 
hope for it a deep appreciation and a 
place in every student's library. 

TORONTO BOARD OF EDN., 

James L. Hughes, Chief Inspector. 

In my opinion no other single book has 
ever been published which should prove 
to be so comprehensively instructive. 



ARCHBISHOP OF OTTAWA, 

Ottawa, Canada. 
Most Rev. Chas. Hamilton, D.D., D.C.L. 

The editors seem to have spared no 
pains to make it a thoroughly reliable 
and comprehensive work of reference. 

BISHOP OF MONTREAL, 

Toronto, Ont. 
Right Rev. W. L. Mills, D.D. 

I have looked through it, and feel 
that I can heartily recommend it. It 
is quite up to date, and a most compre- 
hensive, and satisfactory book, and I 
think no one who has seen it would wish 
to be without it. 



ARCHBISHOP OF SYDNEY, 

Sydney, Australia. 
Patrick F. Cardinal Moran. 

This estimable work has conferred an 
inestimable book on the reading public. 

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY, 

Sydney, Australia. 

Professor Andrew Harper, D.D.; 
Principal of St. Andrew's College. 

I have looked up some very unusual 
historical, philosophical and theological 
terms and have found them all, contrary 
to my expectation, in the dictionary. 
The explanations though necessarily 
short are adequate. 



PHILADELPHIA PUBLIC 
LEDGER, 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

The main vocabulary is not 
encumbered o r confused b y a 
multitude of words or forms not 
properly part of a living language. 

CHICAGO RECORD-HERALD, 

Chicago, III. 
The first change that strikes the eye 
is the novel division of each page into 
two sections, the upper in the familiar 
Webster type, the lower in smaller 
type and narrower columns. This rather 
daring innovation is a stroke of genius. 

INDIANAPOLIS STAR, 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

A comparison, page by page, of the 
old and new editions will show at once 
how great an advance has been made 
and will indicate something of the labor 
that has been put in the new work. The 
book is a monument to the greatness 
of our language. 



The New International 



IS USED AS THE STANDARD BY 

A VAST MAJORITY OF THE 

NEWSPAPERS 



UNIVERSITY OF 
MELBOURNE, 

Melbourne, Australia. 

The Honorable Sir John Madden, 

G.C.M.C. 



TOLEDO BLADE, 

Toledo, Ohio. 
As a thesaurus for the scholar and a 
reference book for home use the New 
International is admirably constructed 
and fitted. 



NEW ORLEANS PICAYUNE, 

New Orleans, La. 

The New International embodies to 
a remarkable degree the facts in the 
latest developments of every branch of 
knowledge, while it retains those broad 
and fundamental principles of selection, 
analysis, and interpretation for which 
the Webster dictionaries have always 
stood. 



ST. LOUIS GLOBE, 

St. Louis, Mo. 
Webster's New International Diction- 
ary fills the reader's mind with wonder, 
evenly divided between the mind which 
created the work in its original form and 
the skill with which it has been brought 
down to the needs of the present minute. 

BUFFALO EXPRESS, 

Buffalo, N. Y. 
The New International is a combi- 
nation of encyclopedia and wordbook. 
It is intended to fill the needs of the 
person who can have but a single book 
of reference, or who wants to have one 
book in which he can find all that he 
wishes to know, nine times out of ten. 

DETROIT FREE PRESS, 

Detroit, Mich. 
The amount of general information has 
been vastly increased, and the result is a 
volume which in quality and quantity 
of matter excels and exceeds its prede- 
cessors and stands as the product of ripe 
scholarship and a model of convenient 
arrangement. 

PORTLAND OREGONIAN, 

Portland, Ore. 
The new dictionary has indeed widened 
with the times, and can stand the world's 
scrutiny with the consciousness that it 
stands pre-eminent in the very front rank 
as a necessary and esteemed lamp of our 
language. 



Webster's New International 
one-volume Dictionary is, so far 
as I am competent to judge, the 
best one existing. Its arrange- 
ment is admirable and in every 
way convenient. Its information 
is very comprehensive and accu- 
rate, and its scientific and historical items 
are, so far as such necessarily limited 
statements can be, quite reliable and use- 
fully informative. 

IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY OF 
TOKYO, 

Tokyo, Japan. 
Baron D. Kikuchl. 

Webster's New International Dic- 
tionary seems to surpass the older edi- 
tions of Webster's Dictionary and that is 
perhaps the highest praise that could be 
bestowed upon any English Dictionary. 

JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 

Boston, Mass. 
"Webster's New International Dic- 
tionary is the most remarkable single 
volume ever published. It makes even 
its predecessor look almost insignificant. 
The STYLE BOOK for the 
GOVT. PRINTING OFFICE, 
Washington, D. C. 
Rules that: 

"WEBSTER'S NEW INTERNA- 
TIONAL DICTIONARY should gener- 
ally be followed in spelling, compounding, 
and dividing words. In spelling, _ follow 
Webster unless a different form is here 
given." 

"Follow the NEW INTERNATIONAL 
generally in the use or omission of the 
hyphen or space between words." 

For over forty years the Merriam Webster 
Dictionaries have been the standard authority in 
the Government Printing Office. 



Hundreds of similar testimonials are on file with the Publishers. 



Accepted by the Government as the standard for telegraphic messages throughout the Australian Commonwealth. 



State School Superintendents indorse the new international 



United States. May 3, 1910. — It is a notable addition to the 
great Webster series. — Elmer Ellsworth Brown. 

Alabama. Jan. 29, 1914. — Indispensable. — Wm. F. Feagin. 

Arizona. Oct. 17, 1912.— One of the best.— C. O. Case. 

Arkansas. Mar. 17, 1911.-Superiorin every way. Geo.B. Cook. 

California. May 6, 1910. — Fully modem and comprehensive. 
A most desirable reference book for daily use. — Edward Hyatt. 

Colorado. Jan. 28, 1914. — Supreme achievement of the lexi- 
cographer's art. — Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford. 

Delaware. Oct. 9, 1913. — Full and complete answers every 
time. — Charles A. Wagner. 

Florida. Apr. 1, 1913. — I do not see how any man in a liter- 
ary or official position can do without it. — W. N. Sheats. 

Georgia. Sept. 24, 1910. Amostexcellentwork. M.L.Britt.un. 

Idaho. Sept. 10, 1913.— Find it invaluable.— E. O. SlssoN. 

Indiana. Aug. 12, 1911. — It has been approved by the State 
Board of Education. — Chas. A. Greathouse. 

Iowa. Dec. 14, 1911. — Is my authority. — A. M. Deyoe. 

Kansas. May 11, 1910. — A complete, a most satisfactory and 
an authoritative dictionary, the best in the market. — E. T. 
Fairchild. [Gilbert, 

Kentucky. Mar. 13, 1916. — Best work of the kind. — V. O. 

Louisiana. Jan. 16, 1911. — Highly satisfactory. — T.H.Harris. 

Maine. Oct. 26, 1909. — The standard work of reference for 
public school use. — Payson Smith. 

Maryland. May 24, 1910. — Possesses many features that make 
it especially convenient for general use. — M. Bates Stephens. 

Massachusetts. Mar. 8, 1910. — I have been struck with the 
thoroughness with which the work has been done. David Snedden. 

Michigan. Dec. 21, 1909. — The New International is much 
superior to the old International. — Luther L. Wright. 

Mississippi. July 25, 1914. A very valuable book. — W. H. Smith. 

Missouri. Jan. 25, 1915. Complete in every respect. H.A.Gass. 

Montana. Sept. 29, 1913. — Adopted in the public schools of 
the State. Should be in every schoolhousc.— H. A. Davee. 

Nebraska. Dec. 18, 1914. — Appreciate its value. A.O.Thomas, 



Nevada. Feb. 7, 1911. — Up to date, practical. — John E. Bray. 

New Hampshire. May 1, 1912. — By all odds the most con- 
venient and useful reference book I own. — H. C. Morrison. 

New Jersey. Apr. 6, 1915. — So complete and so excellent that it 
is a pleasure to bear testimony to this fact. — C. N. Kendall. 

New Mexico. June8, 1912. Nearly perfect. Alvan N. White. 

New York. May 2, 1910. — No school, library, office, or home 
is well equipped without it. — A. S. Draper. 

North Carolina. Oct. 14, 1913. — The most valuable one-vol- 
ume reference book in the language. — J. Y. Joyner. 

North Dakota. Nov. 7, 1911. — Meets every requirement. — 
E. J. Ta\t.or. 

Ohio. Dec. 1, 1913.— Use Webster.— F. W. Miller. 

Oklahoma. Sept. 18, 1912. — Adopted for exclusive use in the 
Public Schools.— R. H. Wilson. 

Oregon. Feb. 27, 1911. — I am much impressed by the amount 
of new matte'r that you have in this dictionary. — L. R. Alderman. 

Rhode Island. May 17, 1910. — It easily maintains the superi- 
ority established by its predecessors. — Walter E. Ranger. 
^ South Carolina. Apr. 30, 1910. — I have used the New Inter- 
national with entire satisfaction. — J. E. Swearingen. 

South Dakota. Oct. 10, 1914. — Webster's New International 
Dictionary is exceptionally convenient for use, — C. H. Lugo. 

Tennessee. Mar. 16, 1916. I take pleasure in saying that I 
consider it the best dictionary on the market. — S. W. Sherrill. 

Texas. Nov. 11, 1913.— Our authority.— W. F. Doughty. 

Utah. Feb.15,1915.— A most valuable accession. E.G.GOWANS. 

Vermont. May 7, 1910.— The New International is unsur- 
passed as a usable dictionary. — Mason S. Stone. 

Virginia. May 2, 1910.— I find the New International abso- 
lutely indispensable. — J. D. Eggleston, Jr. 
Washington. Apr. 3, 1913.— Use it daily.— Josephine Preston. 
West Virginia. May 18, 1914.— Meets the needs of the present 
hour. Represents the best in Dictionary making. — M.P.Shawkey. 

Wyoming. Jan. 20. 1915.— It is an excellent book and will be 
of great use in this office. — Edith K. O. Clark. 

.? ■ • .. 1 i_ _r T¥ " TJ„,„„„ «7 



Hawaii. Apr. 8, 1915. — Extremely valuable. It is quite generally used in the schools of Hawaii. — Henry W. Kinney. 

Philippine Islands. July 29, 1914.— I consider it the last word in dictionary matters.— H. S. Martin. 
Porto Rico. Nov. 25, 1912. — The supremacy of the New International is assured for years to come.— E. M. Bainter. 

State Supreme Courts indorse the new international 



Washington, D. C. United States Court of Claims. 
Feb. 14, 1911. — Is really a necessary adjunct to our daily labors. 

Alabama. Nov. 14, 1910. — We commend it unqualifiedly. 

Arizona. Nov. 15, 1910. — Its definitions are succinct, clear, 
and to this, as to other courts, satisfactory. 

Arkansas. Oct. 20, 1910. — It is about perfect. 

California. Mar. 24, 1911. — The new method of grouping 
at the bottom of each page the unimportant and rare words we 
find very convenient in use. 

Colorado. Feb. 18, 1911. — Practically indispensable to every 
one who wishes to use with accuracy and discrimination the En- 
glish language. 

Connecticut. Dec. 16, 1910. — We find it the same invalu- 
able book that the Webster's dictionaries have always been. 

Delaware. Nov. 18, 1910. — Indispensable to the members of 
the bench and bar. 

Florida. Jan. 9, 1911. — We regard it, by long odds, the best 
dictionary extant. 

Georgia. Mar. 10, 1911. — Is especially valuable to the mem- 
bers of the bar and bench. 

Idaho. Mar. 4, 1911. — The definitions of all words and phrases, 
are remarkable for their accuracy, completeness and conciseness. 

Illinois. Oct. 24, 1910. — A standard of excellence, both as to 
the orthography and definitions of all words in our language. 

Indiana. Dec. 14, 1910. — It is all that can be desired. 

Iowa. Nov. 23, 1910. — No man is so learned or so unlearned 
that he may not derive profit from its use. 

Kansas. Nov. 17, 1910. — It is indispensable to anyone who 
wishes to speak or write the English language correctly. 

Kentucky. Feb. 16, 1911. — It is the court's usual reference 
book on definition, and we find it of great value to us in our work. 

Louisiana. Jan. 7, 1911. — A standard authority of the high- 
est value; a treasury of words, definitions and analysis. 

Maine, Dec. 8, 1910.— The best for the man of affairs as well as 
the professional man to have upon his desk for practical daily use. 

Maryland. Dec. 7, 1910. — So complete, accurate, and thor- 
ough it will meet every demand of those in need of an up-to-date 
dictionary. 

Massachusetts. Oct. 13, 1910. — The fullness and accuracy 
of its definitions will almost certainly give it precedence over all 
others. — Chief Justice Marcus P. Knowlton. 

Michigan. Nov. 18, 1910. — Valuable reference library. 

Minnesota. Nov. 21, 1910. — The acme of excellency and 
utUity. 

Mississippi. Dec. 13, 1910. — We use it as the standard. 

Missouri. Dec. 1, 1910. — For comprehensiveness, exactness, 
lucidity, and scholarship it is superior to its predecessors. 



Montana. Nov. 19, 1910. — As an aid to literary and profes- 
sional men it is indispensable. 

Nebraska. Dec. 31, 1910. — It is practical in its arrangement, 
and the definitions are clear and accurate. 

Nevada. Dec. 6, 1910. — Much pleasure in commending it to 
all who desire to think clearly and speak well. 

New Jersey. Jan. 20, 1911. — For the exact meaning and 
precise definition it has proved eminently satisfactory to us. 

New Mexico. Jan. 26, 1911. — Its completeness and accuracy 
make it of the greatest service to bench and bar. 

New York. &Iar. 15, 1911. — An unsurpassed authority in all 
work of a literary character. 

North Carolina. Nov. 21, 1910. — No other work has been 
so much relied upon for correct definitions. 

North Dakota. Dec. 7, 1910. — This volume will be invalu- 
- able alike in every private, public, and law library. 

Ohio. Nov. 29, 1910. — A safe guide with respect to its copious 
and accurate definition of legal words and phrases. 

Oklahoma. Nov. 21, 1910. — It is a work of constant reference 
in the preparation of opinions in this court. 

Oregon. Apr. 26, 1911. — Indispensable to lawyer and judge 
and to any person who takes a pride in the use of correct English. 

Pennsylvania. Apr. 25, 1911. — It is a compendium that em- 
braces everything desired in a dictionary. Has no superior. 

Rhode Island. Dec. 22, 1910. — Its modern improvements, 
leave little to be desired. 

South Carolina. Nov. 29, 1910. — Meets every requirement. 

South Dakota. Apr. 7, 1913. Remarkably complete, accu- 
rate and concise. This work is of distinct value to the legal 
• profession. 

Tennessee. Mar. 16, 1911. — Of especial value is its copious 
and accurate definition of legal words and phrases. 

Texas. Jan. 1, 1911. — Decided advance in making of dic- 
tionaries. , . 

Utah. Nov. 22, 1910. — Stands unsurpassed. 

Vermont. Apr. 5, 1910. — It is in its close and accurate defi- 
nitions that it will prove most useful to bench and bar. 

Virginia. Jan. 10, 1911. — Intelligent and conscientious eflfort 
has added greatly to its usefulness. 

Washington. Nov. 26, 1910. — No other single volimie ever 
published contains as much useful information. 

West Virginia. Mar. 14, 1911. — It is superb in clearness and 
completeness. 

Wisconsin. Nov. 15, 1910. — Covers the latest advances in , 
. human knowledge. — Chief Justice Jno. B. Winslow. 

Wyoming. Dec. 21, 1910. — A most convenient and complete 
dictionary for use in the oflBce, countingroom, school or home. 



Webster's New International Dictionary 

AND 

Reference history of the World. 

What is the origin, history, orthography, pronunciation and meaning of any given word? 

What are the facts concerning any important person, — ancient or modern? 

What is the orthography, local pronunciation, etc., of countries, cities, towns, mountains, rivers, 

etc.? 
What is the origin, history, meaning, etc., of any noted fictitious person or place? 
What are the names of the Presidents of the United States, and when did they hold office? 
What is the order in which the States were admitted to the Union ? 
What are the leading events in the history of the United States for the past year? 
What is the comparative size of the United States and foreign countries ? 
What is the area, population, capital, annual revenue, etc., of foreign nations? 
When and by what treaty were the Philippines ceded to the United States? 
What States were made from the Louisiana Purchase? 
What is the relation of the Uni'-ed States to Samoa? 
What was the Missouri compromise? 
When and where was the first naval battle? 
Who was Charlemagne and when did he reign? 

These and the thousands of other questions which are constantly arising can be most easily and 
satisfactorily answered by consulting 

The Reference History Edition of Websters New International Dictionary. 

WHY 

WEBSTER'S NEW INTERNATIONAL CAN RIGHTFULLY BE CALLED THE STANDARD DICTIONARY 

FOR THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORLD. 




BECAUSE it is used as the standard by nearly all of the Federal 
^"■^""^■^^^ and State Courts, where justice often hangs on the 
meaning of a word. 

BECAUSE it is the standard in the United States Government 
""■""""■"" Printing Office at Washington, and in the Executive 
Departments generally. 

BECAUSE the Schoolbooks of the country are based upon it, — ■ 
"~^~"^^^"^ 25,000,000 or more annually. — so that the children are 
educated in accordance with its principles. 

BECAUSE in every instance where State purchases have been 
"'^""^^^^"~~ made for the supply of public schools, Webster has 
been selected. 

BECAUSE it is heartily recommended by Presidents of Univer- 
"""■"^■^~~~ sities, Colleges, and Seminaries, and by Superintendents 
of Schools, almost without number. 

BECAUSE it is warmly indorsed and commended by men and 
"^^^^^""^ women of recognized authority in matters of literature, 
and science, all over the world. 



BECAUSE it is used as the standard by a vast majority of the 
^^""""^^"^^ newspapers. Thousands of statements to this effect 
are on file with the publishers. 

BECAUSE of its adoption by the English Government as the 
^^^^"^^^^ standard i n the Postal Telegraph Department of the 

United Kingdom, — the only department requiring an 

absolute standard. 

BECAUSE it is accepted by the Government as the standard for 
'^^^^^^^"~ telegraphic messages throughout the Australian Com- 
monwealth. 

BECAUSE its sale in Canada and other English Colonies is largely 
"^*~^"^^^~ in excess of the sale of all other dictionaries of similar 
scope. 

BECAUSE of its very wide diffusion on the Continent of Europe, in 
^^^^^~^^~ Turkey, India, Australia, South Africa, China, Japan, 
etc., etc. 

BECAUSE it has wider acceptance and is more generally adopted 
~^^~"~~'^~ in actual use as a standard authority than any other 
lexicon in the world. 



WHY 

WEBSTER'S NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY IS THE BEST FOR TEACHERS, 

SCHOOLS, AND FAMILIES. 



BECAUSE it is easy to find the word wanted. 

^"■""■"^"^^ Words are given their correct alphabetical places in 
the vocabulary, each one beginning a paragraph so as 
to be readily caught by the eye. They are not "run in" 
in the middle of a paragraph or line, out of the natural 
alphabetical order. 

BECAUSE it is easy to ascertain the pronunciation. 

^^"^^ The pronunciation is indicated by the ordinary dia- 

critically marked letters used in the schoolbooks of the 
country, the sounds of which are taught in the public 
schools. 

The International does iwt use strange and peculiar 
letters nor indicate the ordinary alphabetical sound of 
one letter by another quite different letter. 



BECAUSE it Js s^sy to trace the growth of a word. 

■^^^""■""""^ The etymologies are complete and scientific and the 
different meanings a word has acquired are given in the 
order of their development. 

The etymologies are ho/ scrimped nor are the definitions 
jumbled together in an illogical order. 

BECAUSE it is easy to learn what a word means. 

^"^^"~"~^"~ The definitions are clear, explicit, and full ; terse, yet 
comprehensive. They are not composed of technical 
scientific terms which must themselves be defined 
before they can be understood. 

Each definition is contained in a separate paragraph 
making it easy to select the one desired. They are not 
run on one alter the other. 



BECAUSE the New International is one volume containing the pith and essence of an authoritative library covering every 
field of the world's thought, action, and culture. It is a constant source of knowledge and interest to all mem- 
bers of the home, a necessity to every business and professional man, and indispensable to the student. 



CAUTION ! Webster's New International Dictionary and each of the genuine Webster abridgments can be 
identified by a circular trade-mark (as shown at the right) on the front cover and by our name on the title- 
page. Only in this series are to be found the latest and best. BEWARE of unauthorized and unreliable issues 
of smaller books, also of larger so-called Webster dictionaries not of the genuine Webster series. We have been 
publishers of the genuine Webster dictionaries for over 70 years. 

G. & C, MERRIAM CO., Publishers, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 




'?»V; 




